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THE 

CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION: 






DICTIONARY OF INFORMATION 



FOR THE USE OP 



TEACHERS, SCHOOL OFFICERS, PARENTS, AND OTHERS. 



EDITED BY 

HENRY KIDDLE, 

Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City, 
AND 

ALEXANDER J. SCHEM, 

Assistant Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City. 






NEW YORK: E. STEIGER. 

LONDON: TRUBNER & CO. 

1877. 

7v 









Copyright. 1876, by E. Steigeb. 



Press of 
E. Steiger, N. Y. 



o 
1 

i- 



PREFACE. 



The work here offered to the public is the first cyclopaedia of education in the English 
language, although the need of such a work has long been felt. Cyclopaedias, both general and 
special, are rapidly increasing in number, not only in countries in which the English language is 
spoken, but wherever, under the influence of advancing civilization, literature flourishes, and the 
cultivation of science and art has enlarged the boundaries of human knowledge. Information 
scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually inaccessible to those by whom it is most 
needed ; and, consequently, the most important results of study and research are often of no avail 
to those whose special office it is to apply them to a practical purpose. Hence, the heed of works 
that present in a condensed form, and so as readily to be referred to, all the important facts in the 
various departments of human knowledge : ami. consequently, we find that it is fast becoming the 
habit of the educated classes every-where to consult such works. In view of the large number of 
special cyclopaedias in other departments of knowledge, and more especially of the excellent cyclo- 
paedias of education which < iermany has possessed for many years, it is quite surprising that a branch 
of knowledge so extensively valued and studied as education, should have continued, in this country 
ami in England, for so long a time without iis special cyclopaedia. Accordingly, the first announce- 
ment of this work was, on all sides, greeted with the most earnest expressions of approbation and 
welcome. 

The value of a work of this kind must, of course, depend on the plan which forms its ground- 
work, and the accuracy aad fullness with which the plan is carried out. To both of these points 
the editors have given their undeviating_ attention, striving to leave nothing to be desired iu 
either respect. 

The plan of the work has been constructed after a careful examination, not only of all the 
cyclopaedias and general histories of education which have thus far appeared, but of the principal 
cyclopaedias, both general and special, which have been published in English or in other 
languages. Of course, the editors did not contemplate, for a moment, the task of undertaking a 
work of the magnitude of Schmid's great German encyclopaedia of education, which was com- 
menced in 1859, and of which the last (11th) volume is not yet completed, although a revised and 
enlarged edition has already been issued of the first volume. Their design was to prepare 
a work which, while comprehensive and complete within its scope, would be of moderate 
size, and would be completed within a reasonable time — a work which, while useful to all. would, 
like the dictionary, be upon every teacher's desk, to be consulted whenever occasion might require, 
thus affording information and practical aid at every exigency of his daily labors. Such a work, 
it was thought, would not only supply valuable information, but would stimulate the study of 
pedagogy, still very widely neglected because of the want of a brief but comprehensive embodiment 
of the whole subject. 

In accordance with these views, the editors now present, a little more than two years after the 
first announcement of the work, a single volume of nearly 900 pages, in which they have endeavored 
to treat, in alphabetical order, of all the subjects, which they have deemed to come within the 
limits of their plan, embracing the following general topics: (1) Theory of Education and In- 
struction (pedagogy and didactics), including a consideration of the principles of education, in each of 
its departments, with practical suggestions as to the best methods of applying them, both in training 
and instruction. In this connection, it will be found that every subject ordinarily embraced in the 
school or college curriculum has been carefully treated in its relation to practical education, 
special attention having been given to the department of language, both the classical and the im- 
portant modern languages being separately considered. (2) School Economy, including the organ- 



II 

ization and management of schools, also discipline and class teaching. (3) The Administration of 
Schools and School Systems — embracing supervision, examinations, school hygiene, school architect- 
ure, co-education of the sexes, etc. (4) Governmental Policy in regard to Education — including 
such subjects as state education, compulsory attendance laws, the secular and denominational 
systems, etc. (5) The History of Education, giving an account of the most noted plans and 
methods of instruction and school organization that have been proposed, or that are now in vogue, 
as well as the history of the school system of every state and territory in the Union, and of every 
important country in the world. Much of the matter under this section is entirely new, and will 
be found to be of great interest. (6) Biographical Sketches of distinguished educationists, 
educators, and others who have been celebrated for their efforts as promoters or benefactors of 
educational progress or enterprise. (7) Statistical and other information in regard to (a) schools 
and other institutions of learning of different countries, states, cities (in the United States, of those 
having a population of 100,000 and upward), and religious denominations (the latter treated with 
considerable fullness) ; (b) different kinds of schools, as public schools, private schools, parochial 
schools, academies and high schools, kindergartens, colleges and universities. Every important 
college or university in the United States has been described in a separate article ; and special 
articles also inserted on the great universities in England, the latter articles having been written 
in that country. Considerable care has also been taken to show what has been done, during the 
last few years, for female education, and more particularly for the higher education of women 
(especially in this country and in Great Britain). (8) Educational Literature, which is constantly 
brought to the notice of the reader in connection with the various articles. As the immense mass 
of material to be condensed within the compass of a single volume has necessitated the greatest 
possible brevity, references are made throughout to standard works on educational science, as well 
as to statistical works affording more detailed information. It is believed that this will prove one 
of the most valuable features of the work. (9) The main work is followed by an Analytical 
Index, in which reference is made to the principal topics of all the longer articles, as well as to 
the pages on which the more important subjects are treated incidentally. 

Of course, the editors of a cyclopaedia cannot be expected to carry out their plan without 
the support of an adequate corps of able contributors. However extensive their own information 
may be in relation to the general subject, there must always be many topics to the details of which 
specialists have devoted a much more minute study, and of which, therefore, their knowlege must 
be more comprehensive and exact. The list of special contributors which follows this preface will 
show to what extent the editors have succeeded in securing the co-operation of distinguished 
educators and writers in the preparation of this work. Most of the names presented will be at 
once recognized as those of persons of well-established reputation for successful experience in 
their respective spheres of effort. The editors deem themselves singularly fortunate in securing to 
so large an extent the aid and co-operation of the state and city superintendents throughout this 
country, the articles on the school systems having been prepared by them or under their direction, 
or compiled from the latest and most accurate information officially supplied by them. The 
articles on the different classes of professional, scientific, and denominational schools and colleges 
have, in the main, been written by persons professionally conversant with those institutions, 
and thus afford an amount and kind of information very difficult to obtain, but often of great 
value to students and educators. 

It is proper to say that the announcement of this work has met with a most earnest and 
encouraging response from educators in Great Britain, and that the editors have received most 
prompt and valuable assistance, as well as cordial co-operation, from that source, so as to enable 
them to carry out their intention to make the usefulness of the Cychpeedia co-extensive with the 
English-speaking race. It is, however, a cause of deep regret to the editors that a long illness, 
terminating in death, deprived them of the co- operation of one of the ablest and most highly 
esteemed English educators, the late Joseph Payne, who not only was among the first to afford 
encouragement to this work when proposed, but promptly engaged to contribute a number of 
important articles. 

As a work of reference for information in regard to American institutions for higher 
education, the Cyclopaedia will, it is hoped, prove eminently satisfactory. Great pains has 
been taken to secure the fullest aud most accurate information respecting the colleges and 



Ill 

universities of this country; for which purpose, every article of this description has been submitted, 
in proof, to the president of the institution described, and, with but very few exceptions, has 
received the benefit of his revision. 

The editors also acknowledge their indebtedness for the very full information, in regard to 
the educational work of the various religious ^denominations of the United States and Great 
Britain, which they have received from distinguished members of those denominations. Very 
much of this information could have been obtained by no other means than by a long official 
connection with the educational boards of the churches, and, to a considerable extent, is now 
supplied exclusively by this work. 

To all the contributors the thanks of the editors are due for a support without which the 
work could not have been completed — at any rate, could not have possessed the value which may, 
with considerable confidence, be attributed to it : and certainly could not have earned the approval 
which it may justly be expected to receive. The editors, also, take occasion to express their 
obligations to the many friends who, though not special contributors, have afforded valuable aid 
in the revision of special articles, in giving important advice, or in affording needed information. 

In these few remarks, the editors have briefly stated the object they have striven to attain, 
and some of the instrumentalities of which they have availed themselves : but they are by no 
means so presumptuous as to suppose they have produced a work without fault or blemish. The 
Cyclopaedia, it must be borne in mind, is but a pioneer, opening out. it is to be hoped, a wide 
path for further literary and professional effort in the same direction. It will, doubtless, share 
the fate of all books of its class, in which the habitual reader, as well as the scrutinizing critic, by 
the side of that which elicits his approval, meets with statements that are capable of improvement 
or that require correction. In every future edition of the work, pains will be taken to correct what 
is faulty and to improve what is imperfect ; and any assistance which those who appreciate the 
aim of the work may be able to render to that end, will be gratefully acknowledged. 

The progress of education in all the countries of the world is now so rapid and so manifold, 
that every reader of this Cyclopaedia will, after the lapse of a short time, feel the need of a 
systematic continuation of large classes of articles. States and cities add, from year to year, to 
their educational history; new names of educators and educational writers constantly loom up; new 
educational laws are enacted ; and new courses of studies are proposed and tried. The discussion 
of the great educational questions of the day continues with increasing earnestness, and no year 
passes without producing educational works which, in one respect or another, excel those 
previously issued. The editors and the publisher of the Cyclopaedia are now maturing, and, in due 
course of time, will announce, an annual publication, or Supplement to the Cyclopaedia of Educa- 
tion, in which will be collected such new information as may appear to them to be of most value, 
and in which, they hope, to establish a kind of central organ for all who are anxious to co- 
operate in that grandest aim of the human race — the proper education of the rising generation. 

New York, March 17th, 1877. 



A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL 

COtfTBIBUTOBS TO THE CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 



Prof. E. B. Andrews, Lancaster, 0. 

Ohio. 

Hon. Ems A. Apgae, Supt. Public Instruc- 
tion, New Jersey. 
New Jersey. 
Prof. Th. Appel, Franklin and Marshall Col- 
lege, Lancaster, Pa. 

Reformed Churches (in part). 
Eev. John G. Baird, Asst. Sec. Board of Edu- 
cation, Connecticut. 
Connecticut. 

Wm. Oland Bourne, New York. 

Seton, Samuel W. 
Prof. B. P. Bowne, Boston University. 

College (in part), 

Hegel,— and other biographical articles. 
Eev. Dr. R. L. Breck, Chancellor Central Uni- 
versity, Richmond, Ky. 

Presbyterians (in part). 
Hon. Dan. B. Briogs, Supt. Public Instruction, 
Michigan. 

Michigan. 
Henry B. Buckham, A. M., Principal State 
Normal School, Buffalo, N. Y. 

Buffalo. 

Norman A. Calkins, Asst. Supt. Schools, New 
York. 

Color, 
Number, 
Numeral Frame. 

M. P. Cavert. A. M., Rhinebeck, N. Y. 

New York (State). 

Henry Chettle, M. A., late Fellow of Exeter 
College, Oxford University, England. 
Oxford University. 

Hon. Edward Conant, Supt. Public Instruction, 
Vermont. 

Vermont. 

Hon. J. C. Corbin, late Supt. Public Instruc- 
tion, Arkansas. 

Arkansas. 

Eev. Dr. E. T. Corwin, Millstone, N. J. 

Reformed Churches (in part). 
George H. Curtis, Prof, of Music, New York. 

Music, 

Singing -Schools, 

Voice, Culture of the. 

Rev. Dr. S. 8. Cutting, Cor. Sec. Baptist Edu- 
cational Society. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Baptists. 
Prof. E. H. Day, Normal College, New York. 

Geology, 

Mineralogy, 

Science, The Teaching of (part II.). 

Rev. Dr. Charles F. Deems, New York. 
Methodists (in part). 

Hon. W. L. Dickinson, Supt. Schools, Jersey 
City. 

Jersey City. 



James Donaldson, LL. D., Rector of the High 
School of Edinburgh, and Editor of the Edu- 
cational News. 

Education (Theory of), 

England (in part), 

Instruction, 

Memory, 

Science, The Teaching of (part I.), 

Senses, Education of the. 

Dr. A. Douai, Irvington, N. J. 

Developing Method (in part), 

Ear, Cultivation of,— and other articles. 

Prof. W. E. Griffis, late of the Imperial Col- 
lege, Tokio, Japan. 
Japan. 

Miss Mary Gurnet, of the Women's Education 
Union, London, England. 

Women, Higher Education of. 

Hon. H. M. Hale, Supt. Public Instruction, 
Colorado. 

Colorado (in part). 

Prof. Wn. G. Hammond, Law Department Iowa 
State University, Iowa City. 

Law Schools. 

Thomas F. Harrison, Asst. Supt. of Schools, 
New York. 

Geography. 

Dr. E. 0. Haven, Chancellor Syracuse Univer- 
sity, Syracuse, IS'. Y. 
Methodists (in part). 

J. W. Hawes, New York. 

College (in part), 
Harvard University, 

Tale College, — and other articles on American 
colleges and universities. 

Eev. W. W. Hicks, Supt. Public Instruction, 
Florida. 

Florida (in part). 

Hon. T. W. Higginson, Newport, P. I. 

Khode Island. 

Prof. Charles T. Himes, Dickinson College, 
Carlisle, Pa. 

Chemistry. 

Dr. Fred. Hoffmann, New York, 

Pharmaceutical Schools. 

Hon. Henry Houck, Dep. Supt. Public In- 
struction, Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania. 

Thomas Hunter, A. M., President Normal Col- 
lege, New York. 

Teachers' Seminaries. 

Kev. Dr. I. F. Hurst, Pres. Drew Theological 
Seminary, Madison, N. J. 

Seneca. 

Rev. Dr. E. T. Jeffers, Pres. Westminster Col- 
lege, New Wilmington, Pa. 
Presbyterians (in x^art). 



Prof. D. P. Kiddek, Drew Theological Semina- 
ry, Madison, N. J. 

Sunday-Schools, 
Theological Schools. 

Albert Kla.mroth, late Commissioner of Com- 
mon Schools, New York. 
Falk, i\ I* a., 
Germany* 
Rev. Prof. E. <J. Klose, Moravian Theological 
Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa. 

Moravians. 

W. H. Larrabee, New York. 

Franrkc, A. H.,— and other biographical articles. 
Dr. Edwin Leioh. Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Illiteracy, 
Phonetics. 

R. M. Lbverson, Ph. D., Denver, Col. 

Social Economy, 

Dr. J. Berrien Llndsley, Nashville, Tenn. 

Nashville University. 
Presbyterians (in part). 

J. M. Logan, Princ. Springfield School, Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

' Pittsburgh, 

W. MacDonai.d, High School of Edinburgh, 
Scotland. 

England (in part . 
Ireland ;in part), 
Scotland in part.. 
WnaoN MacDonai.d, Artist, New York. 
Art-Education. 

Hon. J. M. McKenzie, Supt. Public Instruction, 
Nebraska. 

Nebraska fin part . 
Hon J. M. MoKleroy, Supt. Public Instruction, 

Alabama. 

Alabama fin part, 

Prof. Francis A. March, Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pa. 

Anglo-Saxon, 

Belles-Lettres, 

Classics, Christian, 

English, the Study of, 

Lafayette College, 

Orthography. 
Prof. J. M. D. Meiklejoilv, University of St. 
Andrews, Scotland. 

English Literature. 

Thomas Miller, M. A., late Fellow of Queens' 

College. Cambridge, England . 
Cambridge University. 
Prof. 0. W. Morris, late of the Deaf and Dumb 

Inst., New York. 

Deaf-Mutes (in parti. 
Prof. Edward Olney, University of Michigan. 

Algebra, 
Arithmetic, 
Geometry, 
Mathematics. 

S. S. Packard, of Packard Business College, 
New York. 

Book-keeping, 
Business Colleges. 

Hon. John D. Philbrick, Supt. Schools, Bos- 
ton, Mass. 
Boston. 
Hon. T. L. Pickard, Supt. Schools, Chicago, 111. 

Chicago. 

Prof. A. Rauschenbusch, Theol. Seminary, 
Rochester, N. Y. 
Mennonltes. 

Hon. Andrew J. Rickoff, Supt. Schools, Cleve- 
land. 0. 

Cleveland. 



Prof. I. P. Roberts, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
N. Y. 

Agricultural Colleges. 

C. C. Rounds, Princ. State Normal School, Far- 
mington. Me. 
Maine. 

Wm. II. Ri'ffner, LL. D., Supt. Public In- 
struction, Virginia. 

V irginla. 

Prof. Charles A. Schlegel, Normal College, 
New York. 

Mager, Karl. 

Prof. David B. Scott, College of the City of 
New York. 

New York, College of the City of. 

Oral Instruction, 

Rhetoric. 

Edward Sequin, M. D.. New York. 

Thermometry, Educational. 

Hon. R. D. Shannon, Supt. Public Instruction, 
Missouri. 

Missouri. 

Hon. J. W. Simonds, Supt. Public Instruction, 

New Hampshire. 

New Hampshire. 
Hon. J. H. Smart. Supt. Public Instruction, 

Indiana. 

Indiana in part). 

Prof. Walter Smith, State Director, Art Edu- 
cation, Mass. 

Drawing. 
William L. Stone, Jr., New York. 

Stone, William I.. 

Hon. John SwETT,late Supt. Public Instruction, 
California. 

California, 

San Francisco (in part . 

Rev. Dr. I. N. Tarbox, Cor. Sec. Amer. Educ. 
Society, Boston, Mass. 

Congrcgationallsts. 

Rev. Dr. H. A. Thompson, Pres. Otterbein Uni- 
versity, Westerville, 0. 

United Brethren in Christ. 

D. L. Thompson, Plainfield, N. J. 
Genius, 

Locke, John,— and other articles. 
J. S. Thornton, B. A., University College 
School. London. England. 
King's College London . 
London, University oi, 
Murray, I.indley, 

Owens College Manchester, England), 
Preceptors, College of, 
Rousseau. 
University College [London). 

William B. Wait, Supt. New York Institution 
for the Blind. 

Blind, Education of the in part . 

S. Walker, University College School, London, 

England. 

Working Men's College London). 

H. L. Wayland, Editor of The National Bap- 
tist, Philadelphia. 

Wayland, Francis. 

Rev. Dr. J. P. Weston, Pres. Dean Academy, 
Franklin, Mass. 

Unlversalists. 

Prof. J. H. Worman, Norwich. N. Y. 

Hebrews, 

Plato, 

Rome, — and other articles. 

R. M. Wyckoff, M. D., Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Medical Schools /in part'. 

F. Zinsser, M. D., New York. 

Medical Schools (in part). 



ABACUS ((jr. a/3of, a slab or board), a piece 
•of school apparatus, used to facilitate the teach- 
ing of children to count, and perform other sim- 
ple arithmetical operations. Various forms of 
the abacus are employed as counting or adding 
machines. Such a contrivance was much used 
among the ancients ; and in ( 'hina, quite long 
and difficult computations are performed by 
means of such an instrument, called swan-pan. 
(See Numeral Frame.) 

ABBOT, Benjamin, LL. D., distinguished 
for his long connection with Phillips Academy, 
Exeter, X. H., of which institution he was the 
principal for a period of fifty years, from 1 788 
to 1838. He was a graduate of Harvard ( lollege. 
He died at Exeter in 1849, at the advanced age 
of 80 years. Edward Everett delivered one of 
his graceful and elegant speeches on the occasion 
of the retirement of Ur. Abbot from the prin- 
cipalship of Phillips Exeter Academy. — See 
Everett, Orations and Speeches. 

ABBOTT, Rev. Jacob, a distinguished cler- 
gyman, teacher, and author, was born at llallo- 
well, Me., in 18o: J ,. and graduated at Bowdoin 
College in 1820. He was professor of mathemat- 
ics and natural philosophy in Amherst College 
from 182") to 1821), and afterwards took charge 
of the Mount Vernon school for giris, in Boston. 
In connection with education, he is chiefly noted 
for his numerous books for the young, among 
which may be particularly mentioned the ~RoUo 
Books, the Franconia Stories, ihe Harper Story 
Books, Science for the Young,a.nd The Teacher. 
A full catalogue of his publications embraces 
about 200 titles. He has also edited many other 
educational works, and compiled a series of read- 
ing books. His brothers, Rev. Gorham I), ami 
Rev. John S. C, are also noted for their labors 
in the field of educational and literary effort. 

ABC, the first three letters of the English 
alphabet, often used to denote the alphabet itself; 
as, " To learn A B C is felt to be extremely irk- 
some by the infant." Taylor (See Alphabet.) 

A-B-C BOOK, a primer, or little book used 
to learn the alphabet and its simplest combina- 
tions, with the most rudimental lessons in read- 
ing. (See Horn-Book.) 

A-B-C METHOD. See Alphabet Method. 

ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from 
the names of the first four letters of the alpha- 
bet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has 
not advanced beyond the most elementary stage 
of school or book education, that is, who is 
learning A B C, or the alphabet. The name 
has been sometimes applied to one engaged in 
teaching the alphabet. (See Reading, and \Vord 
Method.) 

1 



A-B-C SHOOTERS(Germ. ABC-ScMteen), 
pupils of those scholastic vagrants who, during 
a certain period of the middle ages, and even 
later, used to wander through many parts of Ger- 
many, giving instruction to such pupils as they 
could pick up, who accompanied them in their 
journeyings. These itinerant teachers were called 
Bacchants, from their disorderly lives and their 
disposition to indulge in wild levels. '1 heir 
pupils were often obliged to purloin food, fowls, 
etc., to supply their masters' wants, and hence 
were called, partly in derision of their elementary 
knowledge, A-B-C Shooters — shoot, in their 
parlance, being the slang word for steal. — See 
Schmid, Enci/clopddie; and Barnard, American 
Journal of Education, vol. v. 

ABEEARD, or Abailard, Pierre, one of 
the most famous teachers of philosophy and 
theology in the middle ages, was born in 
Nantes', in KlT'.l. died April 21st, 1 112. at St. 
Man-el, near ( 'lialons sur Saone. A pupil of 
William of Champeaux in philosophy, and of 
Anselm of Laon in theology, he became the 
dreaded and hated rival of both, as they found 

1 1 selves entirely eclipsed by the cosmopolitan 

reputation of their pupil, who for a time was re- 
garded in the Christian world as the foremost of 
all living teachers. '1 he tragic end of his love 
fin- his pupil Heloise, whom he had seduced, 
closed to him the higher ecclesiastical dignities, 
and drove him into the austerities and retirement 
of monastic life: but his theological and philo- 
sophical writings continued to keep the I hristiarj 
world in a high state of excitement. Ili-s opin- 
ions were repeatedly condemned by councils 
and synods as heretical, but he always preferred 
submission to the sentence of the ( hurch rather 
than open defiance. His influence on the schools 
of the middle ages was. without doubt, greater 
than that of any of his contemporaries, lie in- 
troduced dialectics into theology, and thus, as 
Cousin says, "contributed more than any other 
to the foundation of scholasticism." 

A complete edition of the works of Abe'lard 
was published by Cousin (2 vols., Paris. 1819 — 
1859), containing also valuable notes by the 
editor. Among the best biograplu'cal works ou 
Abelard are those byRemusat (Ahilard, 2 vols., 
Paris, 1845), and Wilkens (Peter AbcUard, 
Gottingen, 1855). — See also Schmidt, Qeschichte 
der Padaqogik. 

ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., was 
born at Aberdeen, in 1781, and died in 1844. 
In his profession as a physician he rose to great 
eminence, and was widely distinguished for his 
writings on medical subjects. In connection 
with education, he is noted for his Inquiries con- 



2 ABINGDON COLLEGE 

cerning the Intellectual Powers, and Tlie Philos- 
ophy of the Moral Feel inn*. These two works 
possess great merit, and have been quite exten- 
sively used as school text-books. They were 
edited and adapted to the use of schools in this 
country by Jacob Abbott. 

ABINGDON COLLEGE, at Abingdon. 111., 
under the control of the Disciples of Christ, was 
founded in April, 1858. The number of students 
in the institution in 1875 was about 180. It 
has an endowment of $20,000. The college 
building is a handsome edifice well supplied with 
modern furniture and appliances. There are 
about 1000 volumes in the library, besides which 
the institution has a museum and laboratory. 
The names of its successive presidents are Patrick 
Murphy, J. W. Butler, and Oval Pirkey. The 
annual tuition fee is from $30 to $39. 

ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity in 
the attendance of pupils belonging to a school; 
that is, the number of school sessions from which 
a pupil was absent, as compared with the number 
at winch he was present, during any particular 
period, gives the absenteeism of the pupil for 
that period. The average daily attendance of 
pupils divided by the average daily enrollment — 
the "average number belonging" — shows the per- 
centage of attendance ; and this subtracted from 
100 gives, of course, the percentage of absentee- 
ism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion 
of efficiency of management and instruction. 
Class teachers who interest their pupils neces- 
sarily secure a more regular attendance than 
those who fail in this respect : and principals of 
schools who keep a careful watch over all the 
pupils belonging to their schools, strictly and 
uniformly enforcing wholesome rules of disci- 
pline, anil carefully notifying parents of the ab- 
sence of their children, inquiring into the cause 
of the same, and admonishing both parents and 
pupils of the need of strict regularity, will, of 
course, succeed best in tins regard. Where the 
basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is 
the average enrollment, and where regularity of 
attendance is made a test of efficient manage- 
ment, teachers will be more careful to keep the 
number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible 
above the average attendance. Hence, to render 
this test reliable, a uniform rule should be follow- 
ed in the discharging of pupils for non-attend- 
ance. Such a rule has be?n adopted in many 
cities of the Union, any pupil's name being in- 
variably dropped from the roll after a certain 
number of days of absence, however caused. 
This is based on the principle that irregularity of 
attendance — being at school one day, one week, 
or one month, and absent the next — is not only of 
no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive 
injury to the other pupils, and is a serious hin- 
drance and embarrassment to the teacher in the 
management of the school. To some extent, ab- 
senteeism thus computed may indicate also the 
prevailing tone of the community in regard to 
education — the degree of appreciation of the 
benefits of education generally felt by the people, 
as inducing parents to sacrifice their own personal 



ACADEMY 

advantage, in the employment of their children, 
to the interests of the latter, in enjoying the bene- 
fits of school instruction. 

"Absenteeism" is also technically applied to a. 
total neglect of school attendance by a part of the 
school population of any place. This is exhibited 
by a comparison of the average attendance of 
pupils with the census of children of school age. 
(See Attendance.) 

ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These 
terms have a very important application in many 
departments of practical education. Abstract 
has reference to general ideas, or the ideas of 
qualities considered apart from the things to 
which they belong ; concrete, to those which are 
only conceived as belonging to particular objects, 
or substances. Thus, if we speak of a man, a horse, 
a tree, etc., we use abstract or general ideas; 
for we are not thinking of any particidar object 
of the class, but only of the assemblage of qual- 
ities or characteristics that especially belong to' 
all the members of the class. But when we 
mention such names as Cicero, Washington, John 
Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception of 
the characteristics that served to distinguish those- 
persons from all other men. Thus, the expression 
five pounds represents a concrete idea ; the word 
five, an abstract one. 

The immature minds of young children em- 
ploy to a great extent concrete ideas, and hence 
the instruction addressed especially to them 
should deal principally with these. As the mind 
advances, it becomes more and more occupied 
with abstract conceptions, which constitute the 
material for all the higher forms of thought and 
ratiocination. 

ACADEMY (Gr. 'Amir/pta or ' ' AnaShfitia) was 
originally the name of a pleasure ground near 
Athens, and was said to be so called after Aca- 
demus. a local hero at the time of the Trojan 
war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort 
for Plato : and, as he was accustomed to lecture 
here to his pupils and friends, the school of phi- 
losophers which was founded by him was called 
the Academic School, or merely the Academy. 
In the history of ancient philosophy, three dif- 
ferent academies are distinguished, the Old Acad- 
emy, formed by the immediate followers of 
Plato, the Middle Academy, founded, about 244, 
by Arcesilaus, and the New Academy, whose 
founder was Carneades, about 160 B. C. Some- 
times the philosophical schools founded by Philo 
and Antiochus are called respectively the Fourth 
and the Fifth Academy. Among the Romans, 
Cicero, who regarded himself as an adherent of the 
Academic philosophy, gave the name of Academy 
to the gymnasium at his villa near Tusculum, as 
well as to one of his villas in Campania, where he 
wrote his Academicce Quwstiones. During the 
middle ages, the term was but little used for 
learned institutions ; but. after the revival of 
classical studies in the 15th century, it again be- 
came frequent. In a wider sense, it was some- 
times applied to higher institutions of learning 
in general. Gradually, however, its use was, in 
most countries, restricted to special schools, as 



ACADEMY 



ACCOMPLISHMENTS 



academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, 
of fine arts. and. especially, of music. In Eng- 
land and the United States, the national high 
schools for the education of military and naval 
officers are called academies. Thus. England has 
the Naval Academy at Portsmouth, ami the 
Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the 
United States, the Military Academy at West 
Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. 
In the United States, the name lias also been 
assumed by a large number of secondary schools, 
which are designed to prepare their pupils for 
colleges, or to impart a general knowledge of the 
common anil higher branches of education. As 
they are, in nearly all cases, private institutions. 
independent of any control by state boards, their 
courses of instruction widely differ, ranging from 
the lowest primary class to the highest classes of 
grammar and high schools. They are usually 
both boarding and day schools, 

Tin- name academy is also employed to des- 
ignate associations of learned men for the ad- 
vancement of science and art. Some of these 
associations are of an entirely private character, 
others have been founded by the state. The 
first academy of this kind was the Museum of 
Alexandria, in Egypt, which was founded by 
Ptolemy Soter. After its model, the -lews, to- 
ward the close of the first century of the < 'hristian 
era,, began to establish academies for the develop- 
ment of Talmudic science. Later, the Arabian 
caliphs established academies at their places of 
residence, to show their interest in the promotion 
of science. Efforts to establish Christian acad- 
emies of this kind were made by (Jregorythe 
Great and Charlemagne, but both failed. It was 
not until the middle of the fifteenth century, that 
associations of this kind were formed in Italy for 
the purpose of fostering the free development of 
science and art, in opposition to the rigid conser- 
vatism of the monastic and ecclesiastical schools. 
They gave special attention to the cultivation of 
the Italian language and literature. It was es- 
pecially the Accademia delta Orusca, founded at 
Florence by the poet Grazzini. to which the 
Italian language is indebted for its purification 
and development. Prom Italy, these institutions 
spread to the other countries of Europe : and. as 
they became the centers of literary activity, they 
exercised every-where a prominent influence 
upon the intellectual progress of the several 
countries, and. especially, upon the improvement 
and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent 
among these academies, was the Academie fran- 
caise, instituted, in 1035, by Cardinal Riche- 
lieu. In 1795, it was united with three other 
French academies into the Insiitut national. 
the name of which was changed by Louis XVI 
into Institui <le France. The Institute con- 
sisted then of four academies: (1) I Academie 
franoaise, (2) TAcailemie des inscriptions ei 
belles letlres, (3) V Academie des sciences, (4) 
F Academie des beaux arls. A fifth academy, 
V Academic des sciences morales H poliHqves, 
was added in 1832. These academies are among 
the most important of the kind in the world, 



and their influence on other educational insti- 
tutions has been considerable. The Academie 
franraisi' is the highest authority upon every- 
thing relating to the niceties of the French lan- 
guage, to grammar, and the publication of the 
French classics. The Academie des inscriptions 
tt belles h'ttrcs embraces among the objects of 
its attention comparative philology. Like the 
French Institute, the academies in the capitals of 
Spain. Portugal. Sweden. Russia, and other 
countries, have gradually become great national 
centers for the promotion of science and art; 
but no such centralization has been effected in 
Italy. Germany, England, or the United States. 
In England, the learned corporations correspond- 
ing to the continental academies of sciences have 
generally the name society or association. Eng- 
land proper lias however, a royal academy of arts 
(founded in 17(15. reorganized in L768) and a 
royal academy of music (established in 1822); 
and in Edinburgh, there is a royal academy of 
yachting (founded in 1754). In Ireland, the name 
academy, according to its continental use. has 
been adopted for the Royal Academy of Sciences 
at Dublin (founded in 1782). — In the United 
States of America there are also a number of 
learned societies to which the name academy, 
in the sense used on the continent of Europe, 
has been applied. The following societies are 
called academies : The American Academy of 
Arts ami Sciences, at Boston (founded in 17K0), 
the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 
(founded in 1799), the Academy of Natural 
Science in Philadelphia (founded in 1818), the 
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (established 
in 1807), the National Academy of Design, at 
New York (founded in 182*) ; the Medical Acad- 
emy of New York. The National Academy of 
Sciences was incorporated by Congress, March 
3d. 1863. In New York. Philadelphia. Brook- 
lyn, Chicago, and other large cities, the princi- 
pal opera house is called the Academy of Music. 

ACCOMPLISHMENTS. This term, as 
contrasted with culture, refers to those educa- 
tional acquirements which fit a person for certain 
special activities, while culture has reference to 
the general improvement of the character or 
mental faculties. Hence the expression "external 
accomplishments," or " ornamental accomplish- 
ments," such as skill in foreign languages, music, 
drawing, painting, dancing, etc. Involved in this 
application of the term, is the idea of display, or 
the ability to please, or the power to awaken ad- 
miration in the beholder. Thus in the Sjiectatur 
we find the expression "the visible graces of 
speech and the dumb eloquence of motion." as 
indicating the accomplishments of a pleasing ad- 
dress and a graceful carriage. 

Accomplishments are either purely intellec- 
tual, as that of language, or partly or wholly 
artistic, such as music, drawing, dancing, etc. in 
the education of boys, fencing anil boxing wi re 
formerly, considered as indispensable accomplish- 
ments ; but of these, at the present time, rowing 
seems to take precedence, as contributing to a 
healthy development of the physical system. 



4 ACCOMPLISHMENTS 

In many classes of schools, particularly in 
private seminaries, the acquisition of certain orna- 
mental accomplishments constitutes the chief end 
of education. Were these accomplishments based 
on a solid culture of the intellectual and moral 
nature, they would be very proper and desirable; 
but being 'merely showy and superficial, they 
constitute a perversion of the true end of edu- 
cation. Thus Hannah More remarks: "In train- 
ing our daughters, should we not carefully culti- 
vate intellect, implant religion, and cherish mod- 
esty? Then, whatever is engaging in manners 
would be the natural result of whatever is just 
in sentiment and correct in principle. Softness 
would grow out of humility, and external delicacy I 
would spring from purity of heart." The folly 
and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to 
mere accomplishments have very frequently been ■ 
a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney j 
Smith : "A woman of accomplishments may 
entertain those who have the pleasure of knowing 
her for half an hour with great brilliancy ; but a 
mind full of ideas, and with that elastic spring 
which the love of knowledge only can convey, is 
a perpetual source of exhilaration and amuse- 
ment to all that come within its reach. Therefore, 
instead of hanging the understanding of a woman 
upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, 
instead of seeing it in clouds, or hearing it in the 
wind, we would make it the first spring and or- 
nament of society, by enriching it with attain- 
ments, upon which alone such power depends." 
Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this 
practice in his time. "Another passion," he 
says, " which the present age is apt to run into 
is, to make children learn all things, — the lan- 
guages, the sciences, music, the exercises, and 
painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker 
in all, but a master in none. He thus acquires 
a superficial fondness for everything and only 
shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit 
his skill.'' The tendency of the present time, in 
what is called fashionable education, is equally 
subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Ac- 
complishments, in the first stages of education, 
are to be regarded as secondary to the solid im- 
provement of the mind. Those rudimentary at- 
tainments which constitute the basis of all school 
education, and are indispensable to any further 
progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and 
arithmetic, must of course be made; to which 
should be added the ability to use one's own lan- 
guage, in speaking and writing, with tolerable 
ease and propriety. A common-school educa- 
tion should give great prominence to these, as 
not only constituting the acquirements most 
generally needed for success in life, but as placing 
in. the hands of the pupils the keys to future 
progress in learning. 

Accomplishment, being derived from the 
French nccomplir, to finish or complete, may be 
contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial 
acquirement of some of the prominent or rudi- 
mental parts of any subject. No educational 
scheme should admit of the study of any branch 
of knowledge which cannot, under the given 



ADAMS 

circumstances and in the time proposed, be ac- 
complished so as to give the pupils who are to 
pursue it, a thorough knowledge of the subject, 
as well as the ability to apply it to some prac- 
tical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of 
mind, of children should be regarded, in the at- 
tempt to bestow upon them ornamental ac- 
complishments, such as music and drawing, ex- 
cept such elementary portions of these arts as are 
within the capacity of all. and winch constitute, 
not indeed special accomplishments, but a part 
of that general culture which the most element- 
ary education should bestow. (See Culture.) 

ACQUISITION. The acquisition of knowl- 
edge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of 
every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the 
primary object ; but, in the earlier stages of edu- 
cation, it is generally secondary, the educative 
value of the process taking precedence of the prac- 
tical importance of the knowledge communicated. 
The acquisition of new ideas must always, more 
or less, improve the mind by affording additional 
material for the exercise of its various faculties ; 
but, in education, what particular faculties are 
concerned in the study of any subject or branch 
of knowledge, is a matter of paramount im- 
portance, and therefore should never be lost 
sight of by the teacher. Where this is disre- 
garded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere 
lute-teaching ; and the teacher will often rest 
satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formulae 
of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition 
of new ideas, on which alone the improvement of 
the mind depends. 

ACROAMATIC METHOD (Or. aKpoa/ja- 
tikoc, to be heard, designed for hearing only), a 
name originally applied to the esoteric teachings 
of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to 
designate such as were confined to their imme- 
diate hearers, and not committed to writing. 
Later, the term has been applied to a system of 
instruction in which the teacher speaks and the 
pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of 
course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity 
of age and of considerable progress in intellectual 
culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system. 
(See Lecture.) 

ADAM, Alexander, LL. D., was born in 
Scotland, in 1741, and died in 1809. He at- 
tained a high distinction as a teacher while Rector 
of the High School at Edinburgh (1768— 1808). 
He was also the author of several educational 
text-books, among winch his Roman Antiquities 
(1791) has been very extensively used in this 
country and in Great Britain. 

ADAMS, John, LL. D., was bom in Can- 
terbury, Ct., in 1772, and died in Jacksonville, 
111., in 18fi3. He was noted both as a teacher 
and a philanthropist. After graduating at Yale 
College, in 1795, he taught the academy in 
his native town, and subsequently other schools, 
till, in 1810, he became principal of Phillips 
Academy, Andover, Mass., in which position he 
continued for twenty-three years. In 1833, he 
removed to Illinois, and was very active in effect- 
ing improvements in the school system of that 



ADRIAN COLLEGE 



.ESTHETIC CULTURE 



State. His labors in connection with various 
benevolent institutions in both States, were nu- 
merous and important. Through bis efforts, a 
large number of Sunday schools were established 
in his adopted State. Many essays and other 
publications on education attest the intelligence 
and ability with which he devoted himself to the 
training of the young. 

ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian, Mich., 
was founded in 1K.VJ, by the Methodists. The 
number of students is about 200, males and 
females, about one fourth of whom belong to the 
collegiate department. It has a classical and 
scientific course of instruction, a school of theol- 
ogy, a school of music, and a norma] class. Its 
corps of instructor's numbers twelve, and it has 
one endowed professorship. The number of 
volumes in its library is about L000; its endow- 
ment isfLOO.OOO. Rev. (1. IS McElroy. I». !>.. is 
the president of the Institution (1876). The 
tuition fee is very small. 

ADULTS, Schools for. The proper time 
to obtain instruction is during the periods of 
boyhood or girlhood, and youth. (See A.GE in 
Education.) It is in the interest of states as 
well as of families and individuals, that, as much 
as possible, every child, not prevented by physical 
disabilities, should have its share in the instruc- 
tion provided by public legislation and private 
effort. The majority of states have even deemed 
it a duty to make education compulsory, in order 
to render it universal. (See COMPULSORY Edu- 
cation.) It is also the general tendency of edu- 
cational legislation to extend the legal school 
age to the utmost, in order to make the educa- 
tion of the school population as thorough as pos- 
sible. (See School Age.) Still, though boy- 
hood and youth are the proper ages for in- 
struction, the need of special schools for adults 
has always been deeply felt. Though modern 
legislation has succeeded in some countries in 
almost wholly extinguishing illiteracy (see Illit- 
eracy), the number of adults whose education, 
during the proper age. has either been entire- 
ly insufficient, or who find themselves on en- 
tering life, without the requisite amount of 
information specially needed in their several 
avocations, remains as great as ever, and is even 
likely to increase, as the standard of popular 
education becomes more elevated. Systematic 
reading, instruction by private teachers, and. 
more recently, popular lectures, are among the 
principal agencies for supplementing the de- 
ficiencies of school education. Efforts have, how- 
ever, not been wanting in many states to establish 
schools for adults for the special purpose of 
giving to those who have left the public schools 
anil entered into practical life, a suitable oppor- 
tunity to supply the deficiency of their school 
education. .Many German states began in the 
18th century to establish Sunday schools in 
which, besides religious education, a review of 

the instruction given iu the elementary scl 1 

was provided for. As the school age. in the 
German states, only extended to the 14th year, a 
Sunday school was specially provided for boys 



and girls to the Kith or 18th year of age. Sev- 
eral states made attendance at these schools ob- 
ligatory for all boys and girls who had left, the 
elementary school and not entered any higher 
school. Special attention has been given to 
schools of this class in Austria, where the gov- 
ernment has established •'reviewing schools" 
( Wiederholungsschulen.) (See Austria.) As the 
ordinary Sunday or reviewing school was found 
to he insufficient, especially for young me- 
chanics, special classes or schools were organized 
in which particularly instruction in drawing 
was given. The attendance at these schools is 
always voluntary ; in most of them the scholars 
have to pay moderate fees : instruction is gen- 
erally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most 
schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and 
drawing. In some of the German states, espe- 
cially in \V intern berg, an evening school on 
week-days has been added to the Sunday school ; 
and thus a great impulse has been given for the 
further development of industrial schools Eor 
adults. (See Industrial Schools.) The Schools 
for Adults established in other European countries 
arc justly evening industrial schools. In the 
United States, evening schools have been very ex- 
tensively introduced, to give to all adults an op- 
portunity of obtaining the same education as 
children receive during the day ; and some of 
the larger cities afford in these evening high 
schools instruction in the studies of a higher 
grade. (See Evening Schools.) 

ADVENTISTS. This is the name of several 
organizations of American Christians, the dis- 
tinctive doctrine of whom is the belief in the 
speedy second advent of Christ, and the end of the 
world. In 1815, there were four different organ- 
izations: (1) The Advent Christian Association; 
(2) The American Millennial Association! Evangel- 
ical Advcntists): (3) The Life and Advent Union; 
(4) The Seventh Hay Advcntists. 'I he churches 
of this denomination were formerly almost wholly 
independent, and bad fewer church boards for 
common interests than most of the oilier religious 
denominations of the United States. The great- 
est advance in point of organization has been 
made by the Seventh Day Advcntists. The sub- 
ject of education and the founding of a denomi- 
national school was brought to the attention of 
the members of this denomination by Elder 
James White and wife, in the early part of 1ST-. 
The matter was referred to a General Com- 
mittee, who, during the summer and autumn 
of 1873, solicited subscriptions to this enterprise, 
obtaining pledges for over $54,000. On the Kith 
of March. 1ST l.an association was formed, under 
the law of Michigan. -for the incorporation of 
institutions of learning ;" and a school edifice, 
capable of accommodating between four and five 
hundred students, was finished in 1875. — See 
Annual Cyclopedia, 1815, art. Adventists; also 
Seventh Day Adventists; •< brief sketch if 
their Origin, Progress, <nt<l Principles (Battle 
Creek, 1S74). 

ESTHETIC CULTURE. See Esthetic 
( ' i litre. 



6 



AFFECTATION 



AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real, 
genuine, and natural, is carefully to be guarded 
against in the education of the young. In certain 
peculiarities of character, there is a proneness to 
the formation of habits of affectation in manners 
and speech. This tendency, however, rarely 
shows itself at an early age. < 'hildrcn generally 
yield to their natural impulses, and do not as- 
sume, or feign what they do not feel, or, to use a 
common expression. " put on airs." Their mode 
of training, however, may tend to this, partic- 
ularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural 
mode of expression in phraseology or pronuncia- 
tion, in the attempt to make them excessively pre- 
cise in such matters. Some styles of reading and 
elocution may lead to this characteristic ; and 
hence the importance of adopting methods that, 
in all respects, correspond to the prevailing usage. 
( 'ertainly, nothing can be more disgusting than 
the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural 
models of conceived propriety of speech and 
manners, which we sometimes find to prevail 
among the pupils of certain schools, or the "min- 
cing aire" which are often assumed by those, both 
male and female, but particularly the latter, who 
affect to belong to the best society, and hence ar- 
rogate to themselves a superior degree of refine- 
ment. The standard of the educator should be, 
in every respect, that ease, grace, simplicity, and 
beauty that belong to what is natural ; and every 
tendency to the contrary, in his pupils, should be 
promptly and sternly repressed. Locke says : 
" Plain and rough nature left to itself, is much 
better than an artificial ungratefulness, and such 
studied ways of being ill-fashioned. The want 
of an accomplishment, or some defect in our be- 
havior, coming short of the utmost gracefulness, 
often scapes observation ; but affectation in any 
part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to 
our defects, and never fails to make us to be 
taken notice of, either as wanting sense or want- 
ing sincerity." — See Locke, Thoughts concern- 
ing Education . 

AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This 
eminent naturalist and teacher was born at 
Motiers, near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, May 
28., 1807, and died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14., 
1873. His ancestors were Huguenots, driven 
from France by the revocation of the edict of 
Nantes. His father was the pastor of a protest- 
ant parish ; his mother, the daughter of a phy- 
sician. Under the latter he received his first 
education till the age of eleven, when he was 
scut to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he re- 
mained four years. His subsequent studies were 
pursued at the college of Lausanne, the medical 
school of Zurich, ami the universities of Heidel- 
berg and Munich. At the latter place, he partic- 
ularly distinguished himself for his attainments 
in natural history. At Paris, he made the ac- 
quaintance of Humboldt and Cuvier, both of 
whom held him in high esteem for his talents and 
scientific acquirements. In 1846, he came to the 
United States, being invited to deliver a course 
of lectures at the Lowell Institute, in Boston. 
The next year, he accepted the appointment of 



AGE 

professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence 
Scientific School, then just established. He com- 
menced his duties in 1848, and settled per- 
manently in the United States, where his greatest 
fame was achieved by his numerous labors as a 
naturalist and a scientific lecturer and teacher. 
The establishment of the Anderson School ot 
Natural History on Penikese Island in 18(3, 
was almost the last act of his life. The means for 
founding this school were furnished by Mr. John 
Anderson, a-generous and public-spirited citizen 
of New York, who not only devoted for this ob- 
ject the island of Penikese. but the sum of 
$50,000, as a permanent endowment. Agassiz 
had long advocated the establishment of such 
a school' for the special instruction of teachers 
in marine zoology ; and during the summer of 
1873, he devoted his time and energies to this 
institution, being present at every exercise and 
lecture, and the constant companion of the 
students. His chief publications were Reclier- 
eJies sur les Poissons Fossiles, 1833 — 1844; 
Etudes sur les glaciers, 1840 ; Sysleme gla- 
ciaire, 1847, and Contributions to the Natural 
History of the United States. Though chiefly 
eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the 
department of ichthyology, he was an accom- 
plished linguist, being versed in six languages. 
He read l'lato and "Aristotle in the original, 
wrote several works in elegant Latin, and was 
a good Hebraist. French and Cerman were 
to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak 
and write thj English language with ease and 
correctness. He was a natural teacher, fond 
of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic, 
overflowing with an earnest love for his sub- 
ject, and having a mind replete with stores of 
information. His voice, look, and maimer at 
once gained the attention of his pupils ; and the 
clearness of his explanations as well as the fluen- 
cy of his delivery gave interest to every subject 
upon which he spoke. His skill in ready graphic 
delineations with chalk and blackboard was 
astonishing, and greatly contributed to the 
effectiveness of his teaching. Few have ever 
made such rich additions to the stores of science, 
or have been more zealous in diffusing the bene- 
fits of knowledge among mankind. His ex- 
ample as a teacher has been of very great value, 
since his system was to teach from natural ob- 
jects rather than from books, — to enable the 
pupil to acquire an experience of his own before 
presenting to his mind the results of the ex- 
perience and observation of others. His own 
assumed title. " Louis Agassiz — Teacher," was 
the one of which he seemed to be most proud ; 
and all teachers should cherish the example 
which he set, as the true means of success. 

AGE, in Education. The life of man has 
been variously divided into periods, or ages. 
Thus Pythagoras assumed four, Solon and Ma- 
crobius ten. different ages, while others have pre- 
ferred a division into five, six, seven, or eight. 
With regard to the education of man, one great 
turning-point stands forth so conspicuously, that 
teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad 



AGE 



line of demarcation, into whatever number of 
periods they have thought it proper to divide 
human life. This turning-point in life is the 
period when man passes from the age of youth 
into that of virility. The physical development 
at this time has become complete : in social life 
both sexes have attained majority : and the edu- 
cation of the young man or woman for the 
career that has been selected, is. in the main, con- 
eluded. Up to this time, the education of man 
is conducted by others, chiefly parents and 
teachers ; henceforward, he is expected to edu- 
cate himself, and to assume the education of 
others. 

During the period of life when man is depend- 
ent upon others for his education, three different 
ages are broadly distinguished. — childhood, boy- 
hood or girlhood, and youth. These are marked, in 
the physical development of the body, by the 
shedding of teeth, the entrance of puberty, and 
the setting in of virility. The process of mental 
development in these three ages is as different a I 
the physical basis ; and accordingly, each of them 
demands a peculiar pedagogical and didactical 
treatment. 

Childhood, which embraces the first seven 
years of life, is characterized by the rapid growth 
and development of the organs of the body. At 
the age of seven a child weighs about six times 
as much as at its birth, and it has attained one 
half of the stature, and about one thirl or one 
fourth of the weight of the grown man. The mind 
is, during this period, more receptive than self- 
active ; the only manifestations of self-activity 
being found in the efforts to retain and arrange 
the impressions which have been received. All 
pedagogical influence upon the pupil in this age 
can be only of a preparatory character. The 1 « > ly 
must be guarded against injuries, and must have 
opportunities for a vigorous and manifold develop- 
ment. The mind must be preserved from del lasi rig, 
weakening, or over-exciting influences, and must 
be kept open for anything that is conducive to 
the development of its faculties ; and, in order 
not to become sated and confused, it must learn 
to distinguish what is important from the less 
important. As the child is thoroughly dependent 
upon its educator and unable to direct its own 
exertions.it should be made to understand 83 
clearly as possible, that any opposition of its own 
will to that of its educators can be followed 1 >y 
only evil consequences. It should, therefore, lie 
taught obedience, but not obedience through fear, 
for fear has a repressive influence upon the 
development of the mental faculties, but an 
obedience springing from confidence in the 
superior wisdom and experience of the teacher, 
and from love produced by his kindness. The 
natural educators of the child are the parents, 
especially the mother : but, toward the close of 
this age, systematic teaching by a professional 
teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the 
school age differs considerably in different 
countries. In some, children are sent to the pub- 
lic schools when they are four years of age ; in 
others, not until they are seven. (See School 



Age.) Of course, instruction at such an age 
must be limited to the most elementary rudi- 
ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. 
The method should be thoroughly adapted to the 
mental condition of the child, and modern edu- 
cators are agreed in recognizing the importance 
of object teaching for the first stages of a child s 
instruction. A novel mode of instruction, specially 
intended as introductory to the regular primary 
school, is the Kindergarten, founded by Knebel. 
The astonishing rapidity with which it has spread 
through all the countries of the civilized world, 
and found admission into educational systems 
otherwise radically at variance, seems to prove it to 
be a great improvement in elementary education. 
(See Kindergarten.) 

Boyhood or girlhood embraces the time from 
the 7th to the 14th year of age. In the develop- 
ment of the body, this age is characterized by 
the appearance of the permanent teeth, by the 
completed growth of the brain, and by the first 
consciousness of sexual difference. I'oys and 
girls long for the free and frequent exercise of 
their muscular systems. At the beginning of this 
age, girls like to take an active part in the plays 
of the boys ; but they soon show a preference for 
more quiet occupations and less publicity ; while, 
on the other hand, boys manifest an increased 
interest in noisy and wild spoils. It is among 
the prime duties of the educators of this age. to 
keep the development of the natural desires and 
aspirations of the two sexes within the right 
channels. The minds of boys and girls afford 
many proofs of independent thought and 
activity- The company of adtdts is not sought 
for by them as eagerly as before, but they feel 
entire satisfaction in the society of children of 
their own age. They think, as yet. little of the 
realities of life and of their future careers : but 
their plays give more evidence, than before, of 
plan, serious thought, and perseverance, and 
generally indicate the faculties with which they 
have been most strongly endowed : each child, 
in this way. foreboding to some extent its 
future career. It is of great importance that 
the educator should not only understand the 
peculiar nature of this age in general, but that 
he should thoroughly know the character of each 
individual : for the faults which are peculiar to 
this age are best overcome in individual cases, if 
the educator knows how to make the right kind 
of appeal to those good qualities of his pupils 
which are most strongly developed. In arran- 
ging a course of instruction for this age. it must 
be specially remembered that the minds of boys 
and girls lire predominantly receptive, 'the mem- 
ory readily receives and faithfully retains im- 
pressions; and this, therefore, is the tight time 
for learning a foreign language and geographical 
and historical facte. The independence of mind 
peculiar to this age shows itself at the same time 
in the growth of imagination, which awakens in 
the boy a lively interest in all that is great and 
extraordinary in history. On many questions 
relating to the education proper for this age, 
educators still differ. Pro min ent among these 



8 AGRICOLA 

questions, are, whether the two sexes should be 
educated separately or conjointly, to what extent 
the same course of instruction should be pre- 
scribed for both, whether special studies should be 
begun at this age, or whether the entire course 
should be obligatory for all the children of a 
school. (See Co-eduoation of the Sexes.) 

The age of youth extends from the beginning 
of puberty to the complete development of sexu- 
ality, or from the fourteenth to about the twenty- 
first year of age. At this time the growth of 
the body is completed ; young men and women 
become aware of their special duties of life and of 
the difference in the careers upon which they are 
respectively to enter. The time of study is draw- 
ing to its close ; the entrance into active life is at 
hand. Among the lower classes of society, this 
transition occurs at the beginning of this age ; 
and the only increase of knowledge that is access- 
ible to most persons of these classes must be de- 
rived from evening schools, public lectures, and 
reading; while those of the wealthier classes, and 
all who wish to fit themselves for any of the 
learned professions, now enter upon the special 
studies of those professions, or finish the general 
studies of the preceding age. Toward the close of 
tin's period, if not earlier, the preparations for enter- 
ing public life are completed, or an actual entrance 
into life begins. — See Sciiwarz. Erziehungslehre; 
Schleiermacher, Erziehungslehre, edited by 
Pi.atz ; Beneke, Erzieluuigs- und Unterrichts- 
lehre ; Herbart, Umriss pCidagngischer Vor- 
lesungen. 

AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, an eminent edu- 
cator of the middle ages, was born in August 14-13 
(or 1442) at Baflo, near Groningen, in Holland. 
His original name was Huysmann, which, after 
the custom of his time, he exchanged for a Latin 
name. After his native province, Friesland, he 
is also sometimes called Prisms. He studied at 
the universities of Louvain, Paris, and Ferrara ; 
and. after returning to his native country, distin- 
guished himself greatly by introducing the study 
of Greek into the countries north of the Alps. 
In 1483. he accepted an invitation from his 
friend, Bishop Dalberg of Worms, and deliv- 
ered lectures alternately at Heidelberg and at 
Worms. He died in Heidelberg, Oct. 28., 1485. 
His works, which are not very numerous, are 
written in Latin. His principal work I)e Inven- 
tione dicdectica attacks the scholastic philosophy 
of the age. In an educational point of view, his 
epistle to Barbirianus in Antwerp, the so-called 
JSpistola de formando studio, isoi special im- 
portance. At the time of its publication, it was 
regarded as a compendium of the pedagogical 
views of the German humanists. Its prime ob- 1 
ject was to advise his friend as to the continua- i 
tionof his studies. Agricola recommended philos- 
ophy, by which term he understood also ethics I 
and physics, and, in general, the entire range of I 
natural science, as the study most deserving his 
friend's attention; he represents it as the only 
road to true knowledge and perfect felicity, 
while the other sciences could procure only a 
doubtful happiness. The I.atin language was | 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 

regarded at that time as necessary for this study, 
but Agricola advised his friend always to repro- 
duce what he had learned in German. Three 
things were needed for pursuing any study: (1) To 
understand what had been learned; (2) To retain 
what had been understood ; (3) To derive ad- 
vantage from what had been learned. The first 
was obtained by application, the second was the 
gift of memory, the third could only be ac- 
quired by practice. While the works left by 
Agricola would alone not suffice to assign to him 
a prominent place among the educators of the 
middle ages, it appears from the writings of his 
contemporaries that his personal influence was 
very great, and that, in fact, he was regarded as 
second to none but his friend Reuchlin. His 
letters to Reuchlin, to Alexander Hegius, an ex- 
cellent educator, who founded the famous school 
of Deventer, to Antonius Liber of Soest, a very 
zealous humanist, who, after fruitless efforts to 
establish a school at Emmerich, Kampen, and 
Amsterdam, at length succeeded at Alkmaar, 
where he died in 1514, and to other contem- 
poraries, contain a large amount of information 
on the educational movements of his times. A 
complete edition of the works of Agricola has 
been published by Alardus, of Amsterdam (Co- 
logne. 1539). — See Schmidt, Geschichte der Pd- 
dagogih, ii, 452; Raumer, Geschiclite der Pdda- 
gogih, trans, in Barnard's German Eilnciilii.mil 
Reformers; Geiger, in AUgemeine Deutsche 
Biogrqphie, i, 151 — 156 ; Tresling, Vita et 
merita Rudolphi Agricolce (Groningen, 1830); 
HalLam's Literature of Europe. 

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is 
only within the last fourteen years that any 
general and systematic effort has been made in 
the United States to furnish facilities for acquir- 
ing a thorough scientific and practical education 
in agriculture. In 18112, Congress gave to the 
several states and territories land scrip to the 
amount of 30,000 acres for each senator and 
representative in Congress, provided that each 
state or territoiy, claiming the benefit of this, 
act, should, within five years from its passage, 
" provide not less than one college, which should 
receive for its endowment, support, and maint- 
enance the interest of all moneys derived from 
the sa'e of the aforesaid scrip or lands." It 
was further required that " the leading object"' 
of these colleges " should be, without excluding 
other scientific and classical studies, and includ- 
ing military tactics, to teach such branches of 
learning as are related to agriculture and the 
mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal 
and practical education of the industrial classes, 
in the several pursuits and professions of life." 
The main supporter of this law was the Hon. 
•lustin S. Morrill, senator from Vermont. Of 
all laws enacted, either state or national, for 
the advancement of higher education, no one has 
ever been productive of such fruitful results. 
The originators and framers of this law, "builded 
better than they knew." The tabulated state- 
ment below, while it shows a vast amount ac- 
complished in a short space of time, cannot, of 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 



9 



necessity, give more than a faint idea of what 
has been done in advancing agricultural edu- 
cation in the single direction of a systematic 
and thorough collegiate training. Looking back 
over the last ten years, we notice that those 
engaged in agriculture have made marvelous 
progress in general information, as well as in 
technical subjects having a direct bearing upon 
their special calling. This has been largely 
brought about by the munificent endowments of 
Congress. For as soon as the act had become a 
law. numerous energetic and far seeing men 
brought the matter prominently before the 
several state legislatures, setting forth the great 
benefits that would arise from an acceptance of 
the donation. Some strenuously opposed its ac- 
ceptance, as it would add heavy burdens, in order 
to furnish buildings etc., to those already im- 
posed by the war : and others opposed it. believ- 
ing the whole scheme to be chimerical and im- 
practicable. Through these discussions, which 
have not yet wholly ceased, much valuable in- 
formation has been disseminated; and the effect 
has been, to arouse thoroughly the agricultural 
classes to a sense of their rights and duties. 
These earnest and continued discussions have 
developed latent talents, and excited a desire for 
information among the fanners, that is. as yet, 
only partially gratified. They have made it pos- 
sible to publish and sustain numerous agricult- 
ural journals with regular contributions from 
the pen of many of the ablest writers on the 
practical and scientific subjects of the day. They 
have created such a demand for agricultural 
literature, that a large proportion of our relig- 
ious and political journals devote more or less 
space to the subject. These are but a few of the 
incidental results of this wise and munificent act 
of Congress ; and they are none the less real or 
beneficial, although they cannot be tabulate 1 or 
set forth in long columns of figures. Such rapid 
strides have been made in some directions within 
thi' last few years, that a chemist ami a laboratory 
have become a necessary adjunct, to many of the 
agricultural industries, — notably to that of the 
manufacture of cheese, butter, and commercial 
fertilizers. Up to 1865, the agricultural college 
of Lansing, Mich., was the only one in the United 
States in which students could pursue a college 
course arranged and adapted to meet the wants 
of those who might desire, in after years, to en- 
gage in agriculture. Since that time, some thirty 
colleges have been organized — about one half of 
them from parts of universities — which are 
largely devoted - to teaching such branches of 
learning as are related to agriculture ami the 
mechanic arts." The donation of lands by Con- 
gress difl not furnish endowment sufficient fully 
to equip and man these numerous institutions ; 
but it afforded the means to lay the firm founda- 
tions upon which, aided by state and individual 
munificence, have been reared many noble insti- 
tutions of learning, which are doing an important 
and much-needed work. We can hardly con- 
ceive of the grand and important position these 
institutions are to occupy when the wants of an 



increased population shall furnish a demand for 
the products of the soil at prices sufficiently re- 
munerative to induce many trained and educated 
men to embark in agriculture. 

It is difficult to give an exact statement of the 
present condition of agricultural colleges, since 
they are only a part of colleges or universities 
devoted also to teaching mechanic aits,, -md scien- 
tific and classical studies more or less germane to 
agriculture. We find that, in this department, and 
in that of medial lies.thcrc are at present al •out 300 
professors and teachers. So far as reported, .'in'1 
students have graduated after a full course in 
agriculture.. According to the usual proportion 
of freshmen to graduates, this would indicate 
that 1 .444 had pursued the course for a longer or 
a shorter period. The number of graduates who 
during their bourse have, to use the phraseology 
of the act of Congress endowing these institu- 
tions, pursued studies ••relating to agriculture 
and the mechanic arts." is li(i!l ; making the total 
number who have entered these courses, for a 

longer or a shorter period. 2,6.76. The number 

of Students, so far as reported, in all the depart- 
ments of the institutions named, is 6,907, of 
whom 715 are ladies, ami 2,889 are receiving 
instruction in military tactics. The minimum cost 
of board — usually in clubs — is $1.25 per week; 
the maximum cost. §5.00; and the average, 
$3.00. The cost of room rent per term ranges 
from $1.33 to $12.00. In all but two or three 
institutions, some provision is made for a greater 
or less number of free scholarships, and several 
offer free tuition for all. As a .general rule, no 
pains have been spared by these colleges to fur- 
nish all the facilities for pursuing a college (nurse 
at the least possible expense. Manual labor is re- 
quired in 11 of the colleges : in the others, it is 
optional. The price paid for students' labor 
ranges from 5 to 1* cents per hour. State ap- 
propriations have been made of nearly one and 
a half million of dollars, which have been largely 

used for erecting buildings. The amount ol pri- 
vate donations it is impossible to arrive at ac- 
curatclv.but thev cannot fall short of $5,000,000. 
The late Ezra Cornell gave $700,000 to the uni- 
versity that bears his name. and the total amount 
of private donations to this single institution is 
not less than SI .4011.11011. of which the colleges of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts have received 
their due proportion. The number and equipment 
of laboratories, workshops, etc.. in the colleges 
that serve. directly or indirectly, to illustrate and 
teach subjects relating to agriculture, are as fol- 
lows : mechanical laboratories or work-hops. 1(1. 
allot' which are furnished with tools for work- 
ing in iron and wood, and several with engines, 
planers, turning-lathes, drilling machines, saws, 
and other necessary but less expensive tools ; 
physical laboratories. 16, most of which are 
furnished with apparatus for illustrating the sub- 
jects of mechanics, electricity, magnetism, heat, 
acoustics, and optics. All, with one or two ex- 
ceptions, have well-equipped chemical laborator- 
ies; and several of them furnish facilities for in- 
struction in chemistry not excelled in any other 



10 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 



institutions in the United States. Nine anatom- 
ical, 1- geological, and 15 botanical laboratories 
are already equipped for student practice. Eight 
of these colleges have greenhouses in operation; 
most of them have drafting-rooms, with the 
necessary tables and models for illustrating the 
subjects taught. A large amount of practice in 
drawing is, moreover, required in several of the 
branches related to agriculture. Free-hand 
drawing, as yet. has not been largely introduced. 
Some ten colleges have large collections of mod- 
els of farm implements and machinery ; engrav- 
ings, photographs, charts, and drawings ; to- 
gether with numerous specimens of grains, 
grasses, and other plants ; geological and miner- 
alogical specimens ; collections of insects ami 
skeletons of domestic and other animals ; all 
constituting what might be called an agricult- 
ural museum, though usually kept in separate 
rooms for the sake of convenience. Ten of these 
institutions offer one or more prizes for good 
scholarship ; six report, through their leading 
officer, that the effect of offering such prizes 
appears to be "good;" six consider it "bad;" 
two, " doubtfid ;" one, ''that it depends on cir- 
cumstances ;" one. that it is " a healthy stimu- 
lant to be carefully used ;" and one, " non con- 
stat." At least twelve appear to have kept care- 
ful accounts of farm receipts and expenditures ; 
but since we have no reports of the amount of 
increase in the valuations of farm-stock, imple- 
ments, etc., it is impossible to say whether the 
farms are worked at a profit or a loss. The 
total gross receipts of twelve farms reported, for 
1874. are S(>4,329.60, or an average of §5,360.80 
per farm. The total expenditures for experi- 
ments, during the same year, on eight of these 
farms, are $8,143.26. This indicates that farm 
experiments are not, as yet, carried on to any 
great extent ; and the reason for this is, doubt- 
less, a lack of means rather than of disposition. 
Every professor of agriculture fully appreciates 
the benefit, not only to his class but to himself 
as well, of extended and systematically conducted 
experiments. They are, indeed, effective but 
costly auxiliaries to the class-room lectures. 
There is a constantly increasing tendency to-< 
ward using the farm and its appliances, regard- 
less of profit or loss, in order to teach and illus- 
trate the principles of agriculture, rather than — 
as has too often been the case — using it simply 
as a means of increasing the common fund. The 
aggregate number of acres used for general and 
experimental farming by twenty of these col- 
leges is 5,081 ; added to which there are 142 
acres of orchard, 92 acres of vegetable gar- 
den. 2!) acres of small-fruit garden, 1,360 acres 
of native timber, 438 acres of planted timber, 
ami 580 acres used as college grounds. Though 
we find that the planted timber is about six 
acres to each hundred of arable land, — which is 
certainly a very creditable showing — yet forestry 
is taught to but a limited extent, th'jre being no 
distinctive course yet marked out in that branch 
of study. We are far behind some of the Euro- 
pean countries in our facilities and methods for 



training students in the art and practice of the 
care, preservation, and planting of forests. As 
a part of the equipment for illustration and 
practice on these farms, are found some 500 head 
of neat-cattle, 236 of which are thorough-breds, 
representing nine distinct breeds. The horses 
and mules number 129, only 3 of which are 
thorough-breds : the total number of sheep is 
233, of which 58 are pure bloods of various 
breeds ; the swine exceed 500, including about 
400 pure-bred animals, representing nearly ail of 
the well-established breeds. This aggregation of 
laboratories, workshops, museums, greenhouses, 
orchards, gardens, farms, and domestic animals 
is furnished and provided for the express pur- 
pose of affording, not only the means for illus- 
trating the subjects taught, but actual experience 
and skill in those processes which require that 
the judgment, eye. and hand, as well as the in- 
tellect, should be trained. 

The propriety and expediency of the Congres- 
sional grant by means of which these institu- 
tions have been established, have been seriously 
called in question ; indeed, it has been held that 
the function of government should be strictly 
confined to the promotion of elementary instruc- 
tion. In 18T3, President Eliot, of Harvard 
( \ illege, took strong ground against the endow- 
ment, by the government, of institutions for su- 
perior or technical instruction, and was sus- 
tained iu this view by President McCosh and 
others. At the session of the National Educa- 
tional Association, held at Elmira, N. Y., in Au- 
gust, 1873, this question was considerably dis- 
cussed, and the principle underlying the endow- 
ment of the agricultural colleges was ably vindi- 
cated in a paper by Prof. G. YV. Atherton, of 
New Jersey, entitled The Relation of the Gen- 
eral Government to Education, in which he 
said, " These younger institutions have a larger 
average of students, by more than one-tenth, 
than the long-established colleges, and are fairly 
occupying with them the field of higher educa- 
tion. In an important sense, however, they are 
not the rivals of the older colleges. Their grad- 
uates, to only a limited extent, enter the learned 
professions. They become engineers, farmers, 
mechanics, architects. They labor with hand 
and brain. They become leaders and organizers 
of labor, and thus precisely fulfill the intent of 
Congress when it designed these institutions to 
furnish a ' liberal and practical education to the 
industrial classes."' Prof. Atkinson, on the 
same occasion, took similar ground. " What," 
said he, "is the government domain but the 
property of the people, and to what higher use 
can the people put it than to promote the higher 
as well as the lower education of all the people ? 
We have in this country no aristocracy of edu- 
cation — not one education, as in the old country, 
for the ' masses,' and another and higher one for 
the privileged minority. The republican prin- 
ciple is, the best education for all— the best and 
highest education for the ' masses.' That is the 
only principle on which republican institutions 
can be founded." The words of Washington 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 



11 



fully justify this principle : " In proportion as 
the structure of a government gives force to 
public opinion, it is essential that public opinion 
shoulil he enlightened." 

Course cf Study. — The full course of four 
years in agriculture comprises the following sub- 
jects: (In some cases, a few are omitted or a few 
added ; but those mentioned will serve to show 
what studies are now generally considered appli- 
cable and necessary in this counsel — (1 ) algebra ; 
(2) solid, plane, and analytical geometry, trigo- 
nometry, and the calculus ; (3) rhetoric and 
composition, declamation and English literature ; 
(4) drawing, free-hand and linear ; (5) surveying 
and mapping ; (6) book-keeping, especially applied 
to farm accounts; (7) botany, general and agricult- 
ural ; (8) horticulture, floriculture, and general, 
market, and landscape gardening ; (9) history, 
which may comprise one or more of the follow- 
ing: American, English, Roman, French, agricult- 
ural, and history of civilization ; (10) physiology, 
hygiene, and comparative anatomy. (11) zo- 
ology and entomology ; (12) veterinary anatomy, 
physiology, medicine, and surgery; (13) chem- 
istry, general and agricultural ; (14) French an 1 
German, usually extending through not less 
than two or three terms (when both languages 
are not required. German is usually preferred | ; 
(15) physics, geology, mineralogy, and meteo- 
rology; (16) constitutional and municipal law 
and political economy ; (17) mechanics applied 
to agriculture ; (18) strength and preservation of 
materials; (19) rural architecture. The subjects 
treated of under the head of applied or practical 
agriculture — with slight changes — are as 6 ill >\\ a : 

(1) stock-breeding, including the laws of likeness 
or similarity, variation and atavism ; the influence 
on the subsequent progeny of the dam, by the 
first fruitful connection, in-and-in and miscel- 
laneous breeding, the government of sex. the 
relative influence of sire and dam on the prog- 
eny, pedigrees and their value, the history, forma- 
tion, and characteristics of breeds and families ; 

(2) the selection, breeding, feeding, and general 
management of domestic animals, each species 
and race being treated of separately ; (3) annual 
nutrition ; (4) the education, shoeing, driving, 
and care of the horse ; (5) drains, — their material 
and construction, and the effect of drainage on 
health, soil, climate. and plants; ((i) soils. — their 
classification, character, mechanical division, and 
preparation for the cereals and grasses ; (7) the 
preparation and selection of seed; (8) sowing, 
planting, cultivating, and harvesting; ('.)) the 
nutrition of plants; (10) insect enemies and 
fungi; (11) the culture of roots and their value 
as food for man and beast ; (12) forage plants, — 
their culture, use, and value; (13) weeds. — 
their habit of growth, time of seeding, and mode 
of eradication ; (14) the effects of air. water, heal. 
and light, on the fertility of the soil and the 
growth of plants ; (15) the care, cultivation, and 
use of natural and artificial forests; (Hi) fields, 
— theii number, shape, and size; (17) fences, 
■ — their material, construction, and durability ; 
(18) farm yards and buildings ; (19) water priv- 



ileges: (20) farm accounts : (21) the manufact- 
ure, preservation, and application of farm ma- 
nures: (22) the rotation of crops ; (23) farm ma- 
chinery and tools: (24) rural law. The subjects 
of instruction, as far as possible, are illustrated 
by diagrams, cuts, and models. The lectures 
are supplemented by field practice, varying from 
5 to 15 bom's per week, and sometimes even 
more. Visits are frequently made to adjoining 
farms and herds. The lectures and practice 
usually extend through at least one year. The 
foregoing statement shows conclusively thai there 
has been an earnest, systematic, and successful 
effort to promote the education of the rural clas- 
ses; and it may be truthfully said, that, within 
the last ten years, no other department of educa- 
tion has made an equal degree of advancement. 
The first agricultural school in Europe was 
founded, in 1804, by Fellenberg. at lloiwylin 
Switzerland. It flourished for more than 30 
years under the excellent direction of Wehrli. 
and educated nearly 3.000 pupils. 'I he success of 
llofwyl led to the establishment of other schools 
of the same character: and, at present, such 
schools are found in every country of Europe. 
I hey are very numerous in Germany and Aus- 
tria, and are divided into two classes, — a lower. 
called Ackerbausckule, intended chiefly to give 
practical instruction in agriculture, and a higher, 
called LandusirthsclwftSSchule, in which the 
whole science of agriculture, with all its auxil- 
iary sciences, is taught. The most celebrated 
among the schools of a higher class are those at 
lloliiiiheim (established in 1818), Schleisheini 
(1822), Jena (1820). Eldena (1835), Wiesbaden 
(183(1), Tharand (1829). Regenwalde (1842), 
Poppelsdorf (1846), Proskau (1847), Ungarisch- 
Altenburg (1818). Special chairs of agriculture 
have been established at the universities of Ber- 
lin, Halle, liiettingen. Munich. Leipsic. Giessen, 
and Jena; and instruction in agriculture is also 
given in the polytechnic schools. England has 
a Royal Agricultural ( 'ollege at ( 'iivnecster. 
founded in 1849; and in Scotland, the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh has a chair of agriculture, 
and special lectures are given in a college at 
Aberdeen. Ireland has two agricultural schools 
of a higher grade, — one at Templemoyle. founded 
in 1827; and the other at Glasnevin. founded 
in 1838. France has three higher agricultural 
schools and one school of forestry. In Italy, 
there are two agricultural schools of a higher 
grade, at Milan and Portici. Russia, beside 
a large number of schools of agriculture and 
forestry of a lower grade, has an Agricultural 
Institute at Gorygorezk, founded in 1830. an 
Institute of Agriculture and Forestry at New 
Alexandria, and an Academy of Agriculture 
and Forestry at 1'etrovskoi. See LoEBE, Die 
laiidwiriksckqftlichen Lekranstalien Europas 
[Stuttgart. 1S49) ; Schulz, hie tkewetisch-prak- 
tisclie Ackerbausckule (Jena, 1809). 

In the following tabular exhibit, will be found 
a full statement of the location, condition, re- 
sources, etc., of all the agricultural colleges and 
! departments in the United States. 



12 



AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES 



STATE 


TOWN 


§'3 

P n 

3 
re 

re HT 

3 3 

cm 

o 
No. of profs, in Agr. & Mech. Col- 
leges during last collegiate year 
No. of students graduated in a full 

course in Agriculture 
No. ol students graduated who, 
i luring their course.pursued studies 
"relating to Agr. & Mech. Arts" 
No. of students in the entire in- 
stitution 
P denotes preparatory department 
connected with the institution 






(Ark. Indus. University, 1 


N. P. Gates, A. M., 42. . . 
Eev. I. F. Tichenor, 

Rev. Noah Porter, D. D., 


10 

5 

20 

35 
10 

11 

29 

1 
13 

13 

8 

7 
34 

10 

13 

10 
13 

25 

3 

14 

10 
23 

10 
5 
11 

10 

7 
18 
7 

16 





54* 

22 


40 
** 


4 

77 
123 

40 
1 

5 

20 



( 

i 

( 


15 
15 

123 


80 


37 

77 
123 
11 



71 
352 

52 

30 

23 

12 


344 
88 
312 
230 

250 
407 

56 

277 

113 

115 

56 

100 
156 

255 

491 

18 
18 

479 

188 
512 

155 
14t 
25E 

295 

91 
20( 
22! 

34! 


P 


Alabama 

Connecticut 


(Agr. & Median. Coll. of 
1 Alabama, March 1872. 
( Univ. of California, Fall 

JYale Coll. — Sheffield 
(Scientific School, 1846.. 

Florida State Agr. Coll. 

Univ. of ( Coll. of Agr. 

Georgia. ( & Mech. Arts 
(111. Indus. University, 

( March 1808 

(Perdue Univ., Septem- 
\ ber 16th, 1874 

Iowa State Agr. Coll. '68 

Kansas State Agr. Coll. 

(Agr. & Mechan. Coll. of 
1 Kentucky, 1806 

f Maine State Coll. of Agr. 1, 
1 & Mech. Arts. 1869. . . ) 

Maryland Agr. Coll.. 'OS 
(Mass. Inst, of Technol- 1 
1 o»y 1 


P 










Wm. H. Purnell, A.M.. 
(Not yet organized.) 

Rev. A. Lipscomb, D. D. 

John M. Gregory, LL.D., 




(Dahlonega . . . J 






P 




A. M. Shortridge, A. 

M.. 42 

A. S. Welch, LL.D., 53.. 
( Rev. Joseph Denison, 


P 
P 










J. B. Bowman, LL. D., 


P 




Not yet organized.) 

Rev. C. F. Allen, D.D., 59 

W. H. Parker, 49 

John D. Runkle, Ph. D., 




Maryland 


Near Hyattsville. 




Massachusetts . 
Minnesota 




1 Mass. Agr. College, Oc- 1 

1 tober 2d, 1807 i 

(Mich. State Agr. Coll., 1 

Univ. of Minn., 1868.... 

Univ. of Mississippi 

( Univ. of Mo., 1840 j 

\ Agr. College, organized ( 

(Agr. Coll. of Nebraska.) 


W. S. Clark. LL. D., 50.. 

T. C. Abbot, LL. D 

W.W. Folwell, M. A., 43. 
f Rev. J.N. Waddel, D. D., 




Oxford 


P 




D. Read, LL.D., 08 

S. R. Thompson Dean, 42 
j D. R. Sessions, Prin- 


P 




P 




Elko 


Prep. Department 

/ Dartmouth Coll. — N. H. ) 
) Coll. of Agr. k Mech. j 
( Arts ) 

Rutgers College, 1770.. , 

Cornell University, 1868 
Univ. of North Carolina 
(Ohio Agr. & Mech. Col- | 

j lege, 1873 [ 

( Corvallis College, Au- 

j gust, 1868 j 

t Pennsylvania State Col- i 
j lege, February 1859.. j 

( Claflin University .State ) 

1 Agr. Coll. ,v Mech. Ins. ( 

Teun. Agr. Coll., 1869... 

(Agr. & Mech. Coll. ofl 

j Texas ( 

(Univ. of Vermont and l 
1 State Agr. Coll., 18C5. ( 
( Hampton Normal & Agr. j 

1 Virginia Agr & Mech. | 

t College. 1872 j 

West Virginia Univ 

Univ. of Wisconsin, 1808 








Rev. Asa D. Smith, D.D., 




North Carolina. 


New Brunswick.. 


(Rev. W. H. Campbell. 
1 D.D 

A.D.White, LL.D, 43.. 
(Not yet organized.) 

Edward Orton, A.M... 

B. L. Arnold, A. M., 38. . 

Jas. Calder, D. D., 50... 

( Rev. E. G. Robinson, D 

D:, LL.D 

Rev. E.Cooke, A.M.,M.D 
( Rev. T. W. Humes. S. T 
j D.. 00 


P 


Chapel Hill 






V 


Pennsylvania . . 

Khode Island. . . 
South Carolina. 


Orangeburg 

Knoxville 


P 
P 




(Not yet organized.) 
M.D.Buckham, A.M., 4£ 

S. C. Armstrong, 36. .. 

C. L. C. Minor, M. A. 
LL.D., 39 






(Blacksburgh .. 


P 
P 


West Virginia. 


( Rev. J. H. Twombly, D 


> P 








1 



* No distinct degree for these departments. Graduated aB Ph. B. 
** No Report. 



AGRICULTURAL ( 'OLLKUES 



13 



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01 


Yearly income from the endow- 
ment received from the sale of land 
scrip or lands, donated by the U.S. 
under Act of 1862 


Total valuation of farm, stock, 

implements, buildings, apparatus, 

and library 


v O 

§■- 

- ~Z- 
Z rt 

*o 

u u 
x: re 

"u 

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So 

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£| 

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rt 


6 

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age 






























L14 


83 


19—15 cts 


$13O,00C 


$130,000 





$25,001 


$10,000 


$115,000 


80 


4 


2 





40 





20 






Sets 




$253,000 





$22,000 


$20,000 


$100,009 


86 




1 


1 


40 





18 


L 


15 






$120,000 


9 


$50,000 to 
53,000 


$6,000 


$2,500. Farm 


7( 
70 














L15 


79 


12'., cts 


$319,000 


$319,000 


1 26,000 a. | 
( $75,000) 


$40,000 to 
$48,000 


$27,710 


$65,000 


600 


SE 




2 




20 


21 


L16 





7—19 cts 


$371,000 


$212,238 







$20,000 


$210,000 


145 


8 


4 


4 








23 


L16 


84 


9 cts 


$500,000 




31,321 a. 


$35,000 


$32,000 


$60,000 


294 


10 


10 


6 


150 


3(11 


90 






5—19 cts 


$165,000 


$165,000 





$18,000 


$9,900 


$250,000 


490 


7 


12 


1 


150 





50 


1,15 


8 


19 cts 


$134,001 


(131,000 





$13,000 


$8,009 


$180,000 


370 


2 


in 


1 


175 


75 


22 








$12,801 







$12,800 


fc.ooi 


$100,000 


28£ 


1 


2 





35 


55 





116 




15 cts 


$450,01* 


$170,000 





$25,000 


$8,500 


$250,000 


383 


6 


2 


lJii 


41 


3 


20 


L 





19 cts 


$231,377 


$231,377 


f 165.154 a. | 
\ $495,463 1 


variable 


$16,196 


$231,407 


150 


8 




a 


304 


1 


60 


L14 


59 


15 cts 


$256,037 


(266,087 


| 149,374 a. ( 
I $945,77ll| 


$34,698 


$10,699 


$147,713 


114 





3 


1 










L If. 


87 


12 cts 




$54,749 


| 200.000 a. ) 
| $325,000 J 


$63,467 


$5,474 


$2,250. Stock 


640 


5 


20 


6 


250 




30 


L15 





10—15 cts 







( 90,000 a. ) 
I $300,000) 









293 


4 


2 








20 


1 


L14 


7 














• 
















L17 


49 


15 cts 


$397,325 
$1,261,999 


$116,000 
$601,999 


( 400,003 a.) 
\ $2,000,000) 


$107,500 


$6,960 
$40,000 


$40,000 
Farm & Stock 
$56,000 


95 
124 


10 


6 


1 


20 





60 


L 


60 








90,000 a. 


$6,500 




















L14 




19—18 cts 


$500,000 


$395,267 
$50,000 





$32,923 


$30,000 


$532,000 


227 


12 


e 





30 





25 






5—19 cts 


$396,000 


$268,909 





$26,500 


$22,572 


$125,000 


260 








65 




20 


L1G 


14 






$122,626 





$19,000 


$8,130 


$180,000 
















L14 


89 


5 — 8 cts 


$125,000 


$95,000 





$40,000 


$10,329 


$209,500 


185 18 


3 


1 





1 


10 






7—18 cts 


$210,000 


$190,000 







$20,629 


$38,950 


300 5 


n 





60 





30 


L 




15 cts 


$220,833 




( 62.403 a. ) 
( $65,603 ) 


$65,781 


$16,148 




150 


C 


1 


2 


20 


60 


80 



14 



AHN 



AHN, Johann Franz, a German teacher, 
noted for his method of teaching foreign lan- 
guages, was born in 1790, and died in 1805. He 
gave instruction for many years in the Real- 
schule at Neuss. and published several manuals 
for teaching the German and other languages ; 
but his chief work was his Practical Method/or 
the rapid and easy Learning of the French 
Language (Praktischer Lehrgang zur schneh 
ten und leichten Erlemung der franzdsisclien 
Sprache). This work, between 1834 and 187"), 
passed through 190 editions. He was also the 
author of several works in general literature. His 
elementary books on the study of foreign lan- 
guages have been translated into all the languages 
of the civilized world, and have every-where found 
an immense circulation. The fame thus acquired 
by Aim's method of studying foreign languages, 
has led to numerous imitations, not a few of 
which are utterly unworthy of the just reputa- 
tion of the original author. The method of Aim 
was, to a large extent, founded on the works of Dr. 
Seidenstiicker, and combines both the analytical 
and the synthetical method. The principle on 
which it is based is, that the mode of learning 
a foreign language should, as closely as possible, 
correspond to the manner in which a child 
acquires a knowledge of his native tongue. 

AINSWORTH, Robert, an English teacher 
and scholar of considerable eminence, was born 
in 1660, and died in 1743. He taught private 
schools for some years, but having soon obtained 
a competency, he was enabled to relinquish the 
business of teaching. From 1714 to 1736, he was 
engaged in compiling the Latin dictionary which 
has made him famous. This work was extensively 
used in schools both in England and in the United 
States, but has for some years been superseded 
by works of greater accuracy. 

ALABAMA, one of the southern states of 
the American Union, was originally a part of 
Georgia, except the south-western portion, which 
belonged to Florida. It was set,off from Georgia, 
in 1798, as a portion of the Territory of Missis- 
sippi. From 1817 to 1819, it was known as the 
Territory of Alabama, in the latter year, being 
admitted into the Union as a state. Its area is 
50,722 sq. m. ; and its population, in 1870, was 
996,992, of whom 521,384 were whites; 475,510, 
colored persons; and 98, Indians. 

Educational History. — The first constitution 
of the state declared that "schools and the means 
of education should be forever encouraged," and 
gave directions for the preservation of all land 
grants received for this purpose from the general 
government, and tfie seminary lands for a "state 
university for the promotion of the arts, litera- 
ture, and science." Attempts were made, in 
1823, and at various times thereafter, to organize 
an efficient public-school system; but little was 
accomplished till 1854, when a general system 
was established under which, according to the 
report of the superintendent of education, the 
state, in 1857, was "in proportion to her white 
tax-paying and school-attending population, far 
ahead of nearly all the southern states, and most 



ALABAMA 

of the New England states ; was the superior, 
in the school room, of even Massachusetts; and 
was almost the peer of New York and Pennsyl- 
vania." In 185(1, county superintendents were 
substituted for the county boards of school com- 
missioners previously existing. Under this sys- 
tem, township trustees had complete control ot 
the school funds, and could aid schools already 
established according to their discretion. In 
1 800, according to the census of that year, there 
were in the state 1.903 public schools, with 61 ,751 
pupils, and 17 colleges, attended by 2,120 stu- 
dents, besides 206 academies and other schools, 
witli 10,778 pupils. The income for the support 
of common schools was $489,474, f which near- 
ly $200,000 was derived from public funds ; 1 he 
progress made during the previous decade is in- 
dicated by the fact that, in 1850, there were re- 
ported 127,390 children in the state, of whom 
only 35,039 were attending school. The consti- 
tution of the state, ratified Feb. 4., 1868, ex- 
pressly provided that all children between the 
aucs of 5 and 21 years should be educated free 
of charge : and in accordance with its provisions, 
a new system was adopted the same year, which 
placed the schools under the supervision and 
control of a board of education, and gave to 
county superintendents much of the power be- 
fore committed to township trustees. In 1871, 
the school law was again changed, the control of 
the schools being entrusted to a state superin- 
tendent, district superintendents, and township 
trustees, all elected by the people. The state 
board of education was abolished, its duties be- 
ing discharged by the legislature, which, in the 
words of the law, "shall designate, in advance, 
such days as they may deem best (during the 
session of the general assembly) for the consider- 
ation of measures relating to the educational in- 
terests of the state ; on which days the state 
superintendent shall be entitled to a seat in the 
house then considering educational measures, 
and shall have, and may exercise, all of the rights 
and privileges of a member of such house, but 
have, no vote." In 1872, -3, and -4, various 
changes were made in the school law; but the 
new constitution of the state, which took effect 
December 6., 1875, supersedes all laws previous- 
ly passed, and confirms that portion of the act 
proposed in 1871, which relates to the admin- 
istration of the schools. 

Slate Superintendents. — The office of state 
superintendent was first filled by General W. F. 
Perry, his title being Superintendent of Educa- 
cation. He was electecl by the legislature in 
1854. His successor, in 1854, was G. B. Du Val, 
who died in office, his successor being J. B. Taylor, 
who was appointed to fill the vacancy in 1865. 
John Ryan was elected to the office in 1866. and 
served till 1867, when the office was merged in 
that of state comptroller, its duties being per- 
formed by M. A. Chishohn, from November, 
1867. to July, 1868. In that year, the title of 
the office was changed to that of Superintendent 
of Public Instruction, N. B. Cloud being the 
first incumbent. His successors were J. Hodg- 



ALAP.AMA 



15 



sou (1870—72); J. H. Speed (1872—4); and' 
.1. M. McKleroy (1874 to the present time). On 
the expiration of the term of the present incum- 
bent, the title of the offiee will again lie. accord- 
ing in the new constitution. Superintendent of 
Education. 

School System. — The state superintendent of 
education, is the highest educational officer of j 
the state. The length of his term of office is not 
fixe I by the constitution; but the general as- 
sembly, it is thought, will make it four years, 
lie is elected by the people. Discharging as he 
does the duties of state superintendent and state 
board of education, his powers are greater than 
those usually devolving on state superintendents, 
his time and care being entirely devoted to the 
sehniils. lie is required to give bonds in the sum 
of $20,000, and. to have his office at the state 
Capitol, where he must be in constant attendance 
unless absent on official duties. lie makes annu- 
ally a detailed report to the governor, not oidy 
of the condition of the schools, but of tin' sums 
expended for their support. County superintend- 
ents are elected biennially by the people. Their 
duties are, to see that one free school in which 
elementary English branches shall be taught, is 
maintained in each school-district — townships 
and school-districts being co-extensive ; to visit 
the schools once a year; to pay teachers ; to hold 
teachers' institutes ; and to take charge of all 
school moneys, and disburse them according to 
law. County directors, two in number, are 
chosen at the same time, and for the same term, 
as the county superintendent. With him, they 
constitute a county board for the examining and 
licensing of teachers and maintaining a general 
oversight of the schools and school property. 
Three township trustees are elected biennially 
who have the immediate control of the schools, 
subject to supervision by the county superintend- 
ent. In several of the cities, special school laws 
are in force, by which the immediate manage- 
ment of the schools is entrusted to city boards of 
commissioners, subject either to the supervision 
of the county superintendent, or of city super- 
intendents. Four grades of schools are compre- 
hended in the operation of the law — primary, 
intermediate, grammar, and high schools. In the 
first, spelling, reading, and the elements of arith- 
metic and of geography are taught ; in the 
second, these studies are continued, with the ad- 
dition of grammar and writing; in the third, 
etymology, composition, history, and elocution 
are added ; and in the fourth, the higher branches 
common to schools of this grade are pursued. 
The school fund is composed of " the income 
from the Kith section trust fund, the surplus 
revenue fund, until it is called for by the United 
States government:" the proceeds of " all lands 
or other property given by individuals or ap- 
propriated by the state for educational purposes, 
and all estates of deceased persons who die with- 
out leaving a will or heir;" " an annual poll tax. 
not to exceed one dollar and fifty cents on each 
poll ;" with such other moneys, " to be not less 
than $100,000 per annum, as the general as- 



sembly shall provide by taxation or otherwise." 
It is, also, made the duty of the assembly to 
increase, from time to time, the public-school 
fund, as the condition of the treasury anil the 
resources of the state will admit. " In addition 
to this, each county may raise, by annual taxa- 
tion, an amount not exceeding 10 cents on each 
§100 of taxable property. Ninety-six percent 
of the money raised or appropriated must be 
used for the payment of teachers unless other- 
wise directed by a vote of two-thirds of each 
branch of the legislature. Schools for whites and 
blacks must be separate. Sectarian or denomina- 
tional schools are not entitled to any share of the 
public-school money. The school age is from 7 
to '21 years. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts in the state, in 1875, was 1,696, 
the area of each being six miles square except in 
the case of fractional townships. In each of these 
districts, there must be. at least, one school for 
each race, — white and colored. The school reve- 
nue, at that time, was as follows : 
Intereston 16th section fund $146,983.32 

" " the surplus revenue 

fund 83,526.94 

One-fifth of the state revenue of 

the previous vear 209,887.44 

Poll-tax collected in 1872—3.. . . 80,486.66 

" '• " 1S75 73,555.30 

Total $564,439.66 

This state has received from the Peabody fund, 
since 1868, $59,550. The amount received in 
1875 was $4,300. (See Peabody Fund.) 

The expenditures were as follows : 
Poll-tax disbursed by superintend- 
ents 173,555.30 

Apportioned to counties and 

cities 476,332.29 

Apportioned to normal schools. .. 10,000.00 
Incidental expenses 2,550.00 

Total 1562,437.59 

The other principal items of school statistics 
are the following : 

No. of children of school age : white, 233,733 
colored, 172,537 

Total 406,270 

No. of children enrolled: white, 91,202 

colored, 54,5 !I5 

Total 145,7117 

Average attendance: white, 67,024 

colored, 43,229 

Total 110,253 

No. of teachers: white, male, 1,660 

" female, 1,006 

colored, male, 1,002 

female, 284 

Total 3,001 

Average monthly salary, white teachers $26.50 

" " '' colored " $27.87 

Normal Instruction. — Three state normal 
schools are in existence, the expenditure for 
which, during the year 1875. was $10,000. The 
first, at Florence, organized in 1*73, is designed 
for the education of white teachers of both sexes. 



1G 



ALABAMA 



It has a library and apparatus valued at $8,000, 
besides the buildings, which are estimated at 
$30,000 ; and, in 1875, reported 4 teachers and 
126 pupils. The State Normal School and Uni- 
versity, at Marion, and the Normal School, at 
Huntsville, are neither of them so extensive as 
that at Florence. They are intended for the 
education of colored teachers. The former, in 
1875, had 3 teachers and 70 pupils ; the latter, 
2 teachera and 84 pupils. This institution is 
designed to become a university for the colored 
population of the state. Besides these state nor- 
mal institutions, there are four schools of the 
same grade under the control of the American 
Missionary Association, and one conducted by 
the Methodists, having an aggregate, in the state, 
of 659 pupils under normal instruction. 

Teachers' institutes were held, during the 
year 1875, in six counties, and their organization 
is contemplated in four more. The interest 
aroused, both on the part of the teachers and of 
the people at the places of meeting, leads to the 
belief that their permanent establishment is only 
a question of time. 

Secondary Instruction. — There are 218 pub- 
lic high schools in operation in the state, 3 of 
which are for colored, the remainder, for white 
pupils. The course of study prescribed for these 
institutions has been already stated. A number of 
high schools and academies are scattered through 
the state, which occupy a position intermediate 
between the primary schools and colleges. Accu- 
rate statistics in regard to them are, however, dif- 
ficult to procure. In Talladega College, the work 
has thus far been entirely preparatory, the colle- 
giate classes not having been formed. In 1875, 
it ha 112 instructors, and a total of 247 students in 
all thi departments. It is conducted by the 
American Missionary Association for the benefit 
of the colored people. 

Superior Instruction. — There are several in- 
stitutions of this grade in the state, the most 
important of which are enumerated in the fol- 
lowing list : 



NAME 


Location 


Wh n 

founJ- 

cd 


Rdi^ious 
denomina- 
tion 


Southern University. 
Spring Hill College.. 
Univ. of Alabama. . . . 


Marion 
Greensboro 
Near Mobile 
Tuscaloosa 


1S43 
18.j6 
1S36 

]Sl>0 


Bap. 

M. Epis.S. 
K. C. 
Non-sect, 



To the above list, must be added 9 institutions 
which afford opportunities for the higher edu- 
cation of women. In addition to the studies 
usually pursued in such institutions, special at- 
tention is given to the ornamental branches. 
The number of instructors in these institutions, 
in 1875, was 81) ; the number of students, 883. 

Professional and Scientific Instrvction.. — 
The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ala- 
bama was established at Auburn by an act of the 
legislature, its endowment being the proceeds of 
the land grant made by Congress for the benefit 
of agriculture and the mechanic arts. The 
amount thus derived was $218,000, to which was 
added all the property of East Alabama College, 



amounting to more than $100,000. Students 
are required to pursue a three years' elementary 
course, after which they are permitted to choose 
one of four courses— that of scientific agriculture, 
of civil and mining engineering, of literature, or 
of science. Under agricultural chemistry, are 
taught the composition of soils, the relation of 
air and moisture to vegetable growth, the chem- 
istry of farm processes, the methods of improving 
mils. etc. These are accompanied by lessons in 
practical agriculture throughout the course. Mili- 
tary training is given, but only to the extent of 
improving the health and bearing of the stu- 
dents. Free scholarships, two in number, are pro- 
vided for each county in the state. The course 
of study covers four years. The number of in- 
structors in all the departments, in 1875, was 7; 
the number of students, 50, in the regular course, 
and 5 in the special. Lawis taught in departments 
organized for the purpose in the State University 
and the Southern University ; theology, in the 
Southern University, in Talladega College, and, 
to some extent, in Howard College ; medicine, 
in the Southern University, and in the Medical 
College of Alabama, at Mobile. This last in- 
stitution provides a two years' course of study, 
and, in 1875, had 9 instructors and 50 students. 

Special Instruction. — The Alabama Institution 
for the Ueaf, Dumb, and Blind was founded in 
18G0 at Talladega, and is maintained at an annual 
expense of about $1 8,000. 1 he deaf-mute depart- 
ment is provided with a small museum of natural 
history and a library of 300 volumes. 1 he studies 
pursued are mathematics and the ordinary En- 
glish branches. Instruction is also given in agri- 
culture and gardening. In 1875, there were 
4 instructors and 52. pupils. In the department 
for the blind there were, in the same year, 2 in- 
structors and 10 pupils. 

ALABAMA, University of, at Tuscaloosa, 
was chartered in 1820, but not organized till 
1831. At the commencement of the civil war 
it was in a prosperous condition, but was burned 
by a federal force during the war. It was rebuilt 
in 1S()8, and is now in a flourishing condition. 
'1 he value of its grounds, buildings, apparatus, 
etc., is estimated at $150,000 ; and it has an en- 
dowment of $300,000. Its library contains 5,000 
volumes. In 1874, the number of instructors 
was 9, and of collegiate students 70. 'I he aca- 
demic department embraces eight courses of study, 
open to the selection of the students: (1) Latin 
language and literature; (2) Greek language and 
literature ; (3) English language and literature; 
(-!) Modern languages; (5) Chemistry, geolooy, 
and natural history; (6) Natural philosophy; 
(i) Mathematics and astronomy; (8) Mental and 
moral philosophy. The department of profes- 
sional education embraces a school of law, and 
a school of civil engineering. All the students, 
except those specially infirm, are subjected to 
nuhtary drill. A special military school affords in- 
struction m military science and art, in military 
law, and in elementary tactics. The president of 
the institution is Carlos G. Schmidt, LL. D 
elected in 1874. ' 



ALBION COLLEGE 



ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 



17 



ALBION COLLEGE, at Albion, Mich., was 
chartered as a college in 1861, by members of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church. The number 
of students is about 200, males and females. It- 
has a preparatory, classical, and scientific course 
of instruction. Its endowment fund is §200,000. 
Its library contains about 2000 volumes. Rev. 
G. I!. Jocelyn, D. D., is the president of the 
institution (1875). The tuition is free. 

ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, an American 
elucator, was born in 1799. He first gained 
distinction by teaching an infant school, for 
which employment he evinced a singular aptitude 
and tact. He removed to Boston in 1828, where 
he manifested the same skill in teaching young 
children, at the Masonic Temple. His methods, 
however, were in advance of public opinion, and 
were disapproved. On the invitation of James 
P. Greaves, of London, the co-laborer of Pesta- 
lozzi in Switzerland, in educational reform, Mr. 
Aleott, in 1842, went to England ; but the death 
of Mr. Greaves, which occurred before his arri val , 
interfered with his prospects. On his return to 
this country, he attempted with some of his 
English friends to establish a new community 
at Harvard. Mass. ; but the enterprise was soon 
abandoned. Mr. Aleott has since written several 
works, one of which, Concur*/ Days, was pub- 
lished in 1872. — See E. P. Peabody, Record of 
School (Boston, 1834), and Conversation on the 
Gospels (Boston, 1836). 

ALCOTT, William Alexander, M. D., 
cousin of the preceding, noted for his zeal and 
success as a common-school teacher, and his life- 
long efforts in behalf of popular education, was 
born in Wolcptt, Ct., in 1798, and died at 
Auburndale, Mass., in 1859. He had only an 
elementary education ; and', for several years, he 
taught in the district schools of his native State, 
distinguished for his remarkable earnestness, and 
the many reforms which he labored to introduce 
into the imperfect school management and in- 
struction of his time. He afterwards studied 
medicine ; but his chief labors were devoted to 
the cause of education, co-operating with Gallau- 
det, Woodbridge, and others in the endeavor to 
bring about much-needed reforms in the public 
schools of the State. Subsequently, he associated 
himself with William C. Woodbridge, and as- 
sisted him in the compilation of his school geog- 
raphies, and also in editing the American An- 
nuls of E'l nation. He also edited several juve- 
nile periodicals. His newspaper contributions 
were very numerous, and quite effective on ac- 
count of their racy and spirited style. An 
article which he published on the Construction of 
School-Houses gained him a premium from the 
American Institute of Instruction. His labors 
as a lecturer on hygiene, practical teaching, and 
kindred subjects were severe and unintermitting. 
He is said to have visited more than 20,000 
schools, in many of which he delivered lectures. 
His writings are very numerous ; and some of 
them were widely popular. The most noted are : 
Confessions of a Schoolmaster, The House I 
Live in, The Young Man's Guide, The Young 



Woman's Guide, The Young Housekeeper, etc., 
etc. Dr. Aleott was a genuine philanthropist, 
though extreme and somewhat eccentric in many 
of nis views. As one of the pioneers in the 
cause of common-school education and reform in 
practical teaching, his labors were of incalculable 
value. 

ALCUIN (Lat. F/nccus Albinus Alcuinus), 
a distinguished English scholar, ecclesiastic, and 
reviver of learning, was born in Yorkshire 
about 753, and died in 804. He was educated 
at York under the direction of Archbishop 
Egbert, and was subsequently director of the 
seminary in that city. Returning from Home, 
whither he had gone by direction of the English 
king, he met the emperor Charlemagne at 
Parma, and was induced by that monarch to 
take up his residence at the French court, and 
become the royal preceptor. Accordingly, at 
Aix-la-Chapelle, he gave instruction, for some 
time, to Charlemagne and his family, in rhetoric, 
logic, divinity, and mathematics. It has been 
said with much truth, that " France is indebted 
to Alcuin for all the polite learning of which it 
could boast in that and the following ages." The 
universities of Paris. Tours, Soissons, and many 
others were either founded by him, or greatly 
benefited by his zeal in their behalf, and the 
favor which he procured for them from Charle- 
magne. In 790. he was appointed abbot of St. 
.Martin's at Tout's, where he opened a schi >< >1 which 
acquired great celebrity. Here he (ontinued 
teaching till his death. Alcuin was probably 
the most learned man and the most illustrious 
teacher of his age; and his labors were very im- 
portant in giving an impetus to the revival of 
learning, after the intellectual night of the D.;rk 
Ages. He left many epistles, poems, and treat- 
ises upon theological and historical subjects, all 
written in Latin, and noted for the elegance an. I 
purity of their style. The Life of Alcuin [Leben 
Main's) by Prof. Lor.F.Nz, of Halle (1829) has 
been translated into English ( 1 837) by St, he. — See 
AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic art. Alcuin.. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL, a name vari- 
ously applied, but chiefly designating (1) a school 
of philosophers at Alexandria in Egypt, which 
is chiefly noted for the development of Neoplato- 
nism, and its efforts to harmonize oriental theol- 
ogy with Greek dialectics; (2) a school of 
Christian theologians in the same city, which 
aimed at harmonizing Pagan philosophy with 
Christian theology. The City of Alexandria be- 
came, soon after the death of Alexander the 
Great, by whom it had been founded, a chief 
seat of science and literature. The time during 
which the teachers and schools of Alexandria 
enjoyed a world-wide reputation, is called the 
Alexandrian Age, and is divided into two pe- 
riods, the former embracing the time of the 
Ptolemies, and extending from 323 to 30 B. C, 
and the second embracing the time of the Ro- 
mans, extending from 30 B. C. to G40 A. D. 
Grammar, poetry, mathematics, and the natural 
sciences were all taught in the Alexandrian 
School ; and among the most illustrious teachers 



18 



ALFRED THE GREAT 



were Ammonius, Plotinus, Hierocles, Proclus, 
Apollonius (poet). Galen (physician), Euclid 
(mathematician). Eratosthenes (astronomer) , Ptol- 
emy (geographer). When Christianity began to 
gain a firm footing, it was found necessary to de- j 
vote to the instruction of the catechumens special J 
care, in order to fortify them against the attacks j 
upon Christianity by the pagan philosophers. The 
catechists not only gave to the candidates for | 
admission into the Christian ( 'hurch elements 
aiy instruction, but also delivered learned lectures 
on Christianity, and combined with it instruction 
in philosophy.' Though, from its original character, 
the school continued to be called the catechetical 
school of Alexandria, it was in its subsequent I 
development something very different from a J 
catechetical school, and may rather be regarded j 
as the first theological faculty, or school of scien- 
tific theology, in the Christian Church. In op- 
position to the pagan philosophers, the teachers 
of the Christian schools chiefly undertook to 
show that Christianity is the only true philos- 
ophy, and alone can lead to the true gnosis, or 
knowledge. As the first teacher of the Christian 
theological school, Pantaenus (about 180) is men- 
tioned, who was followed by Clement, Origen, 
Heraclas, Dionysius, Pierius, Theognostes, Sera- 
pion, Peter Martyr. The last famous teacher of 
the school was Didymus the Blind (335 to 395), 
who, being blind from boyhood, had learned read- 
ing, writing, geometry, etc., by means of brass 
letters and figures, and was equally distinguished 
for his piety and extent of knowledge. The method 
of teaching used in this, as well as in the other 
schools of that age, was the Pythagorean. The 
teacher explained, and the pupil listened in 
silence, though he was permitted to ask questions. 
Every teacher taught in his own house, there be- 
inc no public school buildings. The teachers did 
not receive a fixed salary, but the pupils made 
them presents. Origen is reported to have de- 
clined all presents. He supported himself on a 
daily stipend of four oboli, which he received for 
copying the manuscripts of ancient classics. — See 
Matter, Histoire de I'ecole d Alexandrie (2 vols., 
2d ed., Paris, 1840—1844); Barthelemy St.- 
Hilaire, De I'ecole d' Alexandria (Paris. 1845); 
Simon, Histoire de I'ecole d' Alexandrie (2 vols., 
Paris, 1844 — 1845); Vacherot, Histoire cri- 
tique de I'ecole d' Alexandrie (3 vols., Paris, 1846 
— 1851); Guerike, Be Schola quo; Alexandriae 
floruit catechetica (Halle, 1824); Hasselbach, 
De schola. quae Alexandriae floruit catechetica 
(Stettin, 1826) ; Ritter, Geschichte der christ- 
lichen. Philosophic, vol. I, p. 419 — 564. 

ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West 
Saxons and virtually ruler of all England, holds 
the same prominent position in the history of 
education in England, which Charlemagne occu- 
pies in France and Germany. He was born in 
849, succeeded his brother Ethelred as king of the 
West Saxons in 871, and died in 901. After 
having thoroughly humbled the Danish invaders 
and secured the independence of England, he 
gave his whole attention to internal reforms, and 
specially to the promotion of education. Al- 



ALGEBRA 

though he is said to have been twelve years of 
ao-e, before he was taught the alphabet, and 
although his health was always feeble, he showed 
a thirst for knowledge which is almost without 
parallel in the history of European princes. 
He gave eight hours every day to religious 
exercises and to study. He translated nu- 
merous works from Latin into Saxon, as Bede's 
History of England, Boethius' De Consola- 
tione Philosophic^, and the Liber Pastoralis 
Curae of Gregory the Great. He invited dis- 
tinguished scholars to his court from all coun- 
tries, among whom Wernfried, Plegmund, and 
Athelstan of Mercia, Grimbald of France, the 
Irishman John Scotus Erigena, and the monk 
Asser of Wales are the most famous. A large 
number of schools were founded and suitably 
organized. The convents became, more generally 
than had been the case before, nurseries of 
science. All the public officers were required to 
learn to read and write ; and Alfred declared 
that the children of every freeman without ex- 
ception should be able to read and write, and 
shoidd be instructed in the Latin language. A 
complete list of his works is given in the Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica, art. Alfred. — See Stol- 
berg, Leben Alfred desGrossen, (Minister, 1815); 
Weiss, Geschichte Alfred des Grossen (Schaff- 
hausen, 1852); Freeman, Old English History 
and History of the Norman Conquest. 

ALFRED UNIVERSITY, at Alfred, N. 
Y., was founded in 1857, by the Seventh Day 
Baptists. The number of students in the pre- 
paratory department (in 1874) was 293, males 
and females, and in the collegiate department 
114, of whom 42 were females. It has a clas- 
sical and a collegiate course of instruction. Its 
endowment is §70,000; the number of volumes 
in its library is about 3500. Rev. J. Allen is 
the president. Its tuition fee is small. 

ALGEBRA (Arab, al-jabr, reduction of 
parts to a whole). For a general consideration of 
the purposes for which this study should be pur- 
sued, and its proper place and relative proportion 
of time in the curriculum, the reader is referred 
to the article Mathematics. It is the purpose of 
this article to indicate some of the principles to 
be kept in view, and the methods to be pursued 
in teaching algebra. 

The Literal Notation. — While this notation 
is not peculiar to algebra, but is the char- 
acteristic language of mathematics, the student 
usually encounters it for the first time when 
he enters upon this study. No satisfactory 
progress can be made in any of the higher 
branches of mathematics, as General Geometry, 
Calculus, Mechanics, Astronomy, etc., without 
a good knowledge of the literal notation. By 
far the larger part of the difficulty which the 
ordinaiy student finds in his study of algebra 
proper — the science of the equation — and 
in Ms more advanced study of mathematics, 
grows out of an imperfect knowledge of the 
notation. These are facts well known to all ex- 
perienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfre- 
quent thing to hear a teacher say of a pupil : 



ALGEBRA 



19 



" He is quite good in algebra, but cannot get 
along very well with literal examples!" Nothing 
could be more absurd. It comes from mistaking 
the importance and fundamental character of 
this notation. It is of the first importance that, 
at the outset, a clear conception be gained of 
the nature of this notation, and that, in all. the 
course, no method nor language be used which 
will do violence to these principles. Thus, that the 
letters it. b,x, y, etc., as used in mathematics, rep- 
resent pure number, or quantity, is to be amply 
illustrated in the first lessons, and care is to be 
taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. 
To say that, as 5 apples and (i apples make 1 1 
apples, so 5a and ii<« make 11k, is to teach 
error. If this comparison teaches anything, it 
is that the letter a in 5a, • ><(. and Lis, simply 
gives to the numbers 5, li. and 11 a concrete 
significance, as does the word apples in the 
first instance ; but this is erroneous. The true 
conception of the use of a. to represent a num- 
ber, may be given in this way : As 5 times 7 
ami li times 7 make 11 times 7, so 5 times any 
number and (i times the same number make 1 1 
times that number. Xow. let a represent any 
number whatever ; then 5 times a and li times a 
make 11 times a. The two thoughts to be im- 
pressed are, that the letter represents some num- 
ber, and that it is immaterial what number it is, 
so long as it represents the same number in all 
cases in the same problem. Again, the genius 
of the literal notation requires that no concep- 
tion be taken of a letter as a representative of 
number, which is not equally applicable to frac- 
tional and integral numbers. Thus we may not 
say that a fraction which has a numerator a and a 
denominator 6, represents a of the h equal parts of 
a quantity, or number, as we affirm that J repre- 
sents 3 of the 4 equal parts ; for this conception 
of a fraction requires that the denominator be 
integral ; otherwise, if b represent a mixed num- 
ber, as 4j, we have the absurdity of attempting 
to conceive a quantity as divided into 4 5 equal 
parts. The only conception of a fraction, suf- 
ficiently broad to comport with the nature of the 
literal notation, is that it is an indicated oper- 
ation in division ; and all operations in fractions 
should be demonstrated from this definition. 

So also to read x "'. "x to the ;«th power,'' when 
m is not necessarily an integer, is to violate this 
fundamental characteristic of the notation. In like 
manner, to use the expressions greatest common 
divisor, ami least common multiple, when literal 
quantities are under consideration, is an absurd- 
ity, and moreover fails to give any indication of 
the idea which should be conveyed. For example, 
we cannot affirm that 'lax' — 2bxi/ is the greatest 
common divisor of 2o 3 jb' — 2a?bx 3 y -\- 2ab*x*y i 
— 2b\rip and 4« b'&y* — 2ab>a?y — 26 <xy ' ; 
since ax — by is a divisor of these polynomials, and 
whether 'lax- — 2bxy is greater or less than nx - 
by cannot be affirmed unless the relative values 
of the letters are known. To illustrate. 2ax 3 
— 2bxy=2x (ax — by). Now suppose <z=500, 
fi=10, v=2, and .c= T 'o > then a.v — bi/=3Q, and 
2o,c- — 2bxy=6. Moreover, it is not a question 



as to the value of the divisor that is involved ; 
it is a question as to the degree. Hence, what 
we wish to affirm is that 2ax° — 2bxy is the 
highest common divisor of these polynomials, 
with respect to ./'. 

In order that the pupil may get an adequate 
conception of the nature of the literal notation, 
it is well to keep prominently before his mind 
the fact that the fundamental operations of ad- 
dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, 
whether of integers or fractions, the various trans- 
formations and reductions of fractions, as well as 
involution and evolution, are exactly the same as 
the corresponding ones with which he is already 
familiar in arithmetic, except as they are modi- 
fied by the difference between the literal and the 
Arabic notations. Thus, the pupil will be led 
to observe that the orders of the Arabic nutation 
arc analogous to the terms of a polynomial in the 
literal notation, and that the process of "carrying" 
in the Arabic addition, etc.. has no analogue in 
the literal. simply because there is no established 
relation between the terms in the latter. Again, 
he will see that, in both cases, addition is the 
process of combining several quantities, so that 
the result shall express the aggregate value in 
the fewest terms consistent with the notation. 
T his being the conception of addition, he will see 
that for the same reason that we say. in the Ara- 
bic notation, that the sum of 8 and 7 is ■) and 10 
(fif-teen). instead of 8 and 7, we say, in the 
literal notation, that the sum of Sax and 6ax is 
1 1 ax. In fact, it is quite conceivable that the 
pupil, who understands the common or Arabic 
arithmetic, can master the literal arithmetic for 
himself, after he has fairly learned the laws of 
the new notation. 

Positive and Negative. — Although the signs -4- 
and — , even as indicating the affections positive 
and negative, are not confined to the literal nota- 
tion, the pupil first comes to their regular use 
in this connection, and finds this new element 
of the notation one of his most vexatious 
stumbling-blocks. Thus, that the sum of 5ay 
and — 2ay should be 3ay, and their difference 
lay, and that " minus multiplied by minus 
should give plus," as we are wont to say, often 
seems absurd to the learner. Yet even here he 
may be taught to find analogies in the teach- 
ings of the common arithmetic, which will at 
least partially remove the difficulty. When he 
comes to understand, that attributing to numbers 
the affection positive or negative gives to them 
a sort of concrete significance, and allies them 
in some sort to denominate numbers, he may 
at least see, that Hay and 2ay do not neces- 
sarily make 1a>/ ; for, if one were feet and the 
other yards, the sum would not be lay of either. 
If, then, he comes to understand that the funda- 
mental idea of this notation is, that the terms 
positive and negative indicate simply such opposi- 
tion in kind, in the numbers to which they are 
applied, as makes one tend to destroy or counter- 
balance the other, he is prepared to see that the 
sum of Hay and — 'lay is 3ay ; since, when put 
together, the — 2ay, by its opposition of nature. 



•20 



ALGEBRA 



destroys lay of the 5a//, The ordinary illustra- 
tions in which forces acting in opposite directions, 
motion in opposite directions, amounts of proper- 
ly and of debts, etc., are characterized as positive 
and negative, are helpful, if made to set in clearer 
light the fact, that this distinction is simply in 
regard to the way in which the numbers are ap- 
plied, and not really in regard to the numbers 
themselves. 

So, also, in multiplication, the three principles, 
1 1 ) that the product is like the multiplicand ; 
(2) that a multiplier must be conceived as essen- 
tially abstract when the operation is performed ; 
and (3) that the sign of the multiplier shows 
what is to be done with the product when 
obtained, remove all the difficulty, and make it 
seem no more absurd that " minus multiplied by 
minus gives plus," than that " plus multiplied by 
plus gives plus": in fact, exactly the same course 
of argument is required to establish the one con- 
clusion as to establish the other. When we ana- 
lyze the operation which we call multiplying 
-j- a by -f- b, we say " -f- a taken b times gives 
-\-ab. Now the sign + before the multiplier 
indicates that the product is to be taken ad- 
ditively, that is, united to other quantities by its 
own sign." So when we multiply — a by — b, 
we say " — -a multiplied by b (a mere number) 
gives — a b (a product like the multiplicand). 
But the — sign before the multiplier indicates 
that this product is to be taken subtractively, 
i. e. united with other quantities by a sign op- 
posite to its own." This, however, is not the place 
to develop the theory of positive and negative 
quantities ; our only purpose here is to show 
that the whole grows out of a kind of concrete 
or denominate significance which is thus put 
upon the numbers, and which bears some analogy 
to familiar principles of common arithmetic. 

Exponents. — One other feature of the mathe- 
matical notation comes into prominence now for 
the first time, and needs to be clearly compre- 
hended : it is the theory of exponents. Here, 
as well as elsewhere, it is important to o-uard 
against false impressions at the start. The idea 
that an exponent indicates a power is often so 
fixed in the pupil's mind at first, that he never 
afterwards rids himself of the impression. To 
avoid this, it is well to have the pupd learn at 
the outset that not all exponents indicate the 
same thing; thus, while some indicate powers, 
others indicate roots, others roots of powers, and 
others still the reciprocals of the latter. Too much 
pains can scarcely be taken to strip this matter 
of all obscurity, and allow no fog to gather 
around it. Nothing in algebra gives the young 
learner so much difficulty as radicals, and all be" 
cause he is not thoroughly taught the notation. 
Perhaps, but few, even" of those who have at- 
tained considerable proficiency in mathematics, 
have really set clearly before their own minds the 
fact that j used as an exponent is not a fraction in 
the same sense as 5 in its ordinary use, and hence 
that the demonstration that £ = $ as given con- 
cerning common fractions, by no means proves 
that the exponent | equals the exponent f. 



Other principles bearing on this important sub- 
ject will be developed under the following head. 
Methods of Demonstration. — It requires no 
argument to convince any one that, in establish- 
ing the working features, if we may so speak, of 
a science, it is important that they be exhibited 
as direct outgrowths of fundamental notions. 
Thus, in giving a child his first conception of a 
common fraction, no intelligent teacher would 
use the conception of a fraction as an indicated 
operation in division, and attempt to build up 
the theory of common fractions on that notion. 
It may be elegant and logical, and when we come 
to the literal notation it is essential ; but it is not 
sufficiently radical for the tyro. It is not natural, 
but scientific rather. So in the literal notation, 
the proposition that the product of the square 
roots of two numbers is equal to the square root 
of their product, may be demonstrated thus: Let 
[/a x s/b=p, whence ab—p ; and, extracting the 
square root of each member we have \/ab=p. 
Hence y«X\/i = v'* Now, this is concise 
and mathematically elegant; but it gives the 
pupil no insight whatever into "the reason why." 
What is needed here is, that the pupil be en- 
abled to see that this proposition grows out of 
the nature of a square root as one of the two 
equal factors of a number ; i. e., he needs to see 
its connection with fundamental conceptions. 
Thus \fab means that the product ab is to be re- 
solved into two equal factors, and that one of them 
is to be taken. Now. if we resolve a into two equal 
factors, as \/a and s/a, and b into two equal 
factors, as s/b and s/b, ab will be resolved into 
four factors which can be arranged in two equal 
groups, thus s/as/b x s/as/b. Hence s/as/b is 
the square root of ab because it is one of the two 
equal factors into which ab can be conceived to 
be resolved. In this manner, all operations in 
radicals may be seen to be based upon the most 
elementary principles of factoring. Again, as 
another illustration of this vicious use of the 
equation in demonstrating elementary theorems, 
let us consider the common theorems concerning 
the transformations of a proportion. As usually 
demonstrated, by transforming the proportion 
into an equation, and vice versa, the real 
reason why the proposed transformation does 
not vitiate the proportion, is not brought to 
light at all. For example, suppose we are to 
prove that, If four quantities are in propor- 
tion, they are in proportion by composition, 
i. e., if a : b : : c : d, a : a + b : : c : c + d. 
The common method is to pass from the given 
proportion to the equation be = ad, then add 
ac to each member, obtaining ac -f 6c = ac + ad, 
or c (a + b) = a (c + d), and then to 
transform this equation into the proportion 
a : a -\- b : :c : c + d. No doubt, this is concise 
and elegant, but the real reason why the transfor- 
mation does not destroy the proportion, viz., that 
both ratios have been divided by the same num- 
ber, is not even suggested by this demonstration. 
On the other hand, let the following demonstra- 
tion be used, and the pupil not only sees exactly 
why the transformation does not destroy the 



ALGEBRA 



21 



proportion, but at every step has his attention 
held closely to the fundamental characteristics of 
a proportion. Let the ratio a : b be r; hence as 
a proportion is an equality of ratios, the ratio 
e : '/ is r: and we have a -5- b = r, and c -f- il 
= r, or a = h:\ and c = (//•. Substituting these 
values of '/ and c in the terms of the proportion 
which are changed by the transformation, we 
have a -f- b = br |- b, or b [r + 1), and e + f? 
= (//• + d, or d(r -f- l)i whence we see that 
a : a -\- b : : c : c -\- dis deduced from a :b : :c:d 
by multiplying both consequents by r -f- 1 (the 
ratio +l)i which does not destroy the equality 
of the ratios constituting the proportion, since it 
divides both by the same number. Moreover. 
this method of substituting for the antecedent of 
each ratio the consequent multiplied by the ratio, 
enables us to demonstrate all propositions con- 
cerning the transformation of a proportion by one 
uniform method, which method in all cases clearly 
reveals the reason why the proportion is not 
destroyed. 

This choice of a line of argument which shall 
be applicable to an entire class of propositions 
is of no slight importance in constructing a 
mathematical course. It enables a student to 
learn with greater facility and satisfaction the 
demonstrations, and fixes them more firmly in 
his memory ; while it also gives broader and 
more scientific views of truth, by thus classi- 
fying, and bringing into one line of thought, 
numerous truths which would otherwise be seen 
only as so many isolated facts. This is beauti- 
fully illustrated in the higher algebra by the use 
of the infinitesimal method of developing the 
binomial formula, logarithmic series, etc.. in con- 
trast with the cumbrous special methods which 
have so long held their place in our text-books. 
By the old method of indeterminate co-efficients, 
the pupil is required to pursue what is to him 
always an obscure, long, and unsatisfactory process 
for the development of each of these series. 
Nor are these processes so nearly related to each 
other, but that, to the mind of the learner, they 
would be even more perplexing than if absolutely 
independent. Moreover, they are styles of argu- 
ment which he never meets with again during 
his subsequent course. ( In the other hand, after 
having learned a few simple rules for differentiat- 
ing algebraic and logarithmic functions,"'- he is 
enabled to develop these, and several other im- 
portant theorems, in one general way. which is as 
remarkable for its concise simplicity, as it is for 
its extensive application and habitual recurrence 
in the subsequent course. 

Huiir/e of Topics to be Embraced. — We may 
distinguish three different classes of pupils, who 
require as many different courses in this study. 
First, there is a very large number of our youth 
who, if in the city, never pass beyond the gram- 

*) It may be new to some that there is a simple 
elementary method of proving the rule for differentiat- 
ing a logarithm without reference to series. This 
method was discovered by Dr. Watson of the University 
of Michigan, and was first presented to the public in 
Olney's University Algebra in 1873. 



mar school, or, if in the country, never have other 
school advantages than those furnished by the 
common or rural district school. Nevertheless, 
many of these will receive much greater profit 
from spending half a year, or a year, in obtaining 
a knowledge of the elements of algebra (and 
even of geometry) than they usually do in study- 
ing arithmetic. (See Arithmetic.) For this 
class the proper range of topics is, a clear expo- 
sition of the nature of the literal notation ,- 
the fundamental rules, and fractions, involv- 
ing only the simpler forms of expression, and 
excluding such abstruse subjects as the more 
difficult theorems on factoring, the theory of 
lowest common multiple and highest common 
divisor : simple equations involving one, two, 
and three unknown quantities; ratio and pro- 
portion; an elementary treatment of the subject 
of radicals with special attention given t<> their 
nature as growing out of the simplest principles 
of factoring; pure and affected quadratics in- 
volving one, and two unknown quantifies. The 
scrum/ class comprises wdiat may be called high 
school pupils. For this grade the range of 
topics need not be much widened, but the 
study of each should be extended and deepened. 
This will be the case especially as regards the 
theory of exponents, positive owl unit/tin'. 
quantities, radicals, equations involving rad- 
icals, and simultaneous equations, especially 
those of the second degree. To this should 
be added the aritJunetical and geometrical pro- 
gressions, a practical knowledge of the binomial 
formula, and logarithms, and a somewhat ex- 
tended treatment of the applications of algebra 
to the business rules of arithmetic. A wide 
acquaintance with the results attained in our 
high schools in all parts of the country, and an 
observation extending over more than twenty 
years satisfy the writer that time spent in these 
schools in attempts to master the theory of 
indeterminate co-efficients, the demonstration 
of the binomial and logarithmic formulas, or 
upon the higher equations, series, etc.. is, if 
not a total loss, at least an absorption of time; 
which might lie much more profitably employed 
on other subjects, such as, for example, history, 
literature, or the elements of the natural si ieiices. 
The course taken by such pupils gives them 
no occasion to use any of these principles of the 
higher algebra : and the mastery of them which 
they can attain in any reasonable amount of time 
is quite too imperfect to subserve the ends of 
good mental discipline. 1 his second course is 
entirely adequate to fit a student for admission 
into any American college or university. The 
third course is what we may call the college 
course. The principal topics which our present 
arrangements allow us to add to the second course 
as above marked out, in order to constitute this 
course, are the theory of indeterminate co-effi- 
cients; a sufficient knowledge of the differentiation 
of algebraic and logarithmic functions to enable 
the student to appreciate the idea of function and 
variable, to produce the binomial formula, the 
logarithmic series, and Taylor's form ula, which is 



22 



ALGEBRA 



necessary in treating Sturm's theorem, and to ap- 
preciate also the demonstration of that theorem; 
indeterminate equations ; a tolerably full prac- 
tical treatment of the higher numerical equa- 
litiiis; and the interpretation of equations; 
adding, if may be. something upon interpolation 
and series in general. 

Class-Room Work. — It is probably unneces- 
sary to say, that a careful and thorough study of 
text-books should be the foundation of our class- 
room work on this subject; nevertheless, so much 
is said, at the present time, in disparagement of 
"hearing recitations" instead of "teaching," that it 
may be well to remark that, if our schools succeed 
in inspiring their pupils with a love of books, and 
in teaching how to use them, they accomplish in 
this a greater good than even in the mere knowl- 
edge which they may impart. Books are the 
great storehouse of knowledge, and he who has 
the habit of using them intelligently has the key 
to all human knowledge. But it is not to be 
denied, that there is an important service to be 
rendered by the living teacher, albeit that service, 
especially in this department, is not formal lec- 
turing on the principles of the science. With 
younger pupils, the true teacher will often pref- 
ace a subject with a familiar talk designed to 
prepare them for an intelligent study of the 
lesson to be assigned, to awaken an interest in it, 
or to enable them to surmount some particular 
difficulty. For example, suppose a class of young 
pupils are to have their first lesson in subtrac- 
tion in algebra ; a preliminary talk like the fol- 
lowing will be exceedingly helpful, perhaps 
necessary, to an intelligent preparation of the les- 
son. Observe that, in order to profit the class, 
the teacher must confine his illustrations rigidly 
to the essential points on which the lesson is 
based. In this case these are ^1) Adding a neg- 
ative quantity destroys an equal positive 
quantity ; (2) Adding a positive quantity de- 
stroys an equal negative quantity; (3) As the 
minuend is the sum of the subtrahend and 
remainder, if the subtrahend is destroyed from 
out the minuend, the remainder is left. Now, in 
what order shall these three principles be pre- 
sented ? Doubtless the scientific order is that just 
given ; but in such an introduction to the subject 
as we are considering, it may be best to present 
thi 3d first; since this is a truth already familiar, 
and hence affords a connecting link with previous 
knowledge. Moreover, this being already before 
the mind as a statement of what is to be done, 
the 1st and 2d will follow in a natural order as 
an answer to the question how the purpose is ac- 
complished. To present the 3d principle, the 
teacher may place on the blackboard some sim- 
ple example in subtraction as : 
1 |5 He will then question the class thus: 
— 6 T. What is the 125 called? What the 74? 
What the 51 ? How much more than 74 is 125 ? 
If we add 74 and 25, what is the sum ? Of what 
then is the minuend composed? What is 51-)-74? 
If we destroy the 74, what remains ? If in any 
case we can destroy the subtrahend from out the 
minuend, what will remain? Having brought 



this idea clearly before the mind, the teacher will 
proceed to the 1st principle. If — 3ub be added 
to lab how much of the lab will it destroy? 
(Here again we proceed from a fundamental con- 
ception—the nature of quantities as positive and 
negative, thus deducing the new from the old.) 
Repeat such illustrations of this principle as may 
have been given in addition If several boys are 
urging a sled forward by lab pounds, and the 
strength of another boy amounting to 3ab 
pounds is added, but exerted in an opposite 
direction, what now is the sum of their efforts '! 
What kind of a quantity do we call the 3ab '! 
[Negative.] Why ? How much of the -4- lab 
does — 3ab destroy when we add it ? If then 
we wish to destroy -4- 3ab from -4- lab, how may 
we do it? Proceeding then to the 2d principle, 
it may be asked, how much is 6 ay — 2 ay ? If 
now we add -4- 2 ay to 6 ay — 2 ay, which is 4«?/, 
what does it become? What does the -4- lay 
destroy ? What then is the effect of adding a 
positive quantity? Such introductory elucida- 
tions should always be held closely to the plan of 
development which the pupil is to study, and 
should be made to throw light upon it. It is a 
common and very pernicious thing for teachers 
to attempt to teach in one line of development, 
while the text-book in the pupil's hands gives 
quite another. In most cases of this kind, either 
the teacher's effort or the textbook is useless, or 
probably worse — they tend to confuse each other. 
Such teaching should culminate in the very lan- 
guage of the text; and it is desirable that this lan- 
guage be read from the book by the pupil, as the 
conclusion of the teaching. Moreover, there is 
great danger of overdoing this kind of work. 
Whenever it is practicable, the pupil should be 
required to prepare his lesson from the book. 
A competent teacher will find sufficient oppor- 
tunity for " teaching " after the pupils have gath- 
ered all they can from the book. Another im- 
portant service to be rendered by the living teacher 
is to emphasize central truths, and hold the pupils 
to a constant review of them. So also it is his duty 
to keep in prominence the outlines of the subject, 
that the pupil may always know just where he is 
at work and in what relation to other parts of the 
the subject that which he i? studying stands. All 
definitions, statements of principles, and theorems 
should be thoroughly memorized by the pupil and 
recited again and again. In entering upon a new 
subject, as soon as these can be intelligently learn- 
ed, they should be recited in a most careful and 
formal manner; and, in connection with sub- 
sequent demonstrations and solutions, they should 
be called up and repeated. Thus, suppose a high 
school class entering upon the subject of equa- 
tions. Such a class may be supposed to be able 
to grasp the meaning of the definitions without 
preliminary aid from the teacher, save in special 
cases. The first lesson will probably contain a 
dozen or more definitions, with a proposition or 
two ; and the first work should be the recitation 
of these by the pupils individually, without any 
questions or suggestions from the teacher. Il- 
lustrations should also be required of the pupils ; 



ALGEBRA 



23 



but neither illustrations nor demonstrations 
should be memorized, although great care should 
be taken to secure a good style of expression, 
modeled on that of the text. To this first re- 
citation on a new subject all the class should give 
the strictest attention ; and every point in it 
should be brought out, at least once in the hear- 
ing of every pupil. In the course of subsequent 
recitations in the same general subject, individ- 
uals will be questioned on the principles thus 
developed. For example, what algebra is will 
have been brought clearly to view in this first 
recitation ; but when a pupil has stated and 
solved some problem, and has given his expla- 
nation of the solution from the blackboard, the 
teacher may ask, Why do you say you have 
solved this problem by algebra? The answer 
will be, Because I have used the equation as an 
instrument with which to effect the solution. 
Can you solve this problem without the use of 
an equation? What do you call such a solution ? 
What is algebra? Again, suppose the solution 
has involved the reduction of such an equation as 
2.5— \ = \ (3.B— 1)+ i («+l). Of course, in the 
first place the pupil will solve the example and 
give a good logical account of the solution ; but 
the teacher will make it the occasion for review- 
ing certain definitions and principles with this 
particular student, in such a practical connec- 
tion. Thus he will ask. What is your first equa- 
tion? What is your last ? [«==2.] Do you look 
upon these as one and the same equation, or as 
different equations ? In how many different forms 
have you written your given equation? What, 
general term do you apply to these processes of 
changing the form of an equation? What is 
tr ms/ormctlitm ? Similarly, every principle and 
definition will be reviewed again and again 
in such practical connections. But the great, and 
almost universal, evil in our methods of conduct- 
ing recitations is the habit of allowing mere 
statements of processes to pass for expositions of 
principles, as given by the pupil from the black- 
board in explanation of his work. The writer's 
observation satisfies him that this most pernicious 
practice is, as he has said, almost universal. Let 
us illustrate the common practice, and then point 
out the better way. The pupil has placed the 
following work upon the board : 
Ix — 28.r4-14=238 
7.C— 28,r=224 

x'— 4.c=32 
as*— 4a:-|-4=36 
x— 2= +6 
.i-=2 + G=8, and — 4. 

He is then called upon to explain hiswork5 
Something like the following is what we hear in 
the majority of our best schools : 

" Given 7x-— 28:6+14=238, to find the value 
of x. 

" Transposing, I have 7.r'— 28.r=224. 

■" Dividing by 7, a? — 4c=32. 

" Completing the square, .>.•" — 4r-}-4=36. 

" Extracting the square root, x — 2= + 6. 

" Transposing, x=2 + fi=8, and — 4." 

And the pupil turns to his instructor in 



the full consciousness of duty nobly done. The 
fact is, all that he has said is useless, nay, worse 
than useless, lie has simply intimated what 
processes he has performed. That he could solve 
the problem was sufficiently apparent from his 
work. There was no need that he should tell 
us what he had done, when he had performed 
the work before our eyes. What is wanted is 
a clear and orderly exposition of the reason wdiy 
he takes every step. This involves two points, 
since he is to show (1) that the step taken tends 
to the desired end, that is, the freeing of the un- 
known quantity from its connectii ins with known 
quantities so as finally to make it stand alone as 
one member of the equation ; and (2) that the 
step does not destroy the equation. * Something 
like the following should be the style of expla- 
nation : " < liven l.r" — 2S.c-(-14=238. to find the 
value of .<•. In order to do this, I wish so to trans- 
form the equation that, in the end, X shall stand 
alone, constituting one member of the equation, 
while a known quantity constitutes the other 
member. Hence 1 transpose the known quantity 
14 to the second member. This I do by subtract- 
ing 14 from each member, which may be done 
without destroying the equation (or the equality 
of tlie members), since, if the same quantity be 
subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. 
I thus obtain l.r — 2&r=224. I now observe 
that the first term of the first member contains 
the square of x, while the second contains the first 
power. I wish to obtain an equation which shall 
contain only the first power of .<'. In order to do 
this, I make the first term a perfect power by 
dividing each member of the equation by 7, 
which does not destroy the equality, since equals 
divided by equals give equal quotients. and 1 have 
x — 4.e=32. Now, observing that ./•-' — ).<• con- 
stitutes the first two terms of the square of a 
binomial of which the square of half the CO-effi- 
eient of x, or 4. is the third term. I add 4 to this 
member to make it a complete square, and also add 
4 to the second member to presi lve the equality 
of the members, and have .<•" — Ix |-4=3tS. Ex- 
tracting the square root of a; — 4,/--)-4, 1 have x — 2, 
an expression which contains only the first power 
of .'•; but to preserve the equality, 1 also extract 
the square root of the second member, obtaining 
x — 2= + t>. Finally, transposing — 2 to the sec- 
ond member by adding 2 to each member, which 
does not destroy the equation. 1 have ,r=H, and 
— 4." If it is desired to abbreviate the expla- 
nation, it is far better to make it simply an 
outline of the reasons, than a mere statement 
of the process. In this case, an outline of the 
reasons may be given thus : The object is to 
disengage x from its connections with other 
quantities so that it shall stand alone, constitut- 
ing one member while the other member is a 
known quantity. The first process is based upon 
the principle that equals subtracted from equals 
leave equal remainders; the second, upon the 



*) V Destroy the value of the equatioo." is an absurd 
expression which we frequently hear. An equation is 
not a quantity, and hence has no value. The equality 
of the members is meant. 



24 



ALGERIA 



ALPHABET 



principle that equals divided by equals give equal 
quotients," etc. Again, while it is admissible 
when the purpose is to fix attention upon any 
particular transformation, to omit the reasons for 
some of those previously studied, it is far better 
that these be omitted pro forma, than that 
something which is not an exposition of reasons 
be given. Thus, if the present purpose is to 
secure drill in the theory of completing the 
square, after having enunciated the problem, the 
pupil may say: " Having reduced the equation to 
the form x — 4a-=32," etc., proceeding then to 
give in full the explanation of the process under 
consideration. But it is well to allow no recita- 
tion on such a subject to pass without having at 
least one full explanation. These remarks apply 
to study and recitations designed to give intel- 
ligent facility in reducing equations. In what may 
be called "Applications of equations to the solu- 
tion of practical problems'' the purpose is quite 
different, and so should be the pupil's explanation. 
In these, the statement is the important thing, and 
should be made the main thing in the explanation. 
Lr most such cases, it will be quite sufficient, if, 
after having given the reasons for each step in 
the statement, thus fully explaining the principles 
on which he has made the equation, the pupil 
conclude by saying simply: " Solving this equa- 
tion, I have," etc. Outlines of demonstrations 
and synopses of topics are exceedingly valuable 
as class exercises, For example, it requires a far 
better knowledge of the demonstration of Sturm's 
theorem to be able to give the following outline 
than to give the whole in detail : (1) No change 
in the variable which does not cause some one 
of the functions to vanish, can cause any change 
in the number of variations and permanences of 
the signs of the functions ; (2) Xo two consec- 
utive functions can vanish for the same value 
of the variable ; (3) The vanishing of an inter- 
mediate function cannot cause a change in the 
number of variations and permanences ; and 
(4) The last function cannot vanish for any 
value of the variable; and, as the first vanishes 
every time the value of the variable passes 
through a root of the equation, it by so doing- 
causes a loss of one, and only one, variation. We, 
therefore, have the theorem [giving the theorem]. 
Finally, no subject should be considered as mas- 
tered by the pupil until he can place upon the 
blackboard a synoptical analysis of it, and discuss 
each point, either in detail or in outline, without 
any questioning or prompting by the teacher. The 
order of arrangement of topics, i. <?., the sequence 
of definitions, principles, theorems, etc., is as 
muchapart of the subject considered scientifically 
as are the detailed facts ; and the former should 
be as firmly fixed in the mind as the latter. 

ALGERIA, a division of N. Africa, which 
was formerly a Turkish pashalie, but has since 
1830 been in possession of the French. The 
boundaries are not defined, and the tribes dispute 
the claims of the French to large tracts on the 
border. The territory claimed by the French is 
estimated at about 258,317 sq. m. ; of which 
about 150,568 are subject to the civil, and the 



remainder to military, government. The popu- 
lation according to the census of 1872 was. 
2,416,225, of whom 245,117 were Europeans 
and their descendants ; 34,574 native Jews : the 
remainder were Mohammedans. In regard to re- 
ligion. 233, 733 were Catholics, 6,006 Protestants, 
39,812 (including those of European descent) 
Jews, and 140 had made no declaration. The 
Catholics have an Archbishop and two Bish- 
ops ; the Protestants three Consistories, under 
which both the Lutheran and Reformed Churches 
are placed. In regard to public instruction, 
Algeria constitutes a division, called the Academy 
of Algeria and headed by a rector. The number 
of free public schools in 1866 was 426, with 
45,375 pupils ; for secondary instruction there 
are four colleges and one Lyceum (at Algiers, 
Bona, Constantine, Philippeville, and Oran), the 
secondary institution at Tlemcen, and the free 
school at Oran. A special system of instruction 
has been arranged for the Mohammedan popu- 
lation. It comprises the douar (village or camp) 
schools, the law schools (zaiouas), the schools of 
law and literature (medresas), the French Arabic 
schools, and the French Arabic colleges. Algiers, 
the capital, has special schools of theology and of 
medicine. The educational progress of this coun- 
try derives a special interest from the fact that 
it illustrates the influence which the government 
of a Christian country can exercise upon a Moham- 
medan dependency. — See Block, Dictionnaire ge- 
neral ile la politique. A full account of the French 
laws regulating public instruction in Algeria may 
be found in Greard, La Legislation de I' Instruc- 
tion Primaire en France, torn, in., art. Alqerie. 
ALLEGHENY COLLEGE, at Meadville, 
Pa., was founded in 1817, and is under the 
direction of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
The number of students in 1874 — 5 was 132, 
more than one half of whom were pursuing the 
collegiate course. It has classical, scientific, and 
biblical departments, and is open to both sexes. 
Its library contains about 12,000 volumes. Rev. 
L. H. Bugbee, D.I)., is the president of the faculty. 
ALMA MATER (Lat., fostering mother) is 
a name affectionately given by students of colleges 
and universities to the institution to which they 
owe their education. 

ALPHABET. r I he alphabet of any language 
is the series of letters, arranged in the customary 
order, which form the elements of the language 
when written. It derives its name from the first 
two letters in the Greek alphabet, which are 
named alpha, beta. The letters in the English 
alphabet have the same forms as those of the 
Latin language, which were borrowed from the 
Greek. The Latin alphabet, however, did not 
contain all the Greek letters. The letters of the 
Greek alphabet were borrowed from the Phoeni- 
cian, which was that used by many of the old 
Semitic nations, and is of unknown origin. It 
consisted of 22 signs, representing consonantal 
sounds. Into this alphabet the Greeks introduced 
many modifications, and the changes made by 
the Romans were also considerable. Its use 
in English presents many variations from its 



ALPHABET MFTTHOD 



25 



final condition in the Ijatin language. Thus, 1 
and J, and U and V, instead of being merely 
graphic variations, were changed so as to represent 
different sounds, during the Kith and 17th cent- 
uries. W was added previously, in the middle 
ages. The twenty-six letters of our alphabet have 
been thus classified with regard to their history: 

(1) B, I), IT, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, '^letters 
from the Phoenicians; (2) A, B, I, O, X,*brigin- 
ally Phoenician, but changed by the Greeks; 

(3) U (same as V), X, invented by the Greeks; 

(4) C, F, Phoenician letters with changed value ; 

(5) G, of Latin invention; (fi) V, introduced 
into Latin from the Greek, with changed form ; 
(7) J, V, graphic Latin forms raised to inde- 
pendent letters; (8) W, a recent addition, formed 
by doubling IT (or V), whence its name. 

The imperfections of the English alphabet are 
manifold: (1) Different consonants are use I 
to represent the same sound; as c (soft) and .■;, 
g (soft) and j, c (hard) and k, </ and /•, x and ks. 

(2) Different sounds are expressed by the same 
letter; as c in cat and cell, </ in get and gin, s in 
sit and as, f in if and of, etc. (3) The vowels 
are constantly interchanged, as is illustrated in 
the following table of the vowel elements of the 
language and their literal representations, the 
diacritical marks used being tliose of Webster's 
Dictionary. 



a £ as 
a e " 
a " 

ad " 


Long. 
in ape, tbi-y 
" care, ere 
" art 
" all, orb 


6 as 
a 3 


Short. 
in end 
" bat 
" ask 
" what, not 


e i " 
e I y " 
o " 
u oo " 
u " 


" eve, p'quo 

" her, air, myrrh 

» old 

" do, rule, too 

" uru 


i 

o u do " 
o u 


" ait 

" wolf, put, book 
" love, luck 


ii " 


" use 






i y 

oi oy " 

ou ow " 


" ice, my 
" oil, boy 
" out, owl 







From this table it will be seen that the letter 
a is used to represent seven different sounds; e,flve 
sounds; <>, sir sounds, etc. (See Phonetics.) Th - 
names given to the letters are not in conformity 
with a uniform principle of designation. Thus, 
the names of />, c, d, g, />, t, a, and z are be, oe, 
de, ge, etc. ; while the names of f I, m, n. s, and 
x are ef, el, em, en, etc. ; and the names of j, k. 
are ja, ku. The heterogeneity of these names 
and of their construction will be obvious. It is 
important that the teacher should take cogni- 
zance of these incongruities in giving elementary 
instruction, as they dictate special methods of 
presentation. (See Alphabet Method.) 

ALPHABET METHOD, or A-B-C 
Method. This has reference to the first steps 
in teaching children to read. According to this 
method, the pupil must learn the names of all the 
letters of the alphabet, either from an A-B-C l/oak, 
from citrds, or from the blackboard; that is, he 
must be taught to recognize the various forms of 
the letters, and to associate with them their re- 
spective names. The method of doing this, once 
veiy general, was to supply the pupils with books, 
and then, calling up each one singly, to point to 
the letters, one after the other, and to pronounce 



the name of each, so as to associate arbitrarily 
the form with the name ; or, in simultaneous 
class instruction, to exhibit the letters on sepa- 
rate cards, and teach their names by simple repeti- 
tion. This process must, of course, be not only 
long and tedious, but exceedingly dry and uninter- 
esting to a child, since it affords no incentive to 
mental activity, — no food for intelligence. By 
a careful selection and discrimination, however, 
in presenting the letters to the attention of the 
child, its intelligence may be addressed in teach- 
ing the alphabet by this method. The simple 
forms, such as I, 0, X, S, will lie remembered 
much more readily than the others ; and these 
being learned, the remainder may be taught by 
showing the analogy or similarity of their forms 
with the others. Thus (I becomes when a 
portion of it is erased : one half of it with I, 
used as a bar. forms D : two smaller D's form B; 
and so on. This method is very simple, and may 
be made quite interesting by means of the black- 
board. 

The letters which closely resemble each other 
in form, such as A and V, M and X. K and F, 
and < ' and < i. among capitals, and h and <!. c and 
e, p and (/. and it and u, among small letters, 
should be presented together, so that their minute 
differences may be discerned. When the black- 
board is used (as it should always be in teaching 
classes), the letters may be constructed before, 
the pupils, so that they may perceive the elements 
of which they are composed. Thus the children 
will at once notice that /*. </. />. '/. are composed 
of the same elements, differently combined, — a 
straight stroke, or stem, and a small curve, liy 
an appropriate drill, the peculiar forms, with the 
name of each, will then be soon impressed upon 
the pupils' minds: and. besides that, their sense 
of analogy, one of the most active principles of 
a child's mind, will be addressed, and this will 
render the instruction lively and interesting. In 
carrying out this plan, the teacher may use the 
blackboard, and as a review, or for practice, re- 
quire the children to copy, and afterwards draw, 
from memory, on the slate, the letters taught. 
Cards may also be used, a separate one being 
employed for each letter. With a suitable frame 
in which to set them, these may be used with 
good advantage, the teacher making, and the 
children also being required to make, various 
combinations of the letters so as to form short 
and familiar words. A horizontal wooden bar 
with a handle, and a groove on the upper edge 
in which to insert the cards, forms a very useful 
piece of apparatus for this purpose. Letter- 
Blocks may also be used in a similar manner by 
both teacher and pupils. These blocks arc some- 
times cut into sections so as to divide the letter 
into several parts, and the pupil is required^ to 
adjust the parts so as to form the letter. This 
method affords both instruction and amusement 
to young children, and at the same time, gives 
play to their natural impulse to activity. These 
various methods will be combined and others 
devised by every ingenious teacher. In some 
schools a piece of apparatus, called the reading 



26 



ALUMNEUM 



frame, is used. This is constructed like a black- 
board with horizontal grooves, in which the let- 
ters can be placed so as to slide along to any 
required position. By the use of assorted letters, 
the teacher can construct any word or sentence, 
building- it up letter by letter, as types are set. 
Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling 
may be given by means of such an apparatus, the 
children being required to construct words and 
sentences themselves, as well as to read those 
formed by the teacher. The ABO Method of 
teaching the elements of reading has now, quite 
generally, been superseded by the Word Method. 
— See Uurrie, Early and Infant School Edu- 
cation, and Principles and Practice of Common 
School Education; Wiokersham, Methods of 
Instruction. (See Word Method.) 

ALUMNEUM, or Alumnat (Lat., from 
alere, to feed, to nourish), the name given in 
Germany to an institution of learning which af- 
fords to its pupils board, lodging, and instruc- 
tion. The first institutions of this kind arose in 
the middle ages in connection with the convents. 
Among the most celebrated are those founded by 
Maurice of Saxony, in the Kith century, at Pforta, 
Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were 
received and instructed gratuitously, they were 
expected to perform various services for the 
school and church, such as singing in the choir. 
The pupils of these schools were called alumni. 
(See Alumnus.) 

ALUMNUS, pi. Alumni (Lat., from alere, 
to feed, to nourish) originally the name of a 
student who was supported and educated at the 
expense of a learned institution (see Alumneum), 
now generally applied to a graduate of a college 
or similar institution. The graduates of higher 
seminaries or colleges for females are sometimes 
called alumna-. 

AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst, Mass., 
is one of the chief seats of learning in the 
United States. It was founded in 1821 by the 
Orthodox Oongregationalists, especially for the 
education of young men for the ministry ; but 
its charter was not obtained till 1825. Its first 
president was the Rev. Zephaniah S. Moore, who 
in 1823 was succeeded by the Rev. Heman 
Humphrey, to whose strenuous and prudent 
efforts the college owed much of its success. He 
continued in ollice till 1845, when he was suc- 
ceeded by the Rev. Edward Hitchcock ; and, 
on the resignation of the latter, in 1854, the 
present incumbent, the Rev. William A. Stearns, 
D. D., was elected. This institution has been the 
recipient of very large donations from private 
persons, and appropriations from the State 
amounting to upward of §50,000. The college 
funds amount in the aggregate to more than 
§650,000. Its chai-ity fund for the gratuitous 
education of clergymen amounts to about §70,000; 
and its fund for free scholarships is at least 
$100,000. The names of the principal donors 
to the institution are Dr. William J. Walker, 
to the extent of §240,000 ; Samuel A. Hitch- 
cock, §175,000; Samuel Wffliston, §150,000; 
and a college church was erected a short time 



ANALYSIS 

a<ro from funds contributed for the purpose by 
W. F. Stearns, son of the president. This in- 
stitution occupies twelve public buildings, besides 
the president's house, including an edifice for sci- 
entific instruction, and the college church. There 
are also a gallery of art, a cabinet of natural 
history, containing about 100,0011 specimens, and 
an astronomical observatory. The department 
for pliysieal training is very efficient. It com- 
prise an extensive and well appointed gymna- 
sium ; and, at a certain hour, each class is re- 
quired to attend, and engage in exercise under the 
direction of the professor, who is a thoroughly 
qualified physician. The faculty includes twenty- 
three instructors, and there are several endowed 
professorships. The number of students in 1874 
was about 340. 'J he college library contains 
more than 30,000 volumes; and those of the 
societies, about 10,000. There is a scientific as 
well as a classical course ; also a post graduate 
course, established in 1874, in history and polit- 
ical science, with especial reference to a "science 
of statesmanship;" while any graduate may 
arrange to pursue a course of study in any de- 
partment additional to the college course. The 
tuition fee is §90 per annum. 

ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Senten- 
tial. — By the analysis of a sentence is meant a 
decomposition of it into its logical elements. 
Every sentence must either be a single proposi- 
tion, or be composed of propositions more or 
less intimately related ; and every proposition 
must contain a subject and a predicate, the for- 
mer expressing that of which we speak, and the 
latter, what we say of it. The entire or logical 
subject must contain a noun or pronoun, either 
alone or with related words called modifiers or 
adjuncts, or it may be a phrase or a clause. The 
entire or logical predicate, in the same manner, 
must consist of a verb with or without adjuncts, 
'these constitute all the parts, and all the relations, 
involved in the construction of a sentence. A few 
words, such as interjections, may be used inde- 
pendently of them. Grammar has been defined 
as the " art of speaking and writing correctly," 
or as the " practical science which teaches the 
right use of language " ; and for general pur- 
poses this account is, perhaps, sufficiently ex- 
plicit. It does not, however, truly distinguish 
grammar from the other arts concerned in teach- 
ing the "right use of language,'' and hence does 
not correctly point out its peculiar province. 
Prom a want of precision in defining the limita- 
tions of any art or science, there must necessarily 
follow a corresponding inaccuracy and looseness 
in its treatment ; since, before we can reason 
properly as to the best methods of attaining any 
object, we must clearly conceive what that object 
is, and carefully distinguish it from all others. 

The special province of grammar does not ex- 
tend beyond the construction of sentences ; but 
it is quite obvious that to use language correctly, 
those principles and rules must be understood 
which underlie the proper method of combining 
sentences so that they may constitute elegant and 
logical discourse. A person may be sufficiently 



ANALYSIS 



27 



familiar with grammatical rules to construct sen- 
tences with perfect correctness, but may so ar- 
range them as to express only nonsense ; and 
such a person could scarcely be considered as un- 
derstanding the "right use of language." The 
sentence being the peculiar province of grammar, 
it follows that the only subjects of investigation 
embraced within it are words, their orthography, 
inflectional forms, and pronunciation, and their 
arrangement in sentences. All grammatical de- 
finitions and rules are founded upon the relations 
of the parts of a sentence to each other ; and, 
therefore, these relations should be first taught. 
It is with reference to these relations, that words 
are classified into parts of speech, or, as they 
might properly be called, parts of the sentence. 
To define or explain these parts of speech before 
giving any definition of a sentence, is, therefore, 
clearly illogical ; yet this has been the method of 
many grammarians, words being explained and 
parsed as if they had only individual properties. 
It is in this that the distinction between parsing 
and grammatical analysis consists. Both are. in 
fact, only different kinds of analysis, anil are 
based on precisely the same relations, — those in 
which the words stand to each other as parts of 
a sentence. 

Parsing, as uniformly employed by gram- 
marians, is a minute examination of the in- 
dividual words of a sentence, with the view to 
determine whether the rules of grammar, proper 
to the particular language in which the sentence 
is written, have been observed or violated. Anal- 
ysis, on the other hand, deals with the relations 
upon which those rules are based, and which 
are common to all languages. Thus, in parsing, 
the pupil is obliged to scrutinize all the inflec- 
tional forms in which the words composing the 
sentence are used; and, in order to determine 
whether they are proper or not, must not only 
know the rules of syntax, but the relations of the 
words to each other, so as to be able to apply 
those rules. The relations are invariable in all 
languages, but the rules which refer to the in- 
flections are founded on particular usage, and 
hence are in no two languages exactly alike. ( hi 
this account, since the general logically precedes 
the sjirriri/, the treatment of sentential analysis 
should precede any exercises in parsing. ( (ther- 
wise, how, for example, coidd a pupil be required 
to distinguish the cases of nouns and pronouns, 
and the person and number of verbs, before be- 
ing taught the relations of the words to each other ? 

By means of the analytical method, when rightly 
applied, the study of grammar is made clear, 
logical, and easy from the very beginning. The 
pupil is first taught the nature of the sentence, 
its essential parts, and their relations to each 
other, and is shown how to analyze sentences of 
a simple character. He is troubled with but 
little phraseology ; for all the terms that are es- 
sential to the complete distinction and designa- 
tion of the parts of a sentence are subject, verb 
or predicate, object, attribute, and adjuncts. These 
being defined, and the pupil taught how to dis- 
tinguish them, a complete foundation has been 



laid for the intelligent study of all other gram- 
matical terms and distinctions ; and this being 
the foundation, should, of course, lie the first 
thing done. Those who oppose the analytical 
method assert that words are the real elements of 
a sentence, and that any consideration of these 
involves, therefore, an exhaustive analysis of the 
sentence itself. With the same propriety might 
it be said that pieces of iron of various shapes 
are the elements of the steam-engine. They in- 
deed compose the machine, and it can ultimately 
be resolved into them ; but could its structure 
and workings be explained by taking these frag- 
ments of metal in a hap hazard way. and noticing 
how they are related to others in immediate jux- 
taposition, without regard to the general struct- 
ure of the machine, and the dependence of its 
operation upon a few elementary or primary parts, 
as the cylinder, piston, condenser, etc. '.' Words 
are not necessarily the real elements of a sen- 
tence. These are the subject and predicate and 
their adjuncts; and, unless these component parts 
of the general structure be first observed, the 
relations of the separate words cannot lie under- 
stood. Hence, we find that those writers who 
have ignored a definite consideration of these 
logical elements, have fallen into many errors 
and inconsistencies. 

The various systems of analysis in use differ 
in no essential respect, the chief variation being 
in the nomenclature employed to designate the 
elements of the sentence. The name generally 
applied to a proposition forming a part of a sen- 
tence is a clause, and any group of related words 
mil making a proposition is called a phrase. The 
modifying elements are by some called adjective 
or adverbial, according as they perform the func- 
tions of adjectives or adverbs. Instead of the 
term adjective, adnominal is sometimes employed. 
The term adjunct is generally employed to des- 
ignate an element subordinate to either subject 
or predicate. Such adjuncts may be modifying, 
descriptive, or oppositional. A modifying ad- 
junct changes the meaning of the element to 
which it is applied, generally, by making it more 
specific, or by restricting the class to which it be- 
longs. Thus animal is a more general term than 
four-footed animal ; heace.fourfooted is a modi- 
fying adjunct. But the term man is no more 
general than man thai is barn of a woman, or 
mortal man ; the adjuncts, that is born of a wom- 
an anil mortal being only descriptive, not modi- 
fying. Appositional adjuncts only explain; 
as: He, the chief lain of them all, in which the 
phrase, the chieftain, etc., is only explanatory, or 
appositional. Adjuncts may be single words. 
phrases or clauses; and one of the chief ad- 
vantages of sentential analysis is to show the 
pupil that groups of words are often used so as 
to perform the same office as single words. In 
teaching this subject, a proper gradation of topics 
should be observed; and much caution exercised 
to avoid the perplexing of the young pupil by 
presenting to his mind distinctions too nice to be 
discerned by his undeveloped powers of analysis. 
Various methods have been devised in order to 



28 



ANALYSIS 



present to the eye of the student the analyzed 
sentence, so as to show clearly the relation of its 
parts ; and, in the rudimental stages of the in- 
struction, these are, without doubt, of consider- 
able utility ; but they should not be carried so 
far as to present to the student a confused mass 
of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far 
more difficult to disentangle than to analyze, with- 
out any such aid, the most involved sentence. 
All such devices, it must be remembered, are 
only auxiliaries to the mind's natural operations, 
and cannot at all supersede them. Neither 
should the exercise of analyzing sentences be al- 
lowed to degenerate into the mechanical applica- 
tion of its most simple requirements. As the 
student advances, he will be able to omit more 
and more of the routine, until he reaches a stage 
of progress, at which the general structure of 
the sentence — its component clauses and their re- 
lations, will be all that he need observe or state. 
When judiciously and rationally employed, sen- 
tential analysis must engender a very important 
quality of mind, and greatly conduce to clear 
thinking, intelligent, critical reading, and accurate, 
terse expression. — See Mulligan, Grammatical 
Structure of the English Language (N. Y., 1852); 
Goold Brown, Grammar of English Gram- 
mars, and Institutes of English Grammar, 
with Kiddle's Analysis ; Welch, Analysis of 
the English Sentence ; Greene, Analysis of the 
English Language ; Clark, Normal Grammar 
of the English Language; Crdttenden, Phi- 
losophy of Sentential Language ; March, Pars- 
ing and Analysis; Andrews and Stoddard, 
Latin Grammar. 

ANALYSIS, Mathematical. See Math- 
ematics. 

ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACH- 
ING. This is the method used by the teacher 
when he presents to his pupils composite 
truths or facts, and by means of analysis 
shows the principles involved, or leads the 
mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for 
himself. In this way he teaches principles 
which the pupil is to apply to the elucida- 
tion of many diverse problems. In the synthetic 
method, the teacher begins with principles, ex- 
plains their meaning, and shows how they are to 
be applied. Thus, suppose the pupil is to be 
taught how to add and subtract fractions. Ac- 
cording to the analytic method, the fractions to 
be operated upon are presented to the pupil's 
mind, and he is shown, first the difficulty in- 
volved, and secondly, how to surmount this diffi- 
culty, by (1) finding a common denominator, 
and (2) by changing the numerator so that the 
fractions with the common denominator may 
have the same value as the given fractions. Then 
the method of addition or subtraction becomes 
obvious. In this way learning the principle him- 
self by analysis, the pupil is enabled to construct 
a general rule, and apply it to any given case. In 
the synthetic method, the pupil would be taught 
in the first place the nature and use of a common 
denominator, then the method of reducing frac- 
tions to a couimcn denominator, and then to add 



ANDREW 

or subtract fractions by finding a common de- 
nominator. If the object of the instruction given 
were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert m 
adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic 
method would perhaps have some advantage over 
the analytic ; but, since an important part of 
this object is to train the mind, the analytic meth- 
od is greatly to be preferred; for (1) it stimu- 
lates the mind to greater activity, (2) it teaches 
it how to investigate for itself, and to discover 
truth, and (3) it gives it a much clearer knowl- 
edge of the fundamental principles involved in 
the subject taught. Whether the analytic meth- 
od should be employed and to what extent, is 
to be determined by a consideration of the nature 
of the subject taught, and the degree of advance- 
ment of the student. In the higher stages of 
education, much time would be lost by rigorously 
following this method; and if, in the more 
elementary stages, the pupil's mind has been 
thoroughly trained in this way, it will not be 
necessary to adhere to it when he comes to study 
the higher branches. At every stage, and in every 
branch of instruction, however, there will be oc- 
casion for the use of both analysis and synthesis ; 
and the skill and judgment of the teacher must 
be exercised, at every step, to determine which is 
the appropriate method to be employed. — See 
Palmer. 7V Teacher's Manual (Boston, 1840). 
ANDREiE, Johann Valentin, a German 
clergyman and educator, was born at Herren- 
berg, in Wiirtemberg, in 1586, and died in 
Stuttgart, hi 1654. After filling several eccle- 
siastical positions in the Lutheran church of 
his country, he became, in 1650, Superintendent 
General at Babenhausen, and in 1654 at Adel- 
berg. He was a stern and influential opponent 
of the principles which the Lutheran orthodoxy, 
! at that time, endeavored to carry out in edu- 
cation, lie denounced, in particular, the me- 
chanical method of teaching Latin, which then 
prevailed, as well as the equally mechanical 
method of catechetical instruction in the pub- 
lic schools ; and he is known, in the history of 
German education, by the reforms which he in- 
troduced in these studies. He insisted that no 
orders should be given to the pupils in a foreign 
language, that they should not be required to 
learn anything which they did not understand, 
and that no explanations should be given to them 
exceeding their comprehension, or not enlisting 
their interest. His views on pedagogical and 
didactical reform are fully developed in the 
work Rei,public(E Christiana' Descriptio (1619), 
which sketches the constitution of an ideal 
Christian republic, giving due prominence to the 
organization of education. Another work, writ- 
ten in his youth, Idea Bonce Institution-is, is no 
longer extant. Andreas was an intimate friend of 
Amos Comenius. whose work, Didaclica Magna, 
he earnestly recommended. The autobiography 
of Andrea?, in Latin has been published by Khein- 
wald (Berlin 1849). — See Schmidt, Geschichte 
der Pddagogik, III, 338 ; Hossbach, Andrea: 
uuil sein '/."Halter (Berlin, 1830); Henke in 
Deutsche Allgemeine Biographie, art. Andrea. 



ANGLO-SAXON 



29 



ANGLO-SAXON is the current name for 
the mother-tongue of the modern English Ian- 
guage. During the 5th and <ith centuries, tribes 
from the shores of the North Sea. — Angles, 
Saxons, Jutes, and others, made conquests and 
settlements in England. They spoke LowGerman 
dialects, and after they were converted to Chris- 
tianity, Roman alphabetic writing was intro- 
duced, and a single literary language came into 
use through the whole nation. This language 
they commonly called Anglisc, or Englisc, i. e. 
English, but since the 1 7th century it has been 
called Anglo-Saxon. Its best period was the 
reign of Alfred the Great, A. 1). 871 — 'JIM. 
In the careful study of its literary remains, it is 
necessary to distinguish three dialects, the North- 
umbrian, the \\ "est Saxon, and the Kentish; and 
three periods, the early, the middle, and the late; 
but in this article, our attention will be mainly 
directed to classic Anglo-Saxon, which is West 
Saxon of the middle period. This literary lan- 
guage was cultivate 1 mainly by rewriting in it, 
for the use of the people, the best Latin works 
of the time on religion, history, ami philosophy. 
King Alfred and his learned assistants thus pre- 
pared Gregory's Pastorale; the General History 
of Orosius, the Ecclesiastical History of Bede, the 
Consolations of Philosophy of Boethius; and 
these were followed by many other translations 
in prose and verse. The language in this way 
attained accuracy and ease in following Latin 
compositions, and a higher general cultivation 
than any other Teutonic tongue of the time. 
It is a very pure Low German speech, closely 
akin to the Frisic, Old Saxon, and Dutch. These 
Low German tongues are most nearly related, on i 
the one side, to High German, and on the other 
to Scandinavian; and mure remotely to Latin, 
Greek, Slavic, Sanskrit, and the other Indo- 
European or Aryan languages. The Anglo- 
Saxon is to be classed with the older inflected or 
synthetic languages, like the Latin, Greek, and 
Sanskrit, rather than with the analytic, or little- 
inflected, like French and English. The noun 
has five cases, and three genders; and four de- 
clensions growing out of differences in the stems. 
The adjective is declined as in German, in a 
definite and an indefinite declension, with two 
numbers, three genders, and five cases. The 
personal pronouns are also fully declined in 
three numbers, having special forms for the dual 
number in the first and second persons. There 
are two great classes of verbs, one of which 
forms the past tense by reduplication, and the 
other by composition with dide, did. In the 
first class are five conjugations, arranged accord- 
ing to their root vowels, and from these come 
most of what are called the irregular verbs of 
modern English; our regular verbs come from the 
sixth conjugation. Our suffixes of derivation, 
our prepositions, and conjunctions are also in 
great part Anglo-Saxon. The syntax is of 
course that of a highly inflected language. Some 
verbs govern an accusative, some a dative or in- 
strumental, some a genitive, some two accusa- 
tives, some an accusative and dative, and so on 



as in I^atin and Greek. The uses of the modes 
are also a matter of great nicety. The body of 
rules tor the use of the subjunctive rivals that 
for the Latin subjunctive. Most of the diffi- 
culties of English syntax find their solution in the 
fact that they are relics of idioms which were gen- 
eral, and are easily understood, in Anglo-Saxon, 
The laws of sound, including prosody, are note- 
worthy. The vowel sounds are very susceptible 
to the influence of adjacent letters. A root ./ 
will change to tie, ea, e. o, as one or another 
letter follows it; and so with the other vowels. It 
is in this way that the plural of man comes to be 
men, from inuiii. And, in general, the changes 
of the original letters of an English word in in- 
flection are to be explained from the phonetic 
laws of Anglo-Saxon. The verse, like that of 
the other early Teutonic nations, is accentual, 
and marks off the lines by alliteration. The art 
of poetry was highly cultivated; the sedp, or 
poet, was highly honored, and it was a disgrace 
to any man not to be able to sing in his turn at 
the feasts. We have specimens of the old ballad 
epic reaching far back into heathen antiquity, 
the Iliad and Odyssey of the North. There is 
also a body of Christian poetry in similar verse 
and in somewhat similar style. 

Prom this sketch of the language and its 
literature it will appear, that whatever disciplin- 
ary advantages are to be gained from the study 
of an inflected tongue as such, or of a literature 
introducing us to a new world of thought and 
manners, are to be gained as well from the 
study of Anglo Saxon as of Latin or (.'reck. It 
has. however, additional and more intimate uses 
to those who speak and write English, and have 
English for their foster-mother in literature. It is 
tin' mother of our mother-tongue. and the knowl- 
edge of it helps us at every step in our study of 
English grammar and literature, and is essential 
to any really advanced scholarly knowledge of 
either. We may. therefore, find a place for 
Anglo-Saxon in all grades of schools in which 
language and literature arc studied, using it in 
different ways at different stages of progress, 

The study of language must always occupy a 
chief place in any comprehensive educational 
scheme. It has two great divisions : (1) as the 
study of the art of communication, (-1 as the 
study of the record of human thought. With- 
out the art of communication, man cannot live; 
without access to the accumulated thought of the 
race, any generation would be savages; without 
an introduction to the emotions and ideals of 
the great and noble wdiich are embodied in lit- 
erature, any generation wotdd lapse toward 
moral idiocy. 

Common Schools. — The Anglo-Saxon is no 
longer spoken, and it would be hardly worth 
while to learn to speak it; but in learning to 
speak and write English we need to know much 
of it. The power to speak well is founded on 
familiarity with choice idioms and synonyms. 
These are learned in connection with the history 
of the formation and meanings of words, ami 
especially in English, of our Anglo-Saxon words. 



30 



ANGLO-SAXON 



There are several school etymologies which afford 
manuals of practice in the study and use of the 
Anglo-Saxon elements of our speech, among 
which may be mentioned : Hand-Book of Anglo- 
Saxon Root-Worth (New York); Hand-Book of 
Anglo-Saxon Derivatives (New York); Gibbs's 
Teutonic Etymology (New Haven); Sargent's 
School Manual of ' English Etymology (Phila.). 
In these books the pupil is told the meanings of 
certain Anglo-Saxon words, prefixes, and suffixes, 
and of English words which are derived from 
them ; and exercises are arranged in which to 
acquire skill in the ready use of this knowledge. 
They are intended for the Common School. 
Haldeman's Affixes (Phila.) is a treasury of this 
branch of learning. 

In the High School or Academy, Anglo-Saxon 
is to be read and studied not only as explanatory 
of English, but for its own structure and liter- 
ature, just as Latin, Greek, and German are 
studied. Manuals for this study in its simplest 
form contain brief grammars, selections for read- 
ing, notes, and vocabulary. — Such books are S. 
M. Shute's Anglo-Saxon Manual (N. Y.); Bar- 
nes's Anglo-Saxon Delectus (London); Vernon's 
Guide to the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (London); 
Carpenter's Introduction to the study of the 
Anglo-Saxon Language (Boston). Similar to 
these, but containing more apparatus for a 
comparative study of the language and philo- 
logical notes, are March's Introduction to the 
Anglo-Saxon Language (N. Y.); Morris's Ele- 
mentary Lessons in Historical English Gram- 
mar, containing Accidence and Word Forma- 
tion (London). 

Normal Schools. — There are no persons to whom 
this study is more important, than to teachers of 
English grammar. The explanations of the forms 
of words are all to be sought in it. The origin and 
meaning of the possessive ending 's, of the plural 
endings, of the endings for gender, of the tense 
forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial 
endings, the prepositions, may at any time be de- 
manded of the teacher. Pupils will ask him 
whether John's book is a contraction of John his 
book; how comes geese to be the plural of goose, 
and men the plural of man; how comes lady 
to be the feminine of lord; how comes I have 
loved to express the perfect tense; what does the 
to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that is 
the question, and so on without end. But such 
questions caunot be answered without knowing 
Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of 
syntax. Almost all difficulties grow out of 
Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find their solution in 
the forms of that speech. Teachers who know 
nothing of the history of the language puzzle 
themselves infinitely with subtle reasonings to 
prove that expressions must be parsed in one 
way or another, when a glance at an Anglo- 
Saxon grammar would settle the matter in a 
moment. No teacher can safely pronounce on 
any such mooted questions of our language with- 
out knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. No nor- 
mal school ought to send out graduates from its 
grammar department wholly ignorant of this 



study. A lesson a day during the last school 
term skillfully directed to the most frequent ex- 
amples in which this knowledge comes into use, 
would perhaps answer the most pressing necessi- 
ties of the common school teacher. Twice that 
time would be a meager allowance to lay the 
foundation of the education of an accomplished 
high-school teacher in this department. I or this 
study may be used March's Comparative Gram- 
mar of the Anglo-Saxon Language (New York); 
— this contains a full syntax ; R. Morris's His- 
torical Outlines of English Accidence (London); 
Hadley's Brief History of the English Lan- 
guage, in Webster's Dictionary (1865). 

Colleges and Universities. — The earliest im- 
portant use of Anglo-Saxon in our schools was 
that introduced by President Jefferson into the 
University of Virginia, in 1825. He thought 
that it was a rude form of colloquial English dis- 
guised by bad spelling, and that the whole gram- 
matical system as given in the text-books was a 
series of " aberrations into which our great Anglo- 
Saxon leader, Dr. Hickes, has been seduced by 
too much regard to the structure of the Greek 
and Latin languages." " Remove," he says, " the 
obstacles of uncouth spelling and unfamiliar 
character, and there would be little more diffi- 
culty in understanding an Anglo-Saxon writer 
than Burns' poems." He proposed to have text- 
books prepared, in which the original Anglo- 
Saxon should be accompanied by a parallel 
column containing the same matter respelt into 
modern English or forms like the modern En- 
glish, and by explanations of the meaning of 
unusual words. 1 hese he thought would be few, 
so that the whole tongue might be mastered 
with great ease and rapidity. These views of the 
language are all wrong ; the best Anglo-Saxon 
manuscripts are really spelt on a more careful 
and more scientific system than our modern 
English. The language, really, is an inflected 
language, like Latin and Greek, having its case- 
endings and other inflective forms from the 
same original as those sister-speeches. Of course, 
no one has carried out Mr. Jefferson's plan liter- 
ally. One of its suggestions has, however, been 
embodied in March's Introduction to Anglo- 
Saxon (New York). An early division of the 
prose is prepared in parallel pages of Anglo- 
Saxon, and a sort of English made by giving for 
each Anglo-Saxon word the corresponding En- 
glish word to which it has given rise, if there be 
any, or a kindred English word. The following 
is a specimen: 

Se leornere segeth : We cildru biddath the, 
eala lareow, thaet thu taece us sprecan on Ledene 
gereorde rihte, fortham ungelaerede we sindon, 
and gewemmedlice we sprecath. 

(The learner saith: We childer ' bid- thee, O-lo 
lore-master, that thou teach us to-speak in Latin 
i-rerd ;1 right, for- that ■> un-i-lered a we are, and 
i-wemmedly 6 we speak.) 



i children (Chaucer). 2pray. slanguage (HallrweU). 
i because. 5 unlearned (Stratmann). 6 corruptly, from 
wejn, a spot. 



ANGLO-SAXON 



ANHEI^I 



31 



An extract from the poetry of Caedmon is 
prepared in the same maimer. It will be seen 
that this affords an easy introduction to a gen- 
eral knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, 
and is a grateful means of enabling beginners 
who wish only to read in an off-hand fashion, to 
wet a fair knowledge of the contents of Anglo- 
Saxon books, especially of simple prose, and 
makes a good beginning for grammatical and 
philological study. 

There has been a great increase of Anglo-Saxon 
study in our colleges within the last ten years. 
From being almost unknown, and wholly unpro- 
vided with any suitable apparatus, it has become 
a common study, and a number of manuals have 
been published for beginners in it, both in America 
and Europe. There is a difference of opinion 
among our educators as to whether it should be 
studied early in the college course and in connec- 
tion with English simply, or later and in connec- 
tion with Latin, Greek, and German; whether it 
should be mainly a literary study, for reading and 
the vocabulary, or chiefly a grammatical and 
philological study. The earliest of the later text- 
books announced for publication wasa Compara- 
tive Grammar by F. A. March, Prof, of the 
English Language and Comparative Philology in 
Lafayette College. This was primarily intended 
for the use of a Junior Class in college, who 
have already studied Latin, Greek, French, 
and German, according to a progressive plan by 
which each language is compared with the others 
in its grammatical forms and analogous words, so 
that when beginning Anglo-Saxon, the students 
are good comparative grammarians within the 
range of the above languages. It is the plan of 
this grammar to compare the Anglo-Saxon with 
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Old Saxon, (lid 
Frisic, Icelandic, and Old High German. Gen- 
eral principles of phonology, enough to cover 
all the changes of sound, are first laid down, 
and then parallel paradigms of the inflection 
forms in these languages are given, and the 
Anglo-Saxon explained under their guidance. A 
comparative syntax is also given. The author 
in this way introduces the student to the 
methods of the modern science of language in 
connection with the study of Anglo-Saxon, so 
that our mother-tongue may share the honors 
of this new science. This grammar was followed 
by a Reader, which is prepared with notes 
adapted to lead to and aid in the study of the 
grammar. These books have been since studied 
at Lafayette College in the manner here sug- 
gested. A class goes slowly on with the reader 
and grammar together, studying, word by word, 
letter by letter, the relations of the forms to 
those of other languages, and the laws of change 
which govern their history, and trying to ground 
all in the laws of the mind and of the organs of 
speech. Besides this grammatical study, how- 
ever, the substance of the selections is carefully 
studied, including choice extracts from the 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Beda giving the 
noticeable events of history, Anglo-Saxon laws, 
and extracts from the great poets. In method 



and substance, as thorough and scientific study is 
given in this way to a portion of the Anglo- 
Saxon as can be given to Greek or Latin with 
the ordinary college text-books. The study is 
pursued in this way at several of the American 
colleges. In others, rapid reading for literary 
purposes prevails. The text -books used are 
March's Grammar and Reader, as above, in 
which are also bibliographical notes, and a sketch 
of the literature; Shpte's Anglo-Saxon Manual; 
Kui'Stein's Anglo-Saxon Grant mar (Sew York); 
Corson's Anglo-Saxon and Early English 
(New York); Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica 
(London) ; Carpenter's Introduction to Anglo- 
Saxon (Boston). 

Nowhere else is this study pursued as in 
America. It is almost wholly neglected in the 
English universities. Nine German universities 
announced lectures on it for the winter semester 
of 1874 — 5. 

Dictionaries of Anglo-Saxon are Bosworth's 
(London); Ettmi'eli.er's lexicon Anglo-saxoni- 
i-init (Quedlinburg A: Leipsic, 1851), — an etymo- 
logical dictionary. Other valuable works of 
reference or for further reading are Thorpe's 
Beowulf, with translation, notes, and glos- 
sary (London); GreIn's Beotnilf, with Ocr- 
man glossary (Cassel, 1867); Hkynk's Beooulf, 
with German notes and glossary (Paderbom, 
1873); Thorpe's Gospels (London); Bosworth's 
Four Versions of the Gospels (London); E. 
M.etzner's Englische Grammalik (Berlin, 1860 
— 65) ; 0. F. Koch's Historische Grammatik 
der englisclien Sprache (Weimar, 18(13 — 71); 
Marsh's English Language, and its Early 
Literature (New York, 1862); Mori.ky's English 
Writers (London, 18G7); Wright's Biog. Brit. 
Li/i-ruria (London, 1842); Ettmcteller's Scdpas 
and Bdceras (Qued. & Lops., 1850) ; C. W. M. 
Grein's Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie 
(Cassel & Gottingen, 1857—1864); <! rein's ISi- 
bliothek der angelsachsischen Prosa (Cassel, 
1872); Grein's Sprachschatz der angelsachsi- 
schen Dichter (Cassel & Gottingen. 18(14); and 
articles in Appi.eton's New American 
clopiedia. and Johnson's New Universal 
clopcedia. 

ANSELM, of Canterbury, a saint and 
doctor of the Roman Catholic Church, is re- 
garded as one of the founders of scholasticism. 
(See Scholasticism.) He was born at Aosta, in 
Piedmont, about 1033, entered, after a dissolute 
youth, the Benedictine order in 1060, succeeded, 
in 1063, Lanfranc as prior of the monastery of 
Bee in Normandy, and, in 1(179, became abbot. 
lie was, in 1093, consecrated archbishop of Can- 
terbury, and died in 1109. The school of Bee 
became, through him, the most famous of the 
age. He endeavored to show the entire harmony 
between faith and science, and was the first to 
develop what is called the ontologieal argument 
to prove the existence of God. He was a de- 
termined and effective opponent of the discipline 
which at that time prevailed in the monasteries, 
and which even allowed abbots to cudgel dis- 
obedient monks. " A fine education," he once 



32 



ANTIOCH COLLEGE 



APHORISMS 



replied to an abbot, who complained of the in- 
efficiency of his educational efforts, " winch edu- 
cates man to animals ! Because they receive from 
you no mark of love and kindness, they mistrust 
you, suspect you of malignity and hatred, and 
can only face you with lowered looks and averted 
eyes." An edition of A nsel in 's complete works, 
also containing his life, by his friend and com- 
panion Eadmer, was published, in 1 744, in Ve- 
nice (Opera Omnia, 2 vols.). — See M<ehler. An- 
selm's Leben und Schriften ( Tab. Quartalschrift, 
1826, 1827) ; Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury 
(2 vols., 1843 — 1852 ; an abridged English trans- 
lation by Turner, London, 18G0); Ch. de Remu- 
sat, St. Anselme de Cantorbery (Paris, 1852). 

ANTIOCH COLLEGE, at Yellow Springs, 
Green Co., Ohio, was incorporated in 1852. Its 
buildings, which were erected at a cost of 
$150,000, have a pleasant and healthful situa- 
tion. This institution is designed to afford the 
means of a useful education, at small expense, to 
both sexes. Its charter forbids the teaching of 
sectarian dogmas ; but the instruction is given 
in consonance with the spirit of liberal Chris- 
tianity. Its first president was Horace Mann 
(1853 — 59). He was succeeded by Thomas 
HiU, D. D. (1859—62), George W. Hosmer. 
D. D. (1866 — 72); and since then, the college has 
been under the direction of Prof. Edward Orton 
and Samuel C. Derby, A. M., acting presidents. 
Its endowment is upward of $120,000. It has a 
preparatory and collegiate department ; and stu- 
dents are permitted to select any studies from its 
curriculum which they are able to pursue with 
advantage, and receive a certificate for the same, 
after passing a satisfactory examination. In this 
respect, the institution affords the advantages of 
the best academies. It has a musical institute 
under the supervision of the faculty, and a li- 
brary of 5000 volumes. The number of students 
in 1874 was about 100. The co-education of the 
sexes has been very successful in this institution. 
The annual tuition fee is .$37. 

ANTIPATHY. This term, the opposite of 
sympathy, denotes the instinctive dislike which 
is felt towards some persons on account of cer- 
tain peculiarities of temperament, disposition, 
maimers, etc. The natural characteristics of dif- 
ferent persons show remarkable diversities in 
this respect. Some seem to exert a kind of 
magnetic influence, which attracts and engages 
others, and by means of which they immediately 
gain the good-will and affection of those with 
whom they are brought into communication. 
Others, on the contrary, appear to repel, as it 
were, all who approach them, and are obliged, 
therefore, to make special effort to secure the con- 
fidence and goud-will of their associates. Frank- 
ness and candor tend to inspire confidence; while 
an exhibition of reserve and shyness produces 
aversion and distrust. Shy, secretive persons 
strive to avoid others, and are instinctively avoided. 
They naturally produce antipathy. Hatred is 
engendered in the mind towards those who com- 
mit positive acts of injury, wrong, or crime; but 
this is to be distinguished from antipathy, which 



is an instinctive dislike. Such a feeling is apt 
to exist on a first acquaintance only, and is often 
dismissed subsequently as a prejudice. No per- 
son can succeed in teaching children, who pos- 
sesses an unfortunate temperament or mental con- 
stitution of this kind, and such a one should seek 
other employment ; since all real success in prac- 
tical education, depending as it does upon in- 
spiring the minds of pupils with love, esteem, and 
confidence, must be founded upon the opposite 
quality, sympathy. (See Sympathy.) 

APHORISMS, Educational. The expres- 
sion of general truths in the form of aphorisms 
has some advantages over more extended state- 
ments, particularly in their brevity, pithiness, 
and point. The understanding grasps them 
as the keys to practical rules, and as guides in 
conduct ; and the memory more readily retains 
them. It is not. however, to the uninformed, 
untrained mind, that such expressions are of the 
greatest use, but to those who, having already ac- 
quired by experience and reflection a good store 
of facts and ideas upon the subject treated, are 
glad to find them concentrated, as it were, in 
these small and convenient verbal repositories. 
No subject is richer in such aphorisms than 
education ; and to no one will their study and 
acquisition prove more serviceable than to the 
practical teacher, eager to avail himself of the 
treasured experience of others. In these scintil- 
lations of wisdom, struck out from the minds of 
ancient and modern sages, philosophers, and edu- 
cators, will be found an illumination sufficient per- 
haps to guide the humble explorer in the field of 
pedagogical lore, to the true path to professional 
success, as well as to the temple of speculative 
and practical truth. The few here given have 
been selected not only for their apposrteness, but 
for their value as the exponents to correct educa- 
tion and teaching. Their arrangement by topics 
will not only serve to divest them collectively 
of their fragmentary character, but render them 
easy of reference and application. In regard to the 
value of aphorisms in general, Coleridge remarks: 
" Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the lar- 
gest and worthiest portion of our knowledge 
consists of aphorisms ; and the greatest and best 
of men is but an aphorism." 

I. Value of Education. 

Man cannot propose a higher or holier object 
for his study than education and all that per- 
tains to education. — Plato. 

Man becomes what he is principally by edu- 
cation, which pertains to the whole of life, — Plato. 

Man becomes what he is by nature, habit, instruc- 
tion; the last two together constitute education, and 
must always accompany each other. —Aristotle. 

There is within every mind a divine ideid, the 
type after which he was created, the germs of a 
perfect person ; and it is the office of education to 
favor and direct these germs.— Kant. 

Man is the product of his education. — 

, . . . ,. Helvetius. 

A right-directed system of education is a moral 
power in the mind, second only to that creating 
energy that formed and sustains in existence ite 
material frame- work. —A. E. Craig. 



APHORISMS 



33 



Of all the men we meet with, niue pnrts out of 
ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, 
by their education. — Locke. 

Education is to inspire the love of truth, as the 
supreme good, and to clarify the vision of the 
intellect to discern it. — H. Manx. 

Education is the one living fountain which 
must water every part of the social garden, or its 
beauty withers, and fades away. — E. Everett. 

II. Scope of Education. 

The object of education is not external show 
and splendor, but inward development. — Seneca. 

A good education consists in giving to the body 
and the soul all the perfection of which they are 
susceptible. — Plato. 

Education can improve nature^ but not com- 
pletely change it. — Aristotle. 

The object of the science of education is to 
render the mind the fittest possible instrument for 
discovering, applying, or obeying the laws under 
which God has placed the universe. — Wivi.im 

The first principle of human culture, the 
foundation-stone of all but false, imaginary cul- 
ture, is, that men must, before every other thing. 
be trained to do somewhat. Thus, and thus only, 
the living force of a new man can be awakened, 
enkindled, and purified into victorious clear- 
ness. — Caeltle. 

The object of education ought to be to develop 
in the individual all the perfection of which he is 
capable. — Kant. 

I call that education which embraces the cul- 
ture of the whole man, with all his faculties — sub- 
jecting his senses, his understanding, and his pas- 
sions to reason and to conscience. — Fellenberg. 

I call a complete and generous education that 
which tits a man to perform justly, skillfully, 
magnanimously, all the offices, 1 10th private and 
public, of peace and war Melton. 

All true education is a growth ; the mind is not 
a mere capacity to be tilled like a granary ; it is a 
power to be developed. — J. P. Wickeksham. 

The object of education is rather to form a per- 
fect character, than to qualify for any particular 
station or office. — A. Potter. 

■. The educator should not so much form and 
instill, as develop and call out. — Michaelis. 

The school is a manufactory of humanity. — 

CoMENIUS. 

III. Teacher and Pupil. 

Nature without instruction is blind; instruc- 
tion without nature is faulty ; practice without 
either of them is imperfect. — Plutarch. 

The fittest time for children to learn anything, 
is when their minds are in tune, and well-dispos- 
ed to it. — Locke. 

Let the tutor make his pupil examine and 
thoroughly sift every thing he reads, and lodge 
nothing in his head upon simple authority and 
upon trust. — Montaigne. 

Let the child learn what is appropriate for his 
years, and not precociously what he ought to 
learn afterwards. — Rousseau. 

To learn is to proceed from something that is 
known to the knowledge of something unknown. — 

Comenius. 

Perverseness in the pupil is often the effect of 
frowardness in the teacher. — Locke. 

The great skill of a teacher is to get and keep 
the attention of his scholar ; whilst he has that, 
he is sure to advance as fast as the learner's ability 
will carry him. — Locke. 



It is the teacher's character that determines the 
character of the school: not what he does so 
much as what he is. The maxim is a true one: 
As is the teacher, so is the school J. Cuereh. 

Teachers should observe the following rules:— 

1. Never to correct a child in anger. 

2. Never to deprive a chUd of anything 
without returning it. 

3. Never to break a promise. 
i. Never to overlook a fault. 

5. In all things, to set before the child an 
example worthy of imitation. — 'Welderspin. 

It matters not how learned the teacher's own 
mind may be, and how well replenished with 
ideas, and how widely soever he sees them, there 
is a power beyond this necessary, to produce 
copies of these ideas on the minds of others. — 

A. R. Craig. 

Those studies should be regarded as primary, 

that teach voting persons to know what they are 

seeing, and to see what they otherwise would fail 

to see. — J. S. Blackte. 

Long discourses and philosophical reasonings, 
at best, amaze and confound, but do not instruct 
children. — Locke. 

It is as important hum children learn, as what 
they learn. — Dr. Mayo. 

A skillful master who has a child placed under 
his care, will begin by sounding well the character 
of his genius and natural parts. — Qutntilian. 
Rules should not be set before examples.— 

Comenius. 
Actual intuition is better than demonstration. — 

Comenius. 
At first it is no great matter how much you 
learn, but how well you learn it— Erasmus. 

Study is the bane of childhood, the aliment of 
youth, the indulgence of manhood, and the 
list.. ration of age. — W. S. Landob, 

A teacher ought to know of every thing much 
more than the learner can be expected to acquire. 
He must know things in a masterly way, curious- 
ly, nicely, and in their reasons. — E. Everett. 

The teacher should create an interest in study. 
incite curiosity, promote inquiry, prompt investi- 
gation, inspire self-confidence, give hints, make 
suggestions, and tempt pupils on to try their 
strength and test their skill. — J. P. 'Wickeksham. 
There is frequently more to be learned from the 
unexpected questions of a child, than from the 
discourse of men who talk in a road, according 
to the notions they have borrowed, and the pre- 
judices of their education. — Locke. 

From every thing noble the mind receives 
seeds, which are vivified by admonition and in- 
struction, as a light breath kindles up the spark 
in the ashes. — Seneca. 

Curiosity in children is but an appetite after 
knowledge ; and, therefore, ought to be encouraged 
in them, not only as a sign, but as the great in- 
strument nature has provided to remove that 
ignorance they were born with. — Locke. 

Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exer- 
cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- 
cated to independent activity in the use of his 
own understanding. — Seneca. 

Ideas before words ; principles before rules ; 
the judgment before the memory ; incidental in- 
formation before systematic ; reading before 
spelling ; the sounds of the letters before their 
names ; and, on the whole, nature before art. — 

A. R. Craig. 



34 



APHORISMS 



The school should cautiously beware of making 
sacrifice to the arrogant requirements of the 
spirit of the age; which, when it takes a wroug 
direction, promotes nonsense, and desires to study 
by steam. — Stoy. 

Arouse in the child the all-powerful sense of 
the universe, and the man will raise himself above 
the world ; the eternal over the changeable. — 

Bichtee. 

The process of enlightening the mind should 
not be like lightning in the night, giving a 
strong light for a moment, but only blinding by 
it, and then leaving every thing dark again ; but 
like daybreak, which renders every thing gradu- 
ally light.— J. A. Fischer. 

Human perfection is the grand aim of all well- 
directed education : the teacher should have ever 
present with him his ideal man whose perfections 
he would realize in the children committed to 
his care, as the sculptor would realize the pure 
forms of his imagination on the rough marble that 
lies unchiseled before him. — J. P. Wickersham. 

IV. Training and Habit. 

Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
when he is old he will not depart from it. — 

Solomon. 

Training is developing according to an idea. — 

Schwarz. 

No teaching or lecturing will suffice without 
training or doing. — Stow. 

You cannot by all the lecturing in the world 
enable a man to make a shoe. — Dk. Johnson. 

Nature develops all the human faculties by 
practice, and their growth depends upon their 
exercise. — Pestalozzi. 

The intellect is perfected not by knowledge, 
but by activity. — Aristotle. 

The end of philosophy is not knowledge, but 
the energy conversant about knowledge. — Aris- 
totle. 

The great thing to be minded in education is, 
what habits you settle. — Locke. 

Infinite good comes from good habits ; which 
must result from the common influence of exam- 
ple, intercourse, knowledge, and actual experience: 
morality taught by good morals. — Plato. 

It is habit which gives men the real possession 
of the wisdom which they have acquired, and 
gives enduring strength in it. — Pythagoras. 

A man is not educated until he has the ability 
to summon, ou an emergency, his mental powers 
in vigorous exercise, to effect his proposed ob- 
ject. — D. Webster. 

The great result of schooling is a mind with 
just vision to discern, with free force to do ; the 
grand schoolmaster is Practice Carlyle. 

Habit is a power which it is not left to our op- 
tion to call into existence or not ; it is given to 
us to use or abuse, but we cannot prevent its 
working. — J. Currie. 

The mind, impressible and soft, with ease 
Imbibes and copies what she hears and seeB, 
And through life's labyrinth holds fast the clew 
That education gave her, false or true. — Cowpeb. 

V. Development of the Faoulties. 

All our knowledge originates with the senses, 
proceeds thence to the understanding, and ends 
with the reason, which is subordinate to no 
higher authority in us, in working up intuitions, 
and bringing them within the highest unity of 
thought. — Kant. 



The power of reflection, it is well known, is 
the last of our intellectual faculties that unfolds 
itself; and, in by far the greater number ot in- 
dividuals, it never unfolds itself in any consider- 
able degree.— D. Stewart. 

Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exer- 
cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- 
cated to independent activity in the use of his 
own understanding.— Niemeyee. 

The laws which govern the growth and opera- 
tions of the human mind are as definite, and as 
general in their application, as those which ap- 
ply to the material universe ; and a true system 
of education must be based upon a knowledge 
and application of these laws. — J. Henry. 

Knowledge begins with perception by the 
senses; and this is, by the power of conception, 
impressed upon the memory. Then the under- 
standing, by an induction from these single con- 
ceptions, forms general truths, or ideas ; and 
lastly, certain knowledge arises from the result of 
judgments upon what is thoroughly under- 
stood. — Comentus. 

The mind may be as much drawn into a habit 
of observation and reflection from a well-directed 
lesson on a pin, as from the science of astron- 
omy. — A. R. Craig. 

During early childhood enough is done if 
mental vivacity be maintained.— I. Taylor. 

The conceptive faculty is the earliest develop- 
ed, and the first to reach its maturity ; it more- 
over supplies materials and a basis for every 
other mental operation. — I. Taylor. 

VI. Language. 

Things and words should be studied together, 
but things especially, as being the object both of 
the understanding and of language.— Comenius. 

He who has no knowledge of things will not 
be helped by a knowledge of words. —Luther. 

The signs of thought are so intimately asso- 
ciated with thought itself, that the study of lan- 
guage, in its highest form, is the study of the 
processes of pure intellect. — E. Everett. 

Speech and knowledge should proceed with 
equal steps. — Comenius. 

We cannot express in words the thousandth 
part of what we actually think, but only a few 
points of the rapid stream of thought, irom the 
crests of its highest waves. — Zschokke. 

Language is the sheath in which is kept the 
sword of the mind ; the casket in which we pre- 
serve our jewel ; the vessel in which we secure 
our drink ; the store-house where we lay up our 
food. — Luther. 

Thinking is aided by language, and, to a great 
extent, is dependent upon it as its most efficient 
instrument and auxiliary. — N. Porter. 

VII. Self-Eduoation. 

The primary principle of education is the de- 
termination of the pupil to self-activity — the do- 
ing nothing for him which he is able to do for 
himself.— Sir W. Hamilton. 

The peculiar importance of the education of 
childhood lies in the consideration, that it pre- 
pares the way for the subsequent self-education 
of manhood. — J. Currte. 

Self-activity is the indispensable condition of 
improvement ; and education is only education — 
that is, accomplishes its purposes, only by afford- 
ing objects and supplying materials to this spon- 



APHORISMS 



APPARATUS 



35 



taneous exertion. Strictly speaking, every man 
must educate himself. —Sir W. Hamilton. 

The child learns more by his fourth year, than 
the philosopher at any subsequent period of his 
life; he learns to affix an intelligible sign to every 
outward objectand inward emotion.by a gentle im- 
pulse imparted by his lips to the air. — E. Eveeett. 

If all the means of education which are scatter- 
ed over the world, and if all the philosophers and 
teachers of ancient and modern times, were to be 
collected together, and made to bring their com- 
bined efforts to bear upon an individual, all they 
could do would bo to afford the opportunity of 
improvement. — Degeeando. 

VIII. Moral Education. 

The best-trained head along with a corrupt 
heart, is like a temple built over a den of rob- 
bers. — Tegner. 

Head and heart constitute together the being 
of mau, and he who is sound in one only is a 
cripple. — Stot. 

It holds as a rule iu mental as well as in moral 
education, that the learner should be habituated 
to what is right before he is exercised in judging 
what is wrong.— J. Cuekie. 

If you can get into children a love of credit, 
and an apprehension of shame and disgrace, you 
have put into them the true principle, which will 
constantly work, and incline them to the right. — 

Locke. 

Man may be said originally to be inclined to 
all vices ; for he has desires and instincts which 
influence him, although his reason impels him 
in an opposite direction. — Kant. 

In my opinion, the first lesson which should 
quicken the understanding of the young, should 
be intended to form their morals and their 
perceptions ; to teach them to kuow themselves, 
to live well and to die well. — Montaigne. 

Direct teaching on moral ideas and principles 
is an important part of instruction. —Hegel. 

Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and 
all blessings, and is nature's road to the pure 
education of man. — Pestalozzi 

He that will have his son have a respect for him 
and his orders, must have a great reverence for his 
son. "Maxima debetur pneris reverentia." — Locke. 

A properly conducted school is a sort of moral 
gymnasium, preparatory to the great straggle on 
the arena of life. — A. R. Ceaig. 

Morality is in infancy founded on the authority 
of the parent, acting with the support of habit and 
association; what he commands is law; the virtue 
of childhood is summed up in obedience. — Cueeie. 

In man, the ideal is older than the actual. The 
loftly lies nearer the child than the debased. We 
measure time by the stars, and reckon by the 
clock of the sun, before we do by the city clock. — 

Richtee. 

Love awakens love ; and a cold and heartless 
education usually produces a pupil of the same 
character. — J. A. Fischee. 

Children should live in their paradise, as did our 
first parents, those truly first children.— Rousseau. 

IX. Discipline and Government. 

Correct thy son, and he shall give thee rest ; 
yea, he shall give delight unto thy soul. — Solomon. 

He that spareth his rod hateth his son ; but he 
that loveth him chasteneth him betimes. — Solo- 
mon. 



No father inflicts his severest punishment, un- 
til he has tried all other means Seneca. 

A principal point in education is discipline, 
which is intended to break the self-will of chil- 
dren, in order to the rooting out of their natural 
low tendencies. — Hegel. 

There is one, and but one fault, for which 
children should be beaten ; and that is obstinacy 
or rebellion. — Locke. 

Beating is the worst, and, therefore, the last 
means to be used in the correction of children. — 

Locke. 

The shame of the whipping, and not the pain, 

should be the greatest part of the punishment. — 

Locke. 
No frighted water-fowl, whose plumage the 
bullet of the sportsman has just grazed, dives 
quicker beneath the surface, than a child's spirit 
darts from your e3'e when you have filled it with 
the sentiment of fear. — H. Mann. 

A school can be governed only by patient, en- 
lightened, Christian love, the master principle of 
our natures. It softens the ferocity of the savage; 
it melts the felon in his cell. In the management 
of children it is the great source of influence ; 
and the teacher of youth, though his mind be a 
store-house of knowledge, is ignorant of the first 
principle of his art, if he has not embraced this 
as an elemental maxim. — E. Everett. 

Angry feelings in a teacher beget angry feelings 
in a pupil ; and if they are repeated day after day, 
they will at last rise to obstinacy, to obduracy 
and ineorrigibleness. — H. Mann. 

The evil of corporal punishment is less than 
the evil of insubordination or disobedience. — 

H. Mann. 
It is the teacher's duty to establish authority ; 
peaceably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly if he 
must. — D. P. Page. 

There are usually easier avenues to the heart, 
than that which is found through the integuments 
of the body.— D. P. Page. 

Several collections of educational aphorisms 
may be found in Barnard's American Journal 
of Education (passim). — See also "Wohlfarth, 
Pedagogical Treasure- <'<i.<k-<i [Pddagogisches 
Schatekastlein, Gotha, 1?C>7), translated in Bar- 
nard's Journal; also the same, republished 
from Barnard's Journal, entitled Educational 
Aphorisms and Suggestions, Ancient mid 
Modern. 

APPARATUS, School.— The work of in- 
struction in school is very greatly facilitated by 
sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as 
blackboards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. 
This is especially required in the teaching of 
children in classes, as in common schools. By 
this means, the sense of sight being addressed, 
the impressions made are clearer and more du- 
rable. Besides, the concrete is made to take the 
place of the abstract, by the use of suitable ap- 
paratus ; and, in the first stages of education, the 
former is almost exclusively to be employed, since 
abstract principles or truths arc not compre- 
hended by the young mind, except upon a suffi- 
ciently extensive basis of concrete facts. Thus, 
by means of the numeral frame, the various rudi- 
mental combinations of numbers are presented 
to the mind of the young pupil, in conne. tion 



36 



APPARATUS 



with actual objects ; and in this manner a clear 
idea is given of those processes which, merely by 
abstract statements of the truths, would scarcely 
be apprehended at all. Of course, the teacher 
should be careful not to carry the use of such 
apparatus beyond its proper limits ; since the 
pupil's mind is gradually to be accustomed to 
conceive clearly the truth of abstract propositions 
without regard to their concrete applications. 

Every stage or grade of school instruction 
must have, its appropriate apparatus. Infant in- 
struction requires a great number and variety of 
simple apparatus {gifts) in order, by natural 
methods, to aid the development of the child's 
mind. (See Kindergarten.) The primary 
school should be supplied with a numeral frame, 
blackboards, slates, and pencils for the use of the 
children, a box of forms, spelling and reading 
charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, 
when elementary geography is taught, simple 
maps and a small globe. For this purpose, one 
that may be divided into hemispheres (Hand 
Hemisphere Globe) is best ; since by means of it 
the relation of the planisphere maps to the globe 
may be clearly shown. (See Globes.) A simple 
relief globe is also of great service at this stage. 
Other ingenious and attractive apparatus has 
been devised to aid the work of the primary 
school teacher, to which a special reference is not 
needed. In the more advanced stages of instruc- 
tion, the use of any other than the ordinary ap- 
paratus, such as the blackboard, maps, globes, etc., 
becomes less and less necessary, except in the 
teaching of certain special subjects ; as higher 
arithmetic, mensuration, astronomy, and other de- 
partments of natural science. For such pur- 
poses, the cube-root blocks and other geometrical 
solids, a tellurian, an orrery, etc., will be of great 
value. Charts of physiology, history, etc., are 
scarcely to be dispensed with. In the teaching 
of natural science, very expensive and compli- 
cated apparatus is not at first required Indeed, 
the simpler it is the better ; since the use of such 
appliances will incite the pupil himself to experi- 
ment with those simple contrivances which his 
own powers of invention will enable him to de- 
vise. Thus the use of the lever may be just as- 
well explained by means of a pen-holder or a 
pointer as by a polished steel rod specially con- 
structed for the purpose. Nothing marks' more 
fully the ability of the teacher than adroitness 
in availing himself of all common resources for 
the purpose of illustration. Some of the most 
important discoveries in physical science have 
been made with very rude apparatus. In the use 
of apparatus to illustrate scientific facts, as of 
the globe, tellurian, or orrery for the purpose of 
teaching astronomy, it should always be borne in 
mind that such contrivances cannot supersede the 
study of nature itself. Cumbrous and compli- 
cated machinery, without an attentive observation 
of the natural phenomena winch they are in- 
tended to explain, rather serve to give false 
notions than to impart correct ideas of the actual 
facts. The latter must be clearly grasped by the 
mind as facts before their illustration is attempted 



ARABIAN SCHOOLS 

by means of artificial contrivances. This depends 
upon an important principle which the teacher 
should be careful to recognize and apply. (See 
Blackboard and Numeral Frame.) 

APPORTIONMENT. See School Fund. 

ARABIAN SCHOOLS. The peninsula of 
Arabia, situated between the Bed Sea and the 
Persian Gulf, has an area of 1,218,798 square 
miles, and a population estimated at 5,000,000. 
Of late, the Arabs have been of but little account 
in the annals of education as well as in political 
history. In former centuries, on the other hand, 
they occupied, for a considerable time, a promi- 
nent position. Arabia was the birthplace of 
Islamism, which, in its doctrinal and ethical 
pecidiarities, bears the most evident marks of the 
people among whom, and the country in which, 
it originated. "With the rapid spread of this 
religion, the Arabs became a powerful people, 
extending their political ride far beyond their 
original borders. Large empires were founded 
in Asia, Africa, and Europe; and science and the 
arts kept pace in their development with the in- 
crease of political power. The Arabian schools 
of the caliphate, and, later, those founded by the 
Moors, in Spain, not only attained a world- 
wide reputation, but, for a time, were generally 
recognized as eclipsing all other literary institu- 
tions. The prosperity of these schools began 
during the rule of the dynasty of the Ommiyades. 
These monarchs transferred their residence to 
Damascus, the capital of Syria, which at that 
time was a chief seat of Greek literature, appoints 
ed many Greeks and Syrians as surveyors, archi- 
tects, and physicians ; and brought the Arabian 
mind into contact with the civilization of the 
Greeks and the Syrians. The dynasty of the Ab- 
bassides, which succeeded that of the Ommiyades 
in 750, were still more instrumental in the pro- 
motion of science and literature among the 
Arabs. A large number of Greek authors were 
translated into Arabic ; and in medical literature 
the Arabs became so proficient, that through the 
middle ages they were regarded as the highest 
authorities. Soon the Arabian schools were also 
regarded as superior to all others in mathematics 
and astronomy. A translation of Aristotle had 
a far reaching influence upon the further develop- 
ment of the Arabian mind. The teachings of Aris- 
totle not only became the basis of Arabic philos- 
ophy, but through the influence of the Arabian 
schools, the study of this great Greek philosopher 
became popular among the Jews in Spain and, 
subsequently, generally among the Jews and 
Christians of Europe. The highest prosperity 
was attained by the Arabian Schools in Spain. 
In the high schools of Cordova, Toledo, Sala- 
manca, and Seville, nearly all branches of human 
knowledge, Mohammedan theology and law, 
mathematics, astronomy, history and geography, 
grammar and rhetoric, medicine and philosophy, 
were taught. In these schools, Jewish, Moham- 
medan, and Christian teachers worked harmoni- 
ously together. The students lived in colleges, and, 
from time to time, had to pass examinations. The 
teachers sometimes employed substitutes. In the 



ARC1UKOL0GY 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 



3T 



lower schools.- which were mostly connected with 
mosques, the pupils often received their clothing 
unci board gratuitously. The fume of the Arabian 
schools in Spain attracted students from all parts 
of < 'hristian Kurope, who were anxious to acquaint 
themselves with the (ireek ami Arabic literature 
ami the Aristotelian philosophy. Among the 
many celebrated men who studied there, was the 
learned Herbert, who became pope under the 
name of Sylvester II. Among the results which 
these stu lents brought with them from the 
Arabian shools. were the Arabic numbers, now 
in general use in the civilized world. At the 
close of the loth century, the Arabian schools in 
Spain began to decline, an 1 the downfall of the 
caliphate of Bagdad, in 1258, extinguished the 
fame of their Asiatic schools. 

In Arabia, at present, there is little education 
deserving the name. Among the Bedouins, 
there are no schools, and those that exist in the 
towns and villages are only of a very elementary 
character, generally connected with the mosques, 
ami giving instruction in reading, particularly of ! 
the Koran, writing, and the rudiments of arith- 
metic. In the schools connected with the mosques, : 
which are public schools, the poorer children are 
taught gratuitously: but besides these schools, 
there are private seminaries for the instruction 
of children of the higher and middle classes. A 
private teacher for children and young slaves is 
no uncommon part of the domestic establish- 
ments of distinguished families. There is no 
public provision for the education of women. In j 
some of the larger towns and cities, there are 
colleges anil professional schools, in which mathe- 
matics, astronomy, medicine, etc., are taught, j 
One of the chief studies is that of the Arabic, to | 
enable the scholars to read the Koran and the 
commentaries upon it, of which there are several; 
since these are written in a dialect differing in 
some respects from that now in general use. — 
See Schmidt, Greschichte der Padagogik, vol. n. 

ARCHEOLOGY (from apxaloc, ancient,} 
and >io;o.. knowledge, science) denotes properly 
thescience of antiquities. In the widest sense of the 
word, it would embrace the history, mythology, 
political institutions, religion, commerce, industry, 
literature, and fine arts of ancient times, but it is 
now more generally used in a restricted sense. 
Sums writers, especially in America, apply it to 
the researches into the primeval period of man, 
and, in particular, into the history, customs, and 
remains of the primitive inhabitants of a coun- 
try. Thus the Indians in the United States and 
the Celts in Creat Britain, have become the sub- 
jects of profound archaeological research. — In 
Germany the term is now more frequently used 
to denote the science of the monuments which are 
left to us from ancient times, and especially from 
(ireek, Etruscan, and Latin antiquity. As the 
ancient monuments contain a vast amount of in- 
formation, not to be derived from classical litera- 
ture, archaeology is regarded as an important 
auxiliary to the science of classical philology. 
The founder of archaeology as a special science 
was Winckelmum ; and the most famous work 



on that subject is the Handbuch der Archceologie 
by K. « >. Mueller (3d edit., by Welcker, Brea- 
lau. 1846). An English work on the subject is 
Westropf's Handbook of Archaeology (Lond., 
LS69). Biblical archaeology and ecclesiastical or 
< 'hristian archaeology, are branches of theology. 
The former treats of the ancient geography, 
physical condition, and ethnography, and the 
general antiquities of Palestine and the adjacent 
countries; the latter, of the antiquities of the 
I 'hristian < 'hurch, and chiefly of the early his- 
tory of ( 'hristian worship. Works on biblical 
archaeology have been written by De Wktte, 
Siiiiii.z,.) aiin. Rosenmueller, Kkii,, and others; 
on Christian archaeology, by Bingham, Pellicia, 

AUGUSTI, BlNTERIM, PiHEINWALD, OtTE, IIf.XRY 

(Philadelphia, 1837), Riodle (2d edit., Lond., 
1843), Colemah, [Ancient Christianity exempli- 
fied, Philadelphia, ]8f>.'{). At many of the 
European universities and theological schools, 
special courses of lectures on classical, biblical, or 
Christian archaeology are provided for. 

ARCHITECTURE. See Fine Arts. 

ARCHITECTURE, School. See School 
House. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independ- 
ent state of South America, area S41 .bill) sq. m., 
or, if we add the territory which is claimed by 
both the Argentine Republic and Chili. L.000,000 
sq. in.; population, according to the census of 
L869, 1,879,410. The republic is growing rap- 
idly, the increase of population from 1836 to 
18(1!) amounting to 146 per cent. Since L863, 
immigration has begun to assume large propor- 
tions. While, from 1863 to lHliti. it averaged 
annually little more than 10,000, it reached, in 
1870 and the following years, 40,000. The for- 
eign element is especially large in the city ami 
province of Buenos Ayres, and a considerable 
number of prominent positions in the literary 
institutions of the country are occupied by for- 
eigners. Almost the whole native population 
belongs to the Roman Catholic Church; but the 
immigrants from the United States. Great Brit- 
ain, Germany, and Switzerland have established 
a number of Protestant congregations anil 
schools. To these a few native congregations 
have been added by the -Methodist missionaries 
from the United States. There is a marked 
difference between the population of the towns, 
and that of the country. The former are gener- 
ally civilized, and take a profound interest in 
education ; but the gaucllOS, or the horsemen of 
the plain, think but little of education and civili- 
zation . 

The territory of the Argentine Republic, after 
being occupied by the Spaniards, formed a part 
of the Viceroyalty of Peru till 177(1, when the 
Viceroyalty of La Plata was erected. The war 
of independence against Spain began in 1810, 
and was successfully ended in 1812. In 1813, a 
Sovereign Assembly was convoked ; and in 1817, 
the independence of the L T nited Provinces of 
La 1 'lata was formally declared. Like the other 
republics of Spanish America, the country suf- 
fered much from civil wars. From 1852 to I860, 



38 



ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 



Buenos Ayres was separated from the confedera- 
tion of the other provinces, and formed an in- 
dependent commonwealth. More recently, the 
progress of the country has been greater and more 
rapid than that of most of the other South 
American republics. 

As early as 1605, the Jesuits established the 
university of Cordova, which soon became the 
literary center of all the territory lying in the 
basin of the La Plata river. Of course, instruc- 
tion during the 17th and 18th centuries was 
entirely in the hands of the clergy, especially the 
Jesuits ; and very little was done in the way of 
primary instruction. After the expulsion of the 
Jesuits, in 1707, the university passed into the 
hands of the Franciscans and greatly declined. 
Though, after the establishment of national inde- 
pendence, there were not wanting those who fully 
appreciated the importance of education, and 
sought to devise plans for its future development, 
the progress at first was very slow. The active 
progress of education dates from the adoption of 
the constitution of Sept. 1860, which still rules 
the country. Among the first provisions, is one 
for securing primary education in every province 
of the republic, making this an essential obliga- 
tion. To the general government was given the 
power to dictate plans of general and university 
education ; and a special ministerial department 
of public instruction was created. Such, how- 
ever, was the indifference of the people, that the 
government, in order to carry out its plans of sec- 
ondary education, was compelled not only to 
offer instruction, books, and all other necessaries 
free, but also to pay the pupils for the trouble 
of attending school and studying their lessons. 
The National College of Buenos Ayres was 
founded shortly after the adoption of the present 
constitution. Scholarships, under the name of 
cecas, were established, giving to the student a 
monthly allowance of from ten to fifteen dollars 
in gold. About the same time, three other pro- 
vincial institutions, the College of the Uruguay 
in the province of Entre Rios, and the College 
and the University of Cordova, were nationalized 
and placed upon a similar basis. Up to 1 868, 
there were established five other similar institu- 
tions in the provinces of Tucuman, Salta, Cata- 
marca, San Juan, and Mendoza ; and, in 1868, 
five others were added in San Luis, La Rioja, 
Jujuy, Santiago, and Corrientes. In 1872, there 
were thirteen colleges, with 3697 students and 
162 professor's. The colleges are visited by an 
inspector of national colleges, who is himself a 
government employe. 

In 1865, the national government took its 
first step in favor of primary instruction, distrib- 
uting $22,000 in gold among the various pro- 
vinces, for the purpose of promoting a popular 
movement in this direction. In 1866 and 1867, 
the same amount was voted by the national con- 
gress for this purpose. In August 1868, began 
the administration of President Sarmiento, who 
has done more for the promotion of education 
than any other statesman of South America. The 
progress made since then is wonderful. The 



ARISTOTLE 

new minister of public instruction, Dr. Nicolas 
Avellaneda, in his first report to the congress 
(1869), earnestly advocated sweeping reforms; 
and the work of carrying out these reforms was 
begun energetically. For the year 1 869, $1 15,000 
was voted for the purpose of encouraging pri- 
mary instruction; for 1870, $95,0(10, and for 187L 
$215,000. In 1871, a law was also passed, crea- 
ting a special and independent fund for the pur- 
poses of primary instruction, distributing the 
proceeds among the various provinces in propor- 
tion to the efforts which they themselves might 
make. This law took effect in January 1873. 
In 1872, primary instruction was given in 1088 
public and 566 private schools. The children of 
school age (6 to 15) numbered 468,987, while 
the number of those attending schools was 
97,549. The number of teachers was, male 
1558, female 1408. The expenditure for primary 
instruction in the same year was $1,564,350. In 
August 1871, the first national normal school 
was established at Parana. It had, in 1872, 285 
students and 6 professors. The first principal 
of the school was Dr. Geo. A. Stearns. — The 
only national university, at Cordova, was reor- 
ganized, in 1870, by President Sarmiento, who 
established a number of new chairs, and called 
from Germany professors of chemistry, physics, 
and botany, and from the United States a distin- 
guished professor of astronomy. In 1872, the 
university numbered 14 professors and 103 stu- 
dents, 'the university of Buenos Ayres is a 
provincial institution. It was organized in 1822 
by Rivadavia. and was, at first, only a law school; 
but. owing to the zeal of its rector, Dr. Juan 
Maria Gutierrez, chairs of mathematics, experi- 
mental physics, and chemistry were soon after- 
wards added. Its course of instruction resembles 
that of French institutions ; the museum has 
been for many years under the direction of the 
distinguished German naturalist, Dr. Burmeister. 
— See Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
tion for 1872 and 1873 ; Le Roy, in Schmid's 
Encyclop., art. Sridamerica ; Burmeister, in 
Petermann, Die siidamerikanischen Republiken. 
Argentina, Chile, Paraguay und Uruguay in 
1875 (Gotha, 1875). 

ARISTOTLE, one of the most illustrious 
teachers and philosophers of either ancient or 
modern times, was born in 384 B. C. at Stagira, 
a Greek colony of Macedonia, near the mouth 
of the Strymon. From his birthplace he is 
often called " the Stagirite." His father, Nicom- 
achus, was a distinguished physician and friend 
of the Macedonian king Amyntas II.; and from 
him Aristotle received the first instruction. Hav- 
ing lost his parents, he went at the age of seven-* 
teen to Athens, where he was for twenty years a 
pupil of Plato. His great teacher used to call him, 
on account of his restless study and his thirst for 
knowledge, the philosopher of truth and the in- 
tellect of his school. Subsequently, however, an 
estrangement arose between them", owing chiefly 
to the radical differences in their philosophical 
and educational systems. While Plato was a 
thorough idealist, Aristotle was just as fully a 



ARISTOTLE 



39 



realist and the father of experimental science. 
About 343 B. ( '., Aristotle was appointed by king 
Philip of Macedon teacher of his son Alexan- 
der, at that time thirteen years old. The history 
of Alexander, who intellectually was no less prom- 
inent among the kings of the ancient world 
than as a conqueror, testifies to the success of 
Aristotle as a practical teacher. For a long time, 
Alexander was anxious to show his gratitude to 
his preceptor ; and after the conquest of Persia, 
he presented him with eight hundred talents, or 
nearly a million of dollars. Later, however, the 
friendly relations between Alexander and Aris- 
totle greatly suffered from the vicious habits of 
the former. After completing the education of 
Alexander, Aristotle returned to Athens (in 335, 
or according toothers in 331, I!. 0.) and taught 
philosophy in the Lyceum, a gymnasium near the 
city. In the morning, he instruct d the advanced 
scholars in lectures acroamatic or esoteric; in the 
evening, he gave popular or exoteric lectures to 
larger circles of hearers. From the shady walks 
(- Hiram) around the Lyceum, in which he 
walked up and down while delivering his lectures, 
his school was called the peripatetic. After 
having taught in this way for thirteen years, and 
composed most of his immortal works on philos- 
ophy and natural science, he was accused by 
Hemophilus, a prominent citizen of Athens, of 
impiety, because in a poem he had attributed di- 
vine honors to his friend llermias. He. therefore, 
fled to Chaluis in Euboea, where he died, in 322, 
B. C, of a chronic disease of the stomach. 

Aristotle's method of teaching was essentially 
analytic. Proceeding from the concrete lie tried 
to derive general ideas from a number of ob- 
served facts and phenomena ; and his entire phi- 
losophy is based on the principle that all our 
knowledge must be founded on the observation of 
facts. Pedagogy, according to Aristotle, must be 
founded on principles derived from the knowl- 
edge of man. The highest goal of all human 
activity is evSai/iovia, happiness, both for the in- 
dividual and for the state. This ivdaifiov a is 
based on virtue, which is acquired by the perform- 
ance of moral actions. As man is a social being, 
destined to live in society, the development of 
virtue in general is dependent upon political 
life. The object of the state is to establish the 
complete happiness of families and communities, 
and the preservation of the state depends on an 
educational system conformable to the laws and 
constitution. The same education will not pro- 
duce the same virtues in different persons; for 
the formation of character in each person is de- 
pendent on three different things. — nature, habit. 
and instruction. It must be the aim of habit 
and instruction to develop the peculiar faculties 
which nature has implanted in each individual. 
In the education of a child, as it is of the great- 
est importance that its body be, from its birth, as 
perfect as possible, care should be taken that the 
parents be suitably matched, and that women 
during their pregnancy receive substantial fi «L 
and be preserved as much as possible from men- 
tal agitation. I 'hildren who at their birth arc- 



crippled should not be brought up at all. Until 
the fifth year of age, children should not be oc- 
cupied in hard labor ; on the other hand, how- 
ever, they should not remain inactive, but have 
suitable exercises in plays adapted to their age. 
During this time, as well as during the two fol- 
lowing years, education by means of habit takes 
place, as children observe w hat they subsequently 
have themselves to perform. Education by means 
of instruction begins in the 7th year of age and 
lasts to the 21st. This tin a' is divided into two 
periods, the one extending from the 7th year to the 
age of puberty (about the 14th year), the other from 
the 14th to the 21st. Education by habit during 
this period continues, but the chief work is done 
by instruction. As a general principle, it must 
be observed, that a state can only exist if children 
are educated in accordance with the existing con- 
stitution: in democratic commonwealths, in which 
all in turn may rule or be ruled, it is, therefore, 
of importance that boys should be taught obe- 
dience, for only those who have learned how to 
obey will be able to rule. In regard to the 
subjects in which instruction should be given, 
three classes should be distinguished, (I) that 
which is necessary and useful for life, (2) that 
which leads to ethical virtue, and (3) that which, 
going beyond these serves, the highest or theoreti- 
cal aims. In things pertaining to the ordinary 
occupations of life, the young arc to be instructed 
only so far as such occupations are becoming to a 
free man. Every mechanical work, every kind of 
servile or menial labor, and especially every 
thing that might injure the body, is to be avoided. 
'I he fine arts should be practiced withaviewto 
general culture ; but no special excellence should 
be aimed at. In regard to ethical virtues, 
children must especially be taught to be consider- 
ate anil temperate, in order that the exertions 
necessary to attain self-control may lose their 
original unpleasantness by means of habit. Fi- 
nally, there are for ethical as wi 11 as theoretical 
education . certain instructional means, namely 
reading and writing gymnastics, music, including 
rhythmics and poetry, and occasionally also draw- 
ing. The first and the last of these serve also 
for the necessities of life; and care should, there- 
fore, be taken that the supreme aim of a noble 
education be not infringed upon. The instruction 
in drawing, therefore, should be given in such a 
way as to enable the youthful mind to under- 
stand and criticise the works of plastic art. 
Gymnastics educate the youth in manliness, 
and give to the body health and beauty. That 
which is properly athletic, and especially every 
thing that leads to rudeness anil ferocity, should 
be avoided, a point of view which the Spartans, 
in their otherwise excellent educational system, 
somewhat lost sight of. Before the age of pu- 
berty.onlv easy exercises should be practiced. and 
all violent exertions that might impede natural 
growth, should be avoided. After attaining the 
age of puberty, boys may devote three years to 
other branches of instruction ; then more diffi- 
cult exertions and privations may be practiced; 
and during this time mental occupations should 



40 



ARITHMETIC 



receive less attention; for the activity of the mind j 
is impeded by the exertions of the body, and the 
activity of the body by the exertions of the mind. 
Musical education deserves special attention on 
account of its ethical influence. Music more than 
any other art, is the art of imitation, and reflects 
in the soul of the hearer, in a maimer both at- 
tractive and instructive, the various affections 
and emotions of the mind. The Doric melody is 
specially recommended, as keeping the right 
mean between passionate excitement and woman- 
ish weakness. The last class of subjects to be 
taught in the instruction of youth, are those 
which serve for theoretical purposes, or for the 
acquisition of the so-called dianoetical virtues, 
which are only to be found in the more intelligent 
class of men. These subjects are the pure sciences, 
as mathematics, dialectics, and philosophy. The 
highest of all practical sciences, political econ- 
omy, is not a fit subject for the young, as they 
are too inexperienced in the actions of life on 
which political science is based. — Like the edu- 
cational theories of Plato and other Greeks, the 
theories of Aristotle almost exclusively refer to 
free-born youth. But little attention is paid to 
the education of the female sex and the working 
classes; and still less is given to the education 
of slaves. Aristotle recommended, however, that 
the moral and intellectual improvement of the 
slaves should be cared for. 

Among the works of Aristotle still extant, the 
Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics contain his 
views on education. On the educational system 
of Aristotle, see Schmidt, Geschichte der Pdda- 
gogih, vol. i ; and Onckbn, Die Staatslehre des 
Aristoteles, 2 vols., 1870 — 1875. — See also Ari- 
stotelis Ethica Nicomachea, edited by J. B. T. 
Rogers, (Lond., 1874); and the same, translated 
by R. Williams, (Lond., 1874); Tlie Politics 
(Greek text, with English notes), by Richard 
Congreve, (Lond., 1874); The Ethics with Es- 
says and Notes, by Sir A. Grant, (Lond., 1874); 
Grote, Aristotle (Lond., 1872.) 

ARITHMETIC (Gr. apittur/riKi'/ from ainHuuc, 
number) , the science of numbers. This subject oc- 
cupies a prominent place in the curriculum of all 
elementary schools, both primary and grammar, as 
well from its educational or disciplinary, as its 
practical value. On a fair estimate, not less than 
one-fourth of the pupil's time, for the first eight 
or ten years of his school life, is given to the study 
of this subject; but the results are too often 
quite inadequate to this large expenditure of 
time, the most that can generally be claimed 
being a tolerable familiarity with the processes 
of the fundamental rules, common fractions, and 
denominate numbers, with a very imperfect 
knowledge even of the processes of decimal frac- 
tions, proportion, evolution, and the business 
rides of arithmetic. Any such knowledge of the 
subject as enables the student to give a clear ex- 
position of the reasons for the various processes, 
or as is required to render him trustworthy in 
ordinary business computations, is far from be- 
ing the usual attainment. This arises, in part at 
least, from a fundamental error in the general 



treatment of this branch of instruction. — the dis- 
sociation, to a great extent, of mental from writ- 
ten arithmetic ; whereas they should be so com- 
bined as to constitute only different exercises of 
the same subject. Quite within the memory of 
some of our living educators, the text-books of 
arithmetic generally in use were simply single 
books of definitions, rides, and examples. Such 
were ( tetrauder's. Pike's, Dabol's, etc. These were 
suceeeded by two classes of text-books, — one, 
called Mental Arithmetics, of which Colburn's is 
a type ; and the other, such as presented an at 
tempt to explain the reasons of the processes in- 
volved in the different rules. Of the latter, 
Adams's New Arithmetic affords a fair example. 
Following these two lines, the science has been 
practically divided into two ; and so diverse are 
these in their methods, that a pupil may be quite 
expert in one, and almost entirely ignorant of 
the other. If, in addition to this, the fact is con- 
sidered that the text-books in the course have 
been multiplied until there are now two books, 
in mental arithmetic, and three in written, in 
several of the series in general use, the rea- 
son for the length of time consumed on this sub- 
ject in our public schools will be obvious. But 
there is still another cause which operates with 
considerable force ; that is. the cumbering of our 
textbooks with so many subjects that are utterly 
useless to the student. No branch of business re- 
quires a knowledge of greatest common divisor, 
li-nsl common multiple, circulating decimals, or 
duodecimals. It is indeed important that a 
pupil should know how to reduce a fraction to 
its lowest terms ; but no ordinary case requires 
a knowledge of the process for finding the g. c. 
(1., nor are we accustomed to use it. For the 
process itself we have no use until we reach 
higher algebra, and the demonstration of the 
process is quite too intricate for the ordinary 
pupil in elementary arithmetic. Again, no one 
uses the processes of alligation alternate; and but 
few indeed of the great mass of our school chil- 
dren can comprehend the conditions which give 
rise to much of our business arithmetic. It is 
not intimated that such problems as those which 
arise in stocks, arbitration of exchange, general 
average, etc., should not have a place in an arith- 
metical course, but only that they do not belong 
in the course for the masses. There are other 
topics, more elementary and more generally use- 
ful, to which the time of these should be given. 
And lastly, on this topic, of what conceivable 
use are many of the examples which occupy so 
much space in our books, and so much time in 
the course ? Take the following as specimens : 

1 bought a hat, coat, and vest, for $34; the hat cost 
| of the price of the coat, and the vest | of the price 
of the hat : what was the cost of each? 

One-half of A's money = § of B's ; and the interest 
of | of A's and £ of B's money, at 4 per cent for 
2 yr. 3 mon. is $18: how much has each? 

A and B have the same income ; A saves \ of his; 
but B, by spending $30 per annum more than A, at 
the end of 8 years finds himself $40 in debt ; what 
is their income, and what does each spend per annum? 

But it is said by some that these things are 
necessary as mental gymnastics. However ap- 



ARITHMETIC 



41 



plieable the principle involved in this may be. 
in education there is really no need of it. If the 
demands of actual life are so meager, that we 
must make a large part of our discipline in 
arithmetic consist in unraveling such manufact- 
ured puzzles, is it not well to ask the question 
whether there are not other branches of science 
which will afford the needed discipline by deal- 
ing with the actual and useful, instead of wasting 
time and strength on the purely fictitious? The 
arithmetics of to-day. however, are a great ad- 
vance, in this respect, on those in use fifty years 
ago ; but no editor of a text-book on arithmetic 
has yet felt at liberty to cut out entirely these 
superfluous problems. Undoubtedly, the demands 
of science and of business life furnish abundant 
resources in this direction ; but these more ab- 
struse problems do not fall within the purview 
of an elementary course, nor come within the 
demands which actual life makes upon the great 
majority of persons. There are a great number 
and variety of intricate questions which do act- 
ually arise in discounting negotiable paper, as 
well as in the abstruse questions which insurance 
and annuities present ; but it is not the aim of 
our elementary courses to train pupils for such 
specialties ; and when in any properly co-ordin- 
ated course of study such topics are reached, 
their solution will then come in the regular line 
of the application of general principles, and the 
Student will have acquired sufficient maturity to 
comprehend the busin as, economical, or political 
relations which give rise to them. 

What should constitute the course in arith- 
metic. — In the first place, there should be a thor- 
ough unification of the processes of mental ami 
written arithmetic. There is but one science of 
arithmetic: and every thing that tends to pro- 
duce the impression in tha pupil's mind that there 
are two species, the one intellectual and the other 
mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress. 
What is valuable in the methods now peculiar to 
mental arithmetic, needs to be thoroughly in- 
corporated with what is practically convenient 
or necessary in written arithmetic ; so that the 
whole may be made perfectly homogeneous. The 
basis upon which this is to be effected is, that 
principles should be discussed first by the use of 
small numbers which can be easily held in the 
mind, and which do not render the difficulty or 
labor of combination so great as to absorb the 
attention, or divert it from the line of thought: 
and that we should pass gradually, in applying 
the reasoning, to larger numbers and more difficult 
an 1 complex combinations, in which pencil and 
paper are necessary. The rationale should be al- 
ways the same in the mental (properly, oral) arith- 
metic anil in the written, pencil and paper being 
used only when the numbers become too large. < ir 
the elements too numerous, to render it practi- 
cable to hold the whole in the mind. For example, 
suppose the pupil to be entering upon the sub- 
ject of percentage. The first step is to teach 
what is meant by per cent. In order to this, 
small numbers will be used, and the process will 
not require pencil and paper, nor will such num- 



bers be selected at first, as will cause difficulty 
in effecting the combinations. Thus, the first 
questions may be. " Mr. A had 300 sheep and 
lost 5 out of each hundred; how many did he 
lose?" " What phrase may we use instead of ' 5 
out of each hundred ?' " " Mr. H hail an or- 
chard of 4011 peach-trees and lost fi per cent of 
them: how many did he lose?" " What phrase 
may we use instead of ' (i per cent V " To as- 
sign as the first example, one like the following 
would be a gross violation of this principle: 
•' Mr. A put out $759, on 7 per cent interest ; 
what was the interest for a year?" After the 
principle to be taught is clearly seen, larger 
numbers should be introduced, and such as re- 
quire that the work be written. But the same 
style of explanation should be preserved ; and 
great care should lie taken to have it seen that 
the method of reasoning is the same in all cases. 
To illustrate still farther : as, in practice, the 
computer ordinarily uses the rati- as the multiplier, 
the form of explanation, when the whole is given 
orally, should be adapted tu this fact. At first, 
such an example as the first above will naturally 
be solved thus: "If Mr. A lost 5 sheep out of 
Kill, out of .'! hundred he lost .'! times 5, or 15 
sfieep." But before leaving such simple illustra- 
tions, the reasoning should take this form: "Since 
losing 1 out of 100 is losing .(II of the number, 
losing 5 out of 100 is losing .05 of the number. 
Hence; Mr. A lost .05 of 300 sheep, which is 
1") sheep." Thus, in all cases, the form of thought 
which will ordinarily be required in solving 
the problem, should be that taught in the intro- 
ductory analysis. A farther illustration of this 
is furnished by reduction. At first, the question, 
•• How many ounces in 5 lb.?" will naturally be 
answered. " Since there are 16 oz. in 1 lb., in 5 
lb. there are 5 times Hi oz., or HO oz." But in 
practice the lfi is ordinarily used as the multi- 
plier, and it is better that the introductory 
(mental) analysis should conform to this fact. 
Hence, the pupil should lie led to see, at the 
outset, that, as every pound is composed of Hi 
ounces, in any given weight there are 1 >'< times as 
many ounces as pounds ; and he should lie re- 
quired to analyze accordingly. Apart from this 
use of what are called mental processes, there is no 
proper well-defined sphere for their employment. 
In practical applications, it is quite unphilos- 
ophical to classify the examples, by calling some 
mental and others written. We do not find them 
. so labeled in actual business life. The pupil 
! needs to discriminate for himself as to whether 
any particular example should be solved without 
the pencil or with it. It should also be borne 
in mind that business men rely very little upon 
these mental operations. They use the pen 
and paper for almost every computation. In 
the second place, in constructing our course in 
arithmetic, we need to give the most careful 
attention to the condition and wants of the 
youth found in our public schools. Perhaps it 
is no exaggeration to say, that from eighty to 
ninety per cent of the pupils disappear from 
these schools by the close of the seventh school 



42 



ARITHMETIC 



year ; and not more than one in one hundred | 
takes a high school course, Since all pupils of 
I la' common schools have need of the rudiments , 
of number, as counting, reading and writing 
small numbers, the simple combinations cm- 
braced in the addition, subtraction, multiplica-\ 
lion, and division tables, the simpler forms of 
fraction.*, and the more common denominations 
of compound numbers, an elementary text-book 
is deemed to be needful for many schools. The 
objections often urged to having these primary ( 
lessons entirely oral are, that it makes an un- j 
necessary draft upon the time and energy of the j 
teacher, renders the pupils' progress very slow, j 
does not so readily supply the means of giving j 
them work to do in their seats, and more than 
all, begets in their minds a dislike for study and 
self-exertion, and a disposition to expect that 
the teacher must do all the work, and thus 
carry them along. But whatever disposition may 
be made of primary arithmetic, as usually un- 
derstood, there is an imperative demand that the 
course in arithmetic for the masses should be so 
arranged that the more important practical sub- 
jects can be reached and mastered by a majority 
of our youth during the comparatively short time 
winch they can spend in our schools. In order 
to effect this, three things will be found necessary: 
(1) a rigorous exclusion of all topics relatively 
unimportant, (2) a judicious limitation of the 
topics presented, and (3) care that, in the laudable 
desire to secure facility in fundamental processes, 
— adding, multiplying, etc., the teacher does not 
consume so much time that the great mass of 
the pupils will never advance beyond the merest 
rudiments of the subject. The range of topics 
to be included in the common school course, 
will be the fundamental rules; common and 
•decimal fractions; denominate numbers (care 
being taken to reject all obsolete or unusual 
denominations, and to give abundant exercises 
calculated to insure a definite conception of 
the meaning of the denominations); percentage, 
including simple, annual, and compound interest, 
with partial payments, common, and bank dis- 
count, and some of the more common uses of 
percentage. If, after this, the course may be ex- 
tended, the next subjects in importance are ratio, 
proportion, and the square and cube roots. Much 
more than this cannot be embraced in a course 
which the masses of our youth are able to master; 
and in treating these, constant care will be neces- 
sary to introduce problems which occur in actual 
life, and as far as possible to exclude all others. 
Something of common mensuration should be 
introduced in connection with the tables of mea- 
sures of extension; and the more common prob- 
lems in commission, insurance, taxes, stocks, etc.. 
will be readily introduced in percentage without 
occupying either much space or time. 

For the few who can take a more extended 
course, a thoroughly scientific treatment of the 
subject of arithmetic is desirable; and this quite 
as much for its disciplinary effect, in giving 
breadth and scope to the conceptions, and in- 
ducing a disposition to systematize and gener- 



alize, and thus to view truth in its relations, 
as for the amount of mere arithmetical knowl- 
edge which may be added to the pupil's stock. 
Mere we may introduce an analytical outline of 
the subject, presenting the topics in their philo- 
sophical relations, rather than in their mere prac- 
tical and economic order and connection. Thus, 
in treating notation, the various forms of nota- 
tion can be introduced, as of simple and com- 
pound numbers, other scales than the decimal, 
various forms of fractional notation, the elements 
of the literal notation, etc. Then, as reduction 
is but changing the form of notation, this topic 
will come next, and will embrace all the forms of 
reduction found in common arithmetic, as from 
one scale to another, of denominate numbers, of 
fractions common and decimal, etc., showing how 
all arithmetical reductions are based on the one 
simple principle : If the unit in reference to 
which the number is to be expressed is made 
smaller, the number must be multiplied, and if 
the unit of expression is made larger, the num- 
ber must be divided. Passing to the combina- 
tions of number, under addition all processes 
thus designated in arithmetic will be treated, and 
the general principles out of which they all grow 
will be developed, in this method of treatment, the 
pupil will not find himself merely going over the 
elementary subjects through which he plodded in 
the days of his childhood.but new ranges of thought 
will be presented, at the same time that all the 
principles and processes of the elementary arith- 
metic are reviewed ; the very first sections, even 
those on notation, reduction, and the fundamen- 
tal rules, bringing into requisition most of his 
knowledge of arithmetic, and giving vigorous ex- 
ercise to his mind in grasping new truth. But 
in addition to all this, wdiich pertains to the 
method of presentation, there will be much of 
practical arithmetical knowledge to be gained. 
In the business rules, discount needs a much ful- 
ler treatment than it has usually received in any 
of our textbooks. Many problems, of frequent 
occurrence in modern business circles, are not pro- 
vided for in these books ; and, in fact, some of the 
most common have had no solution at all which 
has been made public. The wonderful develop- 
ment of the insurance business demands that its 
principles and methods receive a much fuller 
treatment than they can have in an elementary 
course: this is especially true of life insurance. 
Foreign exchange, customs, equation of pay- 
ments, etc., are other topics suitable for this ad- 
vanced course, wdiich are quite impracticable in 
an elementary course within the reach of the 
masses. Two other ends will be subserved by 
this method : (1) It will be a leading purpose to 
teach the pupil how to investigate, and to this end 
he should be put in possession of the great in- 
strument for mathematical investigation, namely, 
the equation. Of course, only the simpler forms 
of the equation can be introduced ; nevertheless, 
enough can be given to eidarge very greatly the 
student's power to examine new questions for 
himself. By means of the equation, he may be 
taught the solution of such problems as the fol- 



ARITHMETIC 



43 



lowing, which would be quite out of his reach 
without this instrument : 

Tii find what each payment mast be in order 
to discharge a given principal and interest in a 
given number of equal payments at equal inter- 
vals of time- 
To find the present worth of a note which 
has li 'en running a certain time, and is due at 
a future time, with annual payments on the 
principal, and annual interest ; so that the pur- 
chaser shall receive a different rate of annual 
interest from thai named in the note. 

These and many other important business 
problems are quite within the reach of the 
simple equation, and arc scarcely legitimate ques- 
tions to propose to a student who has not some 
knowledge of this instrument. (2) The second 
general purpose which we shall mention as being 
subserved by this course is. that by grouping all 
the arithmetical processes under the fewest pos- 
sible heads and showing their philosophic de- 
pendence, the whole is put in the best possible 
form to be retained in the memory. Thus, if it is 
seen that a single principle covers all the cases in 
reduction, that another simple principle covers all 
the so called "problems in interest," that all the 
common intricate questions in discount are read- 
ily solved by the simple equation, etc.. these pro- 
cesses will 'not be the evanescent things which 
they have often been. 

Principles and maxims to be kept in view 
while teaching arithmetic — I. There arc two 
distinct and strongly marked general aims in 
arithmetical study: (1 ) To master the rationale i if 
the processes, and (2) To acquire facility and ac- 
curacy in the performance of these operations. 
The means which secure one of these ends arc not 
necessarily adapted to secure the other. Thus, to 
secure the first, for example, in reference to a 1- 
dition. the steps are. learning to count, learning 
how numbers are grouped in the decimal system, 
learning how to make the addition table, and. 
finally, by means of a knowledge of the sum of 
the digits taken two and two, learning to find the 
sum of any given numbers. In regard to the 
latter process, the pupil needs to know why we 
write units of a like order in the same column, 
why we begin at the units' column to add. why we 
" carry one for every ten." as the phrase is. etc. 
But all this may be known, and yet the pupil 
make sorry work in practical addition. In order 
to secure a knowledge of the rationale, each step 
needs to be clearly explained and fully illustrated. 
and then the pupil must be required to repeat the 
whole, "over and over again.'' in his own language. 
For this purpose, much class drill on the black- 
board, in having each pupil separately explain in 
detail the reasons for each step of the work which 
he has before performed, will be necessary. 
Pupils may be required to bring into the class 
practical exercises solved on their slates, and then 
sufficient time be given to explanation from the 
slates. These three things repeated in about the 
same way, (1) a clear preliminary explanation 
of principles either given in the text-book or 
by the teacher, (2) a thorough mastery of these 



principles by the pupil so that he can state 
them in a general way. and (3) a careful and con- 
tinued repetition of them in the class, in appli- 
cation to particular examples, will secure the first 
of these general ends of arithmetical study. To 
secure the second, namely, facility and accuracy 
in applying these principles, SO as to be able to 
a Id with case, rapidity, and accuracy, long con- 
tinued drill, with the mind quite unencumbered 
by any thought of the reasons for the processes, 
will be indispensable. It will not be sufficient 
that pupils solve accurately numerous examples, 
in the slow plodding way to which they are 
j accustomed in their private Study, but large 
numbers of fresh problems should lie furnished 
i in the class, which the pupils should be required 
j to solve with the utmost promptitude, and 
with perfect accuracy. In respect to all mere 
numerical combinations, as addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, division, involution, evolution, 
etc., oral drills like the following will be of the 
greatest use and should be continued until the 
combinations can be made as rapidly as we would 
naturally read the numbers : Teacher repeats 
while the pupils follow in silence, making the 
combinations, "3-|-3-f-2* -4-3, squared, — 7-^-7x 
3-|-7. square root, etc." These oral drills maybe 
commenced at the very outset in regard to addi- 
tion, and extended as the other rules are reached, 
ami should not be dropped until the utmost facil- 
ity is secured. A similar drill exercise can be 
secured by pointing to the digits as they stand on 
the board, or on charts, and simply speaking the 
words which indicate what combinations are 
required. Any figures which may chance to 
stand on the board may be used in this way to 
secure an indefinite amount of most valuable 
drill. This latter exercise. — making the combina- 
tions at sight — is of still greater practical value 
than the former, in which the car alone is de- 
pended upon ; for it is a singular fact that 
facility in one method does not insure it in the 
other, and the latter is the form in which the 
process is usually to be applied. Again, in the 
business rules the principles underlying the pro- 
cesses must be clearly perceived, and the pupil, 
by continued practice in explaining solutions 
written upon the board, must become able to give 
in good language the reason for each step. But 
when all this is secured, there will be found need 
of much drill on examples to the answers of 
which he cannot have access, and which he must 
take up and solve at the moment. In this depart- 
ment, much valuable exercise may lie given by 
handing the pupils written notes or papers indue 
form, and requiring them to compute the in- 
terest, or discount, or make the required com- 
putation at sight. But the illustrations now given 
will Suffice to show that there arc. as above 
stated, two general purposes — the theoretical and 



* The signs of division, multiplication, etc., are not 
used with strict propriety in this specimen exercise; 
they are. applied to the result ot" all the preceding 
operations in each case as though all before them had 
heen included in a parenthesis. Thus in this case it is 
5-f~ 3 - or 8 which is meant to be divided by 2, giving 4. 
to this 3 addei 1 , giving 7, this squared, giving 49, etc. 



44 



ARITHMETIC 



the practical — which must run parallel through 
all good teaching in arithmetic, and that they 
are generally to be attained by different means. 
II. In order to realize the above, a careful 
discrimination needs to be made between simply 
telling how a thing is done, and telling why it is 
done. Very much of what we read in our 
text-books, and hear in class-rooms, under the 
name of analysis, in explanation of solutions, is 
nothing more than a statement of the process — a 
telling how the particular example is wrought. 
This vice is still so prevalent as to need the 
clearest exposition and the most radical treat- 
ment. Indeed, it has become so general as to 
be mistaken by the masses for the thing it 
purports to be ; and pupil and teacher frequently 
seem to think that this parrot-like way of telling 
what has been done is really a logical exposition 
of the principles involved. The following ex- 
ample, clipped from a book not now a candidate 
for popular favor, will serve to illustrate our 
meaning: 



•'.0017)30.3000(21352 
34 

23 

17 



60 

51 

90 

85 

50 

34 

16 
this process, annexing 



Commencing the di- 
vision, we find that 17 
is contained in 36, 2 
times. We place 2 in 
the quotient, and sub- 
tract 2 x 17 from 36. 
The remainder is 23. 
17 is contained in 23, 
1 time. Place 1 in the 
quotient, and subtract 
1 X 17 from 23. To the 
remainder 6 we annex 
one of the 0s, and find 
that 17 is contained in 
60, 3 times with 9 re- 
mainder. We continue 
to each remainder a new 
figure of the dividend, until we find a final re- 
mainder 16, which does not contain 17, but the 
division by 1 7 may be expressed by writing the 
divisor underneath." 

Compare this with the following: 
Seasons for (lie Rule in Short. Division. — 
The divisor is written at the left of the dividend, 
simply that we may be able to see both at once 
conveniently. 

We begin at the highest order to divide, be- 
cause by so doing we can put what remains after 
each division into the next lower order and 
divide it ; and thus we get all that there is of 
any order in the quotient as we go along. 

We write the quotient figures under the orders 
from whose division they arise, because they are 
of the same orders. 

The process ascertains how many times the 
divisor is contained in the dividend, by finding 
how many times it is contained in the parts of 
the dividend and adding the results. 

This may be readily illustrated by an example. 
For this purpose let us divide 1547 by 4. The 
following is an analysis of the operation: 

1547 equals 12 hundreds, 32 tens, 24 units, 
and 3 units ; 



is contained 

12 hds. 3 hds., or 300 times. 
32 tens 8 tens, or 80 times. 
24 units 6 units, or 6 times. 
3 units, no times. 

1547 386 times, 

with a remainder 3. 

III. There should, also, be a careful dis- 
crimination between pure and applied arithme- 
tic, in order that they may be so taught as to 
secure the proper end of each. Pure arithmetic 
is concerned solely with abstract numbers, and 
the breadth of discipline to be secured by its study 
is not great ; but the applications of arithmetic 
are almost infinitely varied, and give a far wider 
scope for mental training. In the latter, the 
questions are not how to multiply, add, subtract, 
ete., but why we multiply, add, or subtract. 
Thus, in solving a problem in interest, it would 
be quite out of place to cumber the explanation 
with an exposition of the process of multiplying 
by a decimal, but it is exactly to the purpose to 
give the reason for so doing. The most im- 
portant object in applied arithmetic is to ac- 
quaint ones self so thoroughly with the conditions 
of the problem — if in business arithmetic, with 
the character of the business — as to discern what 
combinations are to be made with the numbers 
involved. Many of these applications are quite 
beyond the reach of the mind of a mere child. 
Thus, to attempt to explain to very young pupils 
the commercial relations which give rise to the 
problems of foreign exchange, or the circum- 
stances out of which many of the problems in 
regard to the value of stocks grow, would be per- 
fectly prepostei'ous. 

IV. In teaching applied arithmetic, it is of 
the. first importance that the problems be such as 
occur in actual life, and that in expressing them, 
the usual phraseology be employed. For exar/^ple, 
compare the following : 

(1) What is the present worth of $500 due 3 yr. 
7 mo. 20 da. hence, at 6 per cent per annum? 

(2)1 have a 7 per cent note for $500, dated Feb. 6th, 
1873, and due July 10th, 1876. Mr. Smith proposes to 
buy it of me Sept. 18th, 1874, and to pay me such a 
sum for it as shall enable him to realize 10 per cent 
per annum on his investment. What must he pay me? 
In other words, what is the present worth of this note 
Sept 18th, 1874? 

The first supposes a transaction which could 
rarely, if ever, occur, and even disguises that. 
Most pupils who have gone through discount in 
the ordinary way, if asked, " What interest does 
the $500 bear, in the first example ?" would an- 
swer, "6pereent." Of course, it is under stood that 
the money is not on interest. Moreover, we find 
no such paper — no notes not bearing interest — 
in the market. Again, the assumption seems to 
be that the note — if even a note is suggested at 
all — is discounted at the time it is made. Thus, 
it is obvious that the first form is" calculated 
to give the pupil quite erroneous impressions ; 
whereas the second brings a real transaction into 
full view. 



ARITHMETIC 



ARIZONA 



45 



Y. From the beginnh ig to the end of the course, 
it should be the aim to teach a few germinal prin- 
ciples and lead the pupil to apply them to as great 
a number of cases as his time and ability may 
permit. Thus, at the very outset, a good teacher 
will never tell the child how to count ; but hav- 
ing taught him the nanus of the numbers up to 
fourteen,vriU show him the meaning of the word 
fourteen (four and ten); then he can lie led to go 
on to nineteen by himself. No chili 1 ought to be 
told how to count from fifteen to nineteen : and 
after twenty, he needs only to be shown how the 
names of the decades, as twen-ty. thirty, for-ty, 
and fif-ty are formed, to be able ti> give the rest 
himself ; nor does he need to be told how t< < a lunt 
through more than one decade. In reference to 
the fundamental tables, it may be suggested that 
no pupil should be furnished with an addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, or division table ready- 
made. Having been taught the principle on 
which the table is constructed, he should lie re- 
quired to make it for himself. As preliminary 
to practical addition and subtraction, the combi- 
nations of digits two and two which constitute 
any number up to 18 (9+9) should be made 
perfectly familiar. Thus the child should recog- 
nize 1+4, and 2+3, as 5; 1+5, 2+4, and .'! 3, 
as 6; etc.; and this should be made the founda- 
tion of addition and subtraction. He should be 
taught, that if he knows that .'! (-1 = 7, he km >ws 
by implication that 23+4 = 27, 33+4=37, etc. 
Passing from the primary arithmetic, he should 
be taught common fractions by means of the 
fewest principles and rules consistent with his 
ability. Thus in multiplication and division, 7b 
multiply or lo divide a /Taction by a whole 
number, and To multiply or to divide a whole 
number by a fraction, set all the cases needed: 
and these should be taught in strict conformity 
with practical principles. Thus, to multiply a 
whole number by a fraction is to take a frac- 
tional part of the number; and to divide a num- 
ber by a fraction is to find how many times the 
latter is contained in the former. To cover all 
the forms of reduction of denominate numbers, 
nothing is needed but the principle or rule, that to 
pass from higher to lower denominations, we mul- 
tiply by the number which it takes of the lower 
to make one of the higher; and to pass from lower 
to higher we divide by the same number. These 
simple principles should be seen to cover all 
cases, those involving fractions as well as others. 

In like manner, by a proper form of statement 
of examples, and an occasional suggestion or 
question, most of the separate, rules usually given 
under percentage may be dispensed with. In 
dealing with the cases usually denominated prob- 
lems in interest, all that is needed is the following 
brief ride: Find the effect produced by using a 
unit of the number required, under the given 
circumstances, and compare this with the given 
effect. This should be made to cover the cases 
usually detailed under six or eight rules. 

VI. There are three stages of mental develop- 
ment which should be carefully kept in view in 
all elementary teaching : (1) The earliest stay. 



in which the faculties chiefly exercised are obser- 
vation, or perception, and memory, and in which 
the pupil is not competent to formulate thought. 
or to derive benefit from abstract, formal state- 
ments of principles, definitions, or processes; 
(2) An intermediate stage, in which the reason- 
mug faculties (abstraction, judgment, etc.) are 
coming into prominence, anil in which the pupil 
needs to be shown the truth, so that he may have 
a clear perception of it. before he is presented 
with a formal, abstract statement, the work, how- 
ever, not being concluded until he can state the 
truth (definition, principle, proposition, or rule) 
intelligently, in good language, and in general 
(abstract) terms; (3) Au ultimate staije. or that 
in which the mental powers are so matured and 
trained, that the pupil is competent to receive 
truth from the general, abstract, or formal state- 
ment of it. At this stage, definitions, principles, 
propositions, and statements of processes may be 
given first, and illustrated, demonstrated, or ap- 
plied afterward. (See Analytic Method, and 
Developing Method.) 

ARIZONA was organized as a territory 
Feb. 24th, 1863, being formed from the territory 
of Xew Mexico. Its area is 113,916 square 
miles; and its population, excluding tribal Indians 
and military, in 1870, was 9,581. 

Educational History. — An act was passed by 
the territorial legislature in October. 1863, author- 
izing the establishment of common schools; and 
the next year, another and more complete law 
was enacted. Nothing, however, of any impor- 
tance was accomplished toward the establishment 
of a system of common schools in the territory 
until the appointment of A. I'. K. Safford its 
governor in 1869. Through the most laborious 
efforts on his part, a public opinion in favor of 
common schools was awakened among the people; 
and in consequence thereof, a law was passed m 
1871, which levied a tax for the support of 
Schools, of ten cents on each one hundred dollars 
of the taxable property of the territory, and 
authorized the supervisors of counties and the 
trustees of the school-districts to levy addi- 
tional taxes for the establishment and mainte- 
nance of free schools in their respective districts. 
By this law. the governor was made ex officio 
superintendent of public instruction, and the 
judges of probate, county superintendents. It 
was not until 1872 that, in pursuance of these 
provisions, schools were established. In July of 
that year, the governor stated that "a free school 
had been put in operation in every school-district 
where there was a sufficient number of children." 
The larger portion of the children, he further 
stated. '■ were of Mexican birth, and few could 
speak the English language ; but they had been 
taught exclusively in English, and had made 
satisfactory progress." In 1873, the total school 
population between the ages of 6 and 21. was 
reported as 1,660, of whom 836 were males, and 
824 females. Of these there Mere only 482 at- 
tending public and private schools, the former. 
343. The whole amount paid for school pur- 
poses was $11,060. In February, 1873, the 



46 



ARKANSAS 



school law was amended, constituting the system 
as it now exists. 

School System. — The governor of the terri- 
tory is ex officio superintendent of public in- 
struction, and apportions the school fund among 
the several counties, according to their respective 
school population, consisting of children be- 
tween the ages of six and twenty-one years. It 
is made his duty to visit and inspect the schools 
as often as once in each year. The probate 
judges of the several counties are ex officio super- 
intendents of public schools for the same. They 
are appointed by the governor, and hold their 
respective offices for two years. A tax of 35 cents 
on each $ 100 is levied in the several counties for 
the maintenance of schools, and a tax of 1 5 cents 
on $100 for the whole territory. The money is 
divided in proportion to the school attendance. 
Each district may levy additional taxes by a vote 
of two thirds of the district. Education is made 
compulsory ; that is, parents or guardians can be 
compelled to send their children sixteen weeks 
during the year to some school, when within two 
miles of their residence, or have them instructed 
at home. 

Educational Condition. — The schools of Ari- 
zona are all of a primary grade ; and teachers 
receive from $100 to $125 a month, males and 
females receiving an equal salary. According to 
the report of Gen. Safford, of Dec. 21st, 1875, 
there were in the territory 2,508 children be- 
tween the ages of six and twenty-one, of whom 
598 attended public schools. The receipts for 
the preceding year were $28,759.92, and the dis- 
bursements were $24,151.96. 

This report stated that, under the existing 
school law, the free school system had been made 
a success, and that ample means were afforded by 
which every child in the territory might obtain 
the rudiments of an education. 

ARKANSAS. This state was originally a 
portion of the territory of Louisiana, purchased 
from the French government in 1803. It re- 
mained a part of that territory until 1812, when 
Louisiana being admitted as a' state, it became a 
part of the Missouri territory, winch was or- 
ganized in that year ; and so continued till 1819, 
when it was organized as a separate territory. It 
was admitted into the Union as a state in 1836. 

Educational History.— The constitution of 
1836 contained a declaration in favor of educa- 
tion to the effect that " as knowledge and learn- 
ing, generally diffused through the community, 
are essential to the preservation of free govern- 
ment," it should be the duty of the general as- 
sembly to provide for the sale of lands donated 
to the state by the general government for edu- 
cational purposes, and to apply the money re- 
ceived therefrom, to the establishment and sup- 
port of schools. In accordance with this pro- 
vision of the constitution, the legislature passed 
certain acts prescribing the manner of disposing 
of the school lands, which acts are, substantially^ 
still in force. Two provisions of this law are 
worthy of special notice, on account of their dis- 
astrous consequences. The first was, that, upon 



the petition of a majority of a township, the 
county commissioner should sell the sixteenth 
section, in forty-acre tracts, to the highest bidder, 
one-fourth of the purchase money being payable 
in cash, and the balance, within eight years, in 
installments. The second was, that the county 
commissioner shoidd loan the school moneys in 
his hands to parties who would give satisfactory 
notes to secure their payment with interest. The 
practical operation of the law was as follows : A, 
B, and C purchased a sixteenth section, say Janu- 
ary 1st; A and B being security for C's notes 
for deferred payments, B and C for A's notes, 
and A and C for B's notes. Each party paid the 
school commissioner, say five hundred dollars, as 
his first payment, and took his receipt. The same 
day, they each borrowed five hundred dollars 
from the school fund of the county, thereby vir- 
tually borrowing from the school commissioner 
the money to make the first payment on the 
lands. The notes given were made payable in 
" lawful money of the United States"; but, after 
the secession of the state, payments were made 
in confederate money, and purchasers of school 
lands were not slow to complete their payments 
in that currency at par. During this period, the 
state auditor was the chief executive school of- 
ficer, and made his report to the governor. The 
last school report, under the ancien regime, was 
made by William R. Miller, state auditor, to 
Governor Rector, who held office at the time of 
the secession of the state. In its printed form, 
it consisted of one leaf of &- book about as large 
as Webster's Spelling Book, and states that there 
were then but two public schools in the state. 
Evidence from other sources shows that, by the 
peculiar system of financiering described above, 
by loss in confederate money and Arkansas war 
bonds, and from the usual casualties incident to 
a state of civil war, a very large proportion of 
the sixteenth-section and other school lands of 
the state was squandered, without creating any 
considerable permanent school fund. Of that 
which was created, the sum of $8,000, the last 
remnant, was invested in the purchase of medi- 
cines for the confederate troops ; and the medi- 
cines were lost on a steamer which was wrecked 
on Brazos river, in Texas. 

Two provisions of the Constitution of 1868 
related to public schools. Section I. of Article VI. 
provided that "The executive department of 
this state shall consist of a governor, etc., and 
a superintendent of public instruction, all of 
whom shall hold their several offices for a term 
of four years." Article XL related to education, 
and its several sections provided, (1) that the 
general assembly should establish and maintain 
a system of free schools for the gratuitous in- 
struction of all persons between the ages of five 
and twenty-one years ; (2) that the supervision 
of such schools should be intrusted to a superin- 
tendent of public instruction ; (3) that a state 
university should be established; (4) that a 
school fund should be created from the sales of 
school lands, escheats, estrays, grants, gifts, one 
dollar capitation tax, etc.; (5) that no part of the 



ARKANSAS 



47 



school fund should be invested in the bonds of ; $45,000 of outstanding notes, to the solicitor- 
any state, city, county, or town ; (6) that the general for collection. In all, the claims of the 
distribution ot the school fund should be limited state for school lands sold and moneys loaned 
to such districts as bad kept a school for at least with accrued interest, amounted to about three 
three months in the year for which the distribu- ; quarters of a million of dollars. The several 
tion was made ; and that each child should be re- amounts of the school fund on hand at the be- 
ginning and end of the period embraced in 
Superintendent Smith's fast biennial report, were 
as follows : — 



quired to attend school at least three years : (7) 
that, in every district in which the school fund 
should be insufficient to support a school for at 
least three months in the year, the general as- 
sembly should provide by law for levying a tax ; 
(8) that all lands, moneys, etc., held in the va- 
rious counties for school purposes, should be re- 
duced into the general school fund ; and (0) that 
the general assembly should be empowered to 
raise money by taxation for building school- 
houses. In addition to these provisions, a section 
of the article on finance, etc., made the purchase 
money for school lands payable into the state 
treasury, am 1 obligated the state to pay interest at 
the rate of six per cent per annum . upon the same. 
This constitution was adopted in February, 
1868; and. upon the 1-ith day of March suc- 
ceeding, an election for state officers was held, 
General Powell Clayton being elected governor, 
and Hon. Thomas Smith, superintendent of public 
instruction. On the 2d day of April ensuing. 
the first legislature under the new constitution 
met, and. in due time (July 23d), enacted the 
school law. which with certain modifications, few 
in number but very important in character, has 
ever since been in force in the state. 

This law provided for the appointment of cir- 
cuit superintendents, one in each of the ten judi- 
cial districts of the state, whose duties in their 
several circuits were analogous to those of the 
state superintendent, in supervising, making re- 
ports, etc. A school trustee was appointed in 
each school district, with the same duties as those 
already specified. The reports of the school trus- 
tees were made annually to the circuit super- 
intendents, who transmitted the information to 
the state superintendent, to be used in his bien- 
nial report. Under many difficulties and embar- 
rassments, Superintendent Smith organized his 
department in August, 1 868 ; and in December 
following, the trustees of the various districts 
were elected. In September, 1869, a special ses- 
sion of the state board of education — composed 
of the state and circuit superintendents — was 
held. At this time the only free schools existing 
in the state were a few for persons of color, 



Oct. 1, 1868. 



Oct. 1, 1870. 



U. S. Currency t 2,691.98 

State Scrip . .' 5(1,30:.'. :i7 



Total $58,954.96 

U. S. Currency S22.201.S7 

State Scrip 12,991.12 



. Total t35.192.49 

Dtmng this period, the school revenues were 
subject to depletion from three causes: (1) The 
taxes on sixteenth-section lands were merged in- 
to the general revenue of the state ; (2) The 
•' fines, penalties, and forfeitures." levied by the 
various courts, were loosely handled by the col- 
lecting officers ; (3) In many cases, the electors of 
the various school districts refused to authorize 
the levying of the local tax for school-houses ; 
and (4) by an act approved March 2d, 1869, 
school-taxes were made payable in interest-bear- 
ing certificates issued by the state treasurer. 
Notwithstanding all these' obstacles, the school 
system was able to present, in 187(1, considerable 
progress since the preceding year, as will be seen 
from the following statistics : 

1 1870 



1869 



176,910 


07,412 


1,489 


1,335 


12 


*lss,:;!i7 



Number of children of school age. lMi/.iit 
" " " attending school 107,908 

" " schools 2,53' 

" " teachers 2,302 

" " teachers' institutes. 41 

Amount of money paid teachers. $405,74* 

The whole number of school-houses built prior 
to 18(18, was 632 ; in 1869 and 1870, it was 657. 
The apportionment of the state fund for 1868 
—1869 was $377,919.94, and the district tax. 
$215,348.79. In addition to these evidences of 
progress should be mentioned the organization of 
the State Teachers' Association, July 2d, L869; 
and the commencement of th& Arkansas Journal 
of Education, J m. 1st. 1870. The institutions 
for the blind and for deaf-mutes were also re- 
organized during the period referred to, and 
handsome buildings erected for their accommo- 
dation. 



Superintendent Smith's second report, for the 
established by the United States, through the two years ending September 30th. 1872. presents 
agency of the Freedmen's Bureau. The resources striking evidence of the decadence of the newly 
of the school department consisted of (1) saline j established school system. Many of the school 
lands, about 20,000 acres; (2) seminary lands, districts had become deeply involved in debt, and 
about 1,000 acres; (3) sivteenthrseetion lands, had levied exorbitant taxes to remove the in- 
about 841,000 acres. The original quantities of cumbrance; the depreciated paper was destmy- 
these lands, which were donated by the United , ing the schools and driving the best teachers froin 
States government for common school purposes, the state; and the circuit superintendents were 
were two sections, each of the first two classes, | neglecting the schools. The following was the 



and 928,000 acres of the third class. Of the 
saline and seminary land funds, about SI 2,000 
in specie, war-bonds, confederate money, etc., had 
been transferred, after March 6th, 1861, to the 
general revenue fund of the state ; and about 



condition of the school fund : 

United SUtes Currency $14 510.84 

5.20 Bonds 24,186.25 

State Scrip 5(i,s04.22 



Total $95,501.31 



48 



ARKANSAS 



The amount of money distributed since Oct. 1st, 
1870, was as follows : 

United States Currency J 33,688.03 

State Scrip 454,407^76 

Total $488,095.79 

The balance on hand at the above date was 
$39,876.75, of which, nearly the whole was in 
state scrip. The following general summary of 
statistics shows a decrease in nearly every item 
as compared with those of 1870 : 

1X72 1871 



1114,314 

32,8li3 

2,035 

25 

3353,624.90 

187 



196,237 

0H.H27 

2,128 

31 

$424,443.90 

302 



Ni>. of children of school age. 

" " " attending school 

" " teachers 

" " teachers' institutes.... 

Amount paid teachers 

No. of school-houses erected.. 

Almost the only encouraging feature of the 
period covered by Superintendent Smith's second 
report, was the opening of the Arkansas Indus- 
trial University (Jan. 22d, 1872), in the town 
of Fayetteville. Mr. Smith was succeeded in 
the office of superintendent by Joseph C Corbin, 
who entered upon the duties of his office in 1872; 
and the only report winch he issued was for the 
year ending September 30th, 1873. Prior to 
this, the general assembly passed a new revenue 
law, which was construed to repeal the provision 
of the former law appropriating two mills on 
the dollar out of the ordinary revenue of the 
state for school purposes. This reduced the 
amount of the semi-annual apportionment from 
$210,000 to $55,000, all of which was in state 
scrip, worth at the time about 35 per cent. The 
same legislature abolished the office of circuit 
superintendent, and substituted that of county 
superintendent. It also limited the local tax to 
a maximum of five mills ; and a decision of the 
supreme court made even this tax payable in 
state scrip. The following are the principal 
items of the school statistics for the year 1873 : 

Attendance of pupils 59,587 

Number of teachers 1,481 

Number of school-houses 1,035 

Number of teachers' institutes 26 

Amount paid teachers $259,747.08 

Revenue raised for school purposes. . .$258,456.09 
Amount of expenditures $318,997.77 

A new constitution was adopted in 1 8 74,of which 
the following are the chief provisions in regard 
to education: — (1) That the state "shall ever 
maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system 
of free schools, whereby all persons in the state, 
between the ages of six and twenty-one years, may 
receive gratuitous instruction ;" (2) That no 
school money or property shall be used for any 
other purpose ; (3) That the general assembly 
shall provide for the support of common schools 
by a tax, not to exceed the rate of two mills on 
the dollar, on the taxable property of the state ; 
a capitation tax of one dollar, and a local tax not 
to exceed five mills on the dollar ; (4) That the 
■supervision of the schools shall be vested in "such 
officers as may be provided for by the general 
assembly." Under this last provision, the duties 
>f superintendent of public instruction were 



ARKANSAS UNIVERSITY 

transferred to the secretary of state, "until other- 
wise provided by law.'' 

Elementary Instruction. — "Che only common 
schools in the state at present (Nov. 1875) are 
those of the city of Little Rock, which were 
opened September 13th, 1875. The sole reliance 
of the mass of the citizens for educational advan- 
tages is. therefore, upon private schools, of which 
a large number were opened at the beginning 
of the school year. No school report has been 
rendered since that of Superintendent Corbin, in 
1873, as the necessary duties of the secretary 
of state have rendered an active supervision of • 
the schools impossible, and the returns from the 
local officers are very imperfect. 
• Normal Instruction. — The chief provision 
for the training of teachers in the state is the 
normal department of the State Industrial Uni- 
versity. A course of two years and one of three 
years have been arranged, the former embracing 
all the studies likely to be taught in any of the 
common schools, and the latter, those of the high 
schools. Male applicants for admission are re- 
quired to be 16 years of age, and females 14. A 
training school is operated in connection with 
this school. Besides this, Quitman College, in 
Van Buren county, is a normal school for the 
training of colored teachers. There is also a 
state teachers' association. 

Superior Instruction. — The most prominent 
of the higher educational institutions of the state 
are the Arkansas Industrial University, at 
Fayetteville (q. v.), and St. John's College, at 
little Rock (q. v.) ; the latter of which is under 
the control of the masonic fraternity. 

Special Instruction. — The Arkansas Deaf- 
Mute Institute and the Arkansas Institute for 
the Education of the Blind, both at Little Rock, 
are the only institutions for special instruction. 
The former was incorporated as a state institu- 
tion in 1868. The latter, the same year, was re- 
moved from Arkadelphia to Little Rock. The 
financial embarrassments of the state have great- 
ly impeded the progress and efficient operation 
of these institutions. 

Educational, Journal, etc. — The last educational 
journal published in the state was the Arkansas 
Journal of Education .which suspended publica- 
tion in 1872 ; and the only works on the schools 
of the state are the three educational reports of 
the state superintendents. 

While the present educational condition of 
Arkansas is by no means cheering, it is not quite- 
hopeless. The decadence of the school system, 
which a short time ago was so promising, is the 
result of financial, political, and social evils and 
misfortunes that have afflicted the state from its 
earliest history. Many of these evils, however, 
are already things of the past, of which only the 
effects remain. Under the present administra- 
tion, much has been done towards developing the 
natural resources of the state ; and there is no 
doubt that, in a few years, its educational pros- 
perity will be restored. 

ARKANSAS INDUSTRIAL UNIVER- 
SITY, at Fayetteville, Arkansas, was provided 



ARMY SCHOOLS 



ARNOLD 



49 



for by au act of the state legislature in 1868, 
but was not opened until January 22., 1*72. 
The law regulating the institution provides for 
327 beneficiaries who are entitled to four years' 
free tuition. The value of the grounds, build- 
ings, etc. is $180,000. The buildings will accom- 
modate four hundred students, and consist i if a 
brick edifice five stories high, 214 feet in length, 
with a depth in the wings of 122 feet, with five 
large and several small halls, and thirty class- 
rooms. The report of the university for 1*7 4 
showed an attendance of 321 students, in its 
various departments, under the instruction of 
seven professors and three other instructors. The 
institution includes a preparatory and a normal 
department, a college of engineering, and a college 
of general science and literature. A college of 
agriculture and a college of natural science, with 
a school of military science, and a school of com- 
merce, are also provided for ; and au experimental 
farm for the agricultural college has been secured. 
The university library is as yet quite small. 
Gen. Albert W. Bishop is the president of the 
institution. 

ARMY SCHOOLS. See Mii.itaky Schools. 

ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot 
and author, was born Dec. 26., 1769, at Schoritz on 
Riigen, and died Jan. 29., 1860, at Bonn. He 
was appointed, in 1 805, professor at the university 
of Greifswalde ; but he wrote violently against 
Napoleon and, therefore, fled, after the battle at 
Jena, in 1806, to Sweden. In 1809, he returned, 
and henceforth took a prominent part in the na- 
tional movement in Germany which led to the 
wars of liberation (1813 to L815), and the over- 
throw of the French ride in Germany. In L818, 
he was appointed professor of history at the uni- 
versity of Bonn ; but, in the next year he was 
retired in consequence of his liberal sentiments. 
In 1840, he was re-instated by the new king 
Frederick William IV. ; and, in 1848, he was 
a member of the National Assembly of Frankfort, 
which attempted the reconstruction of a united 
Germany. Arndt is chiefly famous in Germany 
as one of the foremost promoters of patriotism. 
One of his songs. Was ist des Deutschen Vater- 
land? was long regarded as the most popular 
national hymn ; but was superseded in popular 
favor, during the Franco-German war, by Die 
Wachi am Rhein. Some of Arndt's numerous 
works are of a pedagogical character, the most 
important of which is Fragmente ujber Menschen- 
bikluTig (Altona, 1805), which explains the prin- 
ciples of a rational education of man in accor- 
dance with the dictates of his nature. In 
opposition to the ideas of Rousseau, he insisted 
that the essence of man must not be sought in 
the sensuous nature of the isolated individual, 
but in his spiritual part, and in his rela- 
tions to parents, family, society, and his native 
country. From this point of view, Arndt con- 
tends, with Pestalozzi, that the mother should be 
the first teacher of the child, and that her in- 
struction should proceed from the concrete. He 
represents love, necessity, and freedom as the 
three powers which co-operate in the education 



of man. The work of these three great powers 
is conditioned by the bodily and spiritual develop- 
ment of the pupil. In childhood, it is chiefly 
the power of love, represented by the mother, 
which moulds the young mind, and instills into it 
the first notions of God, man, and life. The 
power of necessity must curb and discipline the 
vehemence of boyhood, and teach the habit of 
diligence. At last, in the age of ripe youth, love 
and necessity coalesce into the spirit of freedom. 
or self-control, which is the completion of every 
harmonious education. A few years later. Arndt 
gave an exposition of the same principles, with 
special reference to the education of princes, in 
his work En/iruif der Erziehung und Unter- 
ir. isung eines Fwrsten (Berlin, 1813). These 
educational works of Arndt exercised far less in- 
fluence upon the rising generation of Germany 
than his fairy tales, and especially his patriotic 
songs, many of which are to be found in most 
German reading-books and thus haw contributed 
very much toward shaping the German mind of 
the nineteenth century. In his autobiography. 
Erinnerungen oats dem iiasseren Leben (Leip- 
sic, 2. ed., 1840), Arndt treats fully of his own 
education. Biographies of Arndt have been 
written by Fcgex Labes (I860), H. Rkhbkik and 
R. Keil (1861), and D. Schenkel (1866). — See 
also G. Freytag, in Deutsche Allgemeine Bio- 
graphie, art. Arndt. 

ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., the illustrious 
Fnglish teacher and historian, was born at AY est 
• 'owes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795. He was 
educated at Winchester College and Oxford 
University, from the latter of which he obtained 
a first-class degree in 1814. He attained his 
greatest fame as head-master of Rugby School, 
to which position he was elected in 1828, and in 
which he continued till his death. In the course 
of instruction of this school, he introduced many 
improvements ; but it was the system of moral 
teaching and training which he established, that 
gave to him and to the school their greatest distinc- 
tion. He preserved among the boys the highest 
tone of moral and religious sentiment ; and, with 
consummate tact, habituated them to the practice 
of the principles which he taught, making him- 
self both feared and loved. His chief reliance 
was upon guiding the public opinion of the 
school, as the most powerful element Tjf control 
in every community. For the practice of " fag- 
ging" previously in vogue in the school, he insti- 
tuted a .system of responsible supervision by the 
pupils of the highest class over the younger 
boys, thus giving full opportunity for the active 
exercise of those virtues which they had been 
taught. Rugby, however, by no means occupied 
all his time and attention. For some time he 
held a place in the senate of the London Uni- 
versity, and a short time before his death, ac- 
cepted the appomtment of Regius Professor of 
Modern History at Oxford, where he delivered 
some introductory lectures. To this position he 
intended to devote his whole energies, retiring 
from Rugby ; but his plans were frustrated by 
his sudden death, in 1842. His greatest literary 



50 



ARNOLD 



work is the History of Rome, which he publish- 
ed in three volumes (1838 — 1840 — 1842), 
brought down to the end of the Second Punic 
War. This work he did not live to complete. 
His miscellaneous writings are varied and numer- 
ous. Dr. Arnold's purity and elevation of char- 
acter, his conscientious zeal and wise efforts as a 
practical educator, his learning and literary skill, 
and the excellent example which he presented in 
all the relations of life, entitle him to be con- 
sidered " one of the brightest ornaments of his 
age." — See Stanley, Arnold's Life and Cor- 
respondence (London, 1845) ; also torn Brown's 
School-Bays at Rugby (London and Boston, 
1857). 

ARNOLD, Thomas Kerchever, an En- 
glish clergyman, was born in 1800 and died in 
1853. He is chiefly noted for his school man- 
uals for elementary instruction in Greek, Latin, 
French, German, and some other languages. 
These books have been extensively used in this 
country as well as in England. They are based 
upon a thorough system of practical drill in all 
the peculiarities of the language to be taught. 
Mr. Arnold also prepared a series of school 
classics, and published articles on various relig- 
ious and ecclesiastical questions. His manuals 
for classical study are based on a system similar 
to that of Ollendorff. 

ART-EDUCATION. Every complete sys- 
tem of education must provide for the cult- 
ure of all the varied faculties of the human 
mind, physical and intellectual, moral and spir- 
itual, esthetic and emotional ; and must, be- 
sides, supply the means necessary for the develop- 
ment of those practical capacities upon which 
the social and national progress of every civilized 
people depends. Among the agencies required 
for this purpose, art-education claims profound 
attention. The element of beauty, which exists 
in the human mind, when made the subject of 
progressive cultivation, and applied to the vari- 
ous industries of social life, becomes a thing of 
pecuniary as well as esthetic value. The train- 
ing of the hand and eye, which is obtained by 
drawing, is proved by experience to be of very 
great advantage to the operative in every branch 
of industry ; indeed, in many occupations, draw- 
ing is indispensable to success. But the value is 
still greater if to this simple training, the culture 
of the perception and conception of forms and 
their combinations is added, leading to skill in 
designing — a branch of art of the highest value 
in very many departments of manufacturing in- 
dustry. "Art-education", says an eminent author- 
ity, " embraces all those appliances and methods 
of training by which the sense of form and pro- 
portion is developed. It is successful when the 
student unerringly discriminates between what is 
ugly and what is beautiful, and expresses his 
ideas of form in drawing as readdy as ideas of 
other sorts on the written page." 

Art culture among the ancients must have 
been carried to the highest degree of perfection, 
as is obvious on an inspection of Egyptian, As- 
syrian, and more especially Grecian antiquities. 



ART-EDUCATION 

The genius of Phidias and Praxiteles must have: 
owed its development to the results of many- 
centuries of previous culture. The Parthenon 
was the noblest achievement of the loftiest genius, 
making use of the agencies and results of the 
most complete culture and education in art. We 
have, however, no history of that education in 
detail. Instruction in the art of design (ypapnt?)) 
was quite general at Athens and in some of the 
other Grecian states ; and Aristotle, in his scheme 
of education, attributes to it great importance as 
a means of cultivating the sense of the beautiful. 
The establishment of art-schools and schools of 
design for the masses is, however, of modern 
origin, and is due to a consideration, based upon 
experience, of the great value of general artistic 
skill in increasing the sources of national wealth. 
This will be fully shown as we proceed ; but as. 
immediately relevant to it we quote the follow- 
ing statement of the French imperial commis- 
sion, in its summary of the inquiry on profes- 
sional education : "Among ail the branches of 
instruction which, in different degrees, from the 
highest to the lowest grade, can contribute to the 
technical education of either sex, drawing, in all 
its forms and applications, has been almost unan- 
imously regarded as the one which it is most 
important to make common." Heretofore, in 
the struggle and conflict of nations for suprema- 
cy and power, it was believed they could depend 
exclusively upon armed men and heavy guns ; 
but to-day the great nations of Europe rely on 
industrial education, and the general culture of 
the people. The World's Fair held at London, in 
1851, revealed plainly to England that she was 
far behind her great rival France in the produc- 
tion of articles requiring skilled labor and taste, 
indeed, below all the other civilized nations ex- 
cept the United States. Convinced of her inferi- 
ority, she went vigorously to work to give general 
instruction in the fine and industrial arts, by 
establishing schools for special training, free of 
cost, to those whom the science and art depart- 
ment of the government had selected for art- 
masters. Art-schools were founded for instruc- 
tion in drawing, modeling, and design, in many 
of the large cities and towns throughout the king- 
dom. The British official report for 1872 shows 
that there were, at that time, in England 122 in- 
dustrial art-schools; besides which there were 
194,549 children receiving instruction in draw- 
ing in the " schools for the poor." Up to that 
time, there had been established one well-ap- 
pointed art-school of 190 students for every 
210,000 of the population ; so rapidly was in- 
struction in art as applied to industry provided 
for and diffused among the industrial classes of 
Great Britain. But the results had. previous to this 
time, been already definitely shown. At the Paris 
Exposition of 1867, England stood in the first rank 
of artistic nations, and even surpassed some of 
those who previously had carried off the highest 
honors. This great advance made by the English 
from 1851 to 1867 alarmed the French. They saw 
they could no longer rely on that prestige which 
had always placed them at the head ; and they. 



ART-EDUCATION 



51 



in turn began to reconstruct, improve, and in- 
crease their art-schools. The commission ap- 
pointed by the emperor Napoleon 111., after due 
consideration, made an elaborate report, and the 
government acted upon its recommendations, 
immediately after the late war between France 
and Cermany, the Prussian minister of commerce 
and industry issued a circular calling upon the 
government and the people to follow the example 
of France : and it is now being follower 1 in all 
the schools of Prussia, from the primary school to 
the university. Not only in England. France, 
and Germany, but in nearly all the other Euro- 
pean countries is this great movement in art-edu- 
cation in progress. The United States, alone of 
all enlightened nations, is making but little ad- 
vancement and little effort in this direction. New 
York, Massachusetts, and a few other states have 
enacted laws concerning the teaching of free- 
hand drawing in the public schools, and in this 
way have shown some appreciation of the great 
importance of the subject. 

During the first twenty-five years of the na- 
tional independence of the United States, nothing 
was accomplished in art education. All teaching 
was confined to the few lessons that were given 
by professional painters. Even at the com- 
mencement of the present century, no school had 
been established. In 1802, however, a proposi- 
tion was made to found an institution fur the 
promotion of the arts of drawing, painting, ami 
sculpture, in the city of New York, under the 
name of The New York Academy of Fine Arts. 
On account of the want of public interest in the 
enterprise, and the inactivity of those who start- 
ed it. the charter for the academy was not ob- 
tained until 1 SOW. In 1W05, the Pennsylvania 
Academy of Fin<> Arts was founded at Philadel- 
phia by seventy-one citizens ; and in Boston, in 
1807, the Public Library and Department of 
Fine Arts was established. These institutions 
are still in existence ; but the New York Academy 
only lasted till 1W1(>. There is no evidence that 
there were any schools of importance connected 
with the first academies. The few artists who 
belonged to them probably practiced drawing 
from casts, and, it may be, sometimes from life. 
— Among the names of those who took an in- 
terest in art-matters at the early date here refer- 
red to, may be found some of the best men of the 
time ; and at their head stood De Witt Clinton, 
certainly the foremost man in the State of New 
York. He was the president of the Academy. 
and delivered an address upon the Fine Arts 
when he retired from active participation in its 
affairs. According to the venerable Thomas A. 
Cummings, a veteran artist at this date (1 S70). 
this address was probably the first ever delivered 
in this country on that subject. It is likely that 
there were some artistic societies, classes, or clubs 
besides those mentioned, struggling into existence 
in cities like Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
Richmond, and Charleston, but of these we have 
but little or no history. It is quite certain that, 
up to 1816, no attempt had been made to in- 
struct students anywhere in this country. In 



1825, Samuel F. B. Morse was chosen to pre- 
side over a new association, just then formed, 
called the New York Drawing Association. 
It was out of the small number of artists who 
constituted this association, and who met three 
times a week to draw from casts, that the present 
National Academy of Desir/n was established. 
Much dissatisfaction was caused among the 
members of the Drawing Association, on ac- 
count of an attempt of Col. John Trumbull, the 
historical painter, acting as the president of the 
then almost defunct Academy of Fine Arts, to 
assume a kind of dictatorship over them. These 
pretensions, however, were stoutly and success- 
fully repelled by president Morse and the .young 
artists of the association. Col. Trumbull was 
evidently opposed to art-schools ; and according 
to Mr. Cummings. he assailed the students of 
that day in a very rude ami improper manner. 
The resolution of Morse and his associates estab- 
lished on a firm foundation the National 
Academy of Design, on the 18th of January, 

1826, with twenty-five artists, and a life school 
of eleven students. Mr. Morse delivered an ad- 
dress at the first exhibition of the new academy, 
in which he announced a new departure from 
the old forms and usages of the art-associations 
which had previously been established. His 
course was to be the same as that adopted and 
sanctioned by the academies of Europe; From 
1826 to 1830, there was a bitter feud between 
the rival institutions, the American Academy 
and the National Academy, — the former sup- 
ported by the renowned John Yanderlyn, and 
the latter by the illustrious and indefatigable 
Morse. Tin- contest ended by the discontinuance 
of the older institution; but while it was in 
progress, the interests of art were neglected, and 
art-education sunk to a low ebb. Owing to 
causes that have not been explained, the National 
Academy of Design has never been able to estab- 
lish and continue afirsteclass school for the edu- 
cation of students. On this account, the institu- 
tion can hardly lay claim to be a national one, 
nor can it be said that it has kept pace with the 
educational institutions of the country. 

Methods of Art-Instruction. — The modes of 
drawing and the usages of art-schools are nearly 
the same now that they were in the Old World 
two hundred years ago ; that is, in schools in 
which pupils are trained to be professional artists. 
After students have learned to draw from the 
flat, from lithographs, drawings, etchings, etc., on 
paper, they are required to draw from plaster 
casts, — mostly figures and fragments of the 
antique, statues, and busts. The teacher of draw- 
ing very often selects for the student those casts 
which are best suited to his taste, style, and abil- 
ity. These casts are generally so arranged and 
illuminated as to show strong contrasts of light 
and shade ; and each student is provided with an 
old-fashioned drawing-board, which is simply a 
board, generally about 35 x 25 inches, with two 
legs, resting upon the floor and thus support- 
ing one end, while the other end rests on the lap of 
the student. A charcoal outline of the object to be 



52 



ART-EDUCATION 



drawn is first made. Tliis being easily rubbed 
off. the student is thus enabled to get the outline 
with less trouble than would be possible with 
crayons, which are only resorted to after a correct 
outline has been obtained. — The life-school, as 
it is called, or more properly speaking, drawing 
from the living form, is generally conducted in 
the following manner. The model, or person who 
is to stand, or pose, is placed generally under the 
light, in whatever position may be chosen by the 
students. They then arrange themselves around 
the model, and begin their drawings. The model 
stands from twenty-five to fifty minutes in one 
position. A rest is then taken, and at will the 
model again assumes precisely the same position 
as before, and the drawing goes on until each 
student has finished. 

Art-Schools in the United States. — The num- 
ber of art-schools or institutions affording art- 
instruction, in the United States, according to 
the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, for 187-4, is twenty-sis ; as shown in the 
following table. 

Institutions affording Art-instruction in U. S. 



Name 



School of Design of the 
San Francisco Art-As- 
sociation 

Yale School of the Fine 
Arts 

Art-Schools of Chicago 
Academy of Design 

Illinois Industrial Univer- 
sity 

Schools of Art and Design 
of Maryland Institute 

Art-School 

Boston Art-Club 

Lowell School of Practical 
Design 

Mass. Inst, of Technology 

Mass. Normal Art-Sch ' 

Worcester County Free 
Institute of Industrial 
Science 

St. Louis Art-School 

Manchester Art-Associa- 
tion 

Brooklyn Art- Association 

Cornell University 

Ladies 1 Art- Association. . 

National Academy of De- 
sign 

The Palette Club 

CooperUnion Art-Schools, 

1. Women's Art-School 

2. Free School of Art.. 
College of Fine Arts of 

Syracuse University. . . 

School of Design of the 
University of Cincinnati 

Toledo University of Arts 
and Trades 

Franklin Institute Draw- 
ing Classes 

Ait-Classes of the Penns. 
Academy of Fine Arts . 

Philadelphia School of 
Design for Women .... 

Pittsburg School of De- 
sign for Women 



San Francisco, Cal. 

New Haven, Ct. 

Chicago, 111. 

Urbana, 111. 

Baltimore, Md. 
Baltimore, Md. 
Boston, Mass. 

Boston, Mass. 
Boston, Mass. 
Boston, Mass. 



Worcester, Mass. 
St. Louis, Mo. 

Manchester, N. H. 
Brooklyn, N. T. 
Ithaca, N. Y. 
Mew York, N. Y. 

New York, N. Y. 
New York, N. Y. 

New York, N. Y. 
N T ew York, N. Y. 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

Cincinnati, 0. 

Toledo, 0. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Pittsburg, Pa. 



When 
founded 



1873 
1864 
1867 

1874 

1848 
1874 
1855 

1872 
1861 
1873 



1865 
1872 

1871 
1861 
1865 
1870 

1820 
1869 

1855 
1857 

1872 

1869 

1872 

1824 

1806 

1847 

1865 



Of these institutions three are the great art- 
schools at Philadelphia, New York, and New 



Haven ; namely, the Pennsylvania Academy 
of the Fine Arts, the National Academy of 
Design, and the Yale School of the Fine Arts. 
Ten of these institutions are for the special 
training of artists. Three others, the Boston 
Art-Club, the Palette Club, and the Ladies' 
Art- Association, are voluntary associations of 
artists, with life-classes, etc., for their own im- 
provement. 

In some of these schools nearly every kind of 
art-culture receives attention, — drawing from 
the flat, from simple objects, casts, the antique, 
paintings, and from life ; modeling in clay, wax, 
and plaster ; painting in oil and water colors ; 
architecture ; and fresco painting. In others, the 
instruction is given with special reference to the 
practical application of science to art, to the edu- 
cation of skilled artisans, to mechanics, manu- 
facturers, etc. 

The number of art-schools is so small, com- 
pared with the number of inhabitants, that, in 
fact, but very little national progress in art-cul- 
ture can be expected. On account of the lack 
of opportunities for studying painting and sculp- 
ture, most students who have the means go to 
Europe to obtain those facilities which are not to 
be found in this country. According to the Re- 
port above quoted, there are only 27 art-museums 
and art-collections, of colleges, etc., in the United 
States. Of these seven are in New York, six in 
Massachusetts, two each in Connecticut and 
Pennsylvania, and one each in Illinois, Indiana, 
Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, New Hampshire, 
Oliio, Rhode Island, Vermont, and the District 
of Columbia. The incomes of eight of these 
institutions, in 1874, were reported as amounting 
in the aggregate to about $200,000; but of this, 
$70,000 was reported as the income of the Cor- 
coran Art Gallery, at Washington, which has an 
endowment of $ 1,000,000. Eleven of the twenty- 
seven institutions above referred to are art-collec- 
tions connected with colleges or universities, and 
most of them are of recent foundation, — five 
since 1872. 

Instruction in Drawing. — There is a growing 
appreciation of the value of drawing as a branch 
of common school instruction, and a much clearer 
perception of the fact that to teach drawing sys- 
tematically in the schools of the people is to lay 
the foundation not only of national art-culture, 
but of national progress in the industrial arts. 
The state superintendents and many of the city 
superintendents of public instruction express this 
sentiment very generally and strongly, and earn- 
estly advocate the encouragement of' drawing in 
the public schools, especially for the purpose of 
educating that class of pupils who are to become 
the future skilled laborers and artisans of the 
nation. As an illustration, we quote the words 
of the Superintendent of Indiana : " Indiana, as 
much as any state in the Union, needs to look 
after these interests, and needs to educate her 
children for the work which must either be done 
by them or by some more skillful class, imported 
from abroad to supply their places. Her wood, 
wool, minerals, and other rough materials are 



ART-EDIT CATION 



ARTS 



53 



tarried away and manufactured into the com- 
monest articles of daily use, ami are returned to 
the state as imported articles at an enormous 
cost. . . . Tile skill of our native workmen is 
limited through want of training, ami our labor 
is not. therefore, of the most profitable quality. 
That our system of education is in this point de- 
fective, and that it needs such improvement as 
shall look to the preparation of persons for 
skillful labor, are no longer matters of ques- 
tion." (See Report, 1874 ) He, therefore, recom- 
mends that the statutes of the state be so 
amended as to include drawing as one of the 
common school brandies of study. In Massa- 
chusetts, much has been done in this direction, in 
compliance with the law of 1870, 'which provided 
that " any city or town may. and every city and 
town having more than 10,003 inhabitants shall, 
annually make provision for giving free instruc- 
tion in industrial or mechanical drawing to per- 
sons over fifteen years of age. v • If the twenty- 
three cities and towns of the State, in 1874, 
twenty had complied with the statute. In 1.871, 
on the invitation of the school committee. .Mr. 
Walter Smith, hea 1-master of the school of 
art in Leeds, England, took the direction of 
this branch of instruction in the public schools 
of Boston ; and subsequently was appointed 
State-Director of art-education. In 1^73. the 
State Normal Art-School was established a1 
Boston, under the direction of Mr. Smith, for 
the training of art-teachers, or teachers of in- 
dustrial drawing, which institution, in 1874, had 
12 instructors and 240 students. The results of 
this system, so complete and admirable, have 
thus far been eminently successful. The state 
of Xew York, following the example of Massa- 
chusetts, in 1ST"), passe I a law requiring indus- 
trial drawing to be taught in all the common 
schools of the state. (See Drawing.) 

Mode of Establish in i Art-Schools. — The first 
thing necessary for the establishment of art- 
schools, or for the introduction of drawing, 
modeling, and designing into schools already 
established, is to obtain capable teachers, or art- 
masters. These must be trained in the ait in 
normal schools ; or the officers of school-districts 
may institute classes for this purpose. The 
Coojier Institute, in the City of Xew York, and 
the School of Design, in Cincinnati, and sonic 
others, have prepared a considerable number 
of excellent art-teachers. The state normal 
schools have also done something in this direc- 
tion, but have the facility and means, if properly 
applied, to do very much more. The customary 
mode of procedure in art-instruction has already 
been explained; but the various methods of in- 
struction iu drawing will be given in another 
part of this work. (See Drawing.) Modeling 
has not yet become as prominent in industrial 
art-education as its importance demands. "With- 
out doubt, the modeling of real forms is much 
more beneficial for the future artisan than the 
representation of forms upon flat surfaces. It 
will be readily perceived that the wood-carver, 
cabinet-maker, machinist, jeweler, and all others 



whose work consists in the production of forms, 
would be better trained in this way. To the de- 
signer of fabrics, drawing on flat surfaces is 
the preferable practice ; but in nearly all other 
cases, modeling affords the most efficient train- 
ing. A set of objects classified and graded, 
from the simplest to the most complicated forms, 
as well as compositions for drawing ami model- 
ing purposes, is of great value in this instruction; 
ami. accompanying this, there should be a com- 
] irehi -nsive tcxt-1 km >k . or manual, giving directions 
as to the modes of teaching, the arrangement of 
rooms ami studios, the adjustment of lights, and 
the placing of casts and models ; together with a 
lull description of the materials and instruments 
needed at each stage and in each department of 
the instruction. For valuable information and 
suggestions in this direction, see Art-Education, 
by Prof. C. 0. Thompson, in Reportqf Commis- 
sioner <>f Education (1873). 

Importance if Art-Education. — '1 his country 
can compete with foreign nations iu the produc- 
tion of articles requiring taste and skilled labor 
only by establishing schools tor instruction in the 
fine arts ami in industrial art. so that the native 
artisans may be properly educated. Millions of 
men, women, and children, in Europe, are at the. 
present time receiving an indi stria] art-education 
at the public expense: and the United States, 
through the state or national governments, must 
make a similar provision. The following facts 
clearly show this necessity. In 1874, there were 
exported from the United States articles upon 
which skilled and mechanical labor had been ex- 
pended, of the value of $24,631,835; while the 
value of such articles imported, was SI 77,857,132. 
In the same year, the articles of taste and 
skilled labor exported from France amounted to 
$434,513,8!MI. and from England, to £3*4,7*7,944. 
The contrast presents an instructive lesson as to 
the importance of art-education in its relation 
to national wealth and prosperity. — See Modern 
Art-Education (Boston. 1*75); official Report 
if the Vienna Exposition (1*73); Reports of 
U. 8. Commissioner of Education (1*72.-3, —4.) 

ARTISANS, Education of. Sec Tech- 
I nicai. Education. 

ARTS, Liberal. The term arts, or liberal 
arts, was, during the middle ages, applied to cer- 
tain studies which constituted an essential part 
of a learned education. The full course of study, 
at that period, embraced " the seven liberal arts," 
three of which — grammar, logic, and rhetoric — 
composed what was called the tririmn (the triple 
way to eloquence i: and the remaining four — 
music, arithmetic geometry, and astronomy — 
constituted H&quadrivium (the quadruple way). 
The terra faculty if arts denoted, in the univer- 
sities, those who devoted themselves to philos- 
ophy and science, in contradistinction to the 
faculty of theology, of medicine, or of law. 
Master ( I. at. maqister) was used to designate one 
who taught the liberal arts : and doctor, one who 
taught <>r practiced divinity, law. or medicine. 
The first degree [gradtts) of proficiency in the 
arts, instituted, as it is said, by Gregory EX. 



54 



ASCHAM 



about the middle of the 13th century, was that 
of bachelor (Lat. baccalaureus); and the second 
that of master, which originally conferred the 
right, and indeed imposed the duty, of teaching 
one or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the 
colleges and universities of the United States, 
England, and France, is now merely honorary. 
(See Degrees.) 

ASCHAM, Eogsr, a celebrated English 
scholar and teacher, who flourished during the 
reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and Elizabeth, 
was burn in 1515, and died in 1568. He 
graduated at St. John's College, Oxford, in 1537, 
became a college tutor, and was appointed to read 
Greek in the public schools. In 1545, he pub- 
lished Toxopliilus, or the School of Shooting, 
in which, as Dr. Johnson says, " he designed not 
only to teach the art of shooting, but to give an 
example of diction more natural and moi'e truly 
English than was used by the common writers [ 
of that age." In 1548, he was appointed teacher l 
of the learned languages to the lady Elizabeth, 
afterwards queen, and continued to perform that j 
service for two years. In 1553, he was appointed 
Latin secretary to Queen Mary, and was contin- 
ued in the same office by Elizabeth, besides '• 
acting as her tutor in Latin and Greek. His 
most noted work is " The Scholemaster, or a 
Plain and Perjite Way of teaching Children | 
to understand, read, and write the Latin Tonge," 
published by his widow in 1571. Dr. Johnson 
said, this work was " perhaps the best advice that 
was ever given for the study of languages ;" and a 
recent authority says: "This book sets forth the 
only sound method of acquiring a dead language." 
— See Life of AscJiam, written by Dr. Johnson 
for an edition of Ins English works, published in 
1701 ; Grant, De Vita Roger i AscJiam; \\ ood, 
Fasti Oxonienses ; Hartley Coleridge, Lives 
of Northern Worthies, vol. n. ; Quick, Essays 
an Educational Reformers (London, 1808.) The 
last mentioned work contains an excellent sketch 
of Ascham's method. 

ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. By this 
is meant that relation or connection which is 
formed between ideas, so that one immediately 
suggests the other, hence called by Dr. Brown 
the principle of simple suggestion. This law of 
mental operation demands a most careful con- 
sideration in both moral and intellectual educa- 
tion. Feelings of pleasure and pain are often 
associated with certain ideas or objects in the 
minds of pupils at school, and thus control their 
whole after life. Antipathies, prejudices, or 
predilections are thus so firmly fixed, that they 
can never be eradicated. The law of association, 
rightly applied by the teacher, may thus be used 
to establish in the minds of his pupils an abhor- 
rence of meanness and wrong, of falsehood and 
dishonesty, which will go far toward forming a 
thoroughly virtuous character. This law has a 
very important application in the intellectual 
training of the young, and in the general cultiva- 
tion of the mind. Here we are to consider the 
various ways in which the law of association 
operates. (See Faculties, Development of.) The 



ASTRONOMY 

power to control the succession of our ideas or 
thoughts very much depends upon the habits 
we may have formed in establishing these associa- 
tions. If the ideas with which a person's mind 
is stored are connected only by arbitrary or acci- 
dental associations, he will find it difficult to 
arrange his thoughts on any subject in a regular, 
logical order. On the other hand, there are 
minds so trained as to be able, at any moment, 
to command their ideas upon any subject with 
which they are acquainted, so that ihey flow 
forth in an unintermitting logical stream. Ma- 
caulay says of Sir James Mackintosh, "His mind 
was a vast magazine, admirably arranged ; every 
thing was there, and every thing was in its 
place. His judgments on men, on sects, 
on books, had been often and carefully tested 
and weighed, and had then been committed, 
each to its proper receptacle, in the most 
capacious and most accurately constructed mem- 
ory that any human being ever possessed. It 
would have been strange indeed, if you had 
asked for anything that was not to be found in 
that immense store-house. The article which 
you required was not only there ; it was ready ; 
it was in its own proper compartment. In a 
moment it was brought down, unpacked and dis- 
played." This admirably expresses, of course in 
a very high degree of development, and partly as 
the result of a natural constitution of mind, the 
intellectual quality to be aimed at by the teacher, 
in connection with the association of ideas. It 
follows, too, from this that the law by which 
ideas become permanently associated by means 
of repetition, should have a most important place 
in the consideration of the teacher. Certain 
branches of knowledge require the special appli- 
cation of this law ; such as arithmetical tables, 
grammatical paradigms, and all other things that, 
having no logical relations, are to be arbitrarily 
associated. The point to be gained in such 
acquisitions is to connect these ideas in the mind 
in such a way that one will instantly, and, as it 
I were, automatically, suggest the other. 1 he per- 
ceptions of sight and hearing may both be 
brought into play in accomplishing this. The 
j former are, without doubt, the strongest and the 
most enduring, as Horace truly says, 

Seguius irritant amnios demissa per aurein, 
Quam qure sunt ciculis subjects fidelibus. 

Hence the use of the blackboard and slate, par- 
ticularly the former ; also the importance of 
repeating aloud from the printed page. (See 
Intellectual Education, Memory, Mnemonics, 
and Rote-Teaching.) 

ASTRONOMY (Gr. aorpov, a star, and v6uoc, 
a law), the science which treats of the heavenly 
bodies, has peculiarly strong claims to a place 

[ in every educational scheme of study, both as a 
means of intellectual training, and on account of 
the practical value of the class of facts which it 
embraces, as well as its ennobbng influence upon 

| the mind of the student. The progress of this 
science in modern times has been perhaps the 
most interesting feature of the intellectual histo- 
ry of the period, and its cultivation in this coun- 



ASTRONOMY 



55 



try has shed a peculiar luster upon American 
scientific and mathematical genius. The im- 
mediate results of this study not being so obvi- 
ous as those of most others to which is universally 
conceded a place in the courses of instruction 
prescribed for common schools, it has been in 
these schools, comparatively speaking, a neglected 
subject. But the science to which we owe OUT 
meansof measuring time, of locating places on the 
surface of the earth by longitude and latitude, of 
fixing the boundaries of countries and sections of 
country, of accurately mapping out coast-lines, 
of navigating the ocean, of ascertaining the mag- 
nitu le and exact figure of the globe which we in- 
habit, and determining its relations to the uni- 
verse, certainly should not be overlooked. Pri- 
marily, astronomy is a science of observation. Its 
materials are observed facts ; but it differs from 
many other natural sciences in that the observed 
facts, far from explaining themselves, demand a 
peculiar exercise of conception, judgment, and 
reason, in order to infer from them the truths 
which they obscurely indicate. Thus, when we 
observe the varying apparent diameters of the 
sun and moon, the phenomena of eclipses and 
ti les. the progressions, stations, and retrogra la- 
tions of the planets, etc., we have advanced, how- 
ever accurate our observations, but little toward 
a solution of the mysteries involved in these ap- 
pearances. We must conceive how. um ler ageneral 
hypothesis of the structure of the solar system, 
these phenomena are caused, since the phenom- 
ena often seem to be at variance with the facts ; 
e. g. the apparent motions of the planets appear 
to contradict the general truth, or law, of their 
eastward orbital motion. 

In teaching this subject, the order of investi- 
gation — the analytic method, should be at first 
adopted, for two reasons: (1) because in this way 
we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil 
clearer conceptions of fundamental facts, and (2) 
because he will thus form the habits of thought 
which are particularly needed in the study of this 
science. We should insist upon his observing for 
himself all the more obvious phenomena, and 
then stating, as fully and accurately as possible, 
the result of his observations. It is astonishing 
how many persons go through the world, filling 
the measure of a long life, without casting any- 
thing but an indifferent, uninquiring, and un- 
interested glance at the glories of the stellar firma- 
ment. So it is also with children, before their at- 
tention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to 
observe the wonders of the heavens. The teacher, 
therefore, should lead his pupils, by questioning 
them, to notice some of the most ordinary phe- 
nomena; as the rising and setting of the sun and 
the moon, the phases of the latter, the apparent 
diurnal revolution of the stare, the positions and 
apparent movements of the larger ami more con- 
spicuous planets among the stars, the ebb and 
flow of the tides, the solar and lunar eclipses, 
etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they 
have really been inattentive to what they might 
readily have observed, the pupils will strive to see 
these things for themselves, and will thus, in a 



short time, acquire such an experience of their 
own, as will enable them to pursue the study 
with interest and success. As soon as they have 
acquired a clear conception of these natural ap- 
pearances, their attention should be called to the 
explanation of them: and in this, for a short time 
at least, it would lie well to let the pupils try 
to think out for themselves some hypothesis to 
account for what they have Seen, and not to give 
them the correct scientific explanation until they 
have exhausted their own conjectures. For, it is 
not so much facts that we desire to communicate 
as mental habits: and. by the process here recom- 
mended, whatever facts are finally imparted, 
though they may be few, will be indelibly im- 
pressed upon the memory. This process is, how- 
ever, strictly in accordance with the educational 
axiom, that the pupil should be told nothing 
which he may be made to discover for himself: 
to which may perhaps be added, that he should 
be told nothing until he has endeavored to dis- 
cover it for himself, and has failed in the effort. 
(See Science Teaching.) After this prelimi- 
nary instruction, an elementary course in astron- 
omy would embrace the following topics ar- 
ranged in the order of presentation: — (1) The 
earth — its form, magnitude, motions, etc.. with the 
phenomena connected with it, and arising from 
its relations to the sun. such as day and night, 
and the seasons; C2) 'I he solar system — its general 
arrangement, the bodies of which it 's composed, 
with their magnitudes, distances, periodic times. 
the position of their orbits and axes, and their 
apparent motions; (3) The circles etc. of the 
sphere; as equator, equinoctial, ecliptic, merid- 
ians, tropics, polar circles, longitude and latitude, 
both terrestrial and celestial, declination and 
right ascension, the horizon, vertical circles, alti- 
tude and azimuth, etc. if the preliminary in- 
struction has been correct and thorough, these 
various tropics can be taught in such a manner 
as, at every point, to appeal to the learner's in- 
telligence, and. not as a mass of arbitrary facts, 
encumbering his memory for a while, to drop out 
afterwards as useless lumber. For example, if 
we would lead his mind to a clear idea of 
the use of longitude and latitude on the surface 
of the earth, we ask him to locate, that is, to 
describe the location of. any point on the surface 
of the globe. lie will soon be led to perceive 
that this cannot be done without some standards 
of reference; and thus the use of the equator 
and meridians will become obvious, and, in a 
similar maimer, that of altitude and azimuth, in 
locating the positions of stars and planets in the 
visible heavens, or right ascension and declina- 
tion, in fixing their places in the celestial sphere. 
No part of this science need be taught arbitra- 
rily. Even the numerical facts, as distances, mag- 
nitudes, periods of revolution, etc.. should, in 
part at least, be worked out. however rudely, for 
the student from the data of observation; or he 
should be required to work them out himself, 
after being taught the principles and methods 
involved. Thus, the teacher may begin with the 
diameter of the earth, and show how this has 



56 



ATHEXEUM 



been determined; then the distance of the sun 
from the earth, explaining in this connection the 
nature and use of parallax; then the linear di- 
ameter of the sun from its apparent diameter; 
then the sidereal year of the earth, and the 
sidereal periods of the planets from their observed 
synodic periods; and next the distances of the 
planets from an application of Kepler's third 
law, etc. In this way, the whole subject will be 
so woven together in the pupil's mind, that it 
will be impossible for him to forget its funda- 
mental principles, however few of its facts of 
detail he may retain. After such a course, it 
will be a very simple matter to present for his 
study the other important topics comprehended 
in the general subject. 

The use of diagrams and apparatus should 
be constantly resorted to in giving the instruc- 
tion here marked out ; but great care should be 
observed to prevent the use of apparatus from 
superseding or obscuring the ideas obtained from 
the observation of nature itself. The student 
must come down to the apparatus from a clear 
conception of the actual phenomena, using the 
machine to apprehend the manner in which the 
phenomena occur. Very simple apparatus is 
much to be preferred to cumbrous and compli- 
cated machinery, — admirable, perhaps, as pieces 
of ingenious workmanship but of little value for 
the purpose of illustration. The student should, 
however, be thoroughly practiced in the use of 
the globes, as a very essential part of the training 
comprehended in this branch of instruction. The 
use of a telescope, of at least moderate power, 
is also a valuable means of augmenting both the 
interest and information of the student, especially 
in connection with the study of uranography, 
which is certainly one of the most useful as well 
as entertaining departments of astronomical 
science. In this part of the study, a good plani- 
sphere will prove a valuable adjunct. 

The religious aspects of the study should not 
be lost sight of in giving this instruction. The 
student should be constantly reminded that, in 
studying the phenomena and laws of the material 
universe, he is contemplating the works of an 
infinitely wise and beneficent Creator, who has 
wonderfully endowed us with faculties to behold 
the splendor of his works, and, in some degree, to 
conceive of their vastness. Says a distinguished 
Herman educator: "Astronomy is, more than 
any other science, valuable as a study for youth. 
Xone will seize so strongly and fully upon the 
youthful mind. It hardens the body, sharpens 
the senses, practices the memory, nourishes the 
fancy with the noblest images, develops the 
power of thinking, destroys all narrow-minded- 
ness, and lays an immovable foundation for faith 
in God." 

ATHENEUM, or Athenaeum (Gr. 'ASi/- 
valov, a building dedicated to Athena, or Minerva, 
the tutelary goddess of Athens), was the name ap- 
plied to a temple at Athens, in which poets and 
scholars used to meet and read their productions. 
At Rome, a celebrated institution of the same 
name was founded by the Emperor Hadrian, on 



ATHEXS 

his return from the east, about 133 A. D. It 
existed until the 5th century, and also served as 
a school in which teachers, specially appointed 
for the purpose, gave instruction in poetry and 
rhetoric. In modern times, this name is frequent- 
ly used to denote a scientific association or the 
building in which such an association meets. In 
Belgium and Holland, it is used to designate 
a school of a higher grade, ranking next to the 
university. (See Beluiuji, and Xetherlands.) 

ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, one 
of the political divisions into which Hellas proper 
was divided, is famous as the city in which Greek 
science and education attained the highest degree 
of perfection. The educational laws of Athens 
constitute a part of the legislation of Solon. (See 
Solon.) They are, in some respects, in direct 
opposition to the principles which regulated 
public education at Sparta. (See Sparta.) While 
the Spartans almost exclusively aimed at develop- 
ing the highest perfection of the body, at Athens, 
a cultivated mind was regarded as the highest 
product of education. All the Athenian chil- 
dren, rich and poor, had to attend school and 
to learn how to read ; and tardiness in attending 
school as well as truancy was punished by "a fine. 
Pupils were not admitted to school before their 
seventh, nor after their tenth year of age. After- 
attending school for several years, poor children 
were required to be employed in agriculture, 
commerce, or some trade ; while the children of 
wealthy parents devoted themselves to music, 
hunting, philosophy, or similar occupations. If a 
father neglected to have Ms son instructed, the 
son was not bound to support him in his old 
age. The elementary schools had at first one, 
subsequently two teachers, — the grammatist, who 
taught reading and writing (7a j/m/j/iaTa), and 
the critic, who read the classics with the children, 
explained to them the poets, and heard them 
recite poems. Homer's works were in almost 
every school ; and, it is said, Alcibiades, on one 
occasion, boxed his teacher's ears because he did 
not find a copy of Homer in his school. The 
second book of the Iliad, which enumerates the 
tribes and princes who followed Agamemnon to 
the Trojan war, and the allies of the Trojans, 
supplied the outline of the instruction in geog- 
raphy, history, and genealogy. The grammatist 
first taught the children the alphabet, the forma- 
tion of letters into words, and reading; direct- 
ing them to pay special attention to long and 
short syllables, to correct accentuation, and to- 
euphonious pronunciation. When they had ac- 
quired a sufficient knowledge of reading, instruc- 
tion in writing began, embracing within its scope 
both tachygraphy (shorthand writing) and cal- 
ligraphy. The use of signs for abridgments was 
known to the Athenian short-hand writers. The 
letters were drawn by a stylus (a sharp-pointed 
iron instrument) on wax tablets, and copied by 
the children. The use of ink was also known. 
It was prepared of soot and gum, and applied 
to parchment, linen . or Egyptian paper (papyrus) , 
by means of a brush or tube. All the children 
were required to learn music and to play on, 



ATLANTA UNIVERSITY 



ATTENDANCE 



5T 



the lyre or cithara. Many learned also to play 
on the flute. The instruction in music was 
difficult, as the Greeks used a very complicated 
system uf notation. Among the ancient Greeks, 
however, music (uovoiirf/) had a much more com- 
prehensive signification, embracing .grammar, 
rhetoric, and poetics. The school-house (rd 616a- 
mcaXeiov) had benches for the boys.anda chair or 
pulpit (ua&idpa) for the teacher. The teachers of 
the elementary schools enjoyed but little repu- 
tation in consequence of the small amount uf 
their knowledge and their severity toward their 
pupils. The children of affluent parents were 
educated in the higher branches of study, as 
well as trained by regular bo lily exercises in the 
gymnasia. All the children were obliged to take 
part in the gymnastic exercises, in order that, by a 
proper physical development, they might be fitted 
for their duties as citizens, both in peace and war. 
At the head of each gymnasium, was thegymna- 
siarch, who was elected by the citizens fur the term 
of one year, and who not only did not receive any 
salary, but had to pay for the oil which was used 
for the anointment of the pupils. The gymnasi- 
archs were assisted by inspectors who had to 
maintain order, discipline, and cleanliness. The 
boys were required to attend at one of these in- 
stitutions for a term of two years, but they were 
allowed to make their own selection. They 
practiced in these institutions jumping, running, 
climbing, riding on horseback, driving chariots, 
wrestling, throwing javelins and quoits, fencing. 
and similar exercises. Special attention was given 
to swimming, which all Athenian boys had to 
learn. Every gymnasium had a bath which was 
closed at sunset, and which strangers, during 
bathing hours, were forbidden to enter upon 
penalty of death. The private tutor (irai8ayay6c) 
of an Athenian family was generally a trust- 
worthy slave, to whose care children were com- 
mitted on attaining their sixth or seventh year. 
He went with them to and from the school and 
gymnasium, and was rather their custodian than 
their teacher. The latter [SiSaaiaiKoc] instructed 
them in grammar, music, and other branches of 
learning. The education of girls was almost ex- 
clusively left to their mothers, and was generally 
much neglected. Orphan children, whose parents 
had fallen in battle, were carefully educated in 
the public institutions at the expense of the state. 
— See Schmidt, Gesehichteder Pddagogik,yol. i ; 
Wachsmuth, HeUenische AUerthumskunde, vol. 
ii.; II. I. Schmidt, History of Education (N. Y., 
1842); Grote, History of Greece, vol. vm. (N. Y., 
1859.) 

ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, at Atlanta. 
Ga., was organized in 1SI19, is non-sectarian, and 
offers the advantages of education to either sex, 
without regard to race, color, or nationality. 
It was established in accordance with a plan 
formed early in the history of the work of the 
American Missionary Association in the South. 
the means being furnished by the Freedmen's 
Bureau and the state of Georgia, as well as by 
the Association. The value of its grounds. 
buildings, etc.. is estimated at $100,000 ; and 



by a law passed in 1874, it receives an annual 
appropriation of Ssono from the State. Its 
library contains about 3000 volumes. In ls74, 
its corps of instructors numbered 14; and the 
whole number of students was 2.'i(> : in the pre- 
paratory department 4(i ; in the collegiate, 18 ; 
in the theological class, 3; and in the normal 
courses, 169. The normal department has sup- 
plied a large number of teachers for the schools 
of the State. The president of the institution 
is Edmund A. Ware, A.M. Its annual tuition 
fee is $24; but all pupils are required to work 
for the institution at least one hour a day. 

ATLAS is the name applied to a collection of 
maps, first thus used by Mereator in the sixteenth 
century, the figure of Atlas, bearing the globe 
on his shoulders, being on the title-page of his 
book of maps. Atlas, in the ancient mythology. 
was one of the Titans, who for the crime of at- 
tempting to take heaven by storm was compelled 
to bear the vault of the heavens. Some suppose 
that by this myth is communicated the fact that 
a certain king, named Atlas, labored to solve the 
astronomical problem of tin- starry universe. The 
first important atlas published in this country 
was that of Jedidiah Morse in 1775. Vast num- 
bers of this work were issued: and Blackw L"s 

Magazine remarked, that, it bad quite superseded 
all other works of the kind in this part of the 
world. Many new editions of the work were 
subsequently published. That of Sidney E. 
Morse in Is'.!:! was widely noted : and of this an 
edition with cerographic maps afterward had a 
very extensive sale down to comparatively recent 
times. Among the most important ami valuable 
atlases, apart from school geographies, at the 
present time, may be mentioned Stieler's Handr 
Allns, issued from Justus Perthes's world- 
renowned cartographical establishment at Gotha, 
under the editorial supervision of A. Petermann 
(completed in 1875). These maps are noted for 
their minute accuracy. Black's and Johnston's 
Atlases, published in England, are of great merit 
and value. Von Spruner's Historico-Geograph- 
irul . \lhis. and Menkes Orbis Antiqui Descriplio, 
also deserve to be mentioned. Among astronom- 
ical atlases, those of R. A. Procter are the most 
elaborate and correct. 

ATTENDANCE, School. This is an im- 
portant subject of consideration in estimating the 
effectiveness of any system of public education, 
as showing what proportion of the community 
participates in its benefits. Educational statistics 
are too imperfect and too deficient in uniformity 
to render any comparison of different states and 
countries in this respect entirely reliable. The 
average attendance, accurately computed, as 
compared with the entire school population, can 
alone show in what degree the people of any state 
or country participate in the advantages of the 
education provided by the government, and, con- 
sequently, the need of measures designed to in- 
duce or enforce school attendance. The annual 
average attendance is usually found by adding 
together the whole number of pupils present at 
each session during the year, and dividing the 



58 



ATTENDANCE 



sum by the number of sessions. Of course, this 
does not afford an accurate basis for comparison 
where the schools are kept open during different 
periods of the year ; since a school which has 
been kept open all the year would, with the same 
number of pupils, show no larger average attend- 
ance than one kept open only one half the year. 
To rectify tins, the aggregate number of pupils 
in attendance at all the sessions is often divided 
by a fixed number, without regard to the actual 
number of sessions. This method is sometimes 
legally enjoined for the purpose of an equitable 
distribution of the school moneys. Obviously, 
both the actual average and statute average are 
needed to ascertain the true effectiveness of a 
system of schools. The average attendance com- 
pared with the " average number belonging"' is 
useful as showing the temporary regularity or 
irregularity of attendance, arising from various 
local or incidental causes. (See Absenteeism.) 
It is generally conceded that in the United States 
— particularly in the Northern and Western 
States — there are but few native children who 
do not attend school some portion of the year, 
or who have never attended any school during 
their lives. It is chiefly among the foreign pop- 
ulation, that the opportunities for school attend- 
ance are neglected. 



Table of School Attendance. 



State 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut . . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine. 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri. ., 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey .... 

New York 

North Carolina. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. . 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina . , 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 



West Virginia . . 
Wisconsin 



Per cent of 

enrollment 

on school 

pop. 



35.8 
1 

73.9 
8G.3 
39.3 
31.7 
30.9 
70.5 
74.6 
72.1 
68.1 
? 

26.5 
54.4 
49.2 
100 
74.9 
61.3 
63.8 
52.6 
65.3 
76.3 
94.5 
62.5 
65.4 
42.1 
71.8 
50.5 
70.8 
89.7 
43.7 
00.2 
51.6 
87.3 
39.8 
62.4 
61.1 



Per cent of 

attendance 

on school 

pop. 



Per cent 
of atten- 
dance on 
enroll- 
ment. 



27.1 
16.9 
44.3 
48.2 
? 

23.7 
19.3 
40.8 
47.5 
44.8 
38.9 
26.8 
15.9 
49.0 
23.6 
71.8 
38.8 
? 

31.4 

29.8 
64.1 
45.8 
64.3 
32.3 
32.3 
28.1 
43.5 
37.1 
45.3 
55.8 
? 

37.5 
38.6 
55.9 
22.6 
38.7 
39.8 



75.6 
? 

60.0 
55.8 

74.9 
62.4 
57.8 
63.7 
62.2 
57.1 
? 

60.2 
89.8 
48.6 
70.7 
51.7 

9 

49.2 
56.7 
98.2 
59.9 
68.3 
51.6 
49.3 
66.6 
60.8 
73.3 
63.9 
61.9 
9 

62.3 
74.8 
64.0 
56.7 
63.0 
6.51 



The above table is chiefly based on returns 
made to the Bureau of Education at Washino-- 



ton (see Report of Commissioner of Education 
for 1874), and obviously shows, except in Mas- 
sachusetts, great irregularity of attendance, as 
compared with the census enumeration of child- 
ren of legal school age. The variations in the 
latter in tile several States must be taken into 
account in the consideration of these compara- 
tive statistical facts. (See School Age.) 

lu Delaware, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, and 
West Virginia, the school age is the same — 5 to 
21 ; in Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, 
North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and AVis- 
consin, it is from fa' to 21 ; in Georgia, Nevada, 
Tennessee, and Texas, it is from fa to 18 ; in 
California, 5 to 17; Connecticut, 4 to 16 ; and 
in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, 5 to 15. 
The excess of attendance over the enumeration 
in Massachusetts, indicates that pupils are per- 
mitted to attend school who have not as yet 
reached, or who have passed, the legal school age. 
The percentage of population between the ages 
of 5 and 15 enrolled in the schools in 1872 — 3 
was, in Alabama, 38 ; Delaware, 59 ; Florida, 
42 ; Maine, 90 ; Maryland, 07 ; Mississippi, 70 ; 
Missouri, 88 ; North Carolina, 51 ; South Caro- 
lina, 46; Rhode Island, 91; Tennessee, 50; 
Texas, 56 ; Virginia, 51 ; West Virginia, 67. 

In England and Wales, the average attendance 
at the public schools, in 1873, was about 28 per 
cent of the population of school age (between 
3 and 13) ; and about 69 per cent of the total 
enrollment ; and, consequently, the enrollment 
was about 41 per cent of the school population. 
Under the compulsory education act in force in 
that country, the school attendance had con- 
siderably increased. (See England.) . A careful 
comparison of the census returns of different 
countries shows that, on the average, the children 
between the ages of 6 and 1 2 constitute about 
17 per cent of the entire population. Comparing 
this rate with the following percentages of school 
attendance as compared with population, we may 
ascertain approximatively the relative rate of 
attendance in each country. In Saxony the 
school attendance is about 20 per cent ; in Prus- 
sia, 15 per cent; in Norway, 14 per cent; in 
the Netherlands, 13^ per cent; in Denmark, 13 
per cent ; in Scotland and Protestant Switzer- 
land, 11 per cent; in Belgium, 11 per cent ; in 
Austria, 10 per cent ; in England, 9 per cent ; in 
Ireland and Catholic Switzerland, 7 per cent ; 
in France, 5 per cent; in Portugal, 1{ per 
cent ; in Italy, I per cent ; in Greece, as 1 to 118; 
in Spain, as 1 to 170; and in Russia, as 1 to 700. 
Mr. Francis Adams, in his work on the Free 
School System of the United States (London, 1875), 
remarks, in connection with a comparison of the 
school attendance in this country with that of Eng- 
land : " While in England we have a more select 
enrollment, and, consequently, a more regular at- 
tendance than in many of the States, — some 
of them the principal Northern and Western 
States— yet, so far as concerns our hold upon the 
great mass of the population, we stand only on a 
level with some of the most backward of tie old 



ATTENDANCE 



ATTENTION 



59 



slave states. I do not forget that our average 
attendance is estimated upon a longer school year 
than that in most of the states, but against tins 
fact may be set the later school age in the United 
States ; and where allowance is made for every 
difference which would tell in our favor, there 
can be but one conclusion — that, in the work of 
getting the masses into school, we are still far 
behind a country in which absenteeism and irreg- 
ularity of attendance are admitted, on all hands, 
to be the most crying evils under which their 
system labors." 

There is considerable difference in the school 
attendance in cities and in rural districts, greatly 
in favor of the former, owing to the difference in 
circumstances. In summer, the children in the 
country are kept from school to assist in the 
rural labors of their homes; and in the winter 
they are often prevented from attending school 
by the long distance, which they have to travel, 
frequently over bad roads, in order to reach the 
school. The following exhibits the attendance in 
some of the large cities of the Union : 





Per cent of 


Per cent of 


Per cent of 


attendance 


atten 'ance 


attendance 


on whole 


on average 


on populat. 


enrollment 


enrollm't. 


7.7 


55.0 


80. 


12.2 


7.U 


92.5 


8.3 


50.4 


88.7 


s.l 


67.2 


94 2 


7.2 


74.5 


95.4 


8.9 


63.6 


93.5 


8.5 


66.3 




9.3 


50.9 


88.9 


7.8 


52.5 


89.0 


10.9 


63.0 


93.4 


9.7 


6K.4 


86.2 


5.4 


117.4 


93.4 


9.6 


61.9 


76.6 



Baltimore .... 

Boston 

Brooklyn 

Chicago 

Cincinnati .... 
Cleveland .... 

Detroit 

Jersey City . . . 

Newark 

New York. . . . 
Philadelphia. . 

St. Louis 

San Francisco. 

The only thoroughly reliable basis for a com- 
parison of the school attendance of different 
places is either the whole population or the 
school population between certain ages. The 
enrollment is not to be depended upon, because 
it is not kept the same way in different places. 
In some, it is greatly increased by including all 
the children enrolled in any of the schools during 
the year, many pupils being thus counted several 
times. 

The following table will permit a comparison 
between the American and English cities in re- 
spect to school attendance : 





Date "f 


Number 


Per cent of 




enrollment 


enrolled 


attendance 


Liverpool. . . 


Feb. 1875 


57,698 


66.6 


Leeds 


Feb. 1875 


44,4'.is 


61.8 


Bristol 


Feb. 1876 


25,182 


70.7 


Newcastle ) 
on Tyne J 


Jan. 1S7J 


17,444 


69.6 


Birmingham 


June 1875 


51.334 


67.6 


Manchester.. 


Feb. 1675 


4VJ75 


07.1 



It will be thus seen that the average attendance. 
;is compared with the number enrolled, is better 
in this country than in England. 

In estimating the efficiency of school systems, 
the period of attendance is a very important ele- 
ment to be considered. (See School Aoe, and 
School Year.) 



ATTENTION (from the Latin (endere, to 

strain, implying a strained effort of the mind) is 
perhaps the most important of the mind's activi- 
ties, since the quality and duration of the intel- 
lectual impressions depend upon the degree of at- 
tention with which the faculties have been exerted 
in acquiring them, 'there is no point of difference 
between the trained and the untrained intellect so 
striking as the voluntary power of fixing the mind 
for a continuous period of time upon any given 
subject. Hence, to discipline this power becomes, 
in an especial manner, the office and duty of the 
educator. Commencing with the most rudimen- 
tal exercise of the observing faculties, he passes 
on. step by step, to the process by which, through 
the entire and determined giving up. as it were, 
of the whole mind to the contemplation and study 
of any given class of facts or ideas, the student 
learns to evolve new truths, or analytically to ex- 
plain the intricacies of abstruse problems. When 
the attention has become obedient to the will, 
this branch of mental training is complete ; and, 
therefore, the aim of the educator should be to 
instill habits of controlling the attention, and 
rigidly preventing those of desultory, wayward 
application, or listlessness. This power of con- 
tinuous attention is, without doubt, the most 
valuable result of intellectual training. To pro- 
duce this result, it is of the first importance to 
interest the pupils, especially in the earlier stages 
of instruction. Young minds have an intense 
desire to know — not words merely, but things. 
They have a strong craving fur new ideas, anil 
take the deepest enjoyment in the exercise of the 
perceptive and concept ive faculties. Hence the 
importance of object-teaching. The perceptive 
faculties are exercised in the observation of the 
sensible qualities of all the different tilings with 
which the child is surrounded, or which may be 
presented to its view by the teacher, for the pur- 
pose of attracting its attention; and these objects 
should be diversified as much as possible, so as to 
appeal to the child's love of novelty. 

The attention should not be exercised for 
long periods of time. When the teacher per- 
ceives that it is flagging, it is best to stop the 
exercise ; for all that is done while the child's 
attention is relaxed, is worse than fruitless. 
It is from an inattention to this truth that 
children are often made incurably listless in 
school. They are set at exercises which awaken 
no interest in their minds, and, consequently, ac- 
quire ineradicable habits of superficial, careless 
attention. In all the subsequent studies of the 
pupil.it is essential that his interest be awakened 
as much as possible ; but it will be found there 
is a reciprocal action of interest and attention. 
The pupil having acquired in the first stages, in 
some degree, the habit of voluntary attention, 
will, as a matter of duty, apply his mind to the 
studies prescribed for him ; and this very appli- 
cation, if earnest and diligent, will soon excite 
tlie deepest interest in the subjects of study. 

The dependence of memory upon attention is 
well known to all who have observed, however 
superficially, the operations of the mind; and the 



60 



AUGUSTANA COLLEGE 



power to recall at will our mental impressions 
and acquisitions is perhaps directly in proportion 
to the attention with winch the associations bind- 
ing them together were formed. When these 
are feeble, loose, accidental, and formed with 
little volition, the mind will have but an imper- 
fect control of its thoughts, and will thus be 
wanting in the chief quality of a sound intellec- 
tual character. 

Attention requires a vigorous exercise of the 
brain, and, therefore, is, more or less, dependent 
upon the physical condition. When this has 
been exhausted by labor, either bodily or men- 
tal, or weakened by disease, attention is scarcely 
possible; and the effort to give it is injurious, 
because it induces still farther nervous pros- 
tration. Neither should deep attention be 
exerted or attempted immediately after a hearty 
meal. The nervous energy is then directed to the 
digestive functions, which active cerebration will 
greatly disturb. Hence, the diet of a student 
should be light, but nutritious. The brain should 
also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated 
blood. No one can think well in an impure at- 
mosphere, especially if it is contaminated by the 
breathing of many persons. In this way, children 
often surfer a serious loss of health. They are 
crowded in apartments too small for the number 
to be accommodated, and very imperfectly ven- 
tilated ; and, at the same time, are expected to 
give close and earnest attention to the subjects 
of instruction. This is a physical impos- 
sibility, and the attempt to do it must always 
be followed by disastrous results. In no re- 
spect has the aphorism, " A sound mind 
in a sound body " a more forcible application 
than to the exercise of attention. For what 
contrast can be stronger than that presented by 
the poor wretch whom disease has bereft of every 
mental state but wandering thoughts or absolute 
vacuity, and the man of sound health and a well- 
trained mind, who is ready at wall to concentrate 
all his intellectual energies upon a given subject, 
and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the 
object of his investigations has been attained ! 
(See Intellectual Education.) 

AUGUSTANA COLLEGE was founded at 
Paxton, HI., in 1863, by the Swedish Augustana 
Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. It 
was removed to Rock Island, 111., in 1875, where 
it has buildings, grounds, and apparatus estimated 
at $50,000 in value. It has a library of 7000 
volumes, a faculty of seven professors and two 
tutors, and 110 students, of whom 92 are in the 
collegiate department. The chief object of this 
college is to afford to young men a thorough edu- 
cation at the lowest possible rates (about SI 00 
per annum for tuition, board, and room), and also 
to prepare young men for the theological seminary 
connected with it, and for teaching' in the paro- 
chial schools of the Swedish Lutheran congre- 
gations. The Rev. T. N. Hasselquist, D.D., is the 
president. (1870.) 

AUGUSTINE, Saint (Lat. Aurelius Au- 
gustinus), a celebrated doctor of the Latin 
church, and one of the greatest of Christian 



AUGUSTINE 

teachers and theologians, was born Nov. 13., 354, 
at Tagaste, in Numidia, the modern Algeria. His 
father, Patricius, was a pagan; his mother, Mon- 
ica, a fervid christian. He was sent by his 
father to the famous school of Madaura, and 
after the death of his father continued his studies 
at Carthage. His life at this time was very licen- 
tious ; but he never forgot the pious instructions 
which his mother had given him, nor the devo- 
tional exercises to which she had accustomed him. 
Dissatisfied with the religious systems of the an- 
cient Greeks and Romans, as well as with the 
Jewish and Christian scriptures, he tried to find 
rest for his mind in the Manichean system. At 
Rome, to which he went at the age of 29, he 
achieved great reputation as a teacher of elo- 
quence. Six months later, he was called to Milan 
as a teacher of rhetoric. His intercourse with Saint 
Ambrose, who was then bishop of Milan, and the 
■ incessant entreaties of his mother, shook his faith 
I in Manicheism, and, in 387, brought about his 
I conversion to Christianity. He became at once 
one of the most prominent writers of the Chris- 
tian church; and after spending three years in 
seclusion at his birthplace Tagaste. he was obliged, 
in compliance with the demand of the people of 
the neighboring town of Hippo, to take orders, 
so that he might assist bishop Valerius in his 
failing age. After the death of Valerius, in 395, 
he was elected his successor, and continued bishop 
of Hippo till his death, in 430. His reputation 
as a theological writer, soon filled the entire 
church, and his influence upon theological doc- 
trine and upon the theological schools of the 
Christian world proved to be greater than that 
of any one who had preceded him. 

The most famous of all the numerous works of 
Augustine, the Confessions, has also a great edu- 
cational interest, as it contains the reflections of 
one of the most distinguished scholars of the 
Christian church on his own education. He de- 
monstrates, in the clearest light, the strong and 
imperishable influence of maternal education 
upon the whole after life of man ; and from his 
touching account of the fierce conflict between 
the highest intellectual and philosophical aspira- 
tions on the one hand, and moral weakness on the 
other, many prominent teachers have professed 
to have learned more than from the study of 
many theories of education. — Augustine followed 
TertuUiau in advocating a rigid exclusion of 
| pagan authors from the education of young 
j Christians. Especially did he oppose the reading 
of the " impious fables of the poets, the polished 
i lies of the rhetoricians, and the verbose subtleties 
i of the philosophers ;" but the reading of the 
i historians he did not absolutely object to. This 
question as to the use of pagan classics in Chris- 
tian schools has continued to be a lively contro- 
versy in the Christian church ; and, even in the 
nineteenth century, the views of Tertullian and 
' Augustine have found many defenders. (See 
Christian Classics.) 

By the establishment of a training institution for 
candidates for the priesthood, Augustine laid the 
foundation of episcopal seminaries, and gave a 



AUSTIN COLLEGE 



AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES 61 



powerful impulse to the diffusion of theological 
science among the clergy. He refused to ordain 
any one as a priest who had not been edu- 
cated in his .seminary. A number of his pupils 
established similar institutions in their dioceses; 
and. when the church of North Africa was dev- 
astated by the incursions of the Vandals, the 
African bishops established seminaries in many 
of the places where they found a refuge. — 
By his work De catechizandis rudibus, Augustine 
became the father of Christian catechetics. The 
work was compiled in compliance with the ap- 
plication of a deacon of Carthage, by the name 
of Deogratias, who wished to have a guide-book 
for the instruction of the catechumens. In this 
work, Augustine demands for the instruction of 
the catechumens a historical basis, regarding an 
outline of Bible history as the best compendium 
of the knowledge that is necessary for salvation. 
Of the other writings of Augustine, the work De 
musica, a dialogue between a teacher and a 
scholar, and De magistro, which treats of Christ 
as the best teacher, are partly of an educational 
character. — See Schmidt, Geschichte der Pctda- 
gorjik. II, 59, sq. ; Bindemajtn, Der heil. Augu- 
stinm, (2 vols., 1844 — 1855); PoujoulaT, Vie de 
St. Augustin ; Moshetm, Ecclesiastical History, 
vol. i.; The marks of St. Augustine, edited by 
M. Dons (London. 1874—6).' Of the earlier 
editions of his works, that by the Benedictines, 
in 11 vols. (Paris, 1679 — 1700) is considered the 
best. 

AUSTIN COLLEGE, at Buntsville, Texas, 
was founded in 1849, by Presbyterians. Its 
grounds, buildings, and apparatus are valued at 
$60,000. It has a library of 3000 volumes, and 
a preparatory and classical department. The 
number of students is about 90. The Rev. S. 
M. Luckett. A. M., is the president. The annual 
tuition fee is from $30 to $50. 

AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES. This 
name is now commonly used to designate the 
English colonies on the continent of Australia, as 
well as the neighboring islands of Tasmania and 
New Zealand. The following exhibits the area 
and population of each of these colonies : 

New South Wales . 308,560 sq. m. 584,278 iuhab. 

Victoria 88,451 " 807.7.56 " 

South Australia . . . 380,002 " 204,ss.'i " 

Queensland 668,259 " 460,000 " 

West Australia 975,824 " 26,209 " 

Northern Territory. 526,531 " 200 " 

Tasmania 26,215 " 105,000 " 

New Zealand 106,259 " 299,500 " 

Total .3,077,701 sq. m. 2,187,826 inhab. 

Native* i Allstnllia 5o,W " 

Olives \ New Zealand 45,500 ' 

Grand Total 2,2ss.::26 iuhab. 

The progress of most of these colonies, especial- 
ly that of New South Wales, Victoria, and South 
Australia, has been very rapid; and it may be 
safely inferred from their vast resources, as well 
as from their rapid progress in the past, that 
these colonies will, ere long, hold a prominent 
place among the civilized countries of the world. 
Their national language is the English. There is 
no state church as in England, but the Episco- 



palians form the dominant body as regards num- 
ber. Next to these, are the Roman Catholics. 
who constitute about 25 per cent of the total 
population. The Methodists rank third. All 
other sects are well represented. 

As the colonies are independent of each other, 
each has its own educational system, which, how- 
ever, in all the colonies is more or less assimi- 
lated to the educational law of England or the 
national system of Ireland. At the head of the 
system, is a board or council of education, con- 
sisting of members appointed by the govern- 
ment. The government establishes schools to be 
entirely supported and controlled by the state, but 
also grants aid to schools established by other 
parties, in case they submit to certain regula- 
tions. In several of the colonies, education has 
been made compulsory. With regard to grade, 
the schools consist of primary schools, grammar 
schools, colleges, and universities. Of the latter, 
two have been in operation for some time, — 
those at Sydney and Melbourne, the former in 
L 874 with 45 students, the latter with 122. A 
third university was more recently established at 
I lunedin, New Zealand, and a fourth, in 1875, at 
Adelaide. A monthly periodical, devoted to 
education, is published in Sydney. 

The Australian Handbook and Almanac iot 
1876 gives the following educational facts and 
statistics for the several countries: 

Neir Smith Wales. — The number of schools is 
returned at 1 508, with 2334 teachers of both sexes. 
and 110,287 scholars, of whom 57.91 7 are boys. and 
52.370 girls. Under the council of education, 
there were 942 schools, employing 877 male and 
512 female teachers, with 92,303 scholars of both 
sexes. These schools are particularized as public 
schools, provisional schools, and half time schools. 
The denominational schools under the board num- 
ber 209, of which 90 belong to the church of 
England , H~ to the Roman Catholics. 15 to the 
Presbyterians. 10 to the Wcslcyans, and 1 to the 
Jews. 'I here are also under the control of the 
board 2 orphan and .'! industrial schools. The 
private schools of the colony number 555, of 
which 55 arc for boys, 87 for girls, and 413 mixed. 
St. Paul's College 'had 12 students. St. John's 
College 4, the Grammar School 293. the Deaf 
and Dumb Institution 53. Toward the support 
of these educational institutions, the sum of 
£154,220 was contributed by the government, 
and £67,377 was received in shape of fees and 
voluntary contributions. The number of Sunday 
schools was 1,1)23. with an average attendance of 
51,478, and 6,497 teachers. 

Victoria. — Of day schools, including state 
schools, private educational establishments, col- 
leges, and grammar schools, there were, March, 
31., 1873, 1936, with an attendance of 160,743 
scholars and 4,257 teachers. The common schools 
numbered 1,048, with 2.416 teachers, 73,826 boys, 
and 62.136 girls. The local receipts for the 
maintenance of the schools, arising from fees and 
other sources, were £117,868. this amount being 
supplemented by a government grant of £182.202. 
making a total of £300,070. The private schools 



6:2 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES 



AUSTRIA 



numbered 881, with 11,024 male and 13,595 
female scholars, and 528 male and 1236 female 
teachers. The number of grammar schools and 
colleges was 7, of which 2 were Episcopalian, 3 
Presbyterian, 1 Methodist, and 1 Roman Catholic. 
The total number of masters in these colleges 
and grammar schools was 77, the total number 
of students 1,162. Under the new educational 
act, the instruction in the state schools is free, 
secular, and compulsory. The governing power 
is in the hands of a minister of education, assis- 
ted by a secretary. Each school is under period- 
ical inspection. The teachers are required to pass 
an examination, and are paid by fixed salaries; but 
they also receive the fees of the scholars, and have 
a further allowance according to the progress 
made by the scholars under their charge. The 
number of Sunday schools was 1,381; Episcopa- 
lian 262, Presbyterian 308, Wesleyan 324, Prim- 
itive Methodist 73, Congregationalist 54, Bap- 
tist 59, Roman Catholic 171; with 111,540 schol- 
ars and 11,815 teachers. 

South Australia. — The central board of 
Education consists of 7 members ; the officers 
are 3 inspectors and a secretary. The number 
of licensed schools open at the close of 1874 was 
320, with 17,426 enrolled pupils, and 315 
teachers. 

West Australia. — The legislative council in 
1870 passed an education act, based upon the 
principle of Foster's act, now in operation in 
England. Schools are divided into elementary 
and assisted schools. The former are maintained 
wholly at the cost of the colony, the latter are 
private, but may receive a capitation grant on 
submitting to government inspection for secular 
results, and to the observance of a strict conscience 
clause during the four hours of secular instruc- 
tion enjoined by the Act. The elementary schools 
are under the control and supervision of a central 
board appointed by the governor, and the local 
district boards elected by the electors. Attendance 
at school may be enforced by the local boards. 
In the elementary schools, one hour a day is de- 
voted, under the provisions of a conscience clause, 
to reading the Bible or other religious books 
approved by the board; but no catechism or 
religious formulary of any kind can be used ; and 
the Bible must be read, if at all, without note 
or comment. In 1874, the number of national 
and assisted schools was 85, with an average 
attendance of over 3,000. There is a Church of 
England collegiate school in Perth, under the 
patronage of the bishop. 

Queensland. — Education is free. The prop- 
erty of the schools, and the land granted for 
school purposes, are vested in a board of educa- 
tion. Aid is granted to schools not established 
by the board, on complying with certain regula- 
tions. The state also assists in the establishment 
of grammar schools, whenever a district raises a 
sum for this purpose by subscription. In 1874, 
there were 203 primary schools, with 590 teach- 
ers, and 29,012 scholars. There were also 62 
private schools, with 118 teachers and 2,123 
scholars. The parliamentary appropriation for 



j educational purposes in 1874 was £72,000, tho 
1 local subscriptions were £3,116. The property 
vested in the board was valued at £83,358. 

Tasmania. — The educational system is under 
the management of a council, and the attendance 
of children at school is compulsory. The number 
of schools supported by the government was, in 
1874, 147, average attendance 7,970, scholars 
enrolled 12,1 58, teachers 108maleandll6female, 
besides 39 pupil teachers and paid monitors. 
There are four schools of a higher grade. The 
number of Sunday schools is 112, with 1,112 
teachers and 10,011 scholars. 

In New Zealand, each province has its own 
laws and regulations. To both national and de- 
nominational schools, in some cases, state aid is 
given ; in others, it is limited to national schools. 
Dunedin has a university. In 1871, out of chil- 
dren from 5 to 15 years of age, 59 in every 
hundred could read and write, and 72 were at- 
tending school. The increase in attendance from 
1872 to 1874 was very large. The number of 
common schools, in 1874, was 494, of colleges 
and grammar schools 4, and of private schools 
182; total 680, having an attendance of 41,027 
scholars, of whom 21,774 were males, and 19,253 
females. Of the entire attendance, 33,790 be- 
longed to the common schools; 498, to the col- 
leges and grammar schools; and 6,739, to private 
schools. Besides these, there were 47 native 
schools, with 68 teachers and 1,244 scholars. 

AUSTRIA (Germ. Oesterreich or Oestreich, 
eastern empire), officially designated since 1868 
as the Avstro-Hungwian Monarchy, has an 
area of 240,381 sq. m., and a population, ac- 
cording to the last census, in 1869, of 35,904,435. 
The empire now consists of two main divisions, . 
Austria proper and Hungary, each of which has 
the legislative and administrative control of its 
own educational affairs. In this article we shall 
treat only of Austria proper, called also Cis- 
leithania, because the small river Leitha con- 
stitutes part of the frontier between it and Hun- 
gary. For the rest, see Hungary. 

Austria proper, or Cisleithania, consists of 
14 provinces with an aggregate area of 115,925 
sq. in., and a population numbering, according to 
the census of 1869, 20,217,531, and estimated at 
the close of 1874 at 21.169,341. The provinces 
formerly were either independent, or belonged to 
different states, and they still are inhabited by 
people of various nationalities. An official cen- 
sus of the nationalities has not been taken since 
1850 ; but their comparative strength is well 
known, and the estimates made by writers on 
this subject substantially agree. The Germans 
number about 7,109,000, or 35,16 per cent ; the 
Czechs and Slovacks, 4,719,000, or 23,34 per 
cent ; the Poles, 2,444,000, or 12,09 per cent ; the 
Ruthenians, 2,585,000, or 12,80 per cent; the 
Slovens or Winds, 1,196,200, or 5,92 per 
cent ; the Croats or Serbs, 522,400, or 2,58 per 
cent ; the Magyars, 17,700, or 0,09 per cent ; the 
Italians, 588,000, or 2,91 per cent ; the Rouma- 
nians, 207,900, or 1,02 per cent; the Jews, 
820,000, or 4,05 per cent. Two of the provinces, 



AUSTRIA 



63 



Upper Austria and Salzburg, are wholly Ger- 
man; besides, the Germans have a majority in 
Lower Austria (90 per cent), Carinthia (69 per 
cent), the Tyrol (60 percent), Styria (63 percent), 
and Silesia (51 per cent). The Czechs control 
two provinces. Moravia (71 per cent) and Bohe- 
mia (60 per cent): the Slovens one, Oarniola (93 
per cent); and the Croats or Serbs one, Dahna- 
tia (87 per cent). In four provinces, no one na- 
tionality has an absolute majority ; in Galieia, 
the Ruthenians number 44 per cent, and the 
Poles 42 ; in the Bukovina, the Ruthenians 40, 
and the Roumanians 39; in the Littorale. the Slo- 
vens 42, the Italians 31, and the Croats 21. 

A greater harmony than in regard to the 
nationality of the inhabitants, prevails in re- 
spect to their religion. The Roman Catholics, in 
1869, constituted 91,92 per cent of the total 
population ; the Jews 4,06 per cent, the Ortho- 
dox Greeks 2.27, the Lutherans 1,22, the Re- 
formed 0,51, all others 0,02 per cent. Included 
in the number of Roman Catholics are the 
United Greeks (11,53 percent) and the United 
Armenians (0.02 per cent). The Roman Cath- 
olic Church is in the majority in every province, 
except the Bukovina, and in every nationality, 
except the Roumanian. 

Until the government of Maria Theresa, public 
education was in a very backward state. As late 
as 1770, thirty years after the accession of the 
empress to the throne, only 24 per cent of 
the children from the . r >th to the 13th year of 
age attended the public schools of Austria ; in 
Lower Austria, only 16 per cent; in Silesia, only 
4 per cent. The large majority of the children, 
especially in the country, grew up without any 
instruction. The first impulse to the thorough or- 
ganization of a public school system was given by 
a memorial which the bishop of Passau, Count 
Firmian, addressed to the empress. In accordance 
with his suggestions, the council of state proposed 
the establishment of two permanent school com- 
mittees for the provinces of Upper and Lower 
Austria for the purpose of improving the methods 
of teaching and the administration of the schools. 
The government approved the plan, and the first 
committee was established May 19., 1770. One 
of the first acts of the committee was the estab- 
lishment of a model school at Vienna, in January, 
1771, and of a model school fund. The influence 
of these reforms was so satisfactory, that the 
establishment of school committees, school funds, 
and model schools in all the other provinces, 
was either carried into effect, or at least begun. 
The establishment of a court committee on stud- 
ies (Studienhof commission), February 12., 1774. 
which was to have the chief control of all the edu- 
cational affaire of the empire, was another re- 
form of great importance. In December. 1774. 
the first comprehensive school law was published. 
It provided for the establishment, in connection 
with every parish church, of a common (trivial) 
school, in which religion, Bible history, reading, 
writing, and the elements of arithmetic, should be 
taught; for the establishment in each circle of at 
least one principal-school (Hauptschule), with 



three or four teachers, who should give instruction 
in the Latin language, geography, history, com- 
position, drawing, geometry, and the elements of 
agriculture ; and for the establishment, at the seat 
of each school committee, of a model and normal 
school, which, besides extending the course of in- 
struction pursued in the principal-school, was also 
to prepare candidates for the < »mce of teacher. At- 
tendance at school was made obligatory after the 
6th year of age. and penalties were imposed upon 
parents and guardians who shoidd fail to send 
their children to school. All teachers were bound 
to use the text-books which the. government 
caused to be specially prepared for the Austrian 
schools. The school law was chiefly the work of 
Abbot Felbiger, who in connection with Kinder- 
mann and other distinguished educators, worked 
indefatigably to carry into effect, the provisions of 
the law. The emperor Joseph 1 1. regarded the dif- 
fusion of education as the soundest basis of his 
reformatory schemes. He enforced by compul- 
sory laws the education of all children from 6 to 
12 years of age ; and. in 1 781 . ordered a general 
school census to be taken. The patrons of the 
churches were required to provide for the estab- 
lishment of a school in connection with every 
church which was without one. The patent of 
toleration of Oct. 1 3., 1 781 , gave also to the Prot- 
estants of the Augsburg and Helvetic confessions, 
and to the non-united Greeks, the right to estab- 
lish a church and school for every 500 persons. 
The Jews, also, were at first authorized, but soon 
afterward commanded, to establish schools for the 
education of their youth. Great prominence was 
given, even in provinces not German, to the teach- 
ing of the German language, the knowledge of 
which was an indispensable qualification for an 
appointment to any state office. Instruction in 
singing, mechanical work, and horticulture was 
recommended. Corporal punishment was limited 
to extreme cases. A review course of instruction 
( Wiederholungsunterricki) was to be provided 
on Sundays and holidays for children who had 
finished the course of the elementary schools. In 
the capital of each of the circles into which the 
Austrian provinces were divided, school commis- 
sioners were appointed to superintend the public 
schools in common with the deans. 1 luring the 
reign of the emperor Leopold, teachers' associa- 
tions were organized, and delegates chosen by 
these associations were admitted to the provincial 
boards of education. A revisory committee on 
studies (Sfiii/iriiri'rinionsvommission), which was 
formed in 1 795, under the emperor Francis, pre- 
pared a new constitution for the public schools, 
which was published in 1805, and formed for a 
long time the legal basis for public education in 
Austria. The influence of teachers and teachers' 
associations on the government of the schools was 
greatly restricted ; while, on the other hand, that 
of the Catholic Church was greatly extended, the 
inspection and superintendence of schools being 
almost wholly transferred to the parish priests and 
the bishop. The organization of the review course 
of instruction, a peculiar feature of the Austrian 
system, was completed in 1816 by a special law. 



04 



AUSTRIA 



which made attendance at the review course of 
instruction compulsory until the close of the 
15th year of age or the end of apprenticeship. 
In 1828, the government began to publish statis- 
tical accounts of the progress of public educa- 
tion, which, as appeals from these accounts, con- 
tinued to be steady in all the provinces of the 
empire. A peculiar feature in the educational 
history of Austria, at that time, was the more 
general introduction of the vernacular languages 
of the various nationalities into the public 
schools, in place of the German, which thus far 
had been too predominantly used even in some 
districts not German. Among the first re- 
sults of the revolution of 184S, which led 
to the abdication of the emperor Ferdinand I., 
and the accession of the emperor Francis Joseph I., 
was the establishment of a ministry of public 
instruction, which in the same year published an 
outline of the proposed reorganization of all the 
Austrian schools. This outline established several 
important principles : (1) The maintenance of a 
public school was made obligatory for the com- 
munities ; (2) Instruction was everywhere to be 
given in the mother-tongue of the pupils ; and 
(3) For the candidates of teachers who formerly 
had received only a six months' instruction, a 
special course of two or three 3 r ears was arranged, 
which was gradually to be developed into a teach- 
ers' seminary. In 1849, Count Leo Thun was 
appointed minister of public instruction, who, dur- 
ing the eleven years of his administration, carried 
into effect some of the reforms proposed in the 
outline, and organized in the capital of every 
province a provincial school board, consisting 
partly of experienced educators who received the 
title of school councilor (Schulrath), and partly 
of administrative officers. But the chief aim of 
this minister was the establishment of a far-reach- 
ing control of the Catholic Church over the public 
school system. The concordat between Austria and 
the Pope, which was concluded in August, 1855, 
provides that the entire instruction of the Cath- 
olic youth, both in public and private schools, 
must be in accordance with the Catholic religion; 
that all the teachers in the Catholic schools are 
placed under the superintendence of the church, 
and that the bishops will propose to the govern- 
ment fit persons for the office of school superin- 
tendents. The disastrous issue of the war against 
France and Italy led to the introduction of 
several sweeping reforms, and the establishment 
of a national representation, or Beichsrath, in 
which the Liberal party impetuously demanded 
the emancipation of the public schools from the 
control of the church, and the abolition of the 
concordat. The ministry of instruction, which 
was looked upon by the Liberals as a tool of the 
church was totally abolished ; but the govern- 
ment showed great reluctance in yielding to other 
demands of the Liberals. A new organization 
of the public school system was provided for by 
the law of May 14., 1869. It substitutes for the 
former Haupt- und Trivialscliulen (high and 
common schools) a division into Volksschulen 
(■people's schools) and Biirgerschulen (citizens' 



schools). The subjects to be taught in the 
former are religion, language, arithmetic, writing, 
o-eometrical forms, the elements of natural science 
and history, singing, and gymnastic exercises. 
According to the number of teachers allowed, 
it may have from one to seven classes. In the 
Burgerschule, moreover, composition, natural 
science, geometry, book-keeping, and drawing are 
taught, Schools of the latter class have, when com- 
plete, 8 classes, or if connected with a Volksschuie 
of 5 classes, only 3 classes. The commimities 
must establish a school whenever, in the circuit 
of one hour's walk, 40 children are found who 
attend a school at least half a German mile 
distant. A second teacher is allowed when the 
number of children exceeds 80 ; and. another 
for every additional 80. The school age lasts 
from the 6th to the 14th year. There are special 
school boards for the communities, districts, and 
provinces. The number of Biirgerschulen and 
Volksschulen in 1871, was 14,769, of which 6560 
were German, 5746 Slavic, 1080 Italian, 24 
Roumanic, 5 Magyar, 3 Greek, and 1352 mixed. 
The number of male teachers was 20,904; of 
female teachers, 3,445. The attendance at school 
was 941,497 boys and 878,193 girls. In two 
provinces, the Tyrol and Moravia, the number of 
children attending school exceeded that of the 
children of school age; in Upper Austria, Bohemia, 
and Silesia, it was between 90 and 96 per cent. ; 
in Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, and Carhithia, 
between 75 and 95; in Carniolaand the Littorale, 
between 50 and 55; inGalicia, 20; inDahnatia,15; 
and in the Bukovina, only 12 per cent. The middle 
schools, which prepare boys for the higher studies, 
are either gymnasia, realschools, or realgymnasia. 
The gymnasia prepare their pupils for the uni- 
versities, the realschools for the higher technical 
schools, and the realgymnasia for both. In 1870, 
there were 97 gymnasia with 27,287 pupils, 24 
realgymnasia with 3,210, and 50 realschools with 
13,229 pupils. Of universities there are 7: those of 
Vienna, Gratz, Innspruck, Prague, Cracow, Lern- 
berg, and Czernowitz. They all contain, like the 
German universities, 4 faculties, except Lemberg 
and Czernowitz, which have only 3. The number 
of students, in the winter semester of 1874 — 5, 
was, at Vienna 4,223, at Gratz 930, at Innspruck 
633, at Prague 2,011, at Lemberg upwards of 
1100, and at Cracow upwards of 1,000. There 
are seven technical high schools: 2 at Prague 
(1 German and 1 Czechic), and 1 each at Vienna, 
Gratz, Briinn, Lemberg, Cracow, and, in all, about 
270 professors and 3,000 pupils. Male teachers' 
seminaries were first established in accordance 
with the new law of 1869, in 1870. Of these, 
there were, in 1873, 40, with 145 principal and 
207 assistant teachers, and 2,111 pupils, of whom 
1,093 were Germans, 530 Czechs, 215 Poles, 93 
Ruthenians, 128 Croats or Servians, 95 Italians, 
and 15 Roumanians. For the education of female 
teachers, there are 21 seminaries, with 105 princi- 
pal and 111 assistant teachers, and 1,667 pupils. 
* number of special schools is very large, 



The 



embracing theological, medical, and industrial 
schools, schools for navigation, mining, agricul- 



AUTHORITY 



65 



ture, forestry, and the fine arts, together with 
military institutions, institutions for the deaf and 
dumb, and the blind, orphan asylums, infant in- 
stitutions [creches). 

The most important educational periodicals 
are Ber Oesterreichisclie Schulbute (since 1851) 
and Zeitschrift fiir ostreichische Gymnasien 
(since 1850). 

A full account of the history and statistics 
of public education in Austria is given by Dr. 
Ficker, in Schmid's P&dagoq. Encyclopddie, v< i. 
v. p. 242 — 566. See also Hei.fert, System dcr 
oslreich. Volkssclnde (Prague, 1861), a collection 
of all the laws relating to the public school 
system ; Sohimmer, Siaiistik der Lehranstalten 
des tistreich. Kaisersiaates von 1 s51 — 1857, 
(Vicuna, 1858). The latest official statistics 
are annually published in the StoMstische Jahr- 
buch, by the central statistical commission of 
Vienna. 

AUTHORITY (Lat, auctoritas), the right 
to command, or the persons or body by whom 
the right is exercised ; sometimes also, in matters 
pertaining to the intellect, the power to influence 
or exact belief. In education, the term has espe- 
cially this twofold application : (1) to the disci- 
pline, or management of children ; (2) to their in- 
struction. The primary authority, both in re- 
spect to time and importance, to which the child 
is subjected is that of the parent ; and for several 
years no other can be exercised over it, except in 
loco parentis. It is true, the state extends a pro- 
tecting care over the child ; but only by an exer- 
cise of its authority over the parents, requiring 
them to perform their proper duties as the nat- 
ural guardians of their children. When t he- 
parents neglect oi repudiate these duties or are 
guilty of acts in contravention of them, the state 
interposes its authority, but not even then direct- 
ly, upon the child, but only to place it under the 
authority of those who will better care for its 
interests, and perform for it the natural duties 
of its parents. The right exercise of parental 
authority is, therefore, one of the most important 
elements in the education of the child. (See 
Parental Education.) If the child from its 
earliest years has been accustomed to recognize 
and submit to the authority of its parents, firmly 
but judiciously exercised, there will be. ordinari- 
ly, but little difficulty, on the part of the teacher, 
in making his authority effective. The child, on 
entering the school, feels for the first time that 
it is under an authority different from that of its 
parents, to which it has previously learned to 
submit with unquestioning obedience. Its first 
impulse is, perhaps, to refuse submission to this 
new authority ; and the influence of the teacher 
over the child will greatly depend upon the man- 
ner in which obedience is enforced. (See Disci- 
pline.) In the authority of the teacher, as well 
as in that of the parents, two elements are com- 
bined, — one that attracts and encourages, and 
one that curbs and subdues. Without the former, 
authority is arbitrary and violent ; without the 
latter, it is feeble and often powerless. In other 
words, the authority that truly educates should 



be founded not alone upon fear, but upon love 
and esteem as well. The authority of the teacher 
is not, like that of the parents, 1 iasei 1 upon a natural 
law. but is delegated either by the parents or by 
those who stand in the parental relation to the 
child. This is what is meant when it is said that 
the teacher is in loco parentis ; not that he lias 
exactly the authority of the parent, but only i so 
far as it is not limited by the general usages of 
society, or by special contracts. The conscien- 
tious teacher cannot, for a moment. doubt that it 
is his duty strictly to observe these limits ; since, 
by willfully overstepping them, he must either 
break a contract, or violate a most sacred trust ; 
and, in either case, his authority will be either 
weakened or destroyed. 

When schools are controlled by boards of edu- 
cation or boards of trustees, such constituted 
authorities stand to the children in place of tin- 
parents, in respect to school education ; and the 
teachers become simply the agents of the school 
board, and can only exercise an authority limited 
by the rules of such board. The limits of the 
authority delegated to teachers by the appointing 
] lower, vary considerably in different places, 
some school boards reserving to themselves 
certain powers or functions which others confer 
upon the teacher. It is a matter of the utmost 
importance that all persons concerned in the edu- 
cation of the child should co-operate harmoni- 
ously; since nothing tends so much to weaken 
the force of authority in the mind of the child as 
to notice a conflict among those under whose 
control it is placed. Father and mother, parent 
and teacher, teacher and school board, should, at 
any rate, as far as the child is aware, agree ab- 
solutely; since the less children know of any differ- 
ence of opinion between their custodians, the 
more cheerfully will they respect and submit to 
I he prim iple of authority in general. 

Many cases will arise, both in the family and in 
the school, in which children will refuse submis- 
sion to the authority of their educators : and hence 
the mode of enforcing authority becomes a mat- 
ter of serious importance. Authority, of course, 
implies a control of the will of those over whom 
it is exercised; and the means by which this is 
to be obtained will differ according to the dis- 
position and habits of the child, and. to a con- 
siderable extent, also according to the character of 
the educator himself. A violent, irascible, morose, 
or capricious parent or teacher will have a con- 
stant conflict with the < hild. and will never be able 
to establish his authority, to whatever extent, for 
the time being, he may compel a seeming obedi- 
ence. Authority is thus described by an eminent 
teacher ; — " It is not mere legal form, nor the 
instrumentalities for executing it, that constitutes 
authority. It is a power in the individual him- 
self, independent of all circumstances, and rising 
in its own majesty above all mere conventionali- 
ties. It is a power difficult to describe, but 
which sends out its streams of influence along 
the teacher's pathway. It exists in the man, de- 
manding, securing, and retaining cheerful obedi- 
ence." Authority should not be exercised as such; 



66 



AUTHORITY 



" the right-feeling parent," says Herbert Spencer, 
" like the philanthropic legislator, will not rejoice 
in coercion, but will rejoice in dispensing with 
coercion." (See Moral Education.) In this connec- 
tion, arises the question of the propriety of corpo- 
ral punishment to enforce authority in the family 
or school. AH educators are agreed, that the use 
of physical force, if at all sanctioned, should be 
only, as a dernier ressmi, brought in when every 
other means of coercion has failed ; some, how- 
ever, condemn the "use of the rod" utterly. 
Locke assents to it only in cases of extreme ob- 
stinacy. " The teacher," says D. P. Page, " has 
the right to establish authority by corporal in- 
fliction ; and thus to save the school and also 

save himself It is Ms duty to establish 

authority, peaceably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly 
if he must." (See Corporal Punishment.) In 
the exercise of authority, both parent and teacher 
should faithfully consider the influence they are 
exerting over the future character of the child. 
As Locke says, " Every man must some time or 
other be trusted to himself and his own conduct ; 
and that he is a good, a virtuous, and able man, 
must be made so within." In the family and 
school, as in the great world beyond, authority 
should, as far as possible, be exercised without 
being felt. Riehter justly remarks, " The best 
rule in politics is said to be 'pas trop gouverner'; 
it is also true in education." 

The principle of authority has an important 
application to the mental as well as the moral 
education of children. In the earliest stages of 
intellectual instruction, the child must receive 
most of the information imparted to it on the 
authority of its teacher ; but modern principles 
and methods require that, even from the first, as 
far as possible, the child should learn for itself 
by the exercise of its perceptive and conceptive 
faculties, and not merely on the authority of its 
teachers. Much, however, must be imparted, 
that is beyond the scope of the child's under- 
standing and experience ; and, consequently, 
there will be a wide range for the operation of the 
teacher's authority. It will, of course, be greater 
or less in proportion to his personal influence in 
other respects, and particularly in proportion to 
the confidence felt by his pupils in his wisdom 
and attainments. In some instances, as exem- 
plified in the history of religious orders and 
creeds and of the schools of philosophy and 
science, the authority of eminent teachers has 
often been so great as to exert an influence for 
many centuries over thousands, or even millions, 
of intellects. Such was the intellectual authority 
of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and other leaders 
of ancient schools of philosophy. Teaching too 
much by authority, and failing to appeal suffi- 
ciently to the reason and judgment of the pupil 
is an error to be carefully avoided ; since it must 
exert a disastrous influence upon the student's 
habits of thought and acquisition. With all 
due deference to the philosopher of Samos, who 



was content to have his disciples depend upon, 
the Ipse dixit Pythagoras, his example cannot 
be wisely imitated by the teachers of our time. 
Every one must learn to form his own opinions, 
carefully, dispassionately, after due investigation, 
and a proper consideration for the conclusions 
and experience of other minds ; but still they 
must be his own. The teacher should infuse into 
the minds of his pupils an intellectual independ- 
encej — not a skeptical questioning of every- 
thing, but a thoughtful investigation of the why 
and the wherefore, a diligent balancing of the 
weight of testimony, and a habit 'of inquiring 
into the ultimate reasons of things, as far as they 
can be adduced. Tins will impart concentrative- 
ness and activity of mind, and call into exercise 
the judgment and reflection upon whatever is 
presented to the attention, whether in study, 
reading, or conversation. The pupil thus in- 
structed would soon realize the force and beauty 
of that fine sentiment of Emerson : " I had 
better never see a book than be warped by its. 
attraction clean out of my own orbit, and made 
a satellite instead of a system." Montaigne 
strongly condemned the prevalent mode of teach- 
ing by authority. " Let the tutor," says he, 
" make his pupil examine and thoroughly sift 
every thing he reads, and lodge nothing in 
his head upon simple authority and upon trust 
.... Let him know that he does know." Rous- 
seau also severely criticised the pedagogy of his 
time, for basing the science of education on the 
principle of authority. He demanded that the 
pupil should not know anything merely because 
it was told him by the teacher, but because he 
understood it. He should not learn the science, 
but discover it. " If," said he, " you give him 
an authority instead of a reason, he will never 
think independently, but will always be the foot- 
ball of the opinions of others." This is an ex- 
treme view, as every teacher of experience must 
know. The authority of the teacher cannot be 
eliminated in intellectual education ; since to do so 
would put the undeveloped understanding of the 
pupfl on an equality with the mature and devel- 
oped intellect of the instructor ; neither can its. 
just limits be definitely fixed. The disposition 
to accept the statements of the teacher as truths, 
when not fully understood, should be cultivated. 
Modesty is often as requisite and as becoming in 
thought as in morals. The great principle to be 
kept in view — and it is to the credit of Rousseau 
that he so clearly perceived, and so emphatically 
enunciated it — is, that authority should not have 
its aim within itself, but that its object should be 
to develop the faculties of the pupil, so that he 
may fully understand as true and right, what he 
has received on the authority of the teacher. — 
See Montaigne, Essais (Cotton's translation, 
edited by W. Hazlitt) ; Locke, Tlioughts on 
Education; Rousseau, Emile ou de I'Edacation; 
Herbert Spencer, Education: Intellectual, 
Moral, and Physical. 



BACCHANTS 



BACON 



67 



BACCHANTS (Lat. Bacchantes) is a term 
applied in medieval times to those university 
students who had not yet finished their lirst 
year's studies, and being taxed for drinking pur- 
poses by the older students, were thus drawn 
into revels and debauchery. Later, this name 
was given < to those idle, dissolute students who 
traveled about the country, collecting money, 
ostensibly to enable them to pursue their stui lies. 
Sometimes they were accompanied by pupils, 
whom they compelled to steal and beg for them. 
(See A 1! ( -Shooters.) So numerous were these 
itinerant scholars, that organizations of them 
existed with constitutions and rituals; and some- 
times these bodies were suppUed with board and 
lodging by the cities in which they located them- 
selves. These practices ceased almost entirely 
with the Reformation, but we find traces of them 
in Germany and England down almost to the 
present century. Burkard Lingg and Thomas 
Platen were Bacchants, whose autobiographies in 
I ■ crin.ui are still extant. 

BACHELOR (Lat. Baccalaureus), a term ap- 
plied to one who has reached a certain grade in a 
college or university education ; as, Bachelor of 
Arts (A. B., or B.A.), Bachelor of Oiv& Law 
(B. C. L.), Bachelor of Divinity (B. U.), etc. The 
word as thus used is of uncertain etymology. It 
Wits introduced into the University of Paris by 
Pope Gregory IX.. in the 13th century, and ap- 
plied as a title to those students who had passed 
certain preliminary examinations, but were not 
prepared for admission into the rank of master, 
teacher, or doctor. Afterwards, it was adopted 
by other European universities, to indicate the 
lowest academical honor, as it is now used both 
in this country and in Europe. (See Arts, and 
Deorees.) 

BACON, Francis, Viscount St. Albans 
and Baron Verulam, one of the most illustrious 
of English philosophers, was born in London, 
Jan. 22., 1561, and died April 'J., 1626. Little is 
known of his early education, but from the social 
position of his father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, he 
must have enjoyed the advantages of the best in- 
struction that could have been obtained. He 
was matricidated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
in 1573 ; and, after going abroad for a time, he 
returned and commenced the study of the law 
in 1580. He was soon called to the bar, and in 
1590, his reputation was so great, that he was 
made " counsel extraordinary" to Queen Eliza- 
beth. He afterwards served in parliament, when 
he showed so much spirit, that on receiving the 
royal rebuke for a certain speech, which he had 
delivered, he nobly replied, that "he spoke in 
discharge of his conscience, and his duty to God, 
to the queen, and his country." As an orator, 
he was much commended by his contemporaries. 
Ben Jonson said that while he was speaking. 
" the fear of eveiy man that heard him was lest 
he should make an end." The earl of Essex 
had been his friend and benefactor ; but when 



that rash and unfortunate nobleman was under 
trial, Bacon, evidently from fear of the queen's 
displeasure, spoke .severely against him, and was 
instrumental in securing his conviction. This has 
subjected him to much obloquy, as being guilty 
i if meanness and ingratitude. After the acces- 
sion of James I., Bacon rose rapidly in the royal 
favor; his professional practice became very targe 
and lucrative, besides which he held the office of 
attorney general which yielded him £6,000 per 
annum. In 1616, he was made lord high 
chancellor, and, besides, received the title of 
Baron Verulam; and, in 1621, he obtained the 
additional title of Viscount St. Albans. At this 
time, he stood upon the highest pinnacle of polit- 
ical preferment and literary fame ; for he had 
just published his greatest work, the Novum 
Organum. From this lofty position he suddenly 
fell, accused ami condemned of taking bribes 
from those whose cases were before his court. 
1 lis own words to the House of Lords, when the 
farts had been disclosed by an investigation, were. 
" 1 do plainly and ingenuously confess that I am 
guilty of corruption, and do renounce all defense. 
and put myself upon the grace and mercy of 
your lordships." He was, accordingly, sentenced 
to pay a fine of £4(1,000, and to suffer imprison- 
ment in the Tower during the king's pleasure 
(1621). He was, however, released from confine- 
ment in two days, and the fine was subsequently 
remitted. He never regained the position he 
had so disgracefully lost, but spent the few re- 
maining years of his life in a studious and liter- 
ary retirement. Between the career of Bacon as 
a politician and his career as a philosopher there is 
a marked contrast. -Had his hie," says Macaulay, 
"been passed in literary retirement, he woidd, ill 
all probability, have deserved to be considered, 
not only as a great philosopher, but as a worthy 
and good-natured member of society. But 
neither his principles nor his spirit were such as 
could be trusted, when strong temptations were 
to be resisted, and serious dangers to be braved." 
His desire to keep up a grand establishment, to 
make a brilliant figure in society by the princely 
character of his entertainments, Ins equipage, and 
all the other fascinations of luxury, caused ex- 
penditures far beyond his means, which he 
endeavored to meet by unlawful gains. His 
philosophical views were in one sense entirely 
consistent with his character. They were prac- 
tical ; they aimed to make science minister to the 
worldly wants of mankind. The scholastic learn- 
ing of the universities which he had inveighed 
against shortly after leaving Cambridge, was, he 
perceived, nothing but antiquated, profitless word- 
learning. He wished to incite to the discovery 
of new truth, that it might •• mix like a living 
spring with the stagnant waters." " Two words," 
says Macaulay, " form the key of the Baconian 
doctrine — utility and progress. The ancient 
philosophy disdained to be useful, and was con- 
tent to be stationary. It dealt largely in theories 



68 



BACON 



of moral perfection, which were so sublime that 
they never could be more than theories ; in at- 
tempts to solve insoluble enigmas ; in exhorta- 
tions to the attainment of unattainable frames of 
mind. It could not condescend to the humble 
office of ministering to the comfort of human be- 
ings." Bacon held that all knowledge must be 
obtained by a careful and unprejudiced induction 
from facts. Hence the importance of experiment ; u 
for without experiment man may indeed stumble i views, in setting free the human mind from errors 



BAHEDT 

fails to remark in it something overlooked before." 
In his essay on Education, Bacon refers all its 
efficacy to custom, or habit: " Certainly custom 
is most perfect when it beginneth in young years: 
this we call education ; which is, in effect, but an 
early custom." But Bacon's contribution to edu- 
cation does not consist in any particular precepts 
concerning it or any special treatment of that sub- 
ject ; but in the general effect of lus philosophical 



on the discovery of truth, but by experiment in 
ventions are made. " Bacon," says Kuno Fischer 
"is the philosopher, not simply of experience, 
but of invention. His only endeavor is philosoph- 
ically to comprehend and fortify the inventive 
spirit of man. From this point alone is his op- 
position to antiquity to be explained." Bacon's 
career commenced at a time when a great in- 
tellectual revolution was already in progress. 
The Aristotelian philosophy so called, which was 
indeed a perversion of Aristotle's teachings, and 
the senseless attempt to employ the syllogism as 
an instrument of discovery, had already disgusted 
a large number of active minds, as being utterly 
barren of fruit. As Macaulay remarks, " Before 
the birth of Bacon, the empire of the scholastic 
philosophy had been shaken to its foundation. 
Antiquity, prescription, the sound of great names 
had ceased to awe mankind." Bacon's mind was 
so constituted as to sympathize at once with this 
changed condition of tilings ; and throwing the 
weight of his vast intellect against the already tot- 
tering fabric, he precipitated its fall. As Aristotle 
analyzed the method of deductive reasoning, so 
Bacon explained the principles and method of in- 
duction, proving it to be the great instrument, or 
organon, for the discovery of truth and the im- 
provement of the condition of humanity. The 
full title of his great work is Novum Organwn, 
sive Indicia Vera de Interpretations Natural 
et Regno Hbminis. (Tlie New Organon, or 
True Directions concerning the Interpretation of 
Nature and the Kingdom of Man.) The key to 
the whole philosophy is contained in the first of 
the aphorisms of which it is composed : " Man, 
being the servant and interpreter of nature, can 
do and understand so much, and so much only, 
as he has observed, in fact or in thought, of the 
course of nature ; beyond this he neither knows 
any thing nor can do any thing." Previous to 
the publication of this work, he had published 
The Advancement of Learning (1605), which 
was the germ of De Augmentis Scientiarum, 
published in 1623. These and other works, 
published or proposed by liim, were to constitute 
an Instauratio Magna — a grand re-establish- 
ment not only of the true method of scientific 
investigation but of science itself, in all its varied 
departments. Modern discovery and invention 
are to a great extent the offspring of this splendid 
gift of human genius. Bacon's most popular 
work was the Essays, originally published in 
1597, but afterwards enlarged and improved. 
Dugald Stewart has said of this work, " It may 
be read from beginning to end in a few hours, 
and yet after the twentieth reading, one seldom 



and prejudices, and placing it on the direct road 
which leads to scientific truth. The best edition 
of Bacon's works is that edited by Spedding, 
Ellis, and Heath, vols. I. — xv. (London and Boston, 
1858 — 1861). In this is contained the life of 
Bacon by William Rowley, D.D., his chaplain. — 
See also Macaulay's Essays, s. v. Bacon; Hep- 
woetii, Personal History of Lord Bacon (Lon- 
don, 1859); Bemusat, Bacon, sa vie et son in- 
fluence (Paris, 1857); Kuno Fischer, Francis 
'Bacon von Verulam (2d edit., Leipsic, 1875), 
which has been translated into English by John 
Oxenford (London, 1857) ; American Journal 
of Education, vol. iv. (1829), passim. 

BADEN. See Germany. 

BAHRDT, Carl Friedricb-, a German 
professor and scholar, was born in 1741, and 
died in 1792. As professor of theology at 
the universities of Leipsic, Erfurt, and Giessen, 
he was regarded as one of the foremost rep- 
resentatives of the theological rationalism which 
prevailed at that time. As his dissolute life 
and his fondness for violent theological quar- 
rels made his position as professor of theology 
impossible, he eagerly accepted, in 1775, the 
management of a philanthropin founded by 
HeiT v. Salis at Marschlins, in the Swiss canton 
of Orisons. (See Philanthropic) As he soon 
quarreled with his patron, his connection with 
this institution lasted only one year; but having 
been appointed superintendent-general at Diirk- 
heim, he established, in May 1777, a new philan- 
thropin in the neighboring castle at Heidesheim. 
This attempt was likewise unsuccessful, and the 
new philanthropin on the brink of ruin, when 
Bahrdt was suddenly summoned before the 
Reichshofrath (Lmperial Court Council) for 
teaching doctrines not in accord with any of the 
three churches recognized in the empire, and, 
without any trial, deprived of all his offices. The 
unfairness of this treatment gained for him a 
great deal of sympathy, and from the Prussian 
government an appointment as professor at the 
university of Halle ; but in consequence of the 
unsteadiness of his habits, he held this posi- 
tion likewise only a short time, and lost with it 
the esteem of nearly all who knew him. Bahrdt 
was one of the most gifted men of his age, and 
but for his total want of moral character, woidd 
imdoubtedly have risen to great eminence, both 
as an educational writer and a practical educator. 
He founded two educational periodicals, entitled 
Literarisches Correspondenz- unci Inlelligenzblatt 
(1776) and Padagogisches Wochenblatt (1778), 
which clearly indicate the rare talent of the editor, 
but neither of which survived the first year of 



BALDWIN UNIVERSITY 

its existence. The disrespect which was generally- 
felt for Bahrdt, greatly injured the entire school 
of Philanthropinists. He published an autobiog- 
graphy, entitled Dr. Bahrdt' s //in/my of his life, 
his opinion* and //in vicissitudes ( ( vols., Bruns- 
wick, 1790). winch is of considerable value for 
the information it gives of the educational move- 
ments of those times. — See Lessee, Karl Fried- 
rich Bahrdt CM edit,. Neustadt, 1870). 

BALDWIN UNIVERSITY, at Berea, 
Ohio, was established in 1840 as Baldwin Insti- 
tute, for the education of both sexes, by the 
North Ohio conference of the .Methodist Epis- 
copal church. Ten years afterward, it was char- 
tered as a university under its present name. 
Its design is to provide the means of a thorough 
general education, or to afford to students a com- 
plete scientific basis for the various industrial 
pursuits. It has a scientific and a classical de- 
partment, in each of which there are preparatory 
and collegiate classes. There is also a college of 
pharmacy connected with the institution. It 
received a valuable endowment in quarry land 
from John Baldwin, after whom it was named. 
Its successive presidents have been John Wheeler. 
D.D., from 1856 to 1871 ; W.I), (iodman, D.D., 
from 1871 to 1875; and A. Schuyler. LL. 1).. 
from 1875. The number of students in the in- 
stitution, in 1875 — 76, was 180. The tuition is 
free. 

BALTIMORE. The first attempt to pro- 
vide the means of education for the lower classes 
in this city was the establishment, in L820, of a 
school on the Lancasterian system. In 1825, an 
act was passed by the legislature, which author- 
ized the establishment of public schools in Balti- 
more, and empowered the corporate authorities 
to levy a tax for their support. In 1828, a board 
of six school commissioners was organized ; and. 
the next year, three schools were opened, and 269 
pupils enrolled. The first school-house was 
erected in 1830, hired buildings having previously 
been used. In 1839, the number of pupils en- 
rolled had increased to 1,126; and the mayor 
and city council requested the commissioners to 
establish a high school. The request was promptly 
complied with, and the school opened the same 
year. This had the effect not only to raise the 
grade, but to increase the efficiency, of the com- 
mon schools; for, the next year (1840). there 
were nine schools in operation, with 1 ,834 pupils. 
Since that time the growth of the system has 
been rapid. In 1874, there were 122 schools, 
and the number of pupils enrolled was 29,108, of 
whom there were 23,362 in average attendance. 
The first superintendent of public instruction 
was Rev. J. N. McJilton, who served for about 
twenty years, acting, from 1 849 to 1 866, as treas- 
urer of the board as well as superintendent ..! 
the schools. He was succeeded. Feb. 1., 1868, 
by William R. (Veery; and after his death, 
-May 1., 1875, the present incumbent. Prof. 
Henry E. Shepherd, was elected to the position. 
School Statistics. — For the year ending 
Sept. 30., 1875, the following statistics were 
reported : 



BALTIMORE 



69 



Number of schools 125 

Number of pupils enrolled 42,589 

Average daily attendance 2 I,'ftl8 

Number of teachers '71m 

Number of months schools were open. 10 

Amount paid for teachers' salaries S42G 719 75 

do do for school buildings li;7.:i(;:i!78 

do do for books and stationery ."» 1 ,7;~< 7! i:» 

do do for colored schools 45 496.78 

do do for other expenses 25,'(iOl!o2 

Total expenditures $71«,ti:is.s2 

The school age is from 6 to 18 ; and the num- 
ber of children in the city between those ages 
was reported, in the census of 1870, as 77,737. 
School System, — The system consists of a 
school board of twenty members — one for each 
ward of the city: a city superintendent, and as- 
sistant superintendent: a city college: two female 
high schools ; a Saturday normal class ; 19 male 
and 20 female grammar schools; 61 primary 
schools ; 10 evening schools, of which 4 are 
colored ; and 1 1 day schools for colored children. 
The Commissioners of Public Schools, con- 
stituting the school-board, are appointed by the 
two branches of the city council assembled in 
convention, one commissioner being selected from 
each ward. Their term of office is one year, or 
until a new board is appointed. This board ap- 
points a superintendent of public instruction 
whose term of office is four years, unless sooner 
removed by the board. It also has authority to 
employ teachers and determine their salaries, to 
prescribe the courses of study and the books to be 
used in the schools, and to make all needful reg- 
ulations for the management of the same. 

'I he studies prescribed for the primary schools 
are spelling, definition of common words, read- 
ing, writing, geography, the primary rules of 
arithmetic, drawing, and music. The studies for 
the male grammar schools are spelling, etymol- 
ogy, reading, writing, composition, grammar, 
geography, history of the United States, history 
of Maryland, natural philosophy, arithmetic, al- 
gebra, drawing, music, and single entry book- 
keeping. For the female grammar schools the 
same studies are prescribed, except algebra and 
I .. ,1 ik-keeping. 

Examination and Qualification of Teachers. ' 
— Applicants for the situation of teachers in the 
public schools must pass a written examination 
before the committee on examinations of the 
board. The regular time for such examinations 
is the second Saturday in November and May of 
each year ; and a certificate is given to each suc- 
cessful candidate, showing the result and the 
grade. The following are the studies for each 
position and grade : 

r. . For any situation in the city college or for prin- 
cipal of a female high school, the studies required to 
be taught. 

II. For iir-t assistants of a female high school, arith- 
metic, algebra, geometry, history, natural philosophy, 
chemistry, and moral philosophy. 

III. For any other situation iu a female high school, 
tin- studies which the candidate would be required to 
teach if appointed. 

IV. For principal and first assistant of a male gram- 
mar school, arithmetic, algebra, etymology, geogra 
phy, grammar, history, orthography, natural philos- 
ophy, and music. 



70 BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE 



BAPTISTS 



V. For principal and first assistant of a female 
grammar school, grammar, modern geography, his- 
tory, etymology, orthography, arithmetic, and music. 

VI. For principal of a primary school, grammar, 
modern geography, arithmetic, history of the United 
States, orthography, and music. 

VII. For lower assistants in a grammar or primary 
school, grammar, arithmetic, orthography, modern 
geography, and music. 

In addition to these, all teachers must pass an ex- 
amination in geometry and physiology before receiv- 
ing a certicate of any grade. 

Two-thirds of the questions in each branch must be 
answered in order to pass the candidate for any 
grade. 

No person is eligible to any position as teacher 
in any of the schools under the following ages : 

Professor in city college or principal of a 
male grammar school 21 years. 

First assistant in male grammar school 19 years. 

Principal of female grammar school 20 years. 

Principal of a primary school 20 years. 

First assistant in female grammar school. . . .18 years. 

Assistant in female high school 18 years. 

Second assistant in grammar or primary 
school 17 years. 

Industrial Education. — Voluntary instruction 
in the domestic and industrial branches of female 
education is given by the teachers in several of 
the grammar and primary schools. This was 
commenced at the request of the president of the 
school board, and embraces sewing, knitting, em- 
broidery, and some other useful branches, one 
afternoon of each week being set apart for the 
instruction. The results have been highly ap- 
proved, as affording an accomplishment of great 
practical value both in the home-circle and as a 
means of support. 

Training of Teachers. — The normal class, 
established Sept. 12., 1874, is designed to afford 
to newly appointed teachers of the city schools 
instruction in the theory and practice of teach- 
ing. It is under the supervision of the superin- 
tendent of public instruction. The State Nor- 
mal School is located at Baltimore, besides which 
there is a normal school for the instruction of 
colored teachers. (See Maryland.) 

BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE. This 
institution is under the care of the commission- 
ers of public schools of Baltimore, and forms a 
part of the common school system of that city. 
it was originally established as the Central High 
School, with 46 pupils ; but has graduated more 
than 500 students. The number on the roll 
Oct. 31., 1874, was 400, and the number of in- 
structors was 11. Candidates for admission must 
pass a satisfactory examination in spelling, writ 
ing, grammar, geography, arithmetic, and algebra 
through simple equations. The curriculum em- 
braces the English, French, German, and Latin 
languages (Greek optional), history, writing, and 
book-keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trig- 
onometry, analytical geometry, calculus, physiol- 
ogy, chemistry, physical geography, natural phi- 
losophy, astronomy, psychology, logic, rhetoric, 
moral philosophy, political economy, and the con- 
stitution of the United States. The full course 
is four years. Boys fourteen years of age, 
whether pupils of the public schools or not, may 
be admitted on passing the required examination. 



A handsome and spacious edifice for the accom- 
modation of this institution was completed in 
1875. 

BALTIMORE FEMALE COLLEGE, 
at Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1849, and was 
under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church from that date to 1868, when, by an act 
of the legislature, the Board of Trustees became 
a permanent corporation ; and the Board is now 
composed of Methodists, Episcopalians, and Pres- 
byterians. The number of students in the in- 
stitution is (1876) about 100 ; Nathan C.Brooks. 
LL. D., has been the president of the College since 
its foundation. It has an endowment of $2,500 
from the State of Maryland, but tuition fees con- 
stitute its chief support. "While its course of 
higher education has been general, it has trained 
and sent forth 157 teachers, most of whom are 
occupying positions of responsibility in academies, 
high schools, and colleges. 

BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians 
distinguished by the denial of baptism to infants, 
and by the restriction of that rite to those 
who therein profess personal faith and regenera- 
tion. They baptize by immersion only, and in the 
form of their church-government are congrega- 
tional. In England, they are known as General and 
Particular, the former, which is by a few years 
the older denomination in that country, being 
Arminian. and the latter which composes the far 
greater part of the denomination, being Calvin- 
istic, in theology. They are likewise distinguished 
as Close- Communion and Open - Communion, 
the larger part of the denomination in England 
being Open-Commuuion. Baptists came to this 
country with the first settlements. In Rhode 
Island, their churches are as old as the colony; 
and before the close of the seventeenth century 
they had gathered churches in Boston, in the 
neighborhood of Philadelphia, and at Charleston. 
Their rapid growth commenced about the middle 
of the eighteenth century. At the time of the 
Bevolution, they are supposed to have had about 
25,000 communicants. In 1876, they have more 
than 1,800,000. The great body are known by 
the appellation Baptists ; lesser bodies are known 
as Free-Will, or lately as Free, Seventh-Bay, Six 
Principles, and Old School. All these last con- 
stitute a fraction only of those who bear the 
generic name. The Bisciples, or CampbelKtes, 
followers of Alexander Campbell, are a large 
secession, distinguished by peculiar theological 
views.^ In this "country, the Baptists, meaning 
by this the chief denomination so called, are 
Close-Communion; — that is, believing that no 
baptism is regular which is not the baptism of a 
believer and by immersion, and that a regular 
baptism is to preach participation in the Lord's 
Supper, they restrict their communion to the 
members of their own churches. 

Several of the ministers, in the rise of the 
Baptist denomination in England, were univer- 
sity graduates: but that source hopelessly failing 
with the Restoration, the Baptists are found, 
with other denominations, taking measures for 
the education of a ministry by means strictly their 



BAPTISTS 



71 



■own. The first resort was to private tuition, and 
Mr. John Tombes, at one time preacher in the 
Temple church, Loudon,, was the teacher of 
young ministers. In 1075 and in 1689, concerted 
action was taken in the denomination in this 
direction. Edward Jewell of Bristol, dying about 
1 686, left a legacy which provided for instruction 
to candidates for the ministry, and became after 
the lapse of thirty years the foundation of a school, 
known still later as the Bristol College. With 
the growth of the denomination several other 
colleges arose, which according to the " Baptist 
Hand-Book for 1876" (London. 1870) were 
located in the following places : Bawdon near 
Leeds (founded at Ilorton. 1804, removed to 
Bawdon 1859) ; Pontypool, (founded at Aber- 
gavenny. 1807, removed to Pontypool, 1836) ; 
Regents Park, London (founded 1810; removed 
to Begents Park, 1856) ; Haverfordwest (found- 
ed 183!)) ; Chihvell, near Nottingham (founded 
1797, removed to Chihvell. 1861) : Pastor's Col- 
lege. Metropolitan Tabernacle, London, (founded 
1861); Llangollen, or North Wales (founded 
1862) ; Manchester Baptist Theological Institu- 
tion (founded 186f>) ; The Last End Training 
Institute for Home and Foreign Missions, Lon- 
don (founded 1873). All these colleges are un- 
derstood to be for the education of ministers 
only. 

In the American colonies, the denomination 
had not grown to sufficient magnitude in the 
seventeenth century to undertake any denomi- 
national work in education. In the earlier years 
of the eighteenth century, appear their first 
graduates from American colleges. Down to 
and including 1770. the number of their college- 
bred ministers, so far as can now be ascertained, 
was 19, of whom, however, two were not gradu- 
ates. They had an equal or larger number whose 
education was not greatly inferior to that of a 
college course. 

Notices of attempts towards the education of 
their ministry under denominational auspices, 
appear early in the history of the Philadelphia 
Association, — the benefactions to Harvard Col- 
lege of Mr. Hollis, a London Baptist, having 
been a stimulus in that direction. Similar meas- 
ures were taken in 1755 in the Charleston As- 
sociation. In 1750 was opened the Academy at 
Hopewell. N. ,1.. which was the cradle of Rhode 
Island College, now Brown University, organized 
in 1701. Academies had been opened and 
sustained for many years by individual teachers, 
in the half century following the establishment 
of Brown University, but no general movement 
in the direction of education occurred till about 
the time of the organization of the denomination 
for the work of missions. In this organization 
education was embraced. To this date, 1812 — 20, , 
must be referred efforts to establish theological 
schools in Philadelphia and New York City, at 
Waterville, Maine, and at Hamilton, N. Y.. and 
the rise of several societies to give pecuniary aid 
to young men preparing for the ministry- The 
Philadelphia movement became merged in the 
founding of Columbian College, Washington D. 



C; the New York movement in the rise of the 
institution at Hamilton, now known as Madison 
University, but having in alliance with it a the- 
ological seminary; and the Waterville movement 
in the establishment of the college, now known 
as Colt University. With the close of that de- 
cade commenced the rapid establishment of col- 
leges and universities under the auspices of the 
denomination in all parts of the country. George- 
town College, Ky., bears the date of 1829 ; 
Denisou University, Ohio. 1831 ; Shurtieff Col- 
lege, 111., 1832; Water Forest ( Y.llcgc. N. < !., 1834; 
Franklin College, Ind. 1834 : Mercer University, 
Ga., 1837 ; Richmond College, Va.. 1840; How- 
ard College., Ala., 1843; Baylor University, 
Texas, 1845 ; University at Lewisburg, Pa., 1*47; 
William Jewell College. Mo.. 1849 ; University 
of Bochester, N. Y., 1850 ; Mississippi College. 
1850 ; Furman University, S. C, 1851 ; Mossy 
Creek College. Tenn., 1853 ; Central University, 
Pella, Iowa, 1853 ; Kalamazoo College, Mich., 
1855 ; Bethel College, Ky„ 1856 ; McMinnville 
College, Oregon, 1858; University of Chicago, 
111., 1859 ; Waco University, Texas, 1861 ; Yas- 
sar College, N. Y., 1861 ; University of Des 
Moines, Iowa, 1865; La Orange College, Mo., 
1*00; Concord College. New Liberty, Ky., 1866; 
Louisiana Baptist College. Mo„ 1869; California 
College. 1 S7 1 ; Monongahcla College. Pa., 1*71 ; 
Southwestern University. Tenn.. 1*74. Of the 
later ( olleges, those which have risen to chief 
reputation and strength, are in the North, 
Rochester. Madison and Denison, and in the 
South, Richmond. Yassar, the chief college in 
the United States for young women, should be 
ranked with Baptist institutions only from the 
fact, that the founder, an adherent of the denomi- 
nation, made the majority of its trustees Baptists, 
charging them, however, to make it Christian 
and unsectarian, which they have done. Several 
of the colleges in the above list are very weak, 
and some hold the title doubtfully. According 
to the Baptist year-book of 1*70, the total 
amount of property held by the Baptist colleges 
is $8,045,146. This must be accepted as a proxi- 
mate statement only, and is in part probably 
exaggerated. Brown University has a very 
valuable library of 45,000 volumes, several have 
libraries from 9,000 to 12,000 volumes; Brown 
University lias a library fund of about 827,000, 
and the University of Rochester of $25,000. 
The total number of students in 1875 — 70 was 
4,985, of whom 1,092 were females. These num- 
bers, however, are of uncertain significance, be- 
cause in some cases professional, and in many 
cases preparatory students are included. The 
curriculum of these colleges varies in character, 
but corresponds in that respect with the vary- 
ing character of American colleges in general. 
Some of them take rank with colleges of the 
first class. 

There are in the United States six Baptist 
theological seminaries of the highest grade, be- 
sides departments of theology in four or more 
colleges. Of these seminaries, Hamilton was 
founded in 1820, Newton in 1825, Bochester in 



72 



BARBAULD 



1850, Southern in 1859, Chicago in 1867, and 
Crozer in 1868. In these seminaries, there were 
in 1875 — 76, 362 students, of whom probably 
about 300 were in the complete courses. These 
courses designed for graduates of colleges, are as 
high and as thorough as are known to theological 
seminaries. 

There are likewise in the United States about 
forty academies, or institutions of that grade 
having other names, which are classed as under 
Baptist auspices, holding property of the estimat- 
ed value of $2,000,000. Among these academies 
or other institutions, are those established under 
the protection and patronage of the American 
Baptist Home Mission Society, at Washington, 
Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia, Augusta, Nash- 
ville, and New Orleans, for the education of 
colored preachers and teachers. These institu- 
tions, though in their infancy, are performing a 
very important and successful service. 

There have been three epochs of remarkable 
character in the educational work of American 
Baptists. The first, about the middle of the 
18th century, hail for its fruit the founding of 
Hopewell Academy and Brown University. '1 he 
second, contemporaneous with the missionary 
movement, and a part of the movement itself, 
was the prolific source of all the later colleges 
and seminaries. The third may be referred to 
the year 1870, when the first national educa- 
tional convention of the Baptists was held under 
the auspices of the American Baptist Educational 
Commission, in Brooklyn, N. T. A remarkable 
impulse was given by tins convention to the 
founding and endowment of academies, for 
which purpose very large sums of money have 
since been raised. From that time, discussions 
of educational questions in the denomination 
have been marked by a great increase of breadth 
and force, the number of students in colleges and 
seminaries has been increased, and the raising of 
money for the endowment of institutions of learn- 
ing has become a simultaneous and universal 
effort. A second educational convention was 
held in Philadelphia in 1872. In 1873, the 
American Baptist Educational Commission re- 
commended the. celebration of the Centennial of 
the nation by a common movement for the rais- 
ing of funds for educational purposes, and that 
work is now proceeding. 

The Baptists have had many distinguished 
educators, of whom, among the dead, Francis 
Wayland and Horatio B. Haekett may be named 
as pre-eminent. Of the chief benefactors of edu- 
cation, likewise among the dead, may be named, 
Edward Jewell, Thomas Hollis, Nicholas Brown, 
and Matthew Tassar. The list of living names 
woidd be large and honorable, were there suffi- 
cient space here for their enumeration. 

BARBAULD, Anna Laetitia, an English 
writer, is particularly noted for her excellent 
reading lessons for young children. She was 
born in 1743, and died in 1825. Her father, the 
Rev. John Aikin, a Unitarian minister, was the 
principal of an academy in Lancashire, and took 
great pains in educating his children. In 1774 



BARNARD 

she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld, with 
whom she kept school for eleven years. Her 
most noted educational publications are Early 
Lessons for Children, Hymns in Prose, and 
the pieces which she contributed for Evenings at 
Home, published by her brother Dr. John Aikin. 
Her miscellaneous writings are numerous and 
varied. Mrs. Barbauld's books for children are 
among the best of their class, and have retained 
their popularity to the present time. Of these 
and their authoress, Dr. Knox remarks, "A poetess 
of our own times, remarkably distinguished by 
her taste and genius, has condescended to compose 
little books for the initiation of children in read- 
me, and they seem admirably adapted to effect 
her laudable purpose." (See Liberal Education, 
by Vicesimus Knox.) Her writings were col- 
lected and edited by her niece, Lucy Aikin 
(London, 1825). The same lady also published 
A Legacy for Young Ladies (Lond., 1826), com- 
piled' from Mrs. Barbauld's posthumous paper's. 
BARNARD, Frederick AugustusPorter, 
LL. D., was born at Sheffield, Mass., May 5., 
1809. He graduated at Yale College in 1828, 
was tutor there in 1830, and, subsequently, 
teacher in the asylum for the deaf and dumb' 
at Hartford, and in that of New York. From 
1837 to 1848, he was professor of mathematics, 
and natural philosophy in the university of Ala- 
bama, and afterward of chemistry and natural 
liistory till 1854, in which year he took orders in 
the Protestant Episcopal Church. He was pro- 
fessor of mathematics, natural philosophy, and 
civil engineering in the university of Mississippi 
from 1854 to 1861, being also president of that 
institution from 1856 to 1858, and chancellor 
from 1858 to 1861, when he. resigned. In 1860, 
he accompanied the expedition to observe the 
total eclipse of the sun in Labrador, and in the 
same year was elected president of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science. He 
was one of the original members of the National 
Academy of Sciences, incorporated in 1863. In 
1863 — 4 he was in charge of chart-printing and 
lithography in the United States coast survey. 
He was elected president of Columbia College in 
1864, which office he still (1876) holds, and in 
1867 was one of the United States commission- 
ers to the Pails exposition. Dr. Barnard is 
a member of various learned societies in the 
United States and Europe. During his res- 
idence in the South, he was actively engaged 
in promoting public education. He has been 
a contributor to the American Journal of 
Education and to Silliman's American Journal 
of Science and Arts. Among his publications, 
which have related chiefly to scientific and edu- 
1 cational subjects, may be mentioned : Treatise 
on Arithmetic (1830); Analytic Grammar with 
Symbolic Illustrations (1836), which originated 
a system still used in the principal institutions, 
for the deaf and dumb ; Letters on College Gov- 
ei-nment (1854), which attracted much attention; 
Report on Collegiate Education (1854) ; Art. 
Culture (1854) ; History of the United States 
Coast Survey (1857) ; University Education 



BARNARD 



BASEDOW 



73 



(1858); Undid, itory Theory <f Light (1862) ; 
Machinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts, 

etc. (1868) ; and Metric System of Weights and 
Measures ( 1*71 ). 

BARNARD, Henry, LL. P., was born in 
Hartford, Ot., in 1811, He graduated from Yale 
College in 1830 with honor, his course having 
been marked by diligence and success in the 
classics and an unusual devotion to English 
literature. The next five years were devoted 
chiefly to the study of the law, joined to a dili- 
gent reading of the best English and classical 
authors. During this period, he taught school 
for a time, and toward its close spent some 
months in traveling through the western and 
southern portions of the United States. In 1835, 
he visited Europe, and traveled extensively on 
foot through England, Scotland and Switzer- 
land, devoting his attention chiefiy to the social 
condition of the people. On his return, after 
an absence of eighteen months, he was elected to 
the Connecticut legislature ami represented his 
native city in that body for three years. There, ■ 
various measures relating to the social, intellect- 
ual, and moral condition of the people engaged 
his attention, embracing the education of the 
deaf and dumb, and the blind, the care of the 
poor ami insane, the reorganization of county 
prisons, the establishment of public libraries, and ' 
the completion of the geological survey of the 
state. His great work was the originating and 
securing the passage of an "Act to provide 
for the better supervision of common schools," [ 
which created a board of commissioners, whose 
duty it was to investigate the condition of the 
schools, and to endeavor to improve them by ad- 
dresses, lectures, correspondence, the publication 
of a journal, and the recommendation of appro- 
priate measures. Mr. Barnard was a member 
and secretary of this commission for four years, 
until it was abolished by adverse political action 
in 1 S42. In this capacity the duties of the board 
devolved chiefly on him; besides which he edited 
the Connecticut Gammon School Journal, and 
made four annual reports, which were marked by 
great ability and were highly commended. After 
fifteen months spent in a tour of the United States 
for the purpose of collecting materials for a His- 
tory of public schools mill other means of pop- 
ular education in tin' United States, he was ap- 
pointed commissioner of public schools in Rhode ' 
Island, an office which he had been instrumental 
in creating. In five years he organized an ex- 
cellent system of popular education, and on re- 
tiring from office, in consequence of ill health, 
in 1849, he received the unanimous thanks of the 
state legislature. During this period he published 
several volumes relating to the schools of 
Rhode Island, and edited (1845 — 9) the Jour- 
nal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. 
From 185(1 to 1854, he was principal of the 
newly established < 'onnectieut state normal school 
and state superintendent of common schools, 
again editing the Common School Journal. In 
1855, he was chosen president of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Education. 



ami. in 1856, he commenced the publication of the 
American Journal if Education. From 1857 
to L859, he was chancellor of the university of 
Wisconsin, and in 1865 — 6 president of St. 
John's College. Annapolis, Md. Upon the organ- 
ization of the United States bureau of educa- 
tion, in 1867, for the establishment of which he 
had labored, he was appointed the first com- 
missioner and held the office till 187(1. Dr. Bar- 
nard has done much toward the improvement of 
school architecture, the organization of teachers' 
institutes, and the establishment of high and 
normal schools. Among his works are. School 
Archili'c/nri' 1 1 N39), of which 1 .'iO.000 copies were 
sold; Normal Schools (1851 1; National Education 
in Europe (1854), which was said by the West- 
minster Review to group " under one view the 
varied experience of nearly all civilized countries"; 
Educational Biography (1857); Reformatory 
Education (1857): Object-Teaching (I860)"; 
ami Military Schools (1862). 

BASEDOW, Johann Bernhard, the found- 
er of the PhilanOtropin, was born in Hamburg, 
in 1723. His early youth was gloomy and un- 
happy, owing to the excessive severity of his. 
father and the habitual melancholy of his 
mother. While still a boy. he ran away from 
his paternal home, and entered the sendee of 
a country physician in Hoktein. Having re- 
turned to Hamburg, upon the urgent entreaties 
of his father, he entered the Johanneum, where 
he became noted among his school-mates for his 
foolish tricks. In 1741. he went to the gymnasium 
of Hamburg, where Reimarus, the famous author 
of the Wolfenb'uitel Fragments, was among his 
teachers. While there, he had to support him- 
self by giving private lessons and writing occa- 
sional poems; but a large portion of the money 
which he earned was spent in debauchery, and 
his own studies were conducted without system 
or perseverance. From 1744 to 1746. he studied 
theology and philosophy at the university of 
Leipsic. He was very irregular in attending the 
lectures; and the Wolffian philosophy, which at. 
that time predominated, brought him, as he says- 
himself, "into a state of half-way between Chris- 
tianity and naturalism." In 1 74H. he was engaged 
by Hen- von Quaalen, in Holstein, as private 
tutor for his children ; and while in this position, 
worked out for his pupils a new method of 
studying languages, an account of which he has- 
given in a Latin dissertation, entitled " He inusi- 
tittii ft optima honesUoris juventutis erudiendcB 
methodo" (Kiel. 175:!). Herr von Quaalen, who 
was much pleased with the results of Basedow's 
teaching, procured for him, in 1753. the chair of 
ethics and fine arts, and subsequently that of 
theology, at the Riiterakademie (Knights' Acad- 
emy) at Sonic. On account of the unorthodox 
views expressed in his work <>n practical 
philosophy for nil ranks, lie was obliged, in 1761, 
to remove to the gymnasium of Altona. Here, 
two other heterodox publications, Philalethia and 
Methodical Instruction in both Natural and 
Biblical Religion, involved him in a severe con- 
troversy with several theologians, among others 



74 



BASEDOW 



Senior Gotze of Hamburg, and caused him and 
his family to be excluded from the Communion. 
In 17G7, he conceived a comprehensive plan for a 
radical reform of public education, and soon suc- 
ceeded in securing the support of the Danish 
minister Bernstbrff, who relieved him from the 
duties of his positiou, and granted him a salary 
of eight hundred thalers. In 1768, he pub- 
lished the Address to the Philanthropists and 
Men of Property, vpon Schools and Studies, 
and their Influence upon the Public Weal (Vor- 
stellung an Mensch.enfreunde etc.) with the 
plan of an elementary work on human knowl- 
edge. He applied to many princes, governments, 
ecclesiastical dignitaries, freemasons' lodges, and 
other learned men and societies, to aid him in 
the publication of the elementary work which he 
proposed ; and the success of these applications 
was so great, that, in 1771, contributions amount- 
ing to more than $ 10,000 had been received. As 
the first part of the proposed Elementarwerk, 
Basedow published, in 1770, Methodenbuch (book 
of methods), of which a second edition appeared 
in 1771, and a third in 1773. The chapter on 
Education of Princes, was omitted in the second 
edition of the work, and having been revised 
" with a care worthy of the subject," it was pub- 
lished in 1771, as a separate work, under the 
title of Agathocrator. Prince Albert of Dessau 
sent the author, in return for a copy of this 
book, 100 thalers ; and the emperor Joseph II., 
a medal with his portrait. At the same time, 
Basedow received from the ruling prince of Des- 
sau, Leopold Frederic Francis, a call to Dessau, 
to carry out his plan of a large reformatory edu- 
cational institution. Having, accordingly, re- 
moved to Dessau, he published there, in 1774, 
his long expected Elementarwerk, in 4 vols., 
illustrated with one hundred plates, mostly en- 
graved by Ohodowiecky. The object of this book 
is, as Basedow himself remarks, (1) Elementary 
instruction in the knowledge of world and things ; 
(2) An original method, founded upon experience, 
•of teaching children to read without weariness or 
loss of time ; (3) Natural knowledge ; (4) Knowl- 
edge of morals, the mind, and reasoning ; (5) A 
thorough and impressive method of instruction 
in natural religion, with a perfectly impartial ac- 
count of dogmatic articles of belief; and (6) A 
knowledge of social duties, of commerce, etc." 
This work was translated into Latin by Mangels- 
dorf, and into French by Huber. 

The foundation of the educational institution 
which became famous in history as the Philan- 
thropin, was laid in Dessau, Dec. 27., 1774. 
The prince of Dessau gave the building, a 
garden, and $12,000. The object of the in- 
stitution was to supply a model school in 
which the principles of the Elementarwerk 
could be applied to practical methods. Poor 
pupils were received at reduced rates, under the 
name of famulants. In 1775, the number of 
boarders was nine, and of famulants six. Many 
of the prominent scholars and educators of the 
time, as Kant, Oberlin, Nicolai, and Zollicoffer, 
took a profound interest in this novel institution, 



BATES COLLEGE 

which, as Basedow promised, was to be free from 
sectarian bias and to be carried on without a re- 
sort to corporal punishment ; gymnastic exercises 
were to be afforded and the work of learning was 
to be made "three times as short, and three 
times as easy as it usually is.'' The expectations 
raised by Basedow's enthusiastic announcements 
and promises were, however, not realized. As 
early as Dec, 1774, Basedow was obliged to 
transfer the supreme management of the institu- 
tion to Campe, under whom the number of 
pupils rose to 50. For a short time, Basedow 
was again placed at the head of the institution; 
but, in 1778, he had finally to leave it. In 1784, 
the periodical of the Philanihropin, entitled Ped- 
agogical Conversations (Die padagogischen Un- 
terhaltungen) was discontinued ; and, from that 
time, the institution declined rapidly, and was 
soon entirely abandoned. The teachers, however, 
were scattered through all parts of Germany, ap- 
plying in various ways the principles of the 
founder. Basedow devoted the last years of Iris 
life to writing theological and educational works. 
He died, July 25., 1790, at Magdeburg. His last 
words were, " I desire to be dissected for the 
benefit of my fellow-men." Like Rousseau, 
Basedow gave a powerful impulse to the discus- 
sion of new educational theories ; and he re- 
sembled Rousseau, too, in being entirely unfitted 
for a practical educator. There was much in 
his method of teaching that appeared strange, 
eccentric, and even farcical ; but, on the other 
hand, those who most severely criticise his defects, 
readily acknowledge that his life-long labors in 
behalf of education were not in vain. His pur- 
pose was, without doubt, honest and unselfish. 
Like Rousseau, he labored ardently, and with 
considerable success, for the removal of many un- 
natural restraints, which, at that time, were so 
common. Physical education, according to his 
system, was attended to in a manner quite original 
at that time ; and the favorite principle of Base- 
dow that the scholars should learn with love, and 
not with repugnance, had a most beneficent in- 
fluence upon the practical methods of other 
educational institutions. — See Raumek, Ge- 
schichte der Pddagogik, vol. n. (translated in 
Barnard's German Educational Reformers) ; 
Max Muller (grandson of Basedow) in Allge- 
meine Deutsche Biographie, art. Basedow; 
Meyer, Character und Schriften Basedow's 
(2 vols., Hamburg, 1791— 1792); Quick, Edu- 
cational Refoi-mers (London, 1868, and Cin- 
cinnati. 1874). 

BATES COLLEGE, at Lewiston, Me., was 
established in 1863, by the Free Baptists, and 
named in honor of Benjamin E. Bates of Boston, 
who contributed $200,000 to its endowment. It 
has handsome grounds, three fine college build- 
ings, and a president's residence. The value of 
its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 
$200,000. In 1874, it had a corps of 8 instruct- 
ors, and 100 students in the different college 
classes, of whom 3 were females. Nine different 
schools and academies act as preparatory schools 
for this college. There is here an endowed schol- 



BAVARIA 



BELGIUM 



75 



arship for a lady student, supposed to be the first 
instance of such an appropriation in any of the 
colleges of this country. There are ten state 
scholarships, giving tuition to ten students, to be 
selected by the governor ; and in awarding these 
scholarships, preference is required to be given to 
the children of those who have fallen in defease 
of their country, and always to those who are 
indigent and meritorious. There is a professor- 
ship of mental and moral philosophy, named 
after Asa Reddiugton. LL. D., of Lewiston, who 
gave a large amount toward its endowment. 
The Cobb professorship of logic and Christian 
evidence was named in honor of J. L. II. Cobb, 
of Lewiston, who contributed the chief portion 
of the funds for its endowment. The various 
libraries, — college, theological, and societies', con- 
tain about 9,000 volumes. The president of the 
institution is (1876) Rev. 0. B. Cheney, D. D. 
The annual tuition fee is $36. 

BAVARIA. See Germany. 

BAYLOR UNIVERSITY, at Independ- 
ence, Tex., was founded in 1845 by the Baptists. It 
had, in 1874, a corps of 5 instructors, 2 endowed 
professorships, 81 students, and a library of about 
3,000 volumes. It has a theological as well as a 
collegiate department. The value of its grounds, 
buildings, etc. is estimated at $35,000 ; its endow- 
ment is about $16,000. Rev. Win. C.Crane, 
D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the president. The an- 
nual tuition fee is from S:i0 to $60. 

BEACH GROVE COLLEGE, at Beach 
Grove, Tenn., was founded in 1868. It, had, in 
1874, a corps of 5 instructors, and 106 students 
in its preparatory, and 1H in its collegiate depart- 
ment. Its grounds, college buildings, and ap- 
paratus are valued at $30,000. M. Parker. A. 
M., is (1876) the president. It is non-sectarian. 

BEBIAN, Roch Ambroise Auguste, a 
noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born on the 
island of Guadeloupe, in 1T89, and died there in 
1834. He was godson of the abbe Sicard, so 
celebrated for his efforts in behalf of the instruc- 
tion of deaf-mutes, and under him was prepared 
for the task which he afterwards assumed. After 
the publication in 1817. of his Essai sur les 
sourds-muets et sur A< langage naturel, he was 
appointed a professor at the royal institution ; 
but the jealousy and opposition excited toward 
him by his zeal for innovation and reform, com- 
pelled him to resign, in 1825, after which he re- 
turned to Guadeloupe. His Eloge historique de 
I' abbe de I /•.'/)( v obtained a prize from the acad- 
emy. His other important publications are. Mimo- 
graphie, ou Essai d'ecriture mimiqtte (1822), 
and Manuel d'enseignement pratii/nc (1827). 

BEDE, or Beda, styled the venerable Bede, 
a celebrated Saxon ecclesiastic and scholar, and 
the earliest English historian, was born in Dur- 
ham, England, about 677, and died iir 735. He 
possessed an excellent character, was humble, 
diligent, and truly pious : and rose to great emi- 
nence in the church through his learning and 
literary ability. His biography, written by his 
pupil Cuthbert, says of him, that having been 
brought by his relations, in his seveuth year, to 



the abbot Benedict Biscop, in Wearmouth, he 

devoted all his energies to the study of the Scrip- 
tures, and occupied his spare time in learning, 
teaching, and writing. He spent his entire life 
in the monastery of Wearmouth in study and 
teaching, and acquired a wide reputation both as 
an instructor and a scholar. -Many students 
came from afar to hear him ; and others, who 
could not come in person, requested of him, by 
letter, explanations of difficult biblical passages. 
Of his method of teaching, nothing is recorded ; 
but it consisted, without doubt, of lectures to the 
students. There is no doubt that he possessed 
an attractive delivery, and the excellence of his 
diction may be seen from his literary works. 
His studies were, by no means, confined to theol- 
ogy, but extended to every science, as we see 
from his work on orthography and his works De 
art,' metrica, Liber de schemata et tropis sacra' 
scripturae, and De natura rerum, the latter 
treating of physics, astronomy, and geography. 
The greatest of his works, the Ecclesiastical 
History if the English Nation, written in Latin 
(Histnria Ecclesiastic/ Gentis Anglorum), was 
translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, 
and is still the best authority for the period on 
which it treats. Rede's complete w< irks, as far 
as extant, have teen published by Dr. Giles 
(London. 1843 — 1844). A new English trans- 
lation appeared in 1871. — See also Wbioht, Bio- 
graphia Britannica Idteraria, vol. i. (London. 
1842). 

BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe, has an 
area of 11,373 sq. m., and a population, in 1^7,'i. 
of 5,253.821. Almost the entire population be- 
longs nominally to the Roman Catholic Church. 
The number of Protestants is variously estimated 
from 10.0011 to 26.000: that of the .lews at 
2000. The influence of the Catholic Church on 
legislation is greater than in any other country 
of Europe, and the ( 'atholic party, which aims at 
shaping the legislative functions of the national 
assembly in accordance with the heads of the 
Church, has controlled the destinies of the nation 
during the greater part of the time which has 
elapsed since the establishment of Belgian inde- 
pendence. The Belgians are almost equally 
divided into two nationalities, the Flemish, a 
branch of the German race, and the Walloon, an 
offshoot of the French. The Flemings are 
estimated at about 49,8 percent of the popula- 
tion, anil prevail in the provinces of East Flan- 
ders (1)2.4 per cent of the total population), Ant- 
werp (92,4 p. c). Limburg (HS.s p. a), West 
Flanders (88,0 p. c), and Brabant (56,1 p. c), 
while the Walloons have a majority in the prov- 
inces of Liege (89.6 p. c), Hainault (95.8 p. c), 
Xamur (99.1 p. a), and Luxemburg 84.7 p. c.j. 
The country constituting the present kingdom of 
Belgium formed part of the great Carlovingian 
empire, after the dissolution of which, the Scheldt 
formed the boundary between F ranee and Ger- 
many, Subsequently it was united with Bur- 
gundy, conjointly with which it was inherited by 
the kings of Spain. The peace of Utrecht (1713) 
gave it to Austria, from which, in 1794, it was 



7fi 



BELGIUM 



conquered by the French. On Napoleon's abdi- 
cation in 1814, it was united with Holland, with 
which it remained until 1830, when a successful 
revolution established its independence. _ The 
Hist schools after the introduction of Christian- 
ity were connected with convents and collegiate, 
churches, and some of them, as the schools of 
Liege, Gemblours, Dornick, Ghent, etc., achieved 
a high reputation. Elementary schools were 
established in many places by the monastic order 
of the Hieronymites or Hieronymians. During 
the rule of the Dukes of Burgundy, the famous 
university of Louvain was founded (in 1426), 
which soon occupied a front rank among the high 
schools of Europe, and at one time was attended 
by 6000 students. During the Dutch rule, a 
thorough system of inspection, reports, and full 
publicity, was instituted; a normal school was 
established at Liege in 1817, and in 1822 all per- 
sons were forbidden to exercise the functions of 
a school-master in the higher branches of public 
schools who were not authorized by a central 
board of examination. On the other hand, how- 
ever, the efforts of the Dutch government to re- 
press the use of the French language and the in- 
fluence of the Roman Catholic Church, produced 
an intense and general dissatisfaction, and became 
one of the primary causes of the revolution of 
1830, and the permanent separation of Belgium 
from Holland. The overthrow of the hated 
Dutch ride was naturally followed by the aboli- 
tion of the educational laws introduced by the 
Dutch government. In the place of the strict 
control of the entire educational system by the 
state, the most absolute freedom of instruction 
was now introduced. The clergy founded a 
number of schools, which remained under the 
exclusive control of the church, while the Liberal 
party supported, in opposition to the church 
schools, the public school system. In 1836, a 
compromise between church and state was ar- 
rived at. The government gave to the clergy an 
influence upon the state schools, while the church 
subjected all its schools which received support 
from the commune, the government, or public 
funds, to the inspection of the state. Since 1865. 
the educational question has been the subject of 
a very animated controversy between the Liberal 
and the ( 'atholic parties. The Liberals founded 
an association called Ligue de Venseignemeni, 
which aimed at emancipating the state schools 
from the influence of the church. 

Primary instruction is based on the law of 
Sept. 23., 1842. This law provides that every 
commune (the smallest territorial and civil sub- 
division of the state) must have at least one public 
elementary school, unless the instruction of all the 
children is sufficiently provided for to the satis- 
faction of the government, in private, endowed, or 
denominational schools. The elementary school 
must be free to the poor, and may be made free 
to all by vote of the communal council. The 
primary school must give instruction in religion 
and morals, in writing, in the mother-tongue of the 
children (French or Flemish), and in arithmetic. 
The law provides for a superior elementary school 



in every large city. In 1850, this class of schools 
was changed into secondary schools. The schools 
are managed by the communal council, and the 
expenses required for their support are included 
in the local taxes. The teachers are chosen by 
the communal council from among candidates 
who have for at least two years pursued the stud- 
! ies of a normal school. They must receive a 
! certificate of qualification from a board consist- 
ing of a lay and a clerical member, the former 
appointed by the state and the latter by the ec- 
j clesiastical authorities. The communal council 
I may suspend the teacher for three months, the 
provincial inspector may, on consultation with 
I the communal council, dismiss him. The inspec- 
tion of primary schools is exercised both by the 
state government and the ecclesiastical author- 
ities. The king appoints a cantonal inspector 
for each canton, and a provincial inspector for 
each of the nine provinces. The cantonal in- 
spector is appointed for the term of three years. 
He must visit each school of his district at least 
twice a year, and report to the provincial inspect- 
or. The latter must visit each school at least 
once a year, and report to the minister of the in- 
terior. All the provincial inspectors assemble 
once a year as a central commission, under the 
presidency of the minister of the interior. The 
bishops also appoint cantonal and diocesan in- 
spectors, and must once a year report to the 
minister of the interior on the state of moral 
and religious instruction. In the Protestant and 
Jewish schools a delegate of the consistory super- 
intends the religious instruction. The govern- 
ment annually publishes a list of text-books that 
maybe used. From this list each teacher can 
make his selection. There is no special ministry 
of public instruction, but all educational matters 
are assigned to the minister of the interior, with 
a separate bureau. The state has established two 
normal schools for primary teachers, a Flemish 
school at Lierre, and a "Walloon school at Nivelles. 
There are. besides, seven normal departments an- 
nexed to higher primary schools, and seven epis- 
copal normal schools, which have been placed by 
the bishops under government supervision. The 
courses of instruction in the state normal schools 
are for three years, and in the episcopal schools 
for four. The. pupils are usually required to 
board and lodge upon the school premises. 
Teachers' conferences, genei'ally occupying only 
one day, and never more than three, are held 
quarterly during vacations, and conducted by the 
provincial and cantonal inspectors. 

Secondary instruction was reorganized in 1850. 
The secondary schools are of two grades. The 
higher grade, known as athenaeums, includes two 
sections, one for classical instruction which cor- 
responds to the German gymnasium, and is for 
six years, and one for industrial instruction, 
corresponding to the realschool of Germany, and 
being for four years. The superintendence of sec- 
ondary instruction belongs to a general inspector 
and two special inspectors. The law of 1850 
provides for a council of secondary instruction 
(conseil de perfectionnemenl), consisting of at 



BELGIUM 



BELL 



11 



least 8 and not more than 10 members. The 
highest grade of instruction is that dispensed by 
the universities. Of these, there are four. Two, 
those of Ghent and Liege, belong to the state: 
one, that of Louvain, to the bishops; and one, 
that of Brussels, to an association of Liberals. 
Ghent, Liege, and Brussels have each four facul- 
ties : Louvain has five. There is a council of 
superior studies [conseil de perfectionnemeni d> 
Tenseignement superieur), consisting of the 2 
rectors and 8 professors of the state universities 
(1 from each faculty), the school inspectors, and 
some private individuals. Industrial instruction 
is given in institutions of three grades : higher 
instruction, in the special schools of arts, and 
manufactures and mines, attached to the Uni- 
versity of liege, in those of civil engineering, 
and of arts ami manufactures, annexed to the 
University of Ghent, and in the superior in- 
stitute of commerce at Antwerp ; intermediate 
instruction in the industrial departments at- 
tached to all the athenaeums and high schools ; 
primary instruction, in the industrial schools for 
workmen. The latter are very numerous, hue- 
making alone being taught in 586 schools. There 
is a military school for training officers of all 
arms, regimental schools for the instruction of ig- 
norant soldiers, and a school for the education of 
soldiers' children. There are 2 veterinary schools, 
3 conservatories of music, 72 schools of drawing, 
painting, sculpture, and architecture, a national 
observatory. 2 schools for deaf-mutes. 1 for the 
blind, 6 for orphans, and 3 for young criminals. 

Education in Belgium is nut compulsory, and 
the Dumber of children receiving no kind of in- 
struction is still large. Of the conscripts there 
were, in 1 845, 391 out of 1 (Mil), who could neither 
read nor write; in 1803, 3112. 

The salaries of primary teachers were fixed by 
a law of 1863 as follows: (1) in schools with 
more than 101) scholars, minimum salary 1,050 
francs; (2) in schools with from 60 to 100 schol- 
ars, 950 francs; (3) in schools with less than 
GO scholars, 850 francs. The chief town of every 
province has a special savings-bank for teachers 
( caisse de pr&Boyance), into which every teacher 
is required annually to pay a certain fixed amount 
from his salary, and which also receives contribu- 
tions from the provinces, the state, and private 
individuals. Every teacher who is sixty years 
old and has served thirty years is entitled to a 
life pension. The full pension of teachers is also 
paid to their widows and to their orphans till the 
latter have reached their Kith year. 

Of the four universities of Belgium, the free 
Catholic University of Louvain had, in 1872, 
the largest number of students (001); the free 
(liberal) University of Brussels had 583 ; the 
state University at Liege 436, and the State 
University of Ghent 210 ; the Royal Academy 
of Fine Arts at Antwerp, 1576 students. The 
Conservatory of Music at Brussels was attem led 
by G7.J pupils, that of Liege by 789. The number 
of teachers in the primary schools, in 1874, was 
10,629, of whom 7,032 were laymen, and 3,597 
members of religipus orders and clerics. The 



latter class has increased since 1851 by 1,098. the 
former oidy by 624. The schools for adidts num- 
bered 199,957 pupils, 9,21!) more than in 1848, 
being 3.98 per cent of the population. The 
aggregate expenditures made for primary instruc- 
tion, in 1874, were as follows: national govern- 
ment, 6.643,415 francs; provinces 1,584,010 fr. ; 
communes 5.S63.561 fr. ; total 14,090,986 fr. 
To what extent illiteracy still prevails may be 
inferred from the fact that, in 1874. of 43,311 



men who were drafted for tin- militia. 8,' 



could 



neither read nor write. 1.976 could only read, 
15.726 could read and write, 16.22s had a higher 
education, and of 654 the degree of instruction 
was unknown. — See Bar.nabd. National Edu- 
cation, part ii., p. 369 to 401; Juste, Histoire de 
l' instruction publique en Belgique (1840) ; Bap- 
ports tri'-nmiu.i:. publies parte gouvemement sur 
Venseignement des trots degres; Annuaire stati- 
slii/ue lie In Belgique. 

BELL, Andrew, P. D., a distinguished edu- 
cationist, the author of the system of mutual 
or monitorial instruction sometimes called the 
Madras system, was born at St. Andrews, Scot- 
land, in 1753. and died at Cheltenham, England, 
in 1832. He was educated at the University 
of St. Andrews, went to America, and after a 
short residence there, returned and took orders in 
the Episcopal Church. In 17>-7. he embarked 
for India, and on his arrival at Madras, was ap- 
pointed chaplain to the English garrison, and also 
superintendent of the school then recently estab- 
lished for the education of the orphan children 
of British soldiers. Finding great difficulty in 
obtaining the assistance of competent teachers 
in this arduous work, he resorted to the expedi- 
ent of conducting the school by means of the 
pupils themselves. This method was partly 
suggested to his mind by his seeing, on one of 
his morning rides, the children of a Malabar 
school sitting on the ground and writing with 
their fingers in Baud, He immediately intro- 
duced this method of teaching the alphabet into 
his school, and finding the ushers averse to the 
innovation, gave the A I? ('-class to a boy whom 
he selected as especially fitted for the task. This 
boy, whose name was John Friskcn, and who 
was probably the first monitor in English educa- 
tion, was the son of a soldier, and then about 
eight years old. The success of this lad induced 
I >r. Bell to extend the experiment. He appointed 
other boys to teach the lower classes ; and soon 
afterwards applied Ids system of monitors to the 
whole school (1791). This was continued under 
his superintendence till his return to Europe, in 

1796. (See MONITORIAL SYSTEM.) After Iris 
arrival in England, he drew up a full report of 
his school, which was published in London, in 

1797, under the title of An Experiment in 
Education, made at the Mule Asylum, Madras; 
suggesting a System by which a School or 
Family may teach itself urider the superintendence 
of the Master or Parent. This pamphlet at- 
tracted Uttle attention, until, through the efforts 
of Joseph Lancaster, the monitorial system of 
instruction invented by him was introduced into 



78 



BELL 



BELLES-LETTRES 



the schools of the Dissenters. A controversy as 
to the respective merits of the systems of Bell 
and Lancaster then sprung up. the friends 
and adherents of each claiming for it not only 
superiority in merit, but priority of invention. 
The idea of mutual instruction was, however, 
not new. Indeed, it is as old as Lycurgus ; and 
Lancaster was too candid a man to claim an ab- 
solute originality for Ins plan. In his first pam- 
phlet, published in 1S03, he says : " I ought not 
to close my accoimt without acknowledging the 
obligations I lie imder to Dr. Bell ; I much re- 
gret that I was not acquainted with the beauty 
of his system till somewhat advanced in my 
plan. If I had known it, it would have saved 
me much trouble and some retrograde move- 
ments." This controversy was as much sectarian 
as educational, as the rival systems were favored, 
the one by the Dissenters, and the other by the 
Church of England. It, however, served a use- 
fid purpose, in giving an impetus to the progress 
of education. In 1811, a society, called the 
Natitmal Society, was formed for the establish- 
ment of schools in connection with the Church 
of England, on Dr. Bell's plan ; and Dr. Bell 
was appointed to superintend the enterprise, a 
duty which engrossed much of his time and ef- 
forts until his death. By this means, the Madras 
system obtained an introduction not only in 
England, but in Scotland and Ireland, as well 
as in some parts of the United States. For the 
purpose of bringing it to the notice of educators 
on the continent, Dr. Bell made an extensive 
tour, in the course of which he visited the schools 
of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, with the former of 
whom he was quite charmed. " He has much 
that is original," he remarked, " much that is ex- 
cellent. If he had a course of study — if he 
were to dismiss his masters, and adopt the 
monitorial system and the principle of emu- 
lation, he would be super-excellent." In the 
mean time, the analogous system of Lancaster 
had been carried into effect in numerous schools 
established by an association of Dissenters, styled 
The British and Foreign School Society ; and 
much active rivalry existed between the two so- 
cieties. (See Lancaster, Joseph.) During his life, 
Dr. Bell received several lucrative offices in the 
Church,, from which he was enabled to amass a 
large fortune. The whole of this, amounting to 
£120,000, he bequeathed to various towns in his 
native country for the endowment of schools. He 
founded Madras College, at St. Andrews, and a 
lectureship, at Edinburgh University, on the prin- 
ciples of teaching, and on the monitorial system. 
On his death, in 1832, he was buried in AVestmin- 
ster Abbey, the highest dignitaries of the Church 
and many distinguished noblemen attending as 
mourners. An elegant monument marks°his 
resting-place, with an inscription in which he is 
characterized as the "Author of the Madras 
System." — See Southey, Life of the Rev. An- 
drew Bell D.D. (Lond., 1844); the Edinburgh 
Review, vol. xxxin.; Leitch, Practical Educa- 
tionists and their Systems of Teaching (Glas- 
gow, 1876). * V 



BELLES-LETTRES is a French expres- 
sion for polite literature, i. e., books and language 
in so far as they are shaped by the idea of beau- 
ty. It has been used in English to designate a 
somewhat vague class of studies connected, more 
or less nearly, with the mastery of literature on 
its esthetic side. Some of the colleges in the 
United States have had a professor of belles- 
lettres. He has taught rhetoric and elocution 
mainly; but poetry, drama, prose fiction, criti- 
cism, classical philology, the humanities in gen- 
eral, are all in his province. Blair's Rhetoric was 
long widely used as a text-book in this branch ; 
and several editions of it are still kept in print. 
— Esthetics (the science of beauty) and philol- 
ogy have, of late years, made great advance, and 
new text-books are needed to set forth modern 
methods of studying literature and language, so. 
as to understand their beauties. The elements 
of the study should be taught early. In the 
kindergarten or other infant school, the children 
should be taught to admire and examine beau- 
tiful objects, to notice the qualities which give 
them beauty, to name the objects and the qual- 
ities ; they should be told anecdotes in which 
beautiful persons do beautiful acts, and the 
words expressive of beauty should be spoken 
with tones and gestures which may give them 
lively associations and a permanent place, in the 
memory ; passages of verse or rhythmical prose 
in which beautiful thoughts are fittingly ex- 
pressed, and of which the teacher is fond, should 
be repeated till they are caught by the pupils. 
Such passages may be among the noblest of our 
literature. It is not necessary that they should 
be wholly comprehended by the learners. They 
may be regarded as music, producing compar- 
atively vague intellectual processes, but quick- 
ening powerfully the emotional element of es- 
thetic culture. Language and literature should 
lead the youth of cultured races to a more rapid 
development than the natural growth of the 
understanding. Beautiful and noble words thus 
learned by heart will serve as molds in which 
the expanding intellect may flow and form. This 
early oral instruction may be happily aided by 
learning to read in illustrated books, in which 
beautiful pictures are made to interpret and en- 
force the thought. Some of the magazines for 
children afford such aid in a good form ; such 
as The Nursery (Boston); St. Nicholas (N .Y .) . 
Children taught in this way will be ready to 
pursue the study of belles-lettres when they 
have learned to read with ease. The simplest 
method used in our schools is the reading in 
class of selections of characteristic works of the 
most admired authors in our own and other 
classic languages. Text-books of selections for 
this purpose are : Hudson's Text-book of Poetry; 
Hudson's Text-book of Prose (Boston) ; Under- 
wood's British Authors; Underwood's Amer- 
ican Authors (Boston); Typical Selections from 
the best English Authors from the 16th to the 
19* Century (Clarendon Press, Oxford); most 
series of School Readers have a class book of 
literature, and some of them are well selected 



BELLES-LETTRES 



79 



and arranged. The kind of beauty earliest appre- 
ciated is that of adventure. Short stories please; 
such as fables and parables. The style must be 
simple, the movement rapid. Lyrics or orations 
expressing tender or noble feelings come next. 
The appreciation of epic and romantic narrative 
will grow rapidly; minute delineation of char- 
acter, the drama, and the modern novel will then 
follow, and finally descriptions of works of art, 
scenery, and nature. The liking for ornate lan- 
guage, figures of speech, rhythmical effects, and 
other arts of style, generally needs special culti- 
vation to make it strong in young readers. 
Whatever be the passages chosen to read, the 
teacher aiming to give instruction in belles- 
lettres will direct the attention of the class to 
beautiful thoughts, figures, and expressions, and 
will have thorn read with eare and expression, 
so as to bring out the thought and feeling 
of each passage. He may also mention criti- 
cisms which have been made on the passage, 
tell of occasions on which it has been quoted or 
imitated, quote similar passages in other authors 
or the same author, and have parts committed 
to memory. In such studies, more is caught 
than taught. The teacher must feel the beauties 
and communicate the feeling by looks and tones. 
Pupils who read with expression should also be 
used to heighten the interest of the exercise. A 
single good reader will often stimulate a whole 
class. Comment and criticism should be mainly 
used for pointing out beauties, and exciting ad- 
miration for them. Appreciative reading, com- 
ment, and memorizing may thus be made a de- 
lightful introduction to literature, leading natur- 
ally to further study in two main directions, — 
the historical and the philosophical. The historical 
is the easier in its beginnings. ( Ionises of lectures 
on the history of literature, and text-books giving 
material for historical and biographical study in 
connection with selections for reading, are to 
be had. Cleveland's Compendium of English 
Literature (N. T.) includes the most eminent 
authors from Sir John Mandeville to Cowper. 
The same author has published similar works on 
the Literature of the 19th Century, and on Amer- 
ican Literature (N. Y.). Somewhat like them 
are Shaw's History and Specimens of English 
Literature (edition by Backus, N. Y.) ; and 
Chambers's Manual of English Literature. 
Larger works for the teacher and for reference 
are Chambers's C;/clopa?dia of English Literal u re 
(N. Y.); and Duycsinck's Cyclopaedia of Amer- 
ican Literature (Phila.); and indispensable to the 
thorough teacher is Allibone's Dictionary of 
Authors (Phila.), which is a great store-house of 
biography, bibliography, and criticism gleaned 
from many sources, and quoted at length. With 
these aids, the student of belles-lettres must be 
led to point out how each successive beauty in 
the passages which are read is related to the 
character, education, and times of the author; 
and by well-directed study he may acquire, in 
time, clear ideas of the representative works of 
literary art in the great eras of history. — first of 
English history, then of the history of other 



1 nations. This will require the reading of many 
' more books than can usually be read in school. 
The teacher shoidd. however, see that many are 
rea I. This can best be done by requirino- writ- 
ten exercises of such a kind as to assure him of 
the fact without taking much of his time. He 
may have brief outlines of stories handed in, 
as, of some of the Canterbury Tales; or the gist 
of the critical views of some author on a partic- 
ular point, as Coleridge's in regard to Hamlet; or 
the brief mention of ten of the most interesting 
passages in a book; as, in the Pilgrim's Progress, 
(1) The Slough of Despond, (2) The Interpreter's 
House, (3) The Fight with A-pollyon, and so on. 
I Ir he may ask for biographical facts on v hieh 
works of art are based : as, what events in Mil- 
ton's life suggested passages in Paradise Lost. 
Writing should also be freely used to stimulate 
original production : imitative production is, to 
be sure, what is to be expected of the young stu- 
dents of belles-lettres : but they should use their 
pens freely, in such a way as the authors they ad- 
mire or their own powers may prompt. If they 
sin iw signs of talent, the teacher should encourage 
them. The meters of the poets may easily be 
imitated; and it is only by practice in production 
that the secrets of style are attained or thoroughly 
understood. The student of belles-lettres will 
soon learn that the English is only one among 
many classic literatures. He will wish to become 
acquainted with Homer. Virgil, and Dante as 
well as with Wilton : with Boccacio as well as 
( 'haucer: ( loethe as well as Shakespeare. 1 [e will 
wish to learn (ireek. Latin, Italian, French, Ger- 
man. (See the articles on these and other lan- 
guages.) No literature can be mastered without 
mastering the language in which it was original- 
ly written; but much may be done by transla- 
tions. Several text-books of such selected trans- 
lations are available : Longfellow's Poets and 
Poetry of Europe (Phila.) ; Elton's Specimens 
of Greek and Roman Poets (Phila.) ; Wright's 
The Golden Treasury qf ancient Greek Poetry 
(Oxford); Ramagk's Beautiful Thoughts from 
Greek Audioes; same from Latin Authors; from 
German and Spanish; from French and Italian 
(London) ; Angel's French Literature (Phila.) ; 
ISerard's Spanish Art and Literature (Phila.) ; 
Botta's Universal Literature (Boston); and Tlie 
Hebrew Poetry in the English Ilih/e. But in 
order to rentier this historical study as valuable 
as possible, it should be accompanied with the 
critical study of literary works relating to the 
principles of art, or the laws of beauty. Such 
study requires a knowledge of descriptive rhet- 
oric and prosody, and of the technical terms of 
esthetic criticism ; so that the students may be 
able to classify and name the facts which come 
before them, and talk of them with perspicuity. 
They should, for example, when set to study a 
beautiful passage, recognize the rhetorical forms 
which occur in it, such as similes, metaphors, 
personification, etc ; if it is poetry, they should 
recognize the poetical forms, such as the meter, 
with its management of the feet and caesuras, of 
rhyme and alliteration ; they should be able to 



80 



BELLES-LETTRES 



BENEDICTINES 



apply the ideas of order, proportion, form, ex- 
pression, and the like, to single beautiful pas- 
sages, or to whole works of art. This presup- 
poses the study of the science of beauty. (.See 
Esthetic Culture.) The most effective general 
theory of the beautiful, for use in study of this 
kind, is that which looks to variety in unity to 
explain all eminent beauty. Take, for example, 
Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar for study. On read- 
ing the first scene, let the class point out the 
variety (] ) among the characters, — as between 
the tribune and the populace, between the loud 
and the gentle tribune, between the simple car- 
penter and the 'punning cobbler, and the like ; 
(2) in the action, — the meeting, the haranguing, 
the dispersing of the crowd ; (3) in the mode of 
thought, — now comic, now tragic, foolery and elo- 
quence; (4) in the language, — part prose, part 
verse, cobbler's puns, tribune's tropes, and the like. 
This study of variety directs attention to all the 
particulars of beauty, the elements by which the 
sensibilities, always craving novelty, are kept 
pleasurably excited. After these elements have 
been faithfully collected, let the pupils seek for 
the unity by which all this variety is made to 
gratify the reason. Let them point out the central 
thought in the play : give an outline of the plot 
by which the thought is developed ; and then 
show how each scene is necessary to bring out 
the thought, and how each character, each event, 
each particular beauty, is fitted for its place, and 
contributes to the one end. Teachers may find 
such an examination of Milton's Paradise Lost, 
in Addison's papers in the Spectator. Topics 
and questions to guide in such study, are mi- 
nutely given in March's Method of Philological 
Study of the English Language (N.Y.). For 
other aids, especially for editions of particular 
authors, see English, the Study of. — The beau- 
ty of language is not all included in the study 
of it as combined in connected discourse- Li 
single words, also, when we examine their ety- 
mology and history, much poetry is to be found. 
This is an interesting department of belles-lettres, 
and the study of essays in it is a favorite one 
with most good teachers of language and Hter- 
ature. Among these, may be mentioned, Trench, 
On the Study of Words ; and Glossary of En- 
glish Words; and De Vere, Studies in English 
(N. T., 18G7). These books afford many hints 
which the teacher may use to enliven the study 
of literature. Teachers should also be familiar 
with critical essays on art, and introduce them 
to the acquaintance of their pupils; these consti- 
tute a part of belles-lettres. Such are Rusktn's 
Lectures on Art, of which selections have been 
made for reading (N. Y.); Winckelmann's His- 
tory of Ancient Art (Boston); Lessing's Laoc- 
oon (Boston); Jameson^ Sacred and Legendary 
Art (Boston). To these may be added similar 
books of criticism on literary art ; such as those 
of De Quincey, Lowell, Emerson ; Hart's Spen- 
ser and the Fairy Queen (N. Y., 1847); Hud- 
son's Shakespeare (Boston, 1851 — 6); White's 
Slialcespeare's Scholar (N. Y.,1854); Schlegel's 
Lectures on Literature (Phila.). 



BELOIT COLLEGE, at Beloit, Wis., was 
founded by the Congregationalists, in 1845. Li 
'. 1874, it had a corps of 11 instructors, 146 stu- 
dents in the preparatory, and 65 in the collegiate 
department, and a library of about 9,000 volumes. 
'. Its productive funds amount to $120,000, and 
the value of its grounds, college buildings, and 
apparatus, to $90,000. The president of the in- 
stitution is (1876) the Bev. A. L. Chapin, D. D. 

BENEDICTINES, Schools of the. The 
monastic order founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, 
at the beginning of the 6th century, occupies a 
prominent place in the early history of education 
in Christian Europe. Parochial and communal 
schools covdd not thrive well at a time when the 
people at large felt no desire for education, when 
the number of teachers was so small, and when 
the few schools that were established, in connec- 
tion with the parish churches, had to suffer so 
much from constant wars. The education offered 
by the Benedictine order was, at first, intended 
only for boys who were to enter upon a monastic 
life. According to the fundamental rule of the 
order, the separation of the monk from the world 
should begin as early as possible. Boys, called 
pueri oblati, were admitted when only five years 
of age. The discipline was strict. The rod was 
used to punish offenses against punctuality and 
order, and deficiencies in recitations; more serious 
offenses were sometimes punished by the scourge. 
Latin was a prominent part of the instruction, 
and almost exclusively the language of conversa- 
tion. Reading, writing, and the singing of psalms 
were the prominent subjects of instmction ; but 
the course also included rhetoric, dialectics, arith- 
metic, astronomy, geography, natural science, and 
medicine. Special attention was given to history, 
as is proved by the numerous annals and chron- 
icles issued from the Benedictine convents. As 
few schools outside of the Benedictine convents 
could be found, which offered equal opportunities 
for the education of children, the monks were 
soon requested to admit also boys not devoted to 
monastic life. These applications came especially 
from noble and wealthy families, and were so 
numerous that it was soon found necessary to 
provide special rooms, and probably also special 
courses of instruction, for each class of boys 
(scholo? inter iwes and exter lores). — The in- 
struction in the elementary branches was im- 
parted by a teacher called scholasticus ; in the 
larger schools and for higher studies, learned 
monks, called magistri, were appointed, under 
whose direction other monks, called seniores, 
acted as assistant teachers. — Many convents of 
the Benedictine nuns had similar schools for 
girls, though they were not so numerously at- 
tended as those of the monks. Sometimes these 
schools of the convents also admitted boys. 
With the decay of the Benedictine order these 
schools declined. Convent education, after the 
12th century, did not retain the ascendency 
which it had formerly enjoyed; and where it was 
still preferred, it passed to a large extent into the 
hands of other monastic orders. (See Convent 
Schools.) 



BENEKB 



BENGEL 



81 



Among the most famous schools of the Bene- 
dictines, were Monte Casino, Bobbio, Rome, and 
Milan, in Italy: Tom's. Corbie. Fleury, which at 
onetime had 5,000 students. Clermont. Ferrieres, 
Fontenay, Reims, Aniane. Marmoutier, Lobbes, 
in France and Belgium; St. Call, Reichenau, 
Fulda, Fritzlar, Ilersfeld, Mayence, Treves. 
Priim, Lorsch, AVcisseuburg, Ratisbon, Salz- 
burg. Korvei. in Germany and Switzerland. 
In England, St. Peter's Convent at Canterbury 
had a wide-spread reputation, through Theodore 
of Tarsus and his companion Hadrian. The 
double convent of Wearmouth and Yarrow, 
which was founded in 673 by Benedict Biscop, 
gave to western teachers the learned and illustrious 
Bede. (SeeBEDK.) York, which owed its celebrity 
to Egbert and Adelbert, counted among its 
pupils the celebrated Alcuin. (See Alcoin.) 
Though the prominent influence which the 
Benedictines, at the beginning of the middle age, 
exercised upon the education of Catholic Europe. 
was never recovered, they still continue to con- 
duct a number of educational institutions. At 
present (1876), they have a number of colleges 
and gymnasia in the United States, in Austria, 
Switzerland, and several other countries. 

BENEKE, Friedricb. Eduard, an ingenious 
German writer on the art of education, was born 
at Berlin, Pebr. 17.. 1 798. He studied theology 
and philosophy at the universities of Halle and 
Berlin, and finally decided to devote himself 
wholly to philosophy in order to reform it. He 
became a lecturer (privatdocenl) on philosophy 
at the university of Berlin in 1820, and, placing 
himself wholly upon the stand-point of empiri- 
cism and denying the possibility of u priori e< tui- 
tions, at once boldly attacked the system of Hegel 
who at that time was all-powerful. The Prus- 
sian government, in 1822, deprived him of the 
right of lecturing at the university, because 
as the minister of public worship, Alten- 
stein. personally explained to him, a philosophy 
which did not derive everything from the ab- 
solute, coidd not be recognized as a philosophy 
at all. Beneke removed, in 1824, to the university 
of (Jottingen. whence he returned, in 1827. to 
Berlin, where he was appointed after the death 
of Hegel, in 1832. extraordinary professor of 
philosophy. He suddenly disappeared, .March 1 .. 
1 854, and a year later his corpse was found in the 
canal at Charlottenburg. It has never been ascer- 
tained whether he committed suicide, or whether 
his death was caused by an accident. Most of 
the numerous works of Beneke are of a philosoph- 
ical character ; as an educational writer, he 
became first known, in 1835, by a work, entitled 
Theory of Education and Instruction [Erzie- 
hnnr/s- unci Untt'rrichtsli'hre), which made a 
profound impression among teachers and friends 
of education. The system of education pro- 
posed by him is based exclusively on psychology, 
and he claims for it the character of a wholly 
empirical science. He found many enthusiastic 
admirers, one of whom, Dressier (in Hergang's 
Realencyclopddie, I, p. 264), says of him: All 
former achievements in the province of pedagogy 



were surpassed by Beneke. Through him the 
education of man has gained a character which 
was formerly unknown — certainty of success. 
Previous successes were accidental, but the psy- 
chology of Beneke has given us a power over 
nature which does not fall behind the power ex- 
ercised by physicists and chemists. The number 
of adherents of this system is small, though the 
genius of Beneke is universally acknowledged. 
Among the other educational works of Beneke. 
one published in 1836, and entitled Our Uni- 
versities and what they need, attracted great 
attention. 

BENEVOLENCE, good-will, general and 
habitual kindness of disposition in our feelings, 
not only toward each other, but toward the lower 
animals, is a trait of character which shoidd re- 
ceive a careful cultivation in the education of the 
young. Children, in general, are not naturally 
benevolent. Their undeveloped sympathies, their 
active propensities and love of sport, and their 
proneness to what is called by phrenologists " de- 
stractiveness", iucliue them to acts of selfish- 
ness and cruelty. In order to check this tendency, 
their sensibilities should, as much as possible, lie 
aroused ; they should not be subjected to harsh 
or inconsiderate treatment, and they should not 
only read and hear stories that awaken their 
sympathies, but shoidd be made to observe ob- 
jects of compassion that require their active aid ; 
and they shoidd be incited and encouraged in 
every possible way to self-sacrifice in relieving the 
sufferings of others. In their conduct toward 
each other, they shoidd be habituated to lay 
aside their resentments, to forgive injuries, to put 
the kindest and most considerate construction 
upon the acts of their companions, and to dismiss 
from their minds all suspicions and jealousies, as 
well as all distrust that is not based upon indis- 
putable facts. The quarrels of children may for 
tliis purpose become the means of wholesome 
discipline in instruction ; since the disputants 
themselves may be made to feel the desirability 
of mutual forbearance, and their associates, by 
being brought in to aid in reconciling them, may 
be impressed with the beautiful character of the 
peace-maker. In the treatment of the lower ani- 
mals by children, there is much occasion for this 
kind of training ; and the skillful teacher will not 
fail to make use of the numerous incidents of 
school life to impress this virtue upon the child's 
character. (See Moral Education.) 

BENGEL, Johann Albrecht, a celebrated 
German theologian and educator in AViirtemberg, 
was born in 1687, and died in 1752. He is 
chiefly famous as a theological writer, being well 
known as one of the most prominent representa- 
tives of German pietism. He was, from 1713 to 
1741, a very successful teacher at a theological 
seminary at Denkendorf, and while there intro- 
duced many educational reforms. The course of 
stitches which he drew up for his school, in con- 
cert with his colleagues, attracted great attention. 
From an educational point of view, his writings 
are valuable as illustrating the peculiar position 
which pietism occupies in the history of German 



82 



BENTLEY 



pedagogy. His life was written by his son-in- 
law, Oh. Burk. — See also Palmer, Evangelische 
Padagogik. 

BENTLEY, Richard, considered the best 
classical scholar England has ever produced, was 
born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, in 1662, and 
died at Cambridge in 1742. He was educated 
at Cambridge University, but subsequently, while 
tutor of the son of Dr. Stillingneet, he pursued 
his classical studies at Oxford. His most cele- 
brated work was his Dissertation on the Epistles 
of Phalaris,m which, in controversy with the 
most eminent scholars and literary men of his 
time, he proved that the Epistles were spurious. 
" This was," says Holland, "the first great literary 
war in England ;" and Bentley showed such pro- 
found scholarship, acute criticism, and masterly 
logic, that he not only vanquished his opponents, 
but achieved for himself a reputation throughout 
Europe. In 1700, he was appointed Master of 
Trinity College, Cambridge, in which he con- 
tinued till his death ; but his arrogance and rapaci- 
ty involved him in the most bitter and protracted 
quarrels and lawsuits, and at one time came near 
ignominiously depriving him of Ms position. He 
published critical editions of many classical 
authors, of great merit and value, among which 
Iris Horace was the most elaborate and the most 
popular. His edition of Milton's Paradise Lost 
(1732) was, however, quite unworthy of his fame. 
His edition of Homer he did not live to complete. 
Bentley did a most valuable service not only to 
classical scholarship, but to historical criticism, 
the latter of which he established on a new basis. 
While as an official he was arbitrary, exacting, 
and severe, in private life he was courteous and 
amiable. — See T. H. Monk, Life of Bentley 
(1830); Hartley Coleridge, Lives of Northern 
Worthies (edited by his brother, London, 1852); 
De Quincey, Essays on Philosophical Writers, 
vol. II. (Boston, 1854.) 

BEREA COLLEGE, at Berea, Ky., was 
founded in 1858. It supplies the means of edu- 
cation to students, both white and colored, male 
and female. In 1875, it had 14 instructors and 
271 students; of the latter, 157 were males and 
114 females ; 126 white, and 145 colored. Of the 
colored students, 67 were females. It includes a 
preparatory and a collegiate department. All 
the female students are included in a ladies' de- 
partment, under the special supervision of a lady 
principal. No separate course of study is ar- 
ranged for females, but both sexes recite together 
whenever their studies are the same. There is 
also a normal department with a special course 
for teachers; also a commercial course. The 
college is well supplied with apparatus and has 
a library of nearly 2,000 volumes. The college 
buildings are spacious and elegant, particularly 
the Ladies' Hall, erected in 1873. Rev. E. H. 
Pairchild (1875) is the president of the institu- 
tion. The annual tuition fee is $10. 

BERNHARDI, AugTist Ferdinand, one 
of the most eminent schoolmen of Prussia in the 
beginning of this century, was born in 1769, 
in Berlin, and died in 1820. He became a 



BIBLE 

teacher in the Friedrich Werder Gymnasium, in 
Berlin, in 1791, and director of the same in- 
stitution in 1808. In the same year, he gave 
Pestalozzi's method of teaching arithmetic a trial, 
enlarged the exercises, and finally introduced 
it into his school. His success as director of 
the gymnasium was remarkable, the number of 
pupils increasing from 97 in 1808,to460in 1812. 
Many of the most distinguished men of Prussia 
proceeded from his school. He found no time 
for the publication of large works ; but some of 
his essays and lectures have been published under 
the title of A view of the Organization of the 
Learned Schools. The programmes edited by 
him in 1809, 1810, and 1811, give his views upon 
the Number, importance, and relation of the sub- 
jects taught in a gymnasium, also on the First 
principles of method, and on the First principles 
of discipline. In later 'essays, published from 
1814 to 1816, he gave a fuller exposition of the 
proper course of studies for a gymnasium ; and 
the ideas which he developed in regard to this 
subject, have gained for him the reputation of 
being one of the best writers on the German 
gymnasia. 

"' BETHANY COLLEGE, at Bethany, W. 
Ya., was established in 1841 by the Rev. Alex- 
ander Campbell, the founder of the sect of Bap- 
tists, called Disciples. This institution had, in 
1873, a corps of 9 instructors, and 123 students 
in the collegiate department. Its productive 
funds amount to $60,000, and the value of the 
college property, — grounds, buildings, etc., is 
estimated at $250,000. The president of the 
college is (1876) W. K. Pendleton. 

BETHEL COLLEGE, at Russelville, Ky., 
was founded by the Bethel Baptist Association 
of South-western Kentucky, in 1849, as a high 
school ; and, in 1856, it was chartered as a col- 
lege. Its successive presidents have been B. T. 
Blewitt to 1861 ; Rev. Geo. Hunt, from 1863 to 
1864 ; Prof. J. W. Rust, from 1864 to 1868 ; 
Noah K. Davis, from 1868 to 1873. The dis- 
cipline of the college is now under the direction 
of Leslie Waggener, as chairman of the faculty. 
In the winter of 1861 — 2, the college buildings 
were used as a hospital by the Confederate forces 
lying at Bowling Green. The endowment funds 
amount (1875) to $85,000, besides which it has 
a beneficiary fund of about $8,000, and its real 
estate, in addition to the college buildings and 
grounds, is valued at $85,000. It contains 
schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural 
science, English, mental science, biblical knowl- 
edge, and theology, in which, in 1874 — 5, there 
were about 350 students ; of whom 97 were in 
the collegiate department. The school of English 
is very complete, affording to its students a 
knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language, as a 
basis for a critical knowledge of English gram- 
mar and literature. The tuition fee is $60 per 
annum. 

BIBLE (Gr. pcfiXia, books), the sacred scrip- 
tures of the Christians. All churches which 
recognize Christ as their founder, whatever may 
be their denomination, agree in regarding the 



BIBLE 



83 



Bible as the divinely inspired book which con- 
tains the tenets of Christian belief and of ( 'liris- 
tian ethics. The Bible is divided into two parts, 
called the Old and the New Testament. The 
former is regarded as holy frit, not only by 
Christians, but also by the Jews. There is not 
an entire agreement in regard to the number of 
books constituting the Old Testament. Several 
books are regarded by the Catholic Church as 
belonging to, and partaking of. the inspired 
character of the Scriptures, which Protestants 
generally regard as a class of works highly 
venerable and useful but not of divine origin. 
The Catholic Church calls these books deutero- 
canonical, the Protestants apocryphal, or, collect- 
ively, the Apocrypha. The New Testament is the 
same in the Catholic Church as in Protestant 
churches ; but one < thristian sect, the Abyssinian 
Church, recognizes, in addition to the books ac- 
cepted by both Catholics and Protestants, a 
number of others as a part of the New Testa- 
ment. 

Catholics and Protestants, though accepting tin- 
same books as the sources of divine truth, differ 
widely in the interpretation of their contents. 
Most of the biblical Protestants regard the Bible 
as the only source of ( 'hristian faith, and main- 
tain that, whatever differences of opinion may 
exist in regard to some particular doctrines, 
the great fundamental truths of ( 'hristianity are 
set forth in it so clearly, as to supersede fully 
the need of any other standard of faith. The 
Catholic Church, on the other hand, holds that 
the Bible was not given by Cod to man to be the 
only guide for the formation of his religious be- 
lief, but that, for that purpose, an infallible 
church was instituted, whose office it is to ex- 
plain to the faithful the true meaning of the 
Bible. 

From the different position which these two 
large denominations of Christians assume in re- 
gard to the Bible, it follows that they must teach 
a different way of using it. Thus, the Protestant 
churches consider it a matter of prime import- 
ance that every child should become acquainted 
with the Bible as the only infallible source of the 
pure word of God, and should learn, as soon as 
possible, to read and understand it ; while the 
Catholic Church enjoins upon its members to 
keep constantly in mind, in reading the Bible, 
that only the infallible church possesses the key 
to its true meaning. The Protestant churches 
earnestly desire that the Bible should be placed in 
the hands of every Christian ; and they have, 
therefore, founded in all Protestant countries 
Bible Societies, designed to carry out this object, 
and thus have already fully succeeded in mak- 
ing the Bible the most widely circulated book in 
the world. The Catholic Church prefers the use 
of annotated Bibles, or of selections from the 
Bible, to that of the Scriptures without note and 
comment. When, in the thirteenth century, the 
Albigenses translated the Bible into their ver- 
nacular languages, and referred their members to 
the text of the Bible as contradicting the teach- 
ings of the church, the synod of Toulouse, in 



1229, forbade laymen to read the Bible in the 
vernacular language ; and. in modern times, the 
efforts of the Bible societies have been repeatedly 
condemned by the popes. In Protestant coun- 
tries, the reading of the Bible has been a very 
prominent agent in the development of public 
education. The Bible having become, through 
Luther and other Reformers of the sixteenth 
century, the principal book for the church and the 
home-circle, the instruction of children in this 
book continued for a long time to be the chief 
object of popular education. Children were 
taught to read in order that they might be able 
to peruse the Bible ; and instruction in the dog- 
matic tenets of the Church, as well as instruc- 
tion in history, geography, and other branches, 
was secondary to the reading of the Scrip- 
tures. In process of time, the relation of Bible 
reading to other branches of education became 
greatly modified ; but. wherever public schools 
still have a distinctively Protestant character, the 
reading of the Bible is retained as a special 
branch of instruction. Protestant educators dif- 
fer in regard to the question, whether it is pref- 
erable to place the entire Bible, or only editions 
specially abridged for the use of children (school- 
bibles), into the hands of the pupils. Both views 
have found able advocates ; but the use of the 
entire Bible has thus far been favored by the 
legislation of most of the Protestant states of Eu- 
rope. On the other hand, educators have generally 
agreed in recommending to teachers not to re- 
quire the entire Bible to be read consecutively 
by the pupils; but to leave out those portions 
which are cither inappropriate or too difficult for 
children. 

The Catholic Church is opposed to the intro- 
duction of the Bible without note or comment 
into schools, and substitutes for it the use of bib- 
lical histories and selections from the Bible. 
Recent Catholic works on education express the 
wish, that to the reading of suitable selections 
from the Bible greater prominence shoidd be 
given than has heretofore been the case. See 
Routs & Pfister, RealrEncychpcidie des Kr- 
ziehungs- and Unterrichtswesens nach katlio- 
lischen Principien, art. Bibel. 

Bible Question. — In the United States, the pub- 
lic schools are of an undenominational character, 
being intended to receive children of all kinds of 
religious belief or unbelief. The question whether 
the reading of the Bible is to be retained in 
the public schools, has been and still is the sub- 
ject of animated discussion and agitation. The 
decision of this question is mostly left to the 
local boards of education, which may prescribe, 
allow, or forbid the reading of the Bible. The 
legislation of several of the states of the Union pro- 
\ ides, however, that no ordinance shall be passed 
by any local board of education forbidding the 
use of the Bible. The majority of the Protes- 
tant churches still favor the reading of the 
Bible, though some of the most prominent cler- 
gymen have, of late, taken the ground that it 
would be unjust to request the children of Cath- 
olics, Jews, or Non-Christians to take part in re- 



84 



BIBLE HISTORY 



ligious exercises to which their parents object. 
The Catholics and Jews, together with all the op- 
. ponentsof Christianity, generally demand the ex- 
clusion of the Bible from the schools. In the 
city of Cincinnati, a resolution by the board of 
education forbidding the reading of the Bible in 
the public schools, led, in 1869, to a legal contest 
which lasted four years. The superior court of 
Cincinnati, in 1870, decided against the board of 
education; but the supreme court of Ohio, in 
June 1873, reversed this judgment, and sus- 
tained the Cincinnati board of education. The 
school board of Chicago, in 1875, followed the 
example of Cincinnati, and forbade the reading 
of the Bible in the public schools. The question 
has also been vehemently agitated in the city of 
New York. — See The Bible in the Public Schools; 
Arguments in the case of John D. Minor et al. 
versus the Board of Education of the City of 
Cincinnati et al. (Cincinnati, 1870) ; Bourne, 
History of the Public School Society (N. Y., 
1870) ; Boese, Public Education in the Citi/ of 
New York (New York, 1869) ; T. H. Huxley, 
The School Boards, in Critiques and Addresses 
(London, and N. Y., 1873); Grlmke, Use of the 
Bible in Common Education, in Amer. Annals 
of Education, vol. in. (1833), and The Bible as 
a Class Book, in Addresses (1831.) 

BIBLE HISTORY, or Biblical History. 
The connected history of the events narrated in 
the Bible is in many schools, both Protestant and 
Catholic, a part of the prescribed religious in- 
struction. The method of teaching it greatly 
varies according to the age of the scholars. 
While children of the primary grade are taught 
only the most notable events of sacred history, 
in language adapted to their age, more advanced 
students are introduced into a full understanding 
of the Bible. In the compilation of text-books 
for this study, the authors hav°, sometimes 
endeavored to give the whole narrative as much 
as possible in the words of the Bible, so as to 
make the book, in fact, an abridgment of the 
Bible. Others have deemed it better to pay less 
attention to retaining the words of the Bible, 
and to look, in the first place, to making the sub- 
ject as interesting, attractive, and intelligible to 
children as possible. Germany, where Biblical 
history (Biblische Oeschichte) is generally adop- 
ted as a part of the course of instruction in 
public schools of various grades, has a very ex- 
tensive literature on the subject, including many 
manuals for teachers. Of scientific theology, 
Bible history forms an essential part, and is di- 
vided, like the Bible itself, into two sections, the 
history of the Old, and the history of the New 
Testament. It forms the connecting link between 
exegetical and historical theology, explaining, on 
the one hand, the contents of the Bible, and, on 
the other hand, treating and elucidating them 
the same as any other historical subject. 

Bible history may also be viewed as a history 
of the volume containing the sacred writings of 
the Christian church In this sense, it treats of 
the origin of the several books composing the 
Bible, and of their collection in the canon. The 



BLACKBOARD 

works treating of this subject are generally en- 
titled Introductions to the Bible; but a number 
of prominent theologians, rejecting this title as 
unsuitable, have treated of tins subject under 
the heading, History of the Bible, or History of 
the Biblical Revelation. The most noted works 
of this class are: Reuss, Die Geschichte der heil. 
Schriften des JST. T. (1853, 3d. edit. I860); Gue- 
ricke, Oesammlgeschichte des N. T. (Leip.,1854); 
Haneberg, Versuch einer Oeschichte der bibli- 
schen Offenbarung (Ratisbon, 1850). 

BIRCH, as the name of the tree from which 
rods or twigs were formerly obtained for the in- 
fliction of corporal punishment, is often used as 
denoting this species of punishment ; and the 
tree is frequently referred to in connection with 
school-keeping in the olden time. Shakespeare 
speaks of the "threatening twigs of birch"; and 
Shenstone, in The Schoolmistress, thus refers 
to the tree and its connection with school-man- 
agement : 

"And all in sight dotli rise a birchen tree, 
■\Yhich Learning near her little dome did stow, 
Whilom a twig of small regard to see, 
Though now so wide its waving branches flow, 
And work the simple vassals mickle woe ; 
For not a wind might curl the leaves that blew, 
But their limbs shudder'd, and their pulse beat low, 
And as they look'd, they found their horror grew, 
And shaped it into rods, and tingled at the view.'' 

Doubtless, the toughness and elasticity of the 
twigs of the birch made them, before the intro- 
duction of the rattan, very useful implements 
for the purpose of school chastisement. (See 
Corporal Punishment.) 

BLACKBOARD, an important piece of 
school apparatus now in use in all classes and 
grades of schools. It is generally constructed of 
wood, and is either attached to the wall of the 
room, or made to stand on an easel or revolve in 
a frame. Instead of blackboards, wall slates are 
now very frequently used, which, although much 
more expensive, are to be preferred on account 
of then' durability. Sometimes, a portion of the 
wall itself is painted black, or covered with 
liquid slating, for this purpose ; and at the pres- 
ent time a kind of slated, cloth is manufactured, 
which being attached to the wall answers every 
purpose of a blackboard. 

The blackboard for the use of the teacher in 
giving Ins instruction or explanations to the 
whole school or class, should, for the sake of con- 
venience, be placed near his desk and in front of 
the pupils. It is a great advantage also to have 
sufficient blackboard surface to admit of its use 
by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. 
This is especially desirable in higher instruction; 
but even in elementary district schools will be ' 
found to be quite desirable. Some of the pupils 
of a school can be employed in writing, drawing, 
or working out arithmetical problems on the 
blackboards, while others are engaged in oral rec- 
itation. There is scarcely any branch of in- 
struction, or any kind of teaching, from the ob- 
ject lesson of the primary school to the lecture 
of the college professor, in which the use of the 
blackboard is not found to be almost indispen- 



BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY 



BLIND 



85 



sable. In teaching mathematics, it has an espe- 
cial value. Scarcely a teacher, at the present 
day, in the most remote country school-house, 
would think of teaching arithmetic without a 
blackboard. But it is a most important aid 
also in teaching writing, drawing, geography, 
grammar, composition, history, and music ; in- 
deed, in every thing that admits of, or requires, 
an ocular demonstration addressed to a large 
number of pupils. Blackboard drawing can be 
made very instructive and interesting, particu- 
larly when crayons of different colors are used. 
In some schools this kind of drawing is carried 
to great perfection. Map-drawing, or rapid 
map-sketching, on the blackboard, is also very 
useful in teaching geography. Recitations on 
this subject may be conducted by this means. 
One of the pupils draws the outline of the state 
or country which is the subject of the lesson ; 
another fills in the rivers ; the next, the cities, 
etc., till the map is complete. As the study of 
maus depends so largely on the proper and at- 
tentive use of the eye, this method of blackboard 
instruction cannot fail to be quite effective. 

Blackboard illustration will also prove very 
effective in the oral teaching, by a series of les- 
sons or lectures, of abstract subjects other than 
mathematics, such as logic, metaphysics, mental 
and moral philosophy, etc. By this means the 
divisions and subdivisions of the subject, with 
their exact logical relations, are presented to the 
mind through the eye, and a much stronger, 
clearer and more durable impression is thus 
made. For an excellent example of this kind 
of teaching, see Mark Hopkins, An Outline 
Study of Man (New York, 1876). See also 
W. A. Alcott, Slate and Blackboard Exercises; 
Wiokersham, School Economy (Philadelphia, 
1868). 

BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, at Carlin- 
ville, 111., was organized in 1867, by the Presby- 
terians. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, an 
eclectic, a scientific, and a theological course, to 
which both sexes are admitted on equal terms, 
and receive the same honorary degrees on the 
completion of the course pursued. There were, 
in 1873, 257 students, of whom 141 belonged to 
the preparatory and 116 to the collegiate depart- 
ment ; and the corps of instructors numbered 13, 
exclusive of 4 endowed professorships. The value 
of its grounds, buildings, etc. is $90,000 ; and its 
productive endowment $90,000. The president 
of the institution is (1876) Rev. J. W. Barby, 
D.D. The annual tuition fee is f 25. 

BLIND, Education of the. The blind 
constitute, in every country, a numerous class of 
afflicted persons for whom special instruction is 
needed. Blindness, or loss of sight, is either con- 
genital, or is caused by accident or disease oc- 
curring after birth. The statistics of different 
countries show that the number of blind persons 
in all ages has been quite large ; and, in modern 
times, this has led to considerable effort with the 
view to afford to these unfortunates the means 
of education, not only for their mental improve- 
ment, but to train them to independent support, 



so that they may be lifted out of the pauper class, 
and be enabled to earn a respectable livelihood. 

There is a great diversity in the number of 
blind persons as compared with the population 
in different countries. Thus, according to the 
census of 1870, the total number of blind persons 
in the United States was 20,320, or 1 in 1900 of 
the population. In England and Wales, the 
proportion is reported as 1 to 1,037 ; in Prance, 
1 to 938; in Greece and Turkey. 1 to 800; in 
Iceland, 1 to 300 ; and in Egypt, 1 to 200. In 
all countries, the number of males among the 
blind exceeds that of the females ; and, in the 
United States, about one half of the blind are 
over 48 years of age. The proportion of those 
born blind to those who become so after birth is 
quite small. 

The ancients appear to have had a certain de- 
gree of reverence fur the blind, to some of whom 
they attributed tin' gift of prophecy : but it was 
not until the Middle Ages that any provision was 
made for their care and protection : and it was 
reserved for modern times to afford them the 
means of education. The Hospice ties Quinze- 
Vingts (Hospital for the 300). in Paris, founded 
by Uouis IX. in 126(1, is supposed to be the first 
public asylum established for the blind, the ob- 
ject of the French king being to provide a re- 
treat for the soldiers of his army who had lost, 
their eyes in Egypt, during the crusade which he 
led against the Moslems. This institution still 
exists, and has an annual income of $80,000. It 
'is however, as it was originally, only an asylum, 
affording no means of instruction ; indeed, it was 
not until the 16th century that any processes 
were devised for this purpose. But little was ac- 
complished in this direction till 17*1, when Va- 
lentin Haiiy, incited by the example of the abbe 
de l'Epee in connection with the education of 
deaf-mutes, commenced his exertions to find ait 
efficient method for teaching the blind. Having 
succeeded with a few individuals, by the use of 
raised letters, he opened a small school, which hi 
1791 was taken under the patronage of the gov- 
ernment, and afterward became the Royal Insti- 
tution for tin 1 Blind. He subsequently founded 
institutions for the blind at St. Petersburg and 
at Berlin. About the same time, similar insti- 
tutions were established in England and Scot- 
land ; and. after the example of that at Berlin, 
in many of the cities of Germany. There are 
now 16 public institutions for the blind in Eng- 
land, the oldest of which is the Sdioolfor the 
Blind, in Liverpool, founded in 1791 ; 4 in Scot- 
land, of which the Asylum for Industrious 
Blind, in Edinburgh, was founded in 1793 ; and 
4 in Ireland, the oldest being the Richmond 
National Institution, in Dublin, founded in 1810. 
In London, 23 private institutions have been 
established by charitable endowments. France 
has 13 schools for the blind, besides the Hospice 
des Quinze -Vmgts. There are between thirty 
and forty institutions for the blind in Germany, 
of which the oldest is that commenced at Berlin, 
in 1806. by Haiiy. The Netherlands. Belgium, 
and Switzerland have similar institutions. In 



86 



BLIND 



the Netherlands, they are supported entirely by 
voluntary subscription. In Belgium, an afeylum for 
the blind is said to have been founded at Bruges 
in 1305; but the first school was opened at Brus- 
sels in 1833. In Spain, there are two institutions 
for the blind, one at Madrid, and the other at 
Barcelona. There are also institutions of the 
kind in Italy, and a school for the instruction of 
the blind at Rio Janeiro, commenced in 1854. 
The first institution for the blind in the United 



States — the Perkins Institution at Boston, was 
chartered in 1829, but not opened till August, 
1832. It was named after Col. Thomas H. 
Perkins, who gave his mansion for its accom- 
modation. It was under the direction of Dr. 
Samuel ti. Howe until Ms death in 1876. The 
New York Institution for the Blind was opened 
March 15., 1832. The following table of statis- 
tics has been compiled from the Report of the 
U. S. Bureau of Education for 1875. 



Institutions for the Blind in the United States. 








<M .2 
o -w 




upils 

ted 

aning 




Hi 




NAME. 


LOCATION 


2 ■§ 


Control 


■s e .a 


og° 


a$* 


s p a 






1866 






Amou 
prop 
state 


■a 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 


Talladega, Ala — 


State 


40 


2 


$18,000 


$40,000 


Inst, for Education of the Blind. . . . 


Little Rock, Ark... 


1859 


State 


107 


13 


7,703 


30,000 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. | Oakland, Cal 


1860 


State 


84 


3 


36,000 


100,000 


Georgia Academy for the Blind. . . .I.Macon, Ga 


1852 


Corporation. 


144 


11 


13,000 


75,000 


Inst, for the Education of the Blind. (Jacksonville, 111... 


1849 


State 


506 


29 


31,000 


166,000 


Inst, for the Education of the Blind.; Indianapolis, Ind. . 


1847 


State 


521 


25 


32,500 


525,000 






1853 
1867 


State 


317 
65 


28 
11 


26,000 
9,000 


500,000 




Wyandotte, Kan. . . 


40,000 


Asylum for the Education of the Blind 


Louisville, Ky 


1S42 


State 


358 


20 


19,380 


100,000 


Inst, for the Education of the Blind. 


Baton Rouge, La... 


1871 


State 


63 


6 


8,000 


250,000 


Inst, for the Instruction of the Blind 


Baltimore, Md 


1853 


Corporation. 


173 


16 


22,000 


255,000 


Inst, for Colored Blind and Deaf-M. Baltimore, Md 


1872 


Corporation. 


18 


7 


10,000 


20,000 


Perkins Inst, and Mass. Asylum. . . . 


Boston, Mass 


1832 


Corporation. 


889 


48 


30,000 


354,715 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 


Flint, Mich 


1853 


Trustees... . 


— 


— 


51,872 


375,315 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 


Faribault, Minn. . , 


1866 


State 


32 


4 


5,000 


25,000 






1852 


State 


275 


6 


10,000 
21,000 


10,000 
200,000 


Inst, for the Education of the Blind. 




1851 


State 


338 


23 


State Institution for the Blind 


Batavia, N, Y 


1868 


State 


29 


3 


25,000 


70,000 


N. Y. Institution for the Blind 


New York, N. Y... 


1831 


Corporation. 


1,172 


60 


52,500 


324,500 


Inst, for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Raleigh, N. C 


1851 


State 


100 


6 


40,000 


50,000 


Inst, for Education of the Blind ... . 


Columbus, 


1837 




868 


50 


00,785 


500,000 


Oregon Institute for the Blind 


Salem, Oreg 


1873 




12 


3 


2,000 


— 


Inst, for Instruction of the Blind... . 


Philadelphia, Pa. . 


1S33 


Corporation. 


885 


63 


39,000 


201 ,000 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 


Spartanburg, S. C. 


184(1 


State 











50,000 


Tennessee School for the Blind 


Nashville, Tenn. . . 


1844 


Corporation. 


175 


9 


15,000 


80,000 


Texas Institute for the Blind 




1856 


State 





10 


10,650 


45,000 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 


Staunton, Va .... 


1839 


State 


208 


5 


40,000 


175,000 


Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind. 


Romuey, W. Va.. . 


1870 


State 


29 


3 


25.000 


70,000 


Inst, for Education of the Blind. . . . 


Janesville, Wis 


1850 




236 


21 


83,000 


85,000 



From the above table it will be seen that there 
are 29 institutions, either exclusively for the edu- 
cation of the blind, or for that of the blind and the 
deaf and dumb; and that, since 1832, when the 
New York and Boston institutions went into 
operation, about 7,500 blind persons have re- 
ceived instruction ; also, that, in 1874, the amount 
of state and municipal appropriations for the 
support of these institutions was upward of 
§740,000, and that the amount of money invested 
in grounds, buildings, etc., belonging to them, is 
more than $4,500,000. It is an interesting fact 
also that 22 of these establishments are purely 
state institutions. 

Methods of Instruction. — An institution for 
the blind should comprehend three schools, or de- 
partments ; namely, the literary department, or 
school proper, the school of music, and the in- 
dustrial school. This organization is essential, 
in order to give the general instruction which 
every child needs, and also such special training 
as blindness renders necessary. In the literary 
department, the course of instruction includes 



the branches which are usually taught, in the 
common and high schools, to the seeing; the prin- 
cipal difference being in the apparatus and meth- 
ods of teaching employed. Instead of the black- 
board, wall-maps, slate and pencil, and pen and 
ink, there are employed topographical maps, em- 
bossed books, slates with movable type to repre- 
sent numerals and algebraic signs, geometrical 
cards with figures in relief, metal tablets for tan- 
gible writing, according to the New York point 
system, — also for the New York system of alpha- 
betic writing and musical notation. 

The first efforts to instruct the blind found 
expression in an attempt to teach them how to 
read by means of the fingers. Many alphabets 
in relief have been devised, but all may be in- 
cluded in two classes: (1) Those composed of 
lines, forming the ordinary capital or small let- 
ters in their original form, or in some modifica- 
tion of it ; (2) Those in which the letters are 
formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect 
resembling the ordinary letters, and called the 
point alphabet. These can be both printed and 



BLIND 



87 



written in a tangible form. The use of line let- 
ter text-books in classes is very limited, from the 
fact that a classification according to reading 
ability differs entirely from that based upon 
mental capacity and attainments. For tins 
reason, the instruction in each of the depart- 
ments is chiefly oral. 

The instruction of the blind in music is of 
paramount importance. It develops and refines 
thu taste, promotes general culture, affords con- 
stant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as 
the means of respectable Support. The musical 
course of instruction comprises voice lessons, 
part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in 
piano and organ playing, and a thorough course 
of teaching and training in the tuning of pianos. 
Blind organists, teachers of the piano, and piano- 
tuners may be found in all parts of the country. 
One of the best t unci's employed by Steinway & 
Sons, the celebrated piano-forte makeis of New 
York, is totally blind. Heretofore, this depart- 
ment of instruction has been exclusively oral; 
but there is now in press a piano instruction 
bonk, in the New York point system of musical 
notation, by which the blind pupil may learn by 
finger-reading from the printed or written page. 

The importance of mechanical training, in 
comparison with other branches of instruction, 
in the education of the blind, is a matter of vital 
interest. Some are of opinion that instruction 
in trades is of the first importance ; others give 
it simply a place co-ordinate with other depart- 
ments of teaching; while still others attach the 
chief importance to such branches as lead to 
those employments in which skilled manual oper- 
ations are required. The latter position cannot 
be maintained, since in all such operations the 
guidance of the eye is more or less essential to 
perfection ami dexterity of manipulation; from 
which fact it is obvious that purely mechanical 
pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to 
tin ise who are deprived of sight. This being so, 
it is a great mistake to rest the education of the 
young blind, and the prospects of their future 
usefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such 
employments. The true plan is to give manual 
pursuits such a place in the scheme of education 
as is required by the conditions wluch blindness 
imposes. The training of the young blind in 
one or more industrial occupations should be 
rigidly enforced, not because such employments 
furnish the only, the best, or the most available 
means of future support, but because such train- 
ing and discipline of the head and the hand in 
vvoik are necessary to the proper education of 
every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the 
means to an end, but not the end itself. Male 
pupils are taught to make brooms, mats, mat- 
tresses, and brushes ; to put cane bottoms into 
chairs ; and to perform other handicraft labors. 
Female pupils are taught to sew, knit, and cro- 
chet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, 
and to work a great variety of articles useful 
and ornamental. 

Government and Discipline. — From necessity, 
the pupils board and lodge at the institution ; 



and, consequently, the government is twofold : 

(1) that of a large and well-ordered family ; and 

(2) that of a thoroughly organized school. The 
rules are such only as are necessary to secure the 
easy and effective performance of the many kinds 
of work which are carried on in the different 
departments. In all well-regulated schools, the 
male and female pupils are effectually separated 
except during the horn's of instruction, and all 
communication is prohibited. The co-education 
of the sexes is common to all schools for the 
blind in this country, except those of Boston 
ami Philadelphia. The institutions are not de- 
nominational, each pupil being permitted to at- 
tend the particular church and Sunday school 
which are chosen by parents, guardians, or 
friends. Discipline is maintained in the Xew 
York, Boston, and some other schools, entirely 
by moral means, no recourse being ever had to 
corporal punishment. 

Systems of Printing and Notation. — Tangible 
letters were first constructed in the 18th cent- 
ury; afterward, the noted blind pianist, Theresa 
von Faradis, of Vienna, represented musical 
notes with pins on a cushion, from which her 
friend Haiiy conceived the idea of embossing 
letters on paper. The first book in relief print- 
ing was, it is believed, Haiiy s Essai svr Fedu- 
cation des aveugles (Paris. 17b(i). The first 
book in English printed in relief was issued by 
James Gall, of Edinburgh, in 1827; and two years 
afterward, he introduced relief printing in Lon- 
don. His alphabet consisted of the ordinary 
English lower-case letters reduced to straight 
lines and angles. In 1832, Dr. Fry obtained the 
prize offered by the Society of Arts in Scotland 
for the best alphabet and method of printing 
for the blind. This alphabet consisted of the 
Roman capitals simplified, and was nearly the 
same as that used formerly in Philadelphia. A 
stenographic alphabet, invented by Mr. Lucas, of 
Bristol, England, is used in some of the schools 
of that country. A few years later, a phonetic 
alphabet was invented by Mr. Frere and intro- 
duced into some of the English schools. In 1847, 
a simplified alphabet, the letters of which con- 
sisted of lines, was invented by Mr. Moon. This 
alphabet has been used in many schools. The al- 
phabet forming the system of tangible point- 
printing, was, about 1839, introduced into the 
imperial institution for the blind in Paris, by M. 
Braille: and has been extensively used in the 
schools of France, Switzerland, and Belgium. A 
system of point writing and printing has been de- 
vised by William B. Wait, superintendent of the 
New York Institution for the Blind, and is now 
used in nearly all the American institutions. This 
System has also been applied to musical notation. 
Systemsof notation in raised characters have also 
been invented by Rousseau.Guadet, and Mahoney. 
See Reports of U. 8. Commissioner of Education 
for 18-72, -3, and -4 ; Proceedings of the Asso- 
ciation of American Instructors of the Blind 
(W. B. Wait, Cor. Sec); also the publications 
of the American Bible Society, and of the Ameri- 
can Frinting-House for the Blind. 



88 



BLOCHMANN" 



BLOCHMANN', Karl Justus, an eminent 
German educator and pupil of Pestalozzi, the 
founder and for many years the director of a 
celebrated educational institute, called after him 
Bhtihmanristilies Instilut, was born in 1786, and 
died in 1855. He studied, from 1805 to 1809, 
at the university of Leipsic, theology and peda- 
gogy, and at the same time endeavored to ac- 
quire a practical experience as a teacher. In 
1809, he went to Switzerland and became an in- 
structor in Pestalozzi's school, where he remained 
eight years. He then returned to Germany, and 
became vice-director of the Friedrich. August 
School, in Dresden. In order to be fully able to 
carry out his pedagogical views, he opened his 
own school in 1824, which was united with the 
Vitzthum Gymnasium in 1829 ; and he received 
from the Saxon government the license, very 
rarely granted to private institutions, to give to 
its pupils certificates of preparation for the uni- 
versity. He retained control of these two schools 
until 1851, when he transferred their administra- 
tion to his son-in-law, Dr. Bezzenberger. A large 
number of prominent Germans, including several 
princes, have received their education in this in- 
stitution, which ceased to exist Oct. 16., 1861. 
Though a pupd and admirer of Pestalozzi, Bloch- 
mann differed from his master in the importance 
which he assigned to the religious element in 
education. AVhile Pestalozzi strongly sympa- 
thized with the liberal movements in Prot- 
estant theology, Bloehmann was firmly devoted 
to the strictest orthodoxy. 

BLUE -COAT SCHOOL. See Christ's 
Hospital. 

BOARD OF EDUCATION. See School 
Board. 

BOARDING-SCHOOL, a school in which 
the pupils receive board and lodging as well as 
instruction. Boarding-schools are generally the 
property of private individuals ; but sometimes 
they belong to associations or religious de- 
nominations. Their management is independent 
of any control by the state. In some countries, 
the government does not allow any one to keep 
a boarding or any other private school, who 
does not hold a teacher's license ; in others, as iu 
the United States, the establishment of private 
schools is entirely free. The demand for schools 
of this kind appears to be, in most countries, very 
extensive. In small towns and in country 
districts, the public school frequently appears to 
educated parents as not fitted for the instruction 
of their children ; partly, on account of the un- 
pleasant associations to which the children are 
exposed, partly, because the course of study 
appears to be insufficient. Even in large towns 
and cities where there is no want of good 
public schools, a large number of parents are 
found who prefer boarding-schools to the best 
public schools. Fashion has sometimes a great 
deal to do with the attendance of pupils at 
boarding-schools; and a school that once has a 
well-established reputation in wealthy circles of 
society, may be expected to receive numbers of 
pupils for no other reason than because it is 



BOLIVIA 

fashionable. A consideration which induces many 
parents of even moderate means to send their 
children to boarding-schools, is the expectation 
that, in such schools, more attention can be given 
to individual teaching than in public schools, 
and that especially children of small intellectual 
capacities, as well as those who, in consequence 
of the delicacy of their health, are less regular 
in their studies, will receive special attention. 
In other families, it is not the expectation of a 
superior method of instruction which causes 
children to be sent to boarding-schools, but the 
belief that there they will be under better and 
more constant educational influence than the 
paternal roof can afford them. 

As boarding-schools are entirely independent 
of public school boards, there is the greatest 
possible variety in their courses of instruction. 
Moreover, since the financial success of these in- 
stitutions depends upon the number of pupils 
secured, the proprietors generally find it necessary 
not only to receive pupils at any time of the 
year, but to provide special instruction for every 
pupil, of whatever grade or capacity. The inev- 
itable consequence of this is, that the classifi- 
cation, in the majority of these schools, is unsafe 
isfactory. Very great danger, moreover, arises 
from the fact that a large number of children of 
evil habits are often received into such insti- 
tutions, the parents hoping that the teachers of 
these schools will be more successful in reforming 
such pupils than public-school teachers. The 
greatness of the danger which an association 
with children of this class involves, for all the 
pupils of the institution, cannot be overestimated, 
and is certainly not sufficiently appreciated by 
many of those who have the charge of boarding- 
schools. On the other hand, however, it has 
been strongly and justly urged that instructors 
of superior qualifications often find in this 
class of schools an excellent and, it may be, 
the only opportunity of turning their peculiar 
talents to the use of mankind. Many of the 
greatest educators that ever lived, would never 
have been able to test their theories practically, 
if they had not been at the head of private 
boarding institutions. The boarding-school un- 
doubtedly offers to educational reformers a grand 
field of usefulness, and the more the public-school 
system suffers in any particular place from the 
incompetency of school boards, or the more, in 
large cities, the standard of the public schools is 
depressed, the more strongly will the demand for 
private and boarding schools make itself felt. 
Nearly all boarding-schools also admit pupils who 
attend only for instruction (day-scholars) ; and 
very commonly they also provide board for chil- 
dren of resident parents (day-boarders) . 

BOLIVIA, a republic of South America, 
having an area of 500,880 sq. in., and a population, 
in 1865, of 1,831,585, exclusive of about 250,000 
savage Indians. The civilized population consists 
of native whites, for the most part descendants of 
the Spanish settlers, mestizos or Oholos (mixed 
white and Indian), mulattoes, zambos (mixed 
Indian and negro), and Indians in a domesticated 



BONET 



BOOK-KEEPING 



89 



state. About three-fourtlis of the total popula- 
tion is of Indian descent. Nearly the entire 
population of the country belongs to the Roman 
Catholic Church. The exercise of other relig- 
ions denominations is not prohibited ; but un- 
restricted toleration cannot be said to exist in 
Bolivia. In a concordat concluded with the 
Pope in 1851, the Bolivian government promised 
to support missions among the savage tribes, 
but a considerable number of them still remain 
pagan and uncivilized. The national language 
is the Spanish, but several Indian tribes, espe- 
cially the Aymaras and the Quichuas, continue 
to speak their own language. 

The territory of Bolivia, after its conquest by 
the Spaniards, formed a part of the. viceroyalty 
of Peru till 17K0. when it was united under the 
name of Charcas with the new viceroyalty of 
La Plata. The declaration of independence and 
the establishment of the republic of Bolivia took 
place in 1825. Since then, the country has been, 
almost without interruption, a prey to civil wars. 

The condition of education is as yet very un- 
satisfactory. There is a special minister of public 
instruction, under whom the chiefs of the three 
universities of Chuquisaca (Sucre), I>a Paz, and 
Cochabamba administer the educational affairs 
of the country. The university of ( 'huquisaca, 
named after St. Francis Xavier. and founded by 
the Jesuits, was reformed in 184S and endowed 
with faculties of law and medicine. It possesses 
an excellent library. The archiepiscopal seminary 
is devoted to educating priests, but its pupils 
are at liberty to prepare for any other vocation. 
The subjects taught in the seminary comprise 
Latin, mathematics, physics, philosophy (logic, 
ethics, and metaphysics), theology, and civil and 
ecclesiastical law. There is also in < 'huquisaca 
a high school, called Colegio tie .fun in, in which 
grammar, mathematics, mechanics, logic, and 
ethics are taught. The universities of La Paz 
and Cochabamba educate lawyers almost ex- 
clusively. There is, however, also a medical 
school at La Paz and a colegio superior de defi- 
cit is y artes in La Paz, and < 'uehabamba. In the 
entire republic, there are 24 similar coiegios, of 
which 8 are coiegios de ciencias with about 1070 
pupils, and 16 coiegios tie artes (a kind of real- 
schools). There were, in 184(1, only 4 female in- 
stitutions of a higher grade, with (in pupils. The 
number of primary schools, public and private, 
accordingto the latest reports, is about 800, with 
21,(100 pupils. The school-books are to a large 
extent translations from the French. — See 
Schmid, RealrEncychp., art. S&damerica; d'Oit- 
biony, Descripcion geogrdfica, l/istorica. y esta- 
distica de Bolivia (2 vols., Paris, 1835). 

BONET, Juan Pablo, one of the earliest 
instructors of deaf-mutes, was born in Aragon, 
in the latter part of the 1 6th century. Though 
Pedro Ponce, a Spanish Benedictine monk, who 
lived about fifty years before Bonet, had em- 
ployed a method of teaching the deaf and dumb 
by means of an alphabet of manual signs, to 
Bonet is attributed the credit of originating a 
similar method, since he could have had no in- 



formation of Ponce's invention. His plan is 
fully explained in his work. Reduction de las 
lefras y urtes para ensenar d liablar d los mudos 
(Madrid, 1620), which was the first formal 
treatise on this branch of special instruction. He 
used the articulation system to some extent, but 
also made use of a manual alphabet, which was 
almost exactly the same as the single-hand alpha- 
bet now in use. Bonet was secretary to the 
constable of Castile, and taught a brother of his 
patron, who had become deaf when only two 
years of age. This young man was introduced 
to prince Charles of England during the visit of 
the latter to Spain, in 1623 ; and it was stated 
by Sir Kenclni Digby, one of the prince's escort, 
that he could not only understand an culinary 
conversation, but could himself speak with re- 
markable distinctness. (See Kkaf-Mites.) 

BONNYCASTLE, John, an eminent En- 
glish teacher and mathematician, and the author of 
many excellent elementary works in various de- 
partments of mathematics, was burn at White- 
church, England, and died at Woolwich, in 1821. 
He was for more than forty years a professor of 
mathematics at the Royal Academy at Wool- 
wich. His chief publications were Introduction 
in Mathematics (17821, Elements if Geometry 
(ITS'.)), Treatise on Trigonometry (1806), and 
Elements cf Algebra (1813). The last of these 
works has been highly commended, and exten- 
sively used both in the United States and in Eng- 
land. He also published the History of Math- 
rntiitirs.a, translation of Bossut's Essai sin- I'l/is- 
toire generate des Maihernatiques (Paris. 1810). 

BOOK-KEEPING, a system of recording 
the transactions of a business so as to exhibit, in 
a plain and comprehensive manner, its condition 
and progress. The usual method of such a record 
comprises (1) a history of the transactions at the 
date and in the order of their occurrence, in a 
book, called the day-book, and (2) the classifying 
of results in a book called the ledger. This clas- 
sification consists in arranging upon opposite 
sides of separate statements, or accounts, all 
items of purchase, sale, receipt, expenditure, in- 
vestment, withdrawal, production, cost, etc., 
which, in any way, affect the business. The ac- 
counts taken together should thus be adequate to 
express all that one may need to know of the 
progress of the business and its condition at any 
time. The simplest form of record, by day-book 
and ledger only, here explained, is applicable 
merely to a very limited business. In the more ex- 
tended and complicated enterprises, various con- 
' current, or auxiliary books are required, their 
number and character depending upon the na- 
ture and peculiar operations of the business. In 
even the simplest kinds of book-keeping, it is 
customary to use an intermediate book between 
the day-book and ledger, called the journal, the 
office of which is to state, or separate, each trans- 
action so as to simplify its transfer to the ledger. 

The only competent system of book-keeping is 
that known as i/aiili/e entry, so called from t he- 
fact that the complete record of any transaction 
requires at least two entries in the ledger — one 



90 



BOOK-KEEPING 



on the debit or debtor side of some account, and 
one on the credit or creditor side of some other 
account. The terms debit and credit (meaning 
debtor and creditor, and usually marked Dr. and 
Or.) are, for the most part, used arbitrarily. 
They are really significant only when applied to 
personal accounts ; but their uniform application 
to all accounts is a matter of great convenience. 
The charm and utility of the double-entry system 
consist in the philosophical adjustment of math- 
ematical facts to the most exacting requirements 
of finance, and in the tests afforded of the cor- 
rectness of the work at any point. The simple 
principles underlying the system may be suc- 
cinctly stated thus : (1) All financial resources, 
or items of wealth, are measurable by the money 
standard ; (2) The sum of all the resources of a 
concern, thus measured, less the sum of all its 
liabilities, is its real or present worth ; (3) All 
increase or diminution in wealth comes from 
one of two sources ; namely, the receiving of 
more or less for an article than its cost, or the 
appreciation or depreciation of the value of an 
article while in possession ; (4) The immediate 
result of all gains or losses is the adding to, or 
taking from, the net worth of the concern; 
and, consequently, the net gain or net loss of 
a business during any specified time must 
agree with the increase or diminution of its 
net worth for the same period. The foregoing 
propositions may be said to be self-evident facts ; 
but they are important facts nevertheless, and 
such as any competent presentment of business 
affairs must recognize and enforce ; and this is 
just what double-entry book-keeping does. 

The science, or philosophy, of the system is 
shown in the ledger, which, as before stated, con- 
sists of accounts. An account is a collection of 
homogeneous items pertaining to some part of 
the business, such as the receipt and disburse- 
ment of money (cash), the purchase and sale of 
goods, the issue and redemption of notes, the in- 
curring and liquidating of personal indebted- 
ness, etc. All accounts are alike in their struct- 
ure, each having a title, more or less significant, 
and two sides, with the items on one side exactly 
opposite in effect to those on the other ; and, 
like plus and minus quantities, each canceling 
the other to the extent of the lesser side, the 
preponderance, or excess, of either side being the 
true showing and significance of the account. 
Thus, the debit or left-hand side of the cash ac- 
count contains the items of cash received; and 
the credit or right-hand side, the items of cash dis- 
bursed; the difference or balance, which.if any, 
must be in favor of the debit side, will be the 
amount of cash on hand. Again, the debit oimer- 
chandise account contains the items of the cost 
of goods purchased ; and the credit side, the items 
of avails of goods sold, or what the separate sales 
have produced ; the difference or balance, when all 
the facts are shown, being the preponderance of 
production over cost, or of cost over production, as 
the case may be — in other words the net gain or 
net loss. All transactions which mark the prog- 
Jess of the business, having in them the element 



of gain or loss, must occur between the two 
classes of accounts represented by cash and mer- 
chandise — the one taking cognizance of measur- 
ing financial worth, the other indicating its in- 
crease or diminution. (The mere exchange of 
one fixed value for another, such as the canceling 
of a personal indebtedness by receiving or pay- 
ing cash, shovdd be called a liquidation rather 
than a transaction; for although it requires a 
complete record, the same as the buying and sell- 
ing of goods, it has nothing to do with the prog- 
ress of the business, having in it no element of 
gain or loss.) The real transactions of the busi- 
ness being, therefore, divided between these two 
classes of accounts, we have in the one class — • 
such as merchandise — the indication or state- 
ment of all the separate gains and losses which 
have occurred, and in the . other — such as cash — 
the complete measure of the net resources, or 
real wealth ; the two together establishing the 
satisfactory concurrence of cause and effect, or 
assertion and proof. Thus, the accounts of as- 
sertion or cause indicate a net gain or net loss, 
while those of proof or effect show correspond- 
ingly increased or diminished net worth. 

The peculiar methods or forms of recording 
business affairs are so various — owing to the 
great variety of manipulation or processes, as 
also to the difference in the estimates of a com- 
petent record, that they cannot be pointed out. 
The general conception of the purpose and 
sphere of book-keeping, however, may be stated 
as compassing such a record of affaire as will 
enable the proprietor to know, at any time, the 
extent of his wealth and of what it consists. 
Of course, if the real worth of a business man 
can be ascertained at any time, the increase or 
diminution between any two periods may readily 
be obtained. 

Book-keeping by the double-entry system has 
been in vogue since the latter part of the loth 
century, it was originally practiced in Venice, 
and is even now known as the Italian method. 
The first treatise on the subject was written by 
Luca di Borgo, and pubhshed at Venice in 1495. 
A German treatise, written by Johann Gottlieb, 
was pubhshed at Nuremberg as early as 1531 ; 
and in England, in 1543, Hugh Oldcastle pub- 
lished a work on this subject under the fanciful 
title A profitable Treat yce to learn to know the 
good order of the kepying of the famous rec- 
onynge, called in Latin, dare et habere, and in 
Englyshe, Debitour and Creditour. Maik's 
Bool-keeping Modernized was in very general 
use during most of the eighteenth century, but 
was superseded by Benjamin Booth's Complete 
System of Book-keeping (4to, London, 1789). 
The more modern publications upon this subject 
are very numerous ; and the most recent of them 
embody many important modifications and im- 
provements in the system, some of which are 
rendered necessary in order to apply it to the 
processes and methods of commercial transactions 
at present in vogue. 

Book-keeping constitutes an important branch 
of instruction in all commercial schools and busi- 



BOOK-MANUAL 



BORGI 



91 



ness colleges, in some of which it is pursued by 
both sexes. It is also taught sometimes in con- 
nection with arithmetic and penmanship, in the 
higher classes of the common schools, and quite 
uniformly in the evening schools in most of the 
cities of the Union. This branch of school in- 
struction, however, is often opposed on the 
ground that it can only be acquired in connec- 
tion with the actual practice of the counting- 
room. The objection is not well founded ; for 
while it is obvious that no theoretical instruc- 
tion, in this or any other art, can supersede the 
necessity of actual practice, yet that instruction 
performs an important function in laying the 
foundation, in the mind of the student, for such 
practical information and expertness as are sub- 
sequently to be attained. In many business col- 
leges, for the purpose of obviating this objection, 
exercises are resorted to that nearly approximate 
to the operations of actual business. Thus the 
students of certain colleges carry on business 
correspondence with those of others situated in 
different parts of the United States ; make and 
receive formal consignments of merchandise, buy 
and sell exchanges upon the different sections of 
the Union and ( 'anada. and in this way learn the 
business peculiarities of different places. To insure 
a complete training, the functions of the students 
are constantly changed. The one, for instance. 
who holds the position of bill-clerk and collector 
to-day. is a book-keeper to-morrow, shipper the 
next day, etc. By this diversity the exercises are 
not oidy made more effective, but more interest- 
ing and impressive. (See Business Colleges.) 

BOOK-MANUAL, a series of directions as 
to the method in which the reading-book should 
be held by pupils when they are receiving class 
instruction. Minute regulations for the distri- 
bution of books to the pupils of a class as well 
as for their proper manipulation while the lesson 
is given, have been devised, and in some schools 
are strictly enforced. There is no doubt that a 
regular and uniform method of this kind not 
only saves the book from injury occasioned by 
improper handling, but also contributes to the 
formation, in the minds of the pupils, of a love 
and habit of order and propriety, which they 
will apply to other things. Indeed, it is in con- 
nection .with the apparently unimportant and 
trivial things that the teacher needs to exercise 
the greatest care, if he would educate his pupils 
in this direction : since such things being of fre- 
quent occurrence, habits are more readily formed 
by the constant repetition which they require 
than in any other way. The following minute 
directions were prepared, some years ago. for the 
schools of New York t lity, and were for many 
years in use. They arc still employed by many 
teachers, those referring to book-monitors being 
usually omitted ; since at the present time each 
pupil of the class is generally supplied with a 
book of his own. The distribution of books for 
a given exercise is still often necessary, and hence 
all the rules hold good : 

I. The pupil should stand erect, his heels near to- 
gether, toes turned out, and his face directed toward 
the teacher. 



II. The book-monitor should stand at the head of 
the class, with the pile of books to be distributed 
across his left arm, with the backs from him,aud with 
the top of the page to the right hand. 

III. The book-monitor, with the right hand, hands a 
book to each pupil iu succession, who should receive 
it in his right hand with the back of the book to the 
left, and then pass it into the left hand, in which he 
should hold it with the back upward, until a further 
order is given. , 

IV. When the page is given out. the book should he 
turned by the thumb ou the side : and, while held with 
both hands, turned with the back downward, the 
thumbs meeting across the leaves at a point judged to 
be nearest the place to be found. On opening the 
book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and 
thence to the middle, when the thumb and little finger 
are made to press on the two opposite pages. If the 
page is thus found, the pupil stands holding the book 
in his left hand, and lets his right hand fall by his 
side. 

V. But if the pupil has opened short of the page re- 
quired, the thumb of the right hand is to be placed 
near the upper corner of the page, while the forefinger 
lifts the leaves to bring in view the number of the 
page. If he finds he has not raised enough, the fore- 
finger and thumb hold those already raised while the 
second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within 
the grasp of the thumb and finger. When the required 
page is found, all the fingers are to be passed under 
the leaves, and the whole turned at once. Should the 
pupil, on the contrary, have opened too far, and be 
obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, in 
like manner, on the left hand page, and the leaves are 
lifted as before described. 

VI. Should the book be old, or so large as to make 
it wearisome to the pupil, the right hand may sustain 
the left in holding it. 

VII. While reading, as the eye rises to the top of 
the right hand page, the right hand is raised ; and with 
the forefinger under the leaf, the hand is slid down 
In iIh' lower corner, and retained there during the 
reading of this page. This also is the position in which 
the book is to be held when about to be closed; in 
doing which, the left hand, being carried up to i!" 
side, supports the book firmly, while the right hand 
turns the part it supports over on the left thumb. The 
thumb will then be drawn out from between the leaves, 
and placed on the cover; and then the right hand will 
fall by the side. 

VIII. When the reading is ended, the right hand re- 
tains the book, and the left hand falls by the side. The 
book "ill then be in a position to be handed to the 
book-monitor, who should receive it in his right hand, 
mid place it on his left arm, with the back towards 
ill- body. The books will then be in the most suitable 
situation for being passed to the shelves, or drawers, 
where, without being crowded, they should be placed 
with uniformity and care. 

See Manual of Public School Society (New 
York. 1840) ; Report of the Board of Education 
of ike OityofNew York (1855). 

BORGI, Giovanni, called the " founder of 
rao-ged schools." was born in Home about 17.'S-"i. 
and died about lst)2. lie was a poor artisan, 
who took a compassionate interest in Migrant 
children, lie commenced his benevolent work 
by taking a number of these children to his 
home, providing them with food and clothing, 
and apprenticing them to trades. Enlisting the 
active interest of others, he was able to hire a 
suitable building, in which considerable numbers 
could be accommodated and taught ; thus estab- 
lishing what was afterwards called in Scotland 
and England a " ragged school." The institution 
founded by Borgi was continued after his death, 
and found an earnest patrou in Pope Pius VII. 
(See Ragged Schools.) 



92 



BOSTON 



BOSTON, the capital and metropolis^ of 
Massachusetts, having a population, in 1875, of 
3-41,919. The origin of the public-school system 
of Boston is found in the following order adopted 
by the freemen of the town, on the 13th of April, 
1035: "Likewise it was then generally agreed 
upon, that our brother Philemon Purinont shall 
be entreated to become schoolmaster for the 
teaching and nurturing of children with us." 
The school thus set up has been perpetuated to 
the present day, and has long been known as the 
Public Latin School, whose chief function, during 
the whole period of its existence, has been the 
fitting of boys for Harvard College. This was 
the only public school in the town until 1682, 
when it was voted, in town meeting, "that a 
committee with the selectmen consider and 
provide one or more free schools for the teach- 
ing of children to write and cipher within this 
town." Afterward, schools were established for 
teaching reading and spelling. These reading and 
writing schools have been gradually developed 
into the present grammar schools. Pupils were not 
admitted to these schools until they were seven 
years of age. Girls were not admitted to the 
grammar school until 1789 ; and, during the next 
forty years, they were permitted to attend only 
half the year, from April to October. In 1818, 
primary schools were established to fit pupils of 
both sexes for the grammar schools, to winch 
children four years old and upward were ad- 
mitted. In 1821, a school similar to the German 
real school, and named the English High School, 
"was instituted, with the design of furnishing the 
young men of this city, who are not intended for 
a collegiate course of study, and who have en- 
joyed the usual advantages of the other public 
schools, with the means of completing a good 
English education." A normal school for qualify- 
ing female teachers for the public schools of the 
city was established in 1852, in which a two 
years' course of training was provided. The plan 
of this school was soon modified by extending its 
course of study to three years, and by including 
in its curriculum all the branches usually taught 
in high schools. In 1872, this twofold institu- 
tion, wdiich bore the name of the Girls' High and 
Normal School, was separated into two distinct 
schools, a normal school for girls and a high 
school for girls. By the annexation of adjacent 
municipalities, during the past eight years, five 
mixed high schools have been added to the free 
public schools for secondary instruction. Ele- 
mentary evening schools, and day schools for 
newsboys and bootblacks (licensed minors) , were 
established in 1868; an evening high school, in 
1869; a school for deaf-mutes, in 1869; evening 
industrial drawing schools, in 1870; a kindergar- 
ten, in 1870. — The public schools were originally, 
and for more then a century and a half, managed 
by the selectmen of the town, the clergy being 
invited by them to visit the schools, especially on 
public occasions. From 1789, until the adoption 
of the city charter, in 1822, they were controlled 
by a board composed of the selectmen and twelve 
committee men, annually elected in town meet- 



in<* Under the charter, the selectmen were re- 
placed by the eight aldermen. From 1835 until 
1855, the school board, called the Grammar 
School Board, consisted of twenty-four com- 
mittee men, two being elected annually by the 
people in each ward, with the mayor and the 
president of the common council, ex officio, tip 
to this time, the primary schools had been under 
the management of a board, appointed annually 
by the Grammar School Board, consisting of one 
member for each school or teacher, the number 
being at first 36, but increased finally to 190. 
During the past twenty years, the school system 
of public schools has been in charge of one board, 
consisting originally of 74 members, 6 being- 
elected in each ward by the people, to hold office 
for three years, the mayor and president of the 
common council being also members. By the 
annexation of municipalities above mentioned, 
the number of members was ultimately in- 
creased to 116. This board was discontinued at 
the beginning of 1876 ; and, in its place, a 
board was constituted consisting of the mayor, 
and 24 members elected by the people on a 
general ticket, to hold office for three years. — 
The office of superintendent of schools was estab- 
lished in 1851. 'I he first incumbent was Nathan 
Bishop, who was succeeded by John D. Phil- 
brick, who held the office for nearly 18 years, 
retiring in 1874. The old board did not fill the 
vacancy; and Mr. Philbrick was re-elected to the 
office by the new board in 1876. Under the new 
system of supervision, the school board is author- 
ized to elect a board of six supervisors. The follow- 
ing persons were elected to this board: Lucretia 
Crocker, George M. Folsom, Samuel W. Mason, 
William Nichols, Ellis Peterson, and Benjamin F. 
Tweed. The superintendent is, ex officio, a member 
and the chairman. The principal duties assigned 
the board of supervisors are those of examining 
candidates for teachers, of examining the schools, 
in detail, twice in each year, and of conducting the 
annual examination of the pupils, in the different 
grades of schools, who are candidates for grad- 
uating diplomas. — Besides this board of super- 
visors, there is a general director of music, and 
another of drawing, each having several assist- 
ants. — For the purposes of supervision, the city 
is divided into nine territorial divisions, each 
division comprising from four to seven territorial 
districts, and each district containing one gram- 
mar school and several primary schools. The 
master of the grammar school is the principal of 
the district, having the supervision of all the 
schools situated therein. There are no primary 
principals. Each division is under the charge of a 
committee composed of three or five members of 
the school board. There is also a standing com- 
mittee in charge of the high schools. 

School System. — Besides a normal school for 
girls, with a course for study and training for 
one year, to which pupils are admitted only on 
passing a satisfactory examination in the usual 
high-school studies, there are 8 high schools ; 
namely, 3 large central schools, — the Latin and 
the English high school for boys, and the girls' 



BOSTON 



93 



high school, and 5 others for both sexes, located 
in recently annexed districts. These schools 
(187(1) contain 2,18(1 pupils, taught by 50 male j 
teachers and 48 females, whose annual salaries 
amount to §1*0.251.33. There are 50 grammar, 
schools, with 23,971 pupils, taught by 96 male 
teachers, and 511 females : the greater part of 
these schools are unmixed. In the primary 
grade, for children from 5 to 8 years of age, there 
•are 18,665 pupils, taught by 414 teachers. The 
whole number of pupils belonging to the day and 
evening schools is 49.423. The aggregate annual 
salaries of the teachers of the grammar and pri- 
mary schools amount to $993,932.95. The spe- 
cial schools are, 2 for licensed minors, 1 for deaf- , 
mutes, 1 kindergarten. 14 elementary evening 
schools, 1 evening high school, and (i evening 
schools for industrial drawing. These schools 
are taught by 177 teachers, whose annual salaries 
amount to 642,82 1.64. The whole number of reg- 
ular and special teachers employe 1 in the day and 
evening schools is 1,296; and the whole amount 
of their salaries is $1,217,008.92 : incidental ex- 
penses, including salaries of officers, $507,364.69; 
total current expenses, SI, 724.373. (il. The amount 
expended daring the year, besides this, for school- 
houses and sites, was $356,669.74. The cost per 
scholar for tuition, based on the average number 
belonging to the day schools, is $26.30; for inci- 
dentals, §10.55: total cost per scholar, $36.85. 
In 1875, the whole number of school-houses owned 
by the city was 144, which, with their sites, were 
valued at §8.500,000. The m- •» ».■ for the sup- 
port of the schools is derived exclusively from 
an annual tax on all the personal and real prop- 
erty in the city, which is levied by the city 
council. There is no legal restriction to the 
amount that may be levied for schools. The school 
sites are purchased, and the school buildings are 
erected, by the city council; but the plans of the 
buildings and the sites must be first approved 
by the school board, who have the authority also 
to determine the amount to be expended for the 
salaries of teachers. Tuition is gratuitous in all 
the schools ; drawing-books, writing-books, and 
stationery are furnished gratuitously to all pu- 
pils; and, to indigent children text-books are 
also furnished at the public expense. 

Salaries. — The salary of the superintendent is 
$4,500 ; of members of the board of supervisors. 
§4.000 each ; of head-masters of high schools, 
$4,000; of masters of grammar schools and mas- 
ters in high schools. §3.200; submasters in gram- 
mar and high schools, §2,600 ; of ushers in gram- 
mar and high schools, $2,000 ; of head-assistants 
(females) in grammar schools, §1 .200; of assistants 
(female) in high schools §1 ,000 to §1 ,500; of assist- 
ants (female) in grammar schools, and teachers in 
primary schools, §800 ; of supervisors of music 
and drawing, §3,300 each ; and their assistants, 
$2,500. The city is divided into 14 truant dis- 
tricts, each having a truant officer, with a salary 
of §1.200. Habitual truants, pupils who have 
absented themselves from school several times 
without permission from their parents or teach- 
ers, and absentees, legally described as " children 



found in streets and public places, not attending 
schools and not engaged in a lawful occupation." 
are sentenced to a reformatory for one or two 
years. This plan of dealing with truants dates 
from 1850, and it has proved an efficient agency 
in promoting good attendance at school. Chil- 
dren growing up without education or salutary 
control, by reason of orphanage, or the neglect, 
crime, drunkenness, or other vice of parents, on 
complaint of the truant officers, may be sent to 
an institution assigned by the city for the pur- 
pose, where they are boarded arid educated. 

Private Schools and other Institutions. — In 
1*74, the whole number of pupils in private tui- 
tion-paying schools (excepting commercial "col- 
leges' |. whether incorporated or not. below the 
college grades, was 3.SS7. There were, besides. 
about 5.000 pupils in free denominational schools 
(Roman Catholic). The aggregate number of pri- 
vate schools is 93. with 358 instructors. There are 
14 orphan asylums, with 37 instructors and 1,344 
pupils; 5 business colleges, with 19 instructors 
and 717 pupils: 1 school of pharmacy, with 3 
professors and 75 students; 2 schools of dentist- 
ry, with 15 professors and 40 students: 1 college 
(The Boston College. R. C). with * professors and 
145 students; 1 university (The Boston Univer- 
sity, Methodist), with a school of liberal arts, and 
several professional schools; 1 school of theology, 
with 7 professors and 94 students; 1 school of 
law. with 14 professors and (is students; 2 schools 
of medicine, with 35 professors and 195 students: 
1 polytechnic school (Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology), with 36 professorsand 356 students : 
1 normal art school (statei. with 8 professors and 
200 students ; 1 museum of fine arts, value of 
collections §100.000, value of buildings, etc., 
§400,000: 1 museum of natural history, having 
10,000 volumes: value of collections, §100.000. of 
buildings. $138,000; 14 public libraries, 456,427 
volumes. 232.900 pamphlets; value of buildings, 
§1 .026.700; Sunday-schools. 1 57, with 4.450 teach- 
ers, 43.540 scholars, and 83,700 volumes in lib- 
raries. There are two conservatories of music, 
and numerous smaller music schools. One of the 
most important educational institutions in Boston 
is the Lowell Institute, established in 1839 by 
the munificence of John Lowell, to provide for 
"regular courses oifrec public lectures upon the 
most important branches of natural and moral 
science, to be annually delivered in the city of 
Boston." The fund, in January, 1873, was 
§642,711.32; the expenses for 1872 were 
$31,91 2.47. the number of free lectures delivered 
during the year being 264. Two drawing-schools, 
and the school of industrial design in connection 
with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
are maintained by the fund. The Institute is 
managed by one trustee, a kinsman of the 
founder. Xo printed document or report has 
ever been issued by the Institute. The Boston 
City Free Public Library, which was opened in 
1 853, and is supported by taxation in the same 
manner as the public schools, has six branches. 
and contains 306,287 volumes ; the annual ex- 
pense of maintaining it is about §130,000. 



94 



BOSTON COLLEGE 



BOSTON COLLEGE, at Boston, Mass., 
was founded in 1863 by the Fathers of the 
.Society of Jesus, by whom it is conducted. Its 
object is to impart a religious, classical, and 
scientific education. The course begins with a 
" class of rudiments," and extending, in success- 
ive years, through three " classes of grammar," a 
" class of poetry," and a " class of rhetoric." into 
a seventh year of philosophy and chemistry. As 
in most of the colleges of this fraternity, classical 
studies occupy a prominent place in all the classes 
of the entire course. In 1874, there was a corps 
of 16 professors and other instructors, with 15 
collegiate, and 143 preparatory students. The 
value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is §200,000, 
and it has a library of about 4,000 volumes. 
Rev. Robert Fulton. S. J., is (1876) the presi- 
dent of the institution. The annual tuition fee 
is $60. 

BOSTON UNIVERSITY, at Boston, 
Mass., was founded by the munificence of Isaac 
Rich, who bequeathed for that purpose the 
greater part of his estate, amounting to nearly 
$2,000,000. The first, however, to suggest and 
advocate its establishment, was the late Lee 
Claflin, father of a recent governor of Massa- 
chusetts, whose views found an earnest supporter 
in Jacob Sleeper. Hence, these three persons 
are regarded as the founders of the institution, 
although Mr. Rich was its most munificent 
patron. Its charter was obtained from the legis- 
lature of Massachusetts in 1869. Its plan of 
organization is unique and comprehensive, in- 
cluding (1) Preparatory Departments ; (2) Col- 
leges ; (3) Professional Schools ; and (4) School 
of all Sciences (Schola Scholarum). The first 
of these are designed to fit students for the col- 
leges ; the second, to prepare them for the higher 
industries and arts of civilization, and for the 
study of the learned professions ; the third, to 
qualify them theoretically and practically for 
professional life ; while the fourth, including and 
supplementing the work of the professional 
schools, is designed to be a universal, or non-pro- 
fessional school of elective post-graduate studies, 
with special degrees, scholarships, and fellow- 



Of the colleges three have already been or- 
ganized : (1) that of Liberal Arts, in 1873 ; (2) 
that of Music, in 1872 ; (3) that of Agriculture, 
supplied by the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
lege, at Amherst, associated with the university 
in 1 875. This college has enjoyed a very high rep- 
utation since its organization in 1867 ; and by 
the arrangement made with the Boston Univer- 
sity, matriculants in the latter, who desire in- 
struction in agriculture, horticulture, and related 
branches, can receive it in the College, and on 
completing the prescribed course, can receive their 
degree from the University as well as from the 
College. The College of Liberal Arts answers 
to what is called in some American universities 
the Academic Department. Its courses of in- 
struction qualify students for the degrees of 
bachelor of arts, bachelor of philosophy, and 
bachelor of science. The College of Music is 



BOSTON UNIVERSITY 

designed for students of the average proficiency 
of graduates of the best American conservatories 
of music ; and is the only institution of its 
grade and kind in the United States. The 
regular courses of instruction extend through 
four years, and include (1) a course for vocal- 
ists ; (2) a course for pianists ; (3) a course for 
organists ; (4) courses for orchestral performers. 
All these courses include the study of musical 
theory, also the history and esthetics of music. 

The professional schools include that of theol- 
ogy, adopted in 1871 ; of law, opened in 1872 ; 
' of medicine, in 1873 ; of oratory, in 1873. The 
! School of all Sciences was established in 1874. 
The school of theology was formerly the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Theological Seminary of Boston, 
which was organized in 1847. A school of fine 
arts is projected. 

A fundamental idea with those who organized 
the university was, that a university should exist 
not for one sex merely, but equally for the two ; 
hence the most ultra principles of co-education 
are carried out. Young men and young women 
are welcomed to all the advantages of the insti- 
tution on precisely the same conditions, — not 
1 merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to the 
chair of the professor. The trustees of the New 
j England Female Medical College, said to be the 
I oldest medical college for women in the world, 
; by a special act of the legislature, in 1875. trans- 
ferred all its properties and franchises to the 
Boston University, and was thus merged- into its 
I broader co-educative school of medicine. 

Post-graduate students of this university, de- 
siring to fit themselves for professorships of 
Greek, Latin, modern languages, philosophy, 
history, or art, enjoy special advantages. By 
virtue of an arrangement, effected in 1875, with 
the authorities of the National University at 
Athens, and those of the Royal University at 
Rome, any member of the School of all Sciences, 
duly recommended, may pursue, without expense 
for instruction, and for any number of years, 
select or regular courses of study in any depart- 
ment of said universities, enjoying all the rights 
and privileges of university citizenship ; and 
upon returning, and passing a satisfactory ex- 
amination in the work accomplished, can receive 
a degree from the Boston University. The 
faculties of these two foreign universities are 
thus co-operating faculties of the School of all 
Sciences, which is designed (1) for the benefit of 
bachelors of arts, philosophy, or science, of what- 
soever college, who, with little or no direct refer- 
ence to fitting themselves for a professional life, 
may desire to receive post-graduate instruction 
in this university ; (2) to meet the wants of all 
graduates in theology, law, medicine, or other 
professional course, who may wish to supplement 
their professional culture by courses of study in 
related sciences, arts, and professions. This school 
is, thus, like the studium generate of the middle 
ages, the crowning and unifying department of 
the entire university organization. 

Thus far, this comprehensive plan has been 
successfully carried out ; and the institution has 



BOTANY 



95 



received a large patronage and has accomplished 
much work. In 1*74 — 5. there were 745 stu- 
dents belongingto the institution; of whom 268 
were in the preparatory departments ; si, in the 
colleges ; and 3ff6 in the schools. Of the entire 
number in the colleges and schools. 102 were 
females. Its graduates from the schools of theol- 
ogy, law, and medicine were more numerous 
than those from the corresponding schools of 
Harvard or Yale. Its financial condition is 
prosperous, notwithstanding the heavy loss which 
it suffered in the great Boston conflagration of 
1872. The final transfer of the Rich fund does 
not take place till 1882. The president of the 
university is William F. Warren, S.T.D., LL. I).. 
elected in 1873. — See Boston University Year 
Books, edited by the university council, vols. I, 
II, and in. 

BOTANY (Gr. Joraw?, herb, plant), the sci- 
ence of vegetable life, treating of the elementary 
composition, structure, habits, functions, and 
classification of plants, in which are included 
herbs, shrubs, and trees. This is a branch of 
that general descriptive, or empirical science, 
called natural history : being based upon the 
facts of observation. The educative value of 
botany, especially in the early stages of the 
mind's development, is very considerable. — far 
more so, indeed, than its usual place in the cur- 
riculum of school education would indicate; 
since it is generally superseded by subjects which 
seem to be of more practical importance to the 
pupil in his after life. In the more modern 
systems of elementary education, both in this 
country and in Kurope, particularly in Germany, 
the training of the perceptive faculties by the 
systematic observation of objects holds a very 
prominent place, indeed is considered the basis 
of all sound mental culture : and among all the 
objects of nature, none can claim precedence in 
point of variety, beauty, and interest, for this 
purpose, over those of which botany treats. It 
has been well said by a writer upon this subject, 
"As the love and observation of flowers are 
among the earliest phenomena of the mental life, 
so should some correct knowledge of them be 
among the earliest teachings." The facility with 
which plants may be collected, handled, and ana- 
lyzed, as well as their general attractiveness, 
makes them peculiarly well adapted for object 
teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite re- 
pulsive to a child, but where is the girl or boy 
who is not pleased with the contemplation, or 
the manipulation, of leaves and flowers? 

For the purpose of this kind of instruction, 
and as an introduction of the subject to yotmg 
minds, the chief point is to direct the attention 
of the child to the most obvious characteristics 
of plants and of their parts, as leaves, stems, 
roots, flowers, seeds, etc. They should be set at 
once to collect specimens for themselves, and be 
shown how (1) to observe them, (2) how to state 
and record the results of their observations, so 
that they may acquire a knowledge of the words 
used to express the characteristic peculiarities of 
different objects. Here will be afforded a wide 



range for the exercise of comparative observation, 

iu the perception of both resemblances and 
differences, but particularly the latter. It is not 
requisite, nay it would be injurious, to teach 
anything of classification at this stage ; nor in- 
deed is it necessary that the child should know 
the name of any plant the whole or part of 
which is under observation. Seme prefer to 
teach the names ; since the child's mind has a 
craving fur the names of such objects as interest 
it. When therefore, the name is asked for by 
the pupil, there can be no objection to the teach- 
er's telling it. The observation and description 
of the characteristics are. however, the essential 
points to be insisted upon. For this purpose, no 
plan can be better than the " Schedule Method," 
invented by Prof. J. S. Henslow. of Cambridge. 
England, ami ingeniously, as well as exhaustively, 
applied by Miss Vciumans in her elementary text- 
books on this subject. According to this method, 
the pupil starts with an observation of the sim- 
plest characteristics, as the parts of the leaf — 
its blade, petioles, stipules ; its venation, margin, 
etc. The general appearance of these may be at 
first represented by pictures, but only to enable 
the learner to study the natural objects, which 
he carefully observes, and writes the characters 
in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as 
a verification to the teacher of the accuracy of 
his observation. (See Yoimaxs's First Book of 
Botany.) It will be easily seen that by a con- 
tinuous application of this plan, the pupil will 
acquire a considerable knowledge of the charac- 
teristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature 
of the science; and. moreover, that at everystep 
his observation, and his judgment too. will be 
thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be 
able to describe the minute distinctions of form, 
structure, color, etc., that are subjected to his dis- 
criminative attention. This process harmonizes 
entirely with the following just view of a distin- 
guished educator: "The first instruction of 
children in the empirical sciences should mainly 
consist in exhibiting to them interesting objects 
and phenomena ; in allowing them to look, 
handle, and ask questions ; and in giving oppor- 
tunity for the free exercise of their youthful 
imaginations. A teacher may guide them in 
their explorations of the neighborhood, direct 
their observations, make inquiries, give explana- 
tions, conduct experiments, call things by their 
right names ; but he must be careful to do it in 
such a manner as not to check their play of 
fancy or chill their flow of feeling." (See 
Wickebsham's Methods of Instruction.) But the 
young pupil is not to be kept constantly at 
mere observation. or the comparison of the form, 
structure, color, etc., of leaves, flowers, and other 
parts of plants: his attention maybe called to 
the simple facts of vegetable physiology, and thus 
shown "how plants grow" and " how they be- 
have," as well as what they are. The elementary 
works of Prof. Gray, bearing the titles above 
quoted (How Plants Grow, and Haw Plants 
Behave), anA. Dr. Hooker's Child's Bonk of Nat- 
ure, will be useful auxiliaries to the teacher for 



96 



BOTANY 



this purpose. Such information as the circula- 
tion of the sap, its use, the functions of the leaf, 
the root, the flower, and the seed, communicated 
in an appropriate style and explained by their 
analogy with other things, familiar to the mind 
of every child, will properly supplement the 
knowledge gained by the pupil through his own 
observations. The following description from 
the Child's Booh of Nature, will illustrate what 
is meant by this : 

"The bark is not all one thing. It is made 
up of two parts ; or rather, we should say, there 
are two barks. There is an outer bark and an 
inner one. The outer bark has no life in it. 

It is this outer bark that gives such a roughness 
to the trunks of some trees, as the elm and the 
oak. This outer bark is a coat for the tree. It 
covers up the living parts so that they shall not 
be injured. It does for the tree what our clothes 
do for our bodies. It is not a perfectly tight 
coat. It has little openings everywhere in it. It 
would be bad for the tree to have this coat on it 
tight, just as it would be bad for our bodies to 
have an India-rubber covering close to the skin." 

In such a simple style as this, and with the 
use of similar illustrations, much interest may 
be awakened in the child's mind, its observing 
and reasoning faculties quickened, and a 
love of natural objects infused, which independ- 
ently of the practical use of the knowledge 
gained, will constitute a mental culture of the 
highest value and prove a life-long blessing to its 
possessor. If, after this elementary instruction, 
it is deemed important that the science should 
be studied as such, the pupil must be gradually 
trained in classification, for which the founda- 
tion will have been laid. In this branch of study, 
as in all other departments of natural history, 
the mental processes to be successively performed 
are: (1) Observation, with the view to compar- 
ison and analysis ; (2) Classification ; (3) Induc- 
tion, or the discovery of principles, so as to em- 
body the observed facts into a science ; and (4) 
Application of the scientific principles to new 
facts. The elementary exercises already described 
conduct the pupil through the first stage only ; 
but the scientific study does not begin until the 
third, and is not completed till he has become 
practiced in the fourth. The observation of 
common characters in plants will necessarily 
lead the mind of the pupil to perceive the 
method and the value of classification ; but such 
exercises need not be very protracted, since it is 
natural even to a child to generalize and classify. 
He will soon be prepared for the methodical 
study of systematic botany ; and then very 
properly may be supplied with a good text-book. 
But the pupils must only use it as an auxiliary 
or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them 
still be encouraged to collect specimens, to notice 
as fully and accurately as possible their peculiar- 
ities, and to describe them by the proper terms. 
Some simple means of drying and preserving 
plants will be very serviceable, so that the school 
at least may possess a tolerably complete her- 
barium. Magnified and colored representations, 
such as those supplied by Prang's Natural 



History Series, and especially Henslow's Botan- 
ical Charts, will prove a great aid in showing 
clearly what the pupils fail to make out in the 
actual specimens. For the purpose of analyzing 
flowers, etc., a small microscope will be needed; 
one that can be so used as to leave both hands 
free for the work of dissection, is greatly to be 
preferred. This, with a sharp knife, forceps, 
and large needles, fixed in handles, is all that will 
be needed. Judgment shoidd be exercised in 
the selection of the flowers for analysis. The 
simpler and more obvious, as the Cruciferce, 
Rosacea', Leguminosce, Ranuncidacea>, Yiolacea?, 
and Labiatw, before such orders as the Com- 
posites, Umbellifera?, Jimcacece, and Cyperaceo?. 
The grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi, etc., will need 
to be studied at an advanced stage of the course. 
The artificial keys supplied in most text- 
books should be used with judgment. Students 
are very apt to become absorbed in the desire to 
discover the names of plants by the use of these 
devices, as if that were the end of the study. 
But while there is no doubt that much progress 
can be made by the verification of the order and 
species of a plant, in this way, the great object 
to be attained is, that the student should become 
so well versed in observing and describing the 
peculiarities of plants, and in their classification, 
that he may be able to place them at once where 
they belong, only using the key when he has 
come across a specimen which belongs to some 
order with which he is unacquainted. 

The utility of botany as a branch of school 
study has been thoughtlessly called in question. 
Its value as an educational agent has already 
been sufficiently shown, and a brief consideration 
of the relations of vegetable life to the most 
important interests of society will suffice to 
demonstrate its exceeding importance as a branch 
of knowledge. The agriculturist is greatly at 
faidt who knows nothing of the principles of 
vegetable physiology, who cannot distinguish the 
properties and characteristics of the plants that 
cover his domain — some the object of his most 
tender care and concern, others his greatest bane. 
The florist and horticulturist are certainly un- 
acquainted with their own arts, unless they are 
proficient in a knowledge of the structure, 
functions, and habits of plants ; and the apoth- 
ecary and physician have also an especial need 
of similar information. The geographer and the 
geologist ; and indeed the scientist, in every de- 
partment, needs to have a good acquaintance 
with the Vegetable kingdom. Says Prof. Hen- 
frey : " In geography, that is, physical geography, 
the concrete natural history of plants"becomes a 
portion of the concrete natural history of the 
globe ; the physiological laws are involved with 
physical laws of climate, soil, etc., in the ex- 
planation of possible distributions, either in an 
abstract point of view, or for the purpose of 
practical application; while the systematic classi- 
fications, and the natural history of particular 
species, become the only guide by which we can 
attempt to trace back the existing conditions of 
distribution towards their origin, and thus per- 



BOWDOIX COLLEGE 



BOYS 



97 



form the share due to botany ; in the historical 
connection of physical geography with geology. 
of which it is properly only the statical part." 
Moreover, to the clergyman, the lawyer, the 
orator, and all who need to cultivate and employ 
the art of persuasion, involving as it does, too. 
the art of elucidation, few subjects present so 
wide a field for familiar and impressive illustra- 
tions as the domain of plants, rich not only in 
those natural flowers which are pleasing to the 
eve. but also in those flowers of speech, which 
constitute the most attractive ornaments of 
rhetoric and poetry. The traveler and explorer 
in distant lands, who is a botanist, can find in 
the flora of every region he visits, food for prof- 
itable instruction and research ; and the rural 
wayfarer, who has fled the bustle and confusion 
of city life for relief and rest. will, in a knowledge 
of this science, never fail to realize, at every step 
he takes, the most refreshing enjoyment. Surely 
no stronger plea can be set up for any of the 
branches of study which occupy so conspicuous a 
place in the educational schemes of schools and 
colleges, those alone excepted which constitute the 
indispensable foundation of all mental improve- 
ment. — See Y ova Am, Educational Claims of 
Botany (X. Y., 1870), First Book of Botany (N. 
Y., 1870), and Second Bool- of Botany (X. Y.. 
1873) ; Gray, How Plants Grow (X. Y., 1858); 
F. A. P. Barnard, Early Mental Training, and 
Henfrev's lecture on the Educational Claims 
of Botanical Science, in The Culture demanded 
by Modern Life, edited by E. L. Youmans ( X. Y., 
1867) ; Wickersham, Methods of Instruction 
(Phil., 1865) ; How to Teach, a Manual of Meth- 
ods (X. Y., 1873). 

BOWDOIBT COLLEGE, at Brunswick, 
Maine, the oldest and most prominent literary 
institution in the state, was chartered in 1794, 
and organized in 1802. It was named in honor 
of Gov. James Bowdoin of Massachusetts. The 
government was vested in a board of trustees 
and a board of overseers, which, in 1801. elected 
Joseph McKeen, D. D., the first president of the 
College. He was succeeded, in 1807, by Jesse 
Appleton, D. D., who served till 181 'J, when 
Bev. William Allen was elected his successor, 
and continued in office till 1839, when he was 
succeeded by Leonard Woods, D. I)., who held 
office till 1866. In 1867, the Rev. Samuel Harris, 
S. T. I)., was elected president, and was succeeded, 
in 1871, by Joshua L. Chamberlain, LL. D., 
the present incumbent. The prevailing religious 
denomination is the Congregationalist. Provision 
is made in this institution for a scientific course 
of study, distinct from the regular collegiate 
course, during the last two years, and especially 
embracing the modern languages, natural science, 
engineering, mechanics, and drawing. There is 
also a post-graduate course, which affords in- 
struction in (1) Letters, comprising languages, 
ancient and modern (including the oriental), 
with the Uterature of each ; philology, rhetoric, 
logic, history, elocution, and the fine arts ; (2) 
Science, comprising higher mathematics, physics. 
natural history, and chemistry, in their uses and 



applications; (3) Philosophy, comprising psy- 
chology, metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and pol- 
itics, the latter including the theory of govern- 
ment, constitutional history, principles of law, 
and international law. The first leads to the 
degree of master of arts (A. M.) ; the second. 
tn that of doctor of science (Sc. D.) ; and the 
third, to that of doctor of philosophy (Ph. D.). 
Graduates who have completed any course in 
the post-graduate studies with honor, may be 
appointed fellows, to reside at the college with all 
the privileges of the same one or two years 
further, without charge, enjoying facilities for 
studies still more advanced, with opportunities 
for teaching in the line of their specialties. 
Much attention is given to physical culture, a 
gymnasium betas provided with the most ap- 
proved apparatus. The exercises are carefully 
directed upon physiological and hygienic princi- 
ples, with the view to develop the bodily powers, 
but are, at the same time, subservient to the 
discipline of the mind. Instruction is also afforded 
in military science, and daily exercises in drill 
are given by an officer of the army detailed for 
that purpose. Since 1873, these drill exercises 
have been optional, the students electing be- 
tween them and the gymnasium. Medical 
training is given through the Medical School of 
Maine, which, by an act of the legislature, in 
1821, was placed under the superintendence ami 
direction of the trustees and overseers of Bow- 
doin College. The number of professors and other 
instructors in the college, in 1874, was 15, and of 
students, 173, exclusive of those in the medical 
school. The value of the grounds, buildings, and 
apparatus is about $85,000, and its productive 
funds amount to §154.000. The college and so- 
ciety libraries contain about 31 ,000 volumes. The 
roll of alumni includes some illustrious names. 
Here, in 1825, graduated Henry W. Longfellow 
and Xathaniel Hawthorne; and subsequently 
Franklin Pierce, Geo. B. Cheever, John P. Hale. 
S. S. Prentiss, and ( 'alvin B. Stowe. Thomas I '. 
Opham, D. D., was prof essor of mental philos- 
ophy from 1824 to 1867 ; and H. W. Long- 
felli iw held the position of professor of modern 
languages from L829 to 1835, when he was called 
to a similar position in Harvard College. The an- 
nual tuition fee is about §75. There are ten en- 
dowed scholarships, yielding from $50 to $60 per 
annum and. besides these, funds donated to the 
institution, amounting to about §10,000, from 
which aid is liberally afforded ti i indigent students. 
BOYS, Education of. In the education of 
boys, the same general principles are to be ap- 
plied as in that of girls ; and, up to a certain age, 
in their school education, the same arrangements 
for discipline and instruction will answer. Edu- 
cation, however, rightly considered, has for its 
object to aid and guide the development of the 
powers or faculties, both generic and specific, 
of the individuals who are subjected to its minis- 
trations; and, consequently, its processes should 
vary with the character of the faculties which 
are to be developed. And this is by no means 
the whole. Education is to be addressed to all 



98 



BOYS 



the elements of character, — physical, mental, and 
moral. There are propensities to restrain and 
subdue as well as powers to bring out and direct. 
There are tendencies to good to cultivate and en- 
courage; and there are, from the first, those of an 
opposite character to repress or extinguish. 
There is not only the intelligence to be stimu- 
lated and guided, there is the will to be subdued, 
— to be made subject, not only to the authority 
of the educator, but to the conscience of the edu- 
cated. Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently 
comprehensive to embrace all these considera- 
tions, and to afford a safe foundation for prac- 
tical methods and rules sufficiently minute to 
reach every case, however peculiar or eccentric ; 
but what we wish here especially to lay down, is 
the important, fundamental law, that education, 
claiming to be scientific, and not a mere mechan- 
ical empiricism, must take cognizance of all these 
elements of human character, not only in their 
average condition and degree, but iu those 
marked diversities which constitute individual 
character. (See Education.) According to this 
principle, boys and girls can never properly be 
subjected to precisely the same processes of edu- 
cation, because their natures are very different, 
— physically, mentally, and morally. This fact 
is, however, not necessarily in conflict with co- 
education ; indeed, it may be an argument in 
favor of it. Children of both sexes may be 
trained in the same family, and instructed in the 
same school or class ; but the wise parent and 
the skillful teacher will often have to make a 
careful discrimination in his treatment of them 
as boys or girls. 

The ancients had very different educational 
systems for the two sexes, for two reasons : (1) 
because of their diverse natures, and (2) because 
of their different spheres of life. Nearly all 
that we read of ancient education concerns boys; 
but we are not to suppose, for this reason, that 
the education of the girls was overlooked. That 
of the boys was public, and was a matter of pub- 
lic concern, for the welfare and the safety of the 
state depended upon it ; but that of the girls 
exclusively belonged to the social circle, and was, 
therefore, strictly private. 

In the Cyropcedia of Xenophon, we have a 
beautiful picture of the education of boys among 
the Persians, fictitious in some particulars, with- 
out doubt, but illustrative of ancient manners 
and views as to the objects of such an edu- 
cation. The public good was the exclusive 
end of this system ; and as the education of 
the future citizens for their duties in peace 
and war was the most important concern of 
the state, this duty was not left to the parents, 
by whom it might be neglected or improperly 
performed, but was the subject of special gov- 
ernmental regulations. Boys were all brought 
up in common, according to a uniform system, 
which prescribed the kind of food, the times 
of eating, the nature and duration of physical 
exercises, and the modes of punishment. By 
a very plain and simple diet, the boys were 
accustomed to strict temperance; and such 



modes of bodily exercise were employed as would 
inure them to the hardships and fatigues of war. 
In their schools, the chief object was to teach the 
pupils justice and virtue, with the view that it is 
much easier to prevent the commission of crimes 
by proper early education, than by severity 
of punishment at a more advanced period of 
life. 

The Spartan system of educating boys re- 
sembled that of the Persians as described by 
Xenophon, except that it was deficient in some 
of the finer moral elements ; and in its physical 
characteristics was, perhaps, more severe. (See 
Sparta.) For an account of the education of 
boys among the Athenians, see Athens. Among 
the Romans, the education of boys was under 
the guidance of the father ; though much of it, 
particularly in its earliest stages, was under the 
superintendence of the mother. She attended 
not only to their plrysical wants, but took pains 
to form their language, their ideas, their moral 
sentiments, and their religious feelings. Of this 
we have an example in Cornelia, the mother of 
the Gracchi. Later, the boy was furnished with 
a custos, or paedagogtis, who sometimes in- 
structed him in gymnastics, or accompanied him 
to the exercises, or to the theatre, being responsible- 
for his safety. This office, in a Roman family, 
was performed by one of the older slaves, and its 
functions continued until the age of manhood was 
reached. Some distinguished Romans, the elder 
Cato for example, taught their own sons ; but 
usually teachers were especially employed to give 
instruction in reading, writing, calculation, rhet- 
oric, etc. A teacher of this kind was called 
ludi magister. Youths were, for the space of a 
year, exercised in arms in the Campus Martius, 
and in swimming in the Tiber. (See Rome.) The 
most celebrated writer on the education of boys 
among the Romans is Quintilian, whose great 
work Institutiones Oratoris, although designed 
to explain the education necessary for the com- 
plete orator, yet treats likewise of the early 
training and instruction of the boy. Thus he 
says : " Many are opposed to the public schools, 
for the reason that the children acquire bad 
habits there, and also because the teacher can 
bestow more attention upon one than upon 
many ; but these objections against the good old 
regulations are not valid, since there are also 
many evils connected with private instruction ; 
and, moreover, if boys were not early rendered 
effeminate, they would not be so easily corrupted 
in the public schools. The instruction in these 
schools is to be preferred, especially for the fu- 
ture orator, in order that he may accustom him- 
self to the multitude, and be stimulated by com- 
petition." Quintilian enjoined particularly upon 
the teacher to make himself acquainted with the 
disposition and capacity (natura et ingenium) 
of his pupils, and to treat every one according 
to his peculiar traits. Other Roman writers 
treated of the education of youth. Varro wrote 
Capys, ant de liberis educandis, which, together 
with most of this author's numerous treatises, 
has perished. 



BOYS 



BRAILLE 



99 



In modern times, most of the special treatises 
on education refer particularly to the training 

and instruction of boys. This is true of Mon- 
taigne, Milton, and Locke. The special education 
of girls has engaged the attention of but few 
writers. Very many, therefore, of the principles 

and rules laid down are based upon the peculiar 
disposition and character of boys. Milton's defini- 
tion of education is limited to the one sex, its 
scope being" to fit a man to perform justly, skill- 
fully, and magnanimously all the offices, both 
private and public, of peace and war"; and his 
various directions as to studies, physical exer- 
cises, etc., all have an exclusive application to 
boys, who he says, among other things, " must be 
also practiced in all the locks and gripes of 
wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to 
excel, as need may often be in fight to tug. to 
grapple, and to close." Fencing he particularly 
approves : "The exercise which 1 commend Hist, 
is the exact use of their weapon, to guard, and 
to strike safely with edge or point; this will 
keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in 
breath, is also the likeliest means to make them 
grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a 
gallant and fearless courage, which being tem- 
pered with seasonable lectures and precepts to 
them of true fortitude and patience, will turn 
into a native and heroic valor, and make them 
hate the cowardice of doing wrong." 

Most writers on education have recognized the 
necessity of discriminating between the sexes in 
education. " From the beginning of the eighth 
year," says Schwarz, "the two sexes require, in 
almost every respect, a different education. The 
principal concern of boys are the studies of 
school, alternating with bodily exercise. Their 
amusements are, at an early age, of the more 
active kind : chasing the butterfly, and scouring 
the plain with other boys; at a later age. they 
should engage in pedestrian excursions and bold 
undertakings, and enjoy the cheerful company < «f 
their equals ; taking care, however, that their 
playmates be of the proper character, and that 
their hearts be cultivated for what is noble and 
generous. Tins vigilant supervision should fol- 
low them to the latter years of youth, and guard 
them against all bad company. Their propensity 
to imitate their older associates, which, among 
other evil practices, so often leads to the early 
habit of smoking, and the like, should be en- 
listed on the side of what is good and praise- 
worthy, by constantly managing their entire 
education in accordance with sound principles." 
The same writer also observes very justly : " Al- 
though boys should be chiefly educated by men. 
and girls by women, the two sexes should unite 
in the education of both boys and girls. The 
boy requires the mild and gentle treatment of 
the mother, in order that his sensibility may not 
become callous : and, besides, he will always need 
some intercourse with persons of the other sex. 
both young and adult, as it is found in families, 
because otherwise he will contract habits of 
rudeness, without developing a susceptibility for 
the finer feelings of humanity." 



The requirements of modern civilization, as 
well as the usages of modern social life, appear 
to dictate a separate education for boys, after the 
elementary stages, both on account of the diver- 
sify in the mental and physical constitution of 
boys and girls, and because of the difference in 
the spheres of life which they are to occupy. 
Here, however, there is great difference of opin- 
ion, many, and particularly females themselves 
contending for the breaking down of all distinc- 
tions of the kind, and throwing open all grades 
and classes of educational institutions, both gen- 
eral and technical, to both sexes. (See ( !o-BDU- 
cation.) Tins question will not be discussed 
here ; but the fact simply stated that many of 
the public schools in the United States have an 
organization especially adapted to males, and 
that, among private seminaries, this rule chiefly 
prevails. Boarding-schools, with arrangements 
for gymnastic and other physical exercises, and 
a school military drill, are quite common ; 
while business and commercial colleges and 
schools have become very numerous. (Sec Bu- 
siness Coixeoes.) These institutions aim to 
give a training which will tit their pupils to till 
their future positions as accountants, merchants, 
or business men in any capacity ; and. in con- 
nection therewith, impart such principles of 
honor and integrity, as will give them true man- 
liness and Christian integrity. Some of these 
institutions are open to girls as well ; but just 
as there are seminaries and colleges which are 
for females exclusively, so there are likewise in- 
stitutions especially devoted to the education of 
boys. — See Milton, Of Education; Schwarz, 
Brziehungslehre (Leipsic, 1829); Rousseau, 
Emile, on de. I' Education; II. I. Schmidt, His- 
tory of Education (N. Y., 1842); Hailman, 
History of Pedagogy (Cincinnati. 1*74.) 

BRAIDWOOD, Thomas, a noted teacher 
of deaf-mutes, was born in Scotland in 1715, 
and died at Hackney, near London, in L806. lie 
kept an establishment at Dumbiedikes, near 
Edinburgh, which was the first regular school 
for deaf-mutes in Great Britain. It is this in- 
stitution that Dr. Johnson praised so highly, and 
in which, as recorded by Boswell, he gave one of 
his sesquipedalia verba, to test the skill of the 
pupils in articulation. (See Boswei.l's Life of 
.lull ii si iii.) Subsequently, Braidwood kept a 
school at Hackney, near London, in which he 
continued till his death, and which was after- 
ward maintained by his widow and grand-chil- 
dren till 1810. He kept his methods of instruc- 
tion secret as far as possible ; but the chief fea- 
ture of his system was articulation and reading 
from the Up. The manual alphabet was like- 
wise employed. An account of his Edinburgh 
school was published by Francis Green of Bos- 
ton, the father of one of Braidwood's pupils, in 
a work entitled Vox oculis subjecia (London, 
17s:{). 

BRAILLE, Louis, the inventor of a tan- 
gible point system for the instruction of the 
blind, was born near Paris in 1809, and died in 
1852. He lost his sight at a veiy early age, and 



100 



BRAIN 



was instructed in the institute for the blind at 
Paris. He was highly distinguished for his in- 
telligence, and the rapidity with which he ac- 
complished himself in various branches of knowl- 
edge, particularly music ; and besides being a 
skillful player upon several other instruments, 
was reckoned among the best organists of his 
time. At the age of eighteen, he became a pro- 
fessor in the Royal Institute ; and while in that 
position (about 1839), devised his method of 
writing, based on the point system of M. Charles 
Barbier, which he also applied to musical nota- 
tion. Le systeme Braille was introduced in most 
of the continental schools. A new system of 
tangible point writing and printing has, quite 
recently, been devised by William B. Wait, 
superintendent of the New York institution for 
the blind, in which the letters which occur 
oftenest, such as e, a, and i, are represented by 
the smallest number of points. — See Wait's 
Jfew York System of Tangible Musical Notation 
and Point Writing and Printing (New Tork, 
1873). 

BRAIN, the principal organ of the nervous 
system, and the fountain of nervous energy 
to the whole body. It is the seat of conscious- 
ness, feeling, and intellect, and also the recipient 
of all impressions made on any part of the nerv- 
ous system. The brain being the organ espe- 
cially concerned in education, its hygiene is an 
important subject for the attention of the 
teacher. The development of this organ is very 
rapid. The average weight of the brain in 
adults is about 48 ounces, and this limit is gener- 
ally attained at the age of thirteen years. No 
organ is, from the time of birth, so regularly and 
so incessantly exercised as the brain. During 
the period of infancy, nature herself superintends 
this process ; and unless her care is interfered 
with through the ignorance, folly, or neglect of 
the mother or nurse, it results in a healthy 
growth and development. When the age of in- 
fancy is passed, and the child is surrendered to 
the educator, intelligence and skill may accom- 
plish much benefit in regulating the cerebral de- 
velopment ; or a want of skill and intelligence 
may do, and often does, very great injury. Ex- 
ercise is the natural instrument by which all the 
bodily organs are brought to a maturity of 
growth and strength, and by which they are 
kept in a condition of health. In applying this 
principle, the teacher should see that the exercise 
be proper, (1) as to its kind, (2) as to its degree, 
(3) as to its direction ; and in all these respects, 
that it is adapted to the age and peculiar phys- 
ical condition of the child to be educated. The 
same process will not answer for all. The teacher 
who wishes to do good, whose aim is really to 
educate, will study the external indications of 
temperament, of bodily health and disease, and 
also of cerebral structure ; and will, as far as 
possible, regulate his operations accordingly. The 
brain is exercised both by thought and feeling ; 
being the seat of various faculties, both mental 
and moral, its activities are aroused by whatever 
is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the 



BRAZIL 

emotions, or the propensities. " The first step," 
says Combe, " towards establishing the regular 
exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the 
mental faculties in youth ; and the second is to 
place the individual habitually in circumstances 
demanding the discharge of useful and impor- 
tant duties." The healthy development of the 
brain may be prevented (1) by wrong exercise, 
(2) by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical con- 
ditions, (4) by bad moral conditions. Over- 
strained or too long continued attention, excess- 
ive tasks from books, committed to memory 
under the pressure of fear, long confinement in 
close rooms, and hence the want of properly 
oxygenated air, will impair the functions of the 
brain, and lay the foundation, not only of future 
disease, but perhaps of future imbecility. So, 
too, when subjected to harsh discipline, to un- 
kind treatment, to a moral atmosphere vitiated 
by the irritability, ill-humor, and moroseness of 
the parent or teacher, the brain of the child 
loses even its natural or normal physical condi- 
tion ; and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See 
Physical Education.) 

BRAZIL, an empire of South America, 
having an area of 3,288,100 sq.m., and a popula- 
tion, according to the census of 1872, of 9,700,187. 
It is one of the most important states of the 
world, being exceeded, in extent, only by the 
Russian, British, and Chinese empires, and by 
the United States ; while, in regard to popula- 
tion, it ranks as the 13th state. The established 
religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic ; 
but according to Art. 5. of the constitution, all 
other religions are tolerated, "with their domestic 
or private forms of worship, in buildings erected 
for this purpose, but without the exterior form 
of temples." No person can be persecuted for 
religious acts or motives. The number of Prot- 
estants is estimated at about 30,000. The ma- 
jority of them are Germans, who have about 
20 churches and are united in a synod. Besides 
the German Protestants, there are English and 
French Protestant churches ; and the Presbyteri- 
ans of the United States have established a small 
number of congregations among the native 
Brazilian population. The national language is 
the Portuguese. The number of German and 
Swiss colonies was, in 1869, about 50, with 
about 40,000 German-speaking settlers. The 
whites number probably one third of the popula- 
tion, the remaining two-thirds being made up of 
mixed races, civilized and savage Indians, and 
Africans, which last form the most numerous 
unmixed race in the empire. The number of 
savage Indians is estimated at from 250,000 to 
500,000. They are divided into a large number 
of different tribes and speak many different 
dialects, though all understand the lingoa geral, 
which was formed by the priests, traders, and 
slave-hunters, on the basis of the Tupi-Ouarani 
(language of the native tribes Tupi and Ouarani.) 
The Indians being found unprofitable as slaves, 
recourse was had to the importation of negroes 
from Africa. These were treated, until 1850 
with almost unparalleled cruelty, though eman- 



BRAZIL 



101 



cipation was always encouraged, and no man was 
debarred by his color from reaching any position 
in church or state. A law, passed Sept. 28., 1871, 
provided for the gradual abolition of slavery. 

Brazil was discovered and taken possession of 
for the king of Portugal, in 1500, and from that 
time remained under the control of Portugal, 
with a short interruption, untd 1822, when it 
was declared an independent empire, and l)om 
Pedro I. was proclaimed its first emperor. Ac- 
cording to the constitution of 1824, public ele- 
mentary instruction is gratuitous, and placed 
under the control of the state. Private schools, 
like all others, are subject to the superintendence 
of the state government. Public instruction is 
graded, as in other countries, into primary, 
secondary, and superior or scientific instruction. 
Public instruction, like ecclesiastical affaire, be- 
longs to the department of the minister of the 
interior. Secondary and primary instruction, 
are, however, chiefly regulated by the provincial 
assemblies, and placed under the administra- 
tion of the presidents of the provinces. As the 
Brazilian provinces enjoy a high degree of self- 
government, there is but little uniformity in the 
organization, but generally the provinces have 
modeled their schools after those of the capital. 
As long as Brazil was a Portuguese colony, 
little was done for public instruction ; but Dom 
Pedro I., as soon as he had ascended the throne, 
showed great interest in the promotion of 
public education, and established a number of 
new schools. Still more was done by his son and 
successor, Pedro II. (since 1831) ; but the provi- 
sions of the constitution of 1824 were never 
fully carried out until 1851, when the two cham- 
bers passed a law authorizing the government 
to reorganize the systems of higher instruction 
throughout the empire, and those of secondary 
and primary instruction in the capital. In ac- 
cordance with this law, the minister of the inte- 
rior, Pedreiro de Couto Ferraz, promulgated, 
Feb. 14.. 1854, the organic provisions which had 
been drafted by De Almeida Roza, and which 
have remained the basis of everything that has 
since been accomplished in Brazil for the promo- 
tion of public instruction. 

Brazil has, like Portugal, public schools of 
the first and second (higher) grade. The course 
of instruction in the former embraces religion, 
ethics, reading and writing, the elements of the 
Portuguese grammar and of arithmetic, with 
legal weights and measures. In the female schools, 
instruction is also given in embroidery and other 
kinds of needle-work. In the schools of the sec- 
ond grade, the gospels are read and explained, 
and instruction is given in biblical and universal 
history, geography, especially that of Brazil, 
arithmetic, the elements of geometry and en- ' 
gineering, drawing, music and gymnastics. The i 
number of schools is as yet entirely insufficient, 
and as the salaries paid are generally very small, 
there is a great want of competent teachers. 
The country owes many important reforms to 
the zealous minister of the interior, Correa de 
Oliveira (1871 — 1875), who has announced his 



intention to introduce compulsory instruction 
and to establish two national normal schools, of 
which there is as yet a great want, as the few 
institutions of the kind existing in the provinces 
can be regarded as only a small beginning of real 
normal instruction. 

Before being allowed to teach, all persons have 
to pass both a written and an oral examination. 
The questions for the former are arranged by the 
council of studies at the beginning of every 
school year. This council consists of the general 
inspector of schools, of the two rectors of the 
( 'ollegio de Pedro II, and four elective coun- 
cilors. There are also 5 assessors, 1 clerk with 4 
assistants, and 17 delegates of parishes, of whom 
11 belong to the city of Rio de Janeiro. — Pupils 
are admitted into the public schools from the 5th 
to the 15th year of age. The school hours are 
mostly from 8 to 11 A. M., and 3 to 5J P. M. 
The school-books, which must be approved by 
the inspector general, are to a great extent trans- 
lations from the French and the English; among 
them is a translation of Peter Parley's Universal 
History. The school is opened every day with 
a short prayer. Corporal punishment is not 
permitted. Every school is annually examined 
by a committee consisting of a delegate of the 
district as president, the teacher, and a third 
person appointed by the inspector general. The 
five most successful scholars receive rewards, 
consisting of books. The president of the com- 
mittee makes a report on the examination to the 
inspector general. 

According to the report of the minister of 
public instruction to the legislature for 1872. the 
number of public primary schools in the capital 
was 111. with 6,149 scholars, namely 3,900 boys 
and 2.249 girls. The number of public primary 
schools in the provinces is 3,491, namely 2,343 8 ir 
boys, and 1148 for girls, attended by 106,705 
scholars, namely 75,594 boys, 29,096 girls, and 
2,015 whose sex is not stated. The number 
of private primary schools is 711, with 19,162 
pupils. The total sum expended annually in the 
provinces for public instruction was 3,362,687 
milreis (about $1,836,000). 

The model secondary school of Brazil is the 
( 'oUegio de Pedrn II. at Rio, which was organ- 
ized in 1854. It consists of 2 separate institu- 
tions, one of which is a boarding and the other a 
day school, each with its own rector. The num- 
ber of students was 351; of whom 221 were day 
scholars and 130 boarders. Besides this college, 
there were in the city of Rio de Janeiro 60 pri- 
vate secondary schools, — 30 for boys, 25 for girls, 
and 5 for both sexes. The course of instruction 
in these institutions varies somewhat, but in 
most of them the following subjects are taught : 
Portuguese, Latin, French. English, natural phi- 
losophy, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history. 
geography, rhetoric, and poetry. The number 
of public secondary institutions in the provinces 
was 107, with 2,994 scholars, namely 2,91 6 boys, 
and 78 girls. The number of private institutions 
was 123, with an attendance of 5,089 scholars. — 
3,852 boys and 1,237 girls. The secondary 



102 



BRIDGMAN 



BRITISH COLUMBIA 



institutions in the province are under the control 
of the provincial administration, and there is on 
that account a great lack of uniformity in their 
courses of instruction and their entire admin- 
istration. The government of Brazil intends, 
however, to establish, as soon as practicable, state 
colleges on a uniform plan. For the German 
colonies in the province of Sao Paulo a "Ger- 
man lyceum" has been established ; most of the 
secondary schools resemble, however, the French 
lyceums. 

Brazil has as yet no university ; but only two 
law faculties at Recife (Pernambuco) and Sao 
Paulo, with an aggregate number of 542 students, 
and two medical faculties at Rio de Janeiro and 
Bahia, with an aggregate number of 868 students. 
The establishment of a complete university at 
Rio de Janeiro is projected, and is urgently 
recommended by the minister of public instruc- 
tion in his annual reports to the legislature. 

Theological faculties are connected with nearly 
all the episcopal seminaries. Of other special 
schools, there are at the capital a business college 
(with 36 students in 1872), an institution for the 
blind (with 19 pupils), an institution for deaf- 
mutes (with 19 pupils); the Central School (sci- 
entific school), with which a military school is 
connected, a naval school and a naval artillery 
school, an academy of fine arts (with 187 stu- 
dents), a conservatory of music (with 139 stu- 
dents), and an imperial lyceum of arts and in- 
dustry, belonging to the society for promoting 
fine arts, a sort of polytechnic school (with 
1,233 students). In the provinces, there are 
several agricultural and industrial schools. 

See Le Roy, in Sohmid's Realencyclopadie, 
vol. ix., pp. 869 — 920; Kidder and Fletcher, 
Brazil and the Brazilians (8th edit., Boston 
1866); Agassiz, A Journey in Brazil (1868), 
Wapp^eus, Bos Kaiserreich Brasilien (Leipsic, 
1871); Annual reports of the minister of public 
instruction of Brazil to the legislature. 

BRIDGMAN, Laura, a remarkable blind 
deaf-mute, born at Hanover, N. H., in 1829, is 
particularly noted as the subject of a very suc- 
cessful course of training and instruction, by 
means of which she was taught to read, write, 
and converse with others, and enabled to acquire 
a knowledge of many useful branches of learn- 
ing, besides becoming highly accomplished in 
music. She lost her sight and hearing at the 
age of two years ; and when about eight years 
old, became an inmate of the Perkins institution 
for the blind in Boston, then under the care of Dr. 
Samuel G. Howe, so noted for his benevolence and 
devoted philanthropy. Finding that she possessed 
a high degree of intelligence, lie resolved, despite 
the many discouragements of the case, to attempt 
her education. Through the sense of touch, he 
first associated, by constant repetition, objects 
with their names in relief letters, and when a 
few of these were learned and the relation thor- 
oughly established, he taught her to recognize 
the separate letters composing each word, and 
then to construct the words herself from the let- 
ters. She was then taught the manual alphabet, 



and its use in naming objects ; after which, 
through these channels of communication, she 
learned the qualities, uses, and relations of ob- 
jects, as well as their names. Subsequently, she 
learned to write and to play upon the piano, in 
which she became very skillful, and acquired also 
a dexterity in needle-work and in the perform- 
ance of many household duties. Her moral and 
religious education was more difficult ; but this 
also was successfully accomplished, so that, in 
1873, Dr. Howe could say of her : " She enjoys 
life quite as much as most persons do. She 
reads whatever books she finds in raised print, but 
especially the Bible. She makes much of her 
own clothing; and can run a sewing-machine. 
She seems happiest when she can find some per- 
son who knows the finger alphabet, and can sit 
and gossip with her about acquaintances, the 
news, and general matters. Her moral sense is 
well developed." This case possesses peculiar 
value in showing what can be accomplished by 
a devoted teacher despite the greatest natural 
obstacles to the acquisition of knowledge; and is 
a most encouraging example of the result of 
patience and address on the part of the educator. 
— See Barnard's American Journal of Edu- 
cation, vol. xi, s. v. Samuel G. Howe. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA, a province of the 
Dominion of Canada, having an area of about 
233,000 sq. m., and a population, in 1871, of 
8,576 whites, 462 negroes, and 1548 Chinese ; 
total, 10,586, exclusive of Indians, estimated at 
35,000 to 40,000. It was created a distinct 
colonial government by an act of parliament 
passed Aug. 2., 1858. In 1866, Vancouver 
Island was united with British Columbia under 
one government; and, in 1871, British Columbia 
was admitted into the Dominion of Canada. 

Although a common school ordinance was 
passed in 1869 and amended in 1870, the real 
foundation of the educational system in this prov- 
ince was the public school act of 1872. This 
law is an adaptation of the Ontario act, and its 
enactment was advised by the superintendent, 
himself a teacher trained in the Toronto normal 
school. Amendments were made to the first act 
in 1873, and a further act was passed in 1874. 
The act provides for an annual grant of $40,000 
as a public school fund, and for "the appointment 
by the government of six persons, to hold office 
during its pleasure, as a board of education ; also 
of an experienced person to be superintendent of 
education, who shall be ex officio chairman of the 
board. School districts are established and 
altered by the government, which also makes 
grants for teachers' salaries, the erection and fur- 
nishing of school-houses, and current expenses, 
and establishes other schools, without a district, 
where needed. The board of education prescribes 
a uniform series of text-books to be used, and 
provides for their supply to the schools, makes 
general regulations, examines teachers and grants 
certificates, appoints teachers and fixes their 
salaries, purchases and distributes school ap- 
paratus, and may establish high schools. The 
superintendent visits each school once a year, 



BROOKLYN 



103 



gives instruction, enforces the law, suspends, if 
necessary, a teacher's license till the meeting of 
the board, grants temporary certificates, settles 
disputed elections, and makes an annual report. 
An annual meeting for the election of trustees is 
held in each district in January. There arc three 
trustees, of whom One retires at the annual meet- 
ing, and no trustee may be a superintendent or 
teacher. The trustees appoint the place of and 
call the annual meeting, on ten days' notice. No 
uncertificated teacher can be engaged in a public 
school. All public schools must be conducted 
upon strictly non-sectarian principles, no religious 
dogma or creed being permitted to be taught, 
Judges, clergymen, members of the legislature. 
and others interested are visitors. The compul- 
sory clause provides that trustees may make by- 
laws, with the sanction of the superintendent, for 
requiring the attendance, at some school, of chil- 
dren between the ages of 7 and 14 years, with 
certain limitations as to distance, etc. The act 
of 1S74 provides for the establishment of public 
boarding-schools. Such schools are managed by 
three trustees, who are appointed by the gov- 
ernor and hold office during his pleasure ; and 
these officers appoint the teachers. The teach is 
under the board are paid on the following scale: 
For an average attendance of from 1(1 to 20 
pupils, 850 a month ; from 20 to .'ill, $60; 30 to 
40. 870; 40 to 50, $80. When the average ex- 
ceeds 50, the school is entitled to an assistant. 
Teachers whose schools are far iidand receive 
$10 a month more. 

The estimated number of children of school 
age was, in 1874, about 2,240, of whom 1,245 at- 
tended school some portion of the year ; this was 
an increase of 711 over 1K72. In consequence 
of the exceeding sparseness of the population, 
the boarding system has been introduced: and 
one such school was, in 1875, in successful oper- 
ation. The compulsory clause of the act did 
not work successfully, its enforcement being op- 
tional with the local authorities. The total ex- 
penditure for the public schools fur the year was 
$3.1,287, of which $22,219 was paid for teachers' 
salaries. An additional sum of $6,657 was ex- 
pended by the superintendent in supplying books 
and apparatus. There were 30 teachers in the 
service. The establishment of high schools at 
Victoria and New Westminster was advocated 
by Superintendent John Jessop in 1875. The 
rising city of Nanaimo has a school of a higher 
grade (St. Paul's School), in connection with the 
Episcopal church. It was originally established 
in ls02, but was closed in 1870, and reopened 
September 1874. — See Marling, Canada E<ht- 
ca&onal Directory mul Yeftrbuok for 1870 
(Toronto, 1876.) 

BROOKLYN, capital of Kings county, New 
York, the third city, in population, in the United 
States. It is claimed for Brooklyn that, in 
common with New York, it has the honor of 
being the seat of the first free public schools 
within the present territory of the United States. 
Education received an early attention in the 
Puritan colonies of New England ; but the pu- 



pils of their schools were burdened with a 
portion of the cost of instruction; while, in the 
1 hitch colonies, tuition was entirely free. The 
first school-tax levied in Brooklyn [Breuekelen) 
amounted to 50 gilders, equal to about $20; 
and. in 1661, Carel de Beauvois, a recent emi- 
grant from Holland, was appointed the first 
school-master, to take charge of the school, as 
well as to act as court-messenger, bell-ringer, 
grave-digger, and precentor [voorzangei'). other 
schools were established within the next few 
years. After the conquest of the New Nether- 
lands by the English, in 1 004. the free-school 
system was abolished; and for the next century 
and a half, the schools were supported only by 
their patrons. No addition to the number of 
schools appears to have been made until the 
commencement of the revolutionary period, when 
a fourth school was established, which was after- 
wards organised as Public School No. 4. Another 
school was established soon after the revolution. 
In all these schools, tuition was afforded in both 
English and Dutch down to 1800, and in the 
Bushwick and (-iowanus school still later; for all 
the schools in Brooklyn up to this period were 
located in Dutch neighborhoods, and were almost 
exclusively under Dutch influence and patronage. 
As early as 1795, the legislature made an appro- 
priation of $50,000, which was continued annu- 
ally for five years, for the encouragement of 
the schools, and in 1805 established the common 
school fund. < If the privileges granted by these 
acts, Brooklyn did not avail herself till 1813, 
when the trustees of district No. 1, then the 
whole village, were elected. On May6.,1816, 
Public School No. 1 was opened, the sum of 
$2,000 having been previously levied for its 
support upon the district, which then contained 
552 children not attending private schools, 'this 
school was conducted upon the I.ancasterian or 
I monitorial system. Priorto 1 s43. the government 
of the schools in Brooklyn was vested in the trust- 
ees of each school district, of which at that time 
there were ten in the village of Brooklyn, and two 
in the town of Bushwick. In that year, the legisla- 
ture passed an act empowering the common 
council to appoint two or more suitable persons to 
represent each of the school districts, who together 
with the mayor and county superintendent, 
should form the board of education of the city 
of Brooklyn. The appointment of three persons 
from some of the districts, with the addition of 
the mayor and the superintendent, made the 
board consist of 28 members. In 1850, the law 
was changed, fixing the number of members at 
33, at least one to reside in each school district, 
ami giving their exclusive election to the com- 
mon council. 

On the consolidation of the cities of Brooklyn 
and Williamsburg, by an act of the legislature 
passed April 17., 1S54, the composition of the 
board was again changed. The law required the 
common council to appoint such additional mem- 
bers as the proportional increase of the inhabi- 
tants might demand. In pursuance of this 
provision, the number of members constituting 



104 



BROOKLYN 



the board was fixed at 45, of whom 13 should 
reside in the Eastern District (Williamsburgh). 
This number was sanctioned by a direct legis- 
lative enactment in 1862. By a subsequent 
enactment, in 1868, the members were divided 
into three classes, holding office for one, two, and 
three years, respectively ; and the mayor is now 
required to nominate to the common council 15 
members each year, and, if the same shall not be 
confirmed within twenty days, he may appoint 
absolutely. In 1853, S. S. Randall was elected 
city superintendent ; but he served only a short 
time, being succeeded the same year by J. W. 
Bulkley, who continued to hold the office till 
1873, when, in pursuance of a law passed that 
year, he was made associate superintendent, with 
Thomas W. Field, who was elected superintend- 
ent of public instruction. 

School Statistics. — The growth of the system, 
since 1854, has been steady and rapid. In 1855, 
the number of schools was 30, with 312 teachers 
and an average attendance of pupils of 13,380. 
Ten years afterward, the number of schools was 
38, the number of teachers 545, and the average 
attendance 22,610; in 1874, the number of schools 
increased to 49, the number of teachers to 1,099, 
and the average attendance to 40,193. The 
following items are reported for the year 1875 : 

Number of pupils enrolled 86,723 

Average daily enrollment 50,022 

Average daily attendance 45,248 

Number of teachers 1.121 

Number of months schools were oxjen 10 

Amount paid for teachers' salaries $671,108.18 

do do for school buildings 370,228.50 

do do for books and stationery. , . 6,616.61 

do do for colored schools 11,164.78 

do do for other expenses 434,221.42 

Total expenditure SI ,493, 330.58 

School System. — The system consists of a board 
of education of 45 members, a superintendent of 
public instruction and an associate superintendent. 
The city is divided into 31 districts, containing 
34 grammar and intermediate school buildings, 
11 separate primary schools and 4 colored schools; 
making the total number of the district schools 
49; besides which there are 16 evening schools, 
(2 for colored pupils), 1 evening high school, and 
9 corporate, or orphan asylum, schools. Most of 
the grammar departments of the schools are for 
both sexes. The school age is from 5 to 21. The 
members of the board of education are appoint- 
ed for three years by the common council, on 
the nomination of the mayor, one-third of the 
board retiring each year. The board elects the su- 
perintendent and associate superintendent, whose 
term of office is three years, appoints teachers 
and determines their salaries, prescribes the 
course of instruction for the schools and the 
books to be used therein, and makes all needful 
regulations for the management of the same. It 
has the power to purchase sites and erect school- 
houses with the consent of the common council, to 
purchase text-books for use in the schools, and to 
sell or donate them to the pupils. Each school 
is under the particular charge of a local commit- 
tee of the board of education. 



The course of instruction includes six grades 
for the primary departments and six for the- 
grammar departments. The studies prescribed 
for the former are reading, spelling, arithmetic 
as far as long division, elementary geography, 
and writing ; in the latter, in addition to these 
studies, English grammar and composition, 
higher geography and arithmetic, etymology, 
the history of the United States, astronomy, pen- 
manship, drawing, and book-keeping, together 
with natural philosophy and algebra as optional 
studies. Under the direction of the local com- 
mittee and the superintendent, a supplementary 
course,including higher branches, may be pursued. 
This grade is, in fact, an academic course in all 
respects except the study of Latin. Vocal music 
is taught in all the grades. Each grade of study 
occupies one half of the school year, or about 
5 months. There is no high school or college 
connected with the system ; but the board of 
education has at its disposal 99 free scholarships 
in colleges and seminaries for the benefit of pub- 
lic-school pupils, the average value of each of 
which is about $100. 

Examination and Qualification of Teachers. 
— The grade of scholarship of each teacher is. 
fixed by the superintendent, after examination 
in one of the classes designated A, B, and C. 
As most of the appointments are made from the 
supplementary classes, the certificates graded B 
or 0, are those usually granted at first. Those 
of grade C license to teach any primary grade ; 
those of B, any below the fourth grammar grade. 
Certificates of the highest grade (A) are con- 
ferred upon those only who have presented evi- 
dence of superior efficiency as well as superior- 
scholarship. 

No provision exists for the instruction of 
teachers other than that afforded by the supple- 
mentary classes of the grammar schools. 

Private Seminaries and Schools. — The pri- 
vate educational institutions of Brooklyn are- 
very numerous, and many of them quite cele- 
brated for their efficiency and high grade of 
scholarship. The Packer Collegiate Institute, 
incorporated in 1853, is a female seminary of 
high reputation. It was named after William 
S. Packer, from whose widow the institution 
received a large endowment. It has a corps of 
about 40 instructors, between 700 and 800 stu- 
dents, and a library of nearly 5,000 volumes. It 
has also a large number of free and endowed 
scholarships. The Brooklyn Collegiate and 
Polytechnic Institute, for males, was founded in 
1854, with a capital stock subsequently in- 
creased to $100,000. It is under the manage- 
ment of a board of 17 trustees. In 1874, it had 
a corps of 30 instructors, and 605 students, of 
whom 136 were in the collegiate department. 
The value of its grounds, buildings, and appa- 
ratus was estimated at $164,000, and its receipts 
from tuition fees amounted to about $63,000. 
The Ade/phi Academy, incorporated in 1869, is 
also an institution of a high grade of efficiency. 
In 1874, its corps of instructors numbered 29, 
and the whole number of students was 546. The 



BROWN 



BUCHTEL COLLEGE 



105 



value of its grounds, buildings, etc. was $160,000. 
and its annual income from tuition fees was about 
$40,1)00. The institution is non-sectarian. For 
the early history of education in Brooklyn, see 
D.T. Pratt, Annals of Public Education in (he 
stateofNew York (Albany. 1872); Stiles, History 
of the Cili/ of Brooklyn (3 vols, N. Y., 1864— '70'.) 

BROWN, Goold, an eminent American 
grammarian, was born in Providence, R. I., in 
1791, and died at Lynn, Mass., in 1857. He was 
a teacher for more than twenty years in the city 
of New York. His Institutes of English 
Grammar (N. Y., 1823), and First Lines of 
English Grammar (N. Y., 1823) liave been more 
extensively used in the schools of this country 
than any other grammatical text-books. The 
edition of these works with Kiddle's Analysis 
of Sentences has still a very wide circulation. 
Goold Brown's Grammar of English Gram- 
mars (N. Y., 1851) is probably the most exten- 
sive and complete treatise on the subject ever 
published. This work contains a very valuable 
catalogue of works on English Grammar. See 
10th edition with index, by Samuel W. Berria.n 
(N.Y., 1871). 

BBOWIT UNIVERSITY, at Providence, 
R. I. formerly called Rhode Island College, was 
founded in 1764, through the instrumentality of 
the association of Baptist churches at Philadel- 
phia, and by the aid of certain prominent Bap- 
tists of Newport. A charter was obtained in 
1764. one of the provisions of which was, " that 
into this liberal and catholic institution shall 
never be admitted any religious tests ; but, on 
the contrary, all the members hereof shall for 
ever enjoy full, free, absolute, and uninterrupted 
liberty of conscience ; and that the public teach ■ 
ing shall, in general, respect the sciences, and 
that the sectarian differences of opinions shall 
not make any part of the public and classical in- 
struction." Of the 12 members of the board of 
fellows, having the government of the college, 8, 
including the president, must be Baptists ; and 
of the board of 36 trustees, 22 must be Baptists, 
5 Friends, 4 Oongregationalists, and 5 Episcopa- 
lians, representing the proportion of each denom- 
ination in the colony at the time of the char- 
ter. The first president of the college was the 
Rev. James Manning, D. D., who served till 
1791. During this period, the seat of the college 
was fixed at Providence ; and, during a part of 
the Revolutionary period, the operations of the 
institution were suspended, the college building 
being occupied by the state militia, and by the 
troops of Rochambeau. The Rev. Jonathan 
Maxcy, D. D., was the second president, who 
served from 1791 to 1802, when he resigned, and 
was succeeded by the Rev. Asa Messer, I>. I)., 
who held the position till 1826. During his in- 
cumbency, in 1804, the name of the institution 
was changed to Brown University, in honor of 
Nicholas Brown, from whpm it had received the 
most munificent donations. Dr. Messer was suc- 
ceeded in 1827 by the Rev. Francis Wayland, 
D. D., LL. I)., who resigned in 1855, and was fol- 
lowed by the Rev. Barnas Sears, D. D., LL. D., 



who served till 1867, and was succeeded by the 
Rev. Alexis Caswell, D. D., LL. I). In January, 
1872, he was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
the Rev. E. G. Robinson, 1). I)., LL. D. The in- 
stitution has five college buildings and a mansion 
for the president. Its situation is commanding 
and salubrious, the enclosed college grounds cover- 
ing a space of 1 6 acres. The value of its grounds, 
buildings, and apparatus is estimated at 
$1,500,000; the amount of its productive funds,, 
including scholarships, is stated (1876) as 
$662,555. The average amount of scholarship 
funds exceeds $50,000. 

In addition to the classical and scientific 
courses, there have been established departments 
of practical science, including (1) chemistry, 
applied to the arts. (2) civil engineering, and (3) 
agriculture. This is for the benefit of students 
who wish to prepare themselves for such pursuits 
as especially require the knowledge of the mathe- 
matical and physical sciences, and their applica- 
tions to the industrial arts. There are two parallel 
courses of instruction for the degree of bachelor — 
of arts, and of philosophy, each extending through 
a period of three years. The one is largely com- 
posed of classical studies, the other substitutes 
for them a larger amount of scientific studies. 
Arrangements are made by which students have 
daily exercises in the gymnasium. The univer- 
sity library contains 45.000 volumes, the greater 
part of which has been collected within the last 
thirty years. It is especially rich in civil and 
ecclesiastical history, antiquities, bibliography, 
and patristics. Through means supplied by the 
munificence of John Carter Brown, a fire-proof 
building for the library is in process of construc- 
tion, with accomodation for 150,000 volumes. 
There is also a valuable museum of natural 
history, containing about 35,000 specimens. 

The corps of instruction includes 1 7 professors 
and other instructors ; and the whole number of 
students in the university, in 1875 — 6, was 255. 
The cost of tuition is $75 per annum. Among 
the various forms of aid offered to students, there 
are about 100 scholarships. There are 58 scholar 
ships of $1000 each, the income of which is. 
given, under the direction of a committee ap- 
! pointed by the corporation, to meritorious stu- 
dents needing pecuniary aid. 

BUCHTEL COLLEGE, at Akron, Ohio, 
was founded, in 1872, by the Universalists, in 
order to afford to students of both sexes equal 
opportunities for a thorough practical and liberal 
education. The full curriculum embraces a com- 
plete college course of four years, a thorough 
philosophical course of two years, a normal course, 
and a preparatory course. The corps of instruct- 
ors, in 1 874, included 15 professors and other in- 
structors; and the whole number of students was 
212, of whom 112 were in the collegiate departs 
ment. The value of the college grounds, build- 
ings, and apparatus is estimated at $250,000, and 
its productive fund amounts to about $25,000. 
Rev. S. H. McCollester, A. M„ is (1876) the 
president of the institution. The annual tuition 
fee is $30. 



106 



BUFFALO 



BUFFALO, a large and flourishing city in 
western New York, having a population, ac- 
cording to the state census of 1875, of 134,:>73. 

Educational History.— -The first school-district 
embraced the village' of Buffalo, in which the 
first school-house was built in 180G. The first 
.school tax appears to have been levied in 1818, 
for the purpose, probably, of rebuilding the 
school-house, burned, with the rest of the village, 
in 1813. In 1822, Millard Fillmore taught the 
village school. At the time of the incorporation 
of the city (1832), there were 6 districts, each 
having one small school-house and one teacher. 
In 1836 — 7, a law was passed authorizing the 
appointment by the common council of a super- 
intendent ; from which event dates the beginning 
of the school system. In 1838, the 7 school-dis- 
tricts were divided into 15, and a resolution was 
.adopted to establish a common school in each, 
with departments according to its needs and 
numbers, and a " Central School, where all the 
higher branches necessary to a complete English 
education could be pursued ;" and, in all these 
schools, education was to be entirely free. In 1839, 
five new and commodious school-houses were 
built. In 1853-4, important changes were made 
in the city charter, by which, and the ordinances 
of the city council in pursuance of the same, the 
system received its present organization. In 
1873, Superintendent Larned endeavored to 
secure the passage of a law creating a board of 
education, to have the management of the 
schools ; but the measure met with but little 
popular favor, and did not prevail. — The city 
superintendents have been as follows : Under 
election for one year by the common council, 
B. W. Haskins, N. P. Sprague, and 0. G. Steele, 
successively, during 1837; Oliver G Steele, 1838, 
-39, -45, and -51 ; Daniel Bowen, 1840, -46, 
and -49 ; Silas Kingsley, 1841 ; Samuel Cald- 
well, 1842 and -43 ; Elias S. Hawley, 1844, -47, 
and -48; Henry K. Viele, 1850; Victor M. Bice, 
-52 aud -53 ; under the new law, electing for 
two years, Bphraim F. Cook, 1854 — 5 and 1856 
— 7 ; Joseph Warren. 1858 — 9 ; Sandford B. 
Hunt, 1860—61; John B. Sackett, 1862—3; 
Henry D. Oarvin, 1864 — 5 ; John S. Fosdick, 
1866—7; Samuel Slade, 1868—9; Thomas Loth- 
xop, 1870 — 71 ; Josephus N. Larned, 1872 — 3 ; 
"William S. Bice, 1874 — 5, and re-elected for the 
term which expires Dec. 31., 1877. 

School System. — By the charter of 1853 — 4, 
the schools are under the control of the com- 
mon council, and are free to all persons between 
the ages of 5 aud 20 years. Colored children 
.are admitted to any of the schools, but one 
colored school must be maintained. The cost of 
sites and school-houses must be assessed on the 
property of school - districts ; but all other ex- 
penses are paid out of the general fund or by 
tax. The Central High School is entitled to 
share in all appropriations to academies ; and 
the districts participate in the apportionment to 
public schools. — The superintendent of education 
is elected on general city ticket for two years. 
He is the chief executive officer of the depart- 



I ment of education ; and his duties are, to recom- 
mend courses of study, to hire teachers, who are 
I subject to his directions ; under direction of the 
I city council, to contract for " lots, houses, and 
i supplies," and to carry into effect all provisions 
! relating to education. — The course of study is 
divided into ten grades, and embraces, besides 
the common branches, drawing, composition, 
vocal music, and, in some schools, German. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts is 35 ; of schools with one de- 
partment, 14; with two departments, 11 ; with 
three, 17 ; of night schools, 7. The principal 
items of school statistics for the year ending 
Dec. 31., 1876, are as follows : 

Whole number of children enrolled (estimated) 40,000 

No. of pupils registered in day schools 23,000 

No. of pupils registered in night schools 1,121 

No. of teachers employed 420 

Receipts from school fund $77,5.52.27 

by tax 237,597.73 

Total $315,150.00 

Total expenditures $313,750 00 

Of the 42 principals employed, 33 are males, 

with salaries ranging from §550 to $1,450 ; and 

9 are females, with salaries ranging from $550 

| to $800. The salaries of assistants range from 

! $400 to $650. The amount paid for salaries is 

$275,000. 

In the Central School, the courses of study are 
a shorter English course, requiring two years, 
and an English and a classical course, each re- 
quiring three years. The Begent's examination 
in full admits to the two regular courses. In 
1876, there were in attendance 159 boys and 220 
girls ; and the number of teachers was 14, the 
amount of whose salaries was $15,750. The state 
normal school at Buffalo was opened in 1871. 
The common council appropriated $45,000, 
and the supervisors of the county, an equal sum, 
for the erection of a building, on a site com- 
prising 5 acres, given for the purpose by Jesse 
Ketchum, for the nominal sum of $4,500. Pupils 
are admitted, at 16 years of age, on the recom- 
mendation of the local school officers, and after 
passing an examination in the common English 
branches. 

Parochial Schools. — There are 15 parochial 
schools for instruction in common branches, in 
connection with the Boman Catholic Church, 2 
colleges, and several convent and Sisters' schools. 
In the first, during the year ending Dec. 31., 
1876, there were 7.97G pupils, taught by 98 teach- 
ers. Canisius College is conducted by Jesuit 
Fathers, assisted by lay teachers; in 1876, it had 
146 students. St. Joseph's College is under the 
charge of Christian Brothers, with 300 pupils. 

Private Schools. — The Buffalo Female Acad- 
emy was organized in 1851. It is under the con- 
trol of a board of trustees, and has a collegiate de- 
partment, academic departments, and a primary 
department. Other schools are, the Heathcote 
school for boys, and the Buffalo Classical School, 
the latter a school of long standing. Besides 
these, there are numerous other schools, Catholic 
and Protestant, both for boys and for girls. 



BUGENHAGEN 



BUREAU OP EDUCATION 107 



BUGENHAGEN, Johann, one of the I 
leaders uf the German reformation in the six- 
teenth century, was born in 148."), at Wollin in 
Pomerania, and died in 1558. Next to Melanch- 1 
thon, he was the most prominent educator among 
the fathers of German Protestantism. When 
only 18 years of age, he was placed at the head 
of the school of Treptow, which soon became 
so famous that it attracted scholars from various 
countries of northern Europe. In 1517, he was 
called by the abbot of Belbuek to assume the 
office of teacher of theology to his convent. 
After joining the reformation, he was for some ( 
years professor at the university of Wittenberg ; 
but from 1536 until his death, his time was elderly 
devoted to carrying on the work of the Reforma- 
tion in various countries. In connection with 
every Protestant church, he endeavored to estab- 
lish a Protestant school, and he is believed to 
have thus done more for the spread of education 
in Protestant Germany than even Luther him- 
self. The church established by him in the 
duchy of Brunswick served as a model for a large 
number of others. The church constitution of 
this duchy, drawn up by him in 1328, provides 
for the establishment of two Latin schools for 
boys, each with three teachers, of two German 
schools for boys, and four girls' schools. The in- 
struction given in these schools consisted chiefly 
in teaching the catechism and singing ; but in the 
girls' schools, biblical history was an essential 
branch. The poor were to be aided as much as 
possible to obtain admission into these schools, 
and the heads of the parish were to exercise a 
careful supervision over the education of all the 
children. In the villages and towns, the sexton 
was expected to give instruction to the lowest 
classes. To aid this work of teaching. Bugen- 
hagen translated the Bible into Low German, 
very closely following the High German trans- 
lation of Luther. 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION, National, 
an office in the Department of the Interior of the 
government of the United States, organized in 
pursuance of an act of congress approved March 
2., 1867. This office had its rise in the need, 
long felt by leading educators, of some central 
agency by which the general educational statistics 
of the country could be collected, preserved, con- 
densed, and properly arranged for distribution. 
In February, lH6(i, a memorial was presented to 
the House of Representatives, asking for the 
establishment of a national bureau of education. 
This memorial emanated from the National As- 
sociation of State and City School-Superintend- 
ents, and enumerated the following as the means 
by which the proposed bureau could promote the 
interests of education : "(1) By securing greater 
uniformity and accuracy in school statistics, and 
so interpreting them that they may be more 
widely available and reliable as educational tests 
and measures ; (2) By bringing together the re- 
sults of school-systems in different communities. : 
states, and countries, and determining their com- > 
parative value ; (3) By collecting the results of 
all important experiments in new and special 



methods of school instruction and management, 
and making them the common property of school- 
officers and teachers throughout the country ; (4) 
By diffusing among the people information re- 
specting the school-laws of the different states : 
the various modes of providing and disbursing 
school-funds ; the different classes of school-officers 
and their relative duties; the qualifications re- 
quired of teachers, the modes of their examina- 
tion, and the agencies provided for their special 
training; the best methods of classifying and 
grading schools, improved plans of school-houses, 
together with modes of heating and ventilation, 
etc., — information now obtained only by a few 
persons and at great expense, but which is of the 
highest value to all intrusted with the manage- 
ment of schools ; (5) By aiding communities 
and states in the organization of school-systems 
in which mischievous errors shall be avoided, and 
vital agencies and well-tried improvements be 
included; (6) By the general diffusion of correct 
ideas respecting the value of education asaquick- 
ener of intellectual activities, as a moral renova- 
tor, as a multiplier of industry and a consequent 
producer of wealth, and. finally, as the strength 
and shield of civil liberty." The act establishing 
the bureau prescribes that its operations shall be 
the " collecting of such statistics and facts as shall 
show the condition and progress of education in 
tin' several states and territories, and the diffus- 
ing of such information respecting the organiza- 
tion and management of school-systems and 
methods of teaching as shall aid the people of 
the United States in the establishment and 
maintenance of efficient school - systems and 
otherwise promote the cause of education." 

Henry Barnard, LL. D., was the first commis- 
sioner of education, appointed in pursuance of 
this law ; and under him the Bureau was organ- 
ized and put in operation. Two reports were is- 
sued by him, that of 18(17 — 8, and a special re- 
port on the District of Columbia; but for several 
reasons, chiefly the want of congressional co-oper- 
ation and support, the operations of the Bureau, 
during this period, were neither extensive nor of 
considerable importance, (hi the 17th of March, 
1870, Dr. Barnard retired, and was succeeded by 
John Eaton, Jr., the present incumbent, during 
the six years of yvhose administration, the Bureau 
has accomplished a vast amount of work. Be- 
sides the five annual reports, from 1870 to 1874, 
it has issued twenty-seven circulars of informa- 
tion, containing important summaries of intelli- 
gence relating to the condition of education in 
foreign countries, or upon other interesting edu- 
cational topics. 

The relation of the Bureau to the educational 
authorities of the country, which are exclusively 
uiu ler state control, is entirely ancillary. Its office 
is to aid by dispensing information, not to direct. 
It has no power to demand information ; but is en- 
tirely dependent upon the courtesy of the state 
and city authorities and officials in affording proper 
replies to its interrogatories. The extent of its 
operations in gathering information will be ap- 
parent from the following statement extracted 



108 BUREAU OP EDUCATION 

from a recent " Statement," issued under the 
authority of the Bureau itself : — 

" The field for exploration it presents embraces 
the thirty-seven states and eleven territories. To 
make the exploration thorough, the bureau must 
examine every school law, and mark whatever 
change or amendment may be made, including 
the charters of city boards of education, with 
their rules and ordinances. It must sift, for 
things deserving general attention, the reports of 
every state-, county-, and city-superintendent of 
the public schools that may be sent to it. It 
must get at the work not only of the public high 
schools, but also of the private academies and 
special preparatory schools. It must look through 
the annual catalogues and calendars of a long list 
of colleges and universities ; schools of divinity, 
law, medicine, and science ; reformatories, and 
institutions for the training of the deaf and dumb, 
the blind, and the feeble-minded — selecting from 
each what is worthy to be noted in the way of 
either improvement or defect. And, besides all 
this, it must keep its eyes wide open to ob- 
serve the growth of libraries, museums, schools 
of art or industry, and other aids to the proper 
training of the people ; must see what the edu- 
cational journals say as to school-matters in their 
several states ; must note what may be worth pre- 
serving in the utterances at teachers' associations 
and gatherings of scientific men ; and must keep 
up, with reference to all these tilings, an incessant 
correspondence with every portion of the country. 
In fact, its correspondence reaches, more or less 
directly, to the 48 states and territories, to 206 
cities, 132 normal schools or departments, 144 
business colleges, 54 kindergarten, 1,455 acad- 
emies, 103 schools especially engaged in prepar- 
ing pupils for the colleges, 240 institutions for 
the higher training of young women, 383 colleges 
and universities, 73 schools of science, 115 of 
theology, 37 of law, and 98 of medicine ; with 
585 libraries, 26 art museums, 53 museums of 
natural history, 40 institutions for the instruc- 
tion of deaf-mutes, 28 for the blind, 9 for the 
feeble-minded, 400 for orphans, and 45 for the 
reformation of misguided youth." 

The diffusion of information by the Bureau 
takes a wide range, embracing not only full and 
statistical information in regard to the progress 
and condition of education in the United States, 
but as to the " ministries of instruction in the 
several European states, as to the useful sugges- 
tions in foreign educational reports and journals, 
and as to the systems of training in the universi- 
ties, gymnasia, real-schools, schools of architec- 
ture and drawing, and the various institutions 
of primary education in every civilized com- 
munity or state." The mode of disseminating 
this intelligence is, (1) By annual reports, each 
giving abstracts of the various classes of instruc- 
tion (such as primary, secondary, superior, pro- 
fessional and special), with lists and statistics of 
noticeable institutions and estimates of progress 
or retrogression in various lines; (2) By occasional 
circulars of information (of which 27 have been 
issued up to 1876) ; and (3) By written answers 



BURGHER SCHOOL 

to inquiries on school matters addressed to the 
commissioner. The amount of intelligence con- 
veyed, by these means, with respect to educational 
systems, school laws, and important institutions, 
is such as has never previously been made gener- 
ally accessible in the United States, and such, 
certainly, as no single state, much less any single 
individual or private association, could have 
obtained, without an expenditure which it would 
have probably been either unable or unwilling to 
incur. 

While there is a very emphatic and general 
opposition in the United States to the establish- 
ment of any national system of education, or to 
conferring upon the general government the 
right to interfere in any way with the state 
systems, there has nevertheless been generally 
manifested a full appreciation of the value of 
the Bureau of Education as now constituted, 
and a cordial disposition to supply the Commis- 
sioner with the fullest replies to his inquiries for 
information, as well as with copies of all edu- 
cational documents issued under state or city 
authority. In bringing about this very desirable 
state of things, of course, the manner in which 
the affairs of the Bureau have been administered 
has had much to do. It would be easy by an 
injudicious course to bring about an antagonism 
that would most effectually prevent any further 
progress. 

An educational library of probably unsur- 
passed richness is another, of the valuable fruits 
of the work of the Bureau. This is, in part, 
composed of choice collections bearing on the 
history and art of education in this country and 
abroad ; in part, of the accumulations made in 
the process of annual examination into the con- 
dition of public-school instruction, the state of 
academies and colleges, and the rise and work of 
professional and special schools. This library, it 
is said, for purposes of practical investigation, is 
superior to any other educational library in exist- 
ence, except, perhaps, the one at Vienna. With its 
vast accumulations from year to year, its value 
as a library of reference is constantly increasing. 
— See Reports of U. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, 1870 — 4; also National Bureau of 
Education ; its History, Work, and Institutions, 
a pamphlet by Alex. Shikas, D.D., prepared 
under the direction of the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation (Washington, 1875). 

BURGHER SCHOOL (Ger. Burgerschule), 
a name given to many public schools of a higher 
grade in the towns of Germany, designed to ed- 
ucate the children of citizens for a practical busi- 
ness life. Formerly, the course of instruction in 
the town schools embraced the ancient languages; 
and the study of Latin, in particular, was fre- 
quently, even as late as the eighteenth century, 
regarded as the most important part of the entire 
course. In the last quarter of the eighteenth 
century, a radical reform began gradually to be 
effected. Teachers and school authorities investi- 
gated the comparative usefulness of the different 
branches of instruction for all those classes of 
towns-people who did not follow one of the 



BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY 



BUSINESS COLLEGES 



109 



learned professions, and the conclusion generally- 
reached was, that natural science, geography, 
history, and similar studies are of veiy much 
higher advantage to the future citizen, than a 
knowledge of Latin. The organization of the 
town schools was gradually changed, in accord- 
ance with these principles ; and, on Jan. 2., 1804, 
the first Bwrgerschule was opened at Leipsic. 
Since that time, a large number of flourishing 
schools bearing this name have sprung up in the 
large cities. In the further development of the 
school system of Germany, the term, as a dis- 
tinctive name, has to a great extent been dropped, 
and the schools formerly thus designated consti- 
tute, under various names, the higher division 
of the Volksschuhn. The name hiihere Bii/r- 
gerschide is identical with the more common 
Realschule. (See Real School, and Germany.) 

BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY, at Bur- 
lington, Iowa, was founded by the Baptists, in 
1852. In 1875 — 6, it had 60 students, and a corps 
of 8 professors and other instructors. The value 
of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 
840,000 ; its endowment fund, about $20,000. 
Prof. L. E. Worcester has been the president of 
the institution since 1872. The annual tuition 
fee is $42. 

BUSBY, Richard, D. D., one of the most 
noted of English pedagogues, was born in Lutton, 
Northamptonshire, in 1606, and died in 1695. 
He was educated in the Westminster School 
and Oxford University : and, in 1G40, was ap- 
pointed head-master of Westminster, in which 
position he continued for more than fifty years. 
It was here that he achieved his great fame as 
the most successful school-master of his age, and 
the most imperious one too, for his frequent and 
excessive use of the rod or birch has made his 
name proverbial. Within his school he was the 
most arbitrary of despots ; and it is said that 
when the king entered his school-room, he would 
not remove his hat, being unwilling that the boys 
should deem any one his superior. When taxed 
with the severity of his punishments, he pointed 
to the many illustrious and learned men whom 
he had educated in his school, among whom at 
one time he coidd number no less than sixteen 
bishops. Dr. South, one of the most eminent of 
his pupils, was at first a very dull, obstinate, and 
intractable scholar ; but Dr. Busby discerned his 
latent genius, and used his utmost efforts to bring 
it forth, in the doing of which the rod was by no 
means spared, and the master lived to enjoy his 
pupil's fame as one of the most brilliant pulpit 
orators of Ins time. Dr. Busby's works as an 
author were confined to some text-books, winch 
he compiled for the use of schools. 

BUSINESS COLLEGES, as now existing 
in the United States, are the product of individual 
effort directed to the supplying of a public want. 
As distinct institutions, they are the outgrowth 
of the past thirty years, ' although schools and 
private classes for instruction in the commercial 
branches — particularly book-keeping and pen- 
manship — have been in vogue for a much longer 
time. Thirty years ago, most of this kind of in- 



struction was given by a few private teachers in 
the large cities (who generally united the duties 
of teacher with those of public accountant) , and 
by itinerant professors who traveled from place to 
place, teaching special classes for a limited num- 
ber of lessons at low rates. These teachers or 
professors were often authors of books or of 
systems claiming pre-eminence over the ordinary 
school methods ; and by confining themselves to 
the work in which they excelled, they undoubt- 
edly accomplished much good. The utility of 
this practical training was readily apparent, ami 
as a matter of self -protect ion no less than of self- 
respect, the established schools, public and private, 
were induced to recognize the importance of these 
useful branches, and to supply instruction therein 
in more liberal measure. There sprung up also, 
in the large cities and villages, schools, making 
1 the practical studies a specialty, and calling 
themselves commercial or mercantile colleges. 
Some of them were organized under state char- 
lei's and authorized to issue diplomas indue form. 
These institutions placed themselves before the 
public as professional schools, assuming the same 
relations to the future business-man as those 
which already existed between the medical, law, 
and theological schools, and the members of those 
various professions. 

Among the pioneers in this work, may be 
mentioned R. M. Bartlett of Cincinnati, Peter 
Duff of Pittsburgh, James Arlington Bennett 
of XewYork, and George N. ( 'omer of Boston. 
As there was no unity of action among these 
teachers and no means of measuring their indi- 
vidual efforts, either absolutely or relatively, it is 
impossible to say what was the prescribed course 
of study adopted, or to what extent the various 
schools made good the claim to their chosen title. 
But the respect in which they were held by the 
community, and the fact that they supplied in a 
good measure preliminary training which had 
heretofore been obtainable only in counting- 
houses, is presumptive evidence that they deserved 
the recognition and support which they received. 
The time required for a full course of study in 
these pioneer schools varied, according to the 
capacity of the student, from three weeks to three 
months ; whereas, the reputable business colleges 
of to-day do not pretend to graduate their stu- 
dents in less than from one to two years. These 
facts alone must be accepted as evidence of a 
substantial increase in the body of learning which 
makes up the college course. Not only have 
the main studies, — book-keeping, penmanship, 
and arithmetic, been materially enlarged and 
intensified, but other not less important branches 
have been added, the purpose and effect of tin's 
being to give form and symmetry.to the training, 
and to meet the increased demand for broadly 
educated accountants and clerks. Among the 
branches which have been added are political 
economy, including civil government ; commercial 
law ; correspondence, embracing the elements of 
English composition and practical grammar; pho- 
nography and modern languages, particularly 
German, French, and Spanish. Some institutions 



no 



BUTTMANN 



have also made a prominent feature of telegraphy. 
But the feature which attracts most attention, 
both from its novelty and its usefulness, per- 
tains to the practical methods of applying in- 
struction under the guise of real business opera- 
tions. This plan embraces the organizing of the 
advanced students into business communities, so | 
adjusted in their workings as to represent the 
varied interests and intercourse which exist in 
the outside world. Thus, certain members are 
established as merchants, others as agents or 
brokers, others as manufacturers, others as im- 
porters and jobbers, others as bankers, etc.; each 
in his turn serving in these several relations, and 
all together performing the functions of a work- 
ing community. Not only is this method carried 
on in the separate schools, but some of the most 
prominent among them in the larger cities have 
established a system of intercommunication by j 
which the work is widely extended through postal 
correspondence. Thus representative merchandise 
is really shipped by the members of one school 
to those of another, drafts are drawn, remittances 
made, extended business settlements effected, and, 
in fact, all the minute details of a varied business 
are carried on. As will be seen, this extended 
correspondence and co-operation give the best 
opportunity for effective criticism and discipline, 
and may be made as completely the rehearsal of 
the future business man for his life-work, as is 
the clinical practice of the medical college or the 
moot-court of the law school. 

The business colleges of America differ in 
important respects from those of European coun- 
tries. The commercial colleges of Germany 
and France are less professional in their design 
and less practical in their operations. In Prance 
particularly, the commercial schools are under 
government patronage and direction, and aim to 
supply not only well-trained clerks for the civil 
service, but educated sailors and scientific ship- 
builder's as well. The course of study covers 
three years, and is definitely prescribed by the 



CALIFORNIA 

government. The American business schools, 
on the other hand, having no public recognition, 
except as the result of individual work — with no 
official supervision to inspire or control their 
actions, are as various in their methods and their 
degrees of excellence as are other purely business 
enterprises. And there is little doubt that, like 
other business enterprises, they will continue to 
meet the increasing demand for faithful work, 
until they shall become as much a part of our 
educational system as are the classical and pro- 
fessional schools and colleges, whose purposes and 
scope are more definitely fixed in the public mind. 

The report for 1874 of the U. S. Commissioner 
of Education showed that there were 1 38 of these 
institutions in the different states of the Union, 
in 126 of which there were 577 instructor's, and 
25,892 students, of whom 2,867 were females. 

BUTTMANN, Philipp Earl, a German 
professor of classical literature, was born at 
Frankfort on the Main, in 1764, and died in 
Berlin, in 1829. After completing his studies 
at the vmiversity of Gottingen,he was for a time 
tutor of the princes of Anhalt-Dessau, became, in 
1789. assistant secretary, and in 1796 secretary 
of the royal library of Berlin, in 1800 professor 
at the Joachimsthcd Gymnasium, and in 1811 
librarian and member of the academy of science. 
He was also, from 1803 to 1812, editor of the 
Spener'sche Zeiiung. Buttmann is the author 
of three Greek grammars, two of which, prepared 
for the gymnasia ( Griechische Grammatik. Ber- 
lin, 1792, 22d edit., 1869, Griechische Schul- 
grammaUk, Berlin, 1816, 17th edit., 1875), have 
had for many years an almost exclusive sway in 
many learned institutions. Both have been trans- 
lated into English. He also published Lexilogvs, 
an explanation of Greek words, especially for 
Homer and Hesiod (Berlin, 1818—1825, Engl, 
transl., 3d ed., London, 1846); Myfliologus, a col- 
lection of essays on the legends of antiquity 
(Berlin, 1828 — 1829), and editions of several 
Greek and Latin classics. 



CADET. See Military Schools, and Naval 
Schools. 

CADETS' COLLEGE, the name of a de- 
partment of the Royal Military College at Sand- 
hurst, England. Its objects are, to give a sound 
military education to youths intended for the 
army, and to facilitate the obtaining of commis- 
sions when the education is completed. Appli- 
cation for admission is made to the commander 
in chief, who, on the production of satisfactory 
certificates and references, gives permission to 
place the name of the youth applying on the list 
of candidates. The age for admission is between 
16 and 19. The course for admission includes 
English composition, modern languages, math- 
ematics, geography, history, the natural and ex- 
perimental sciences, and drawing. After exami- 
nation, the candidates are reported to the com- 
mander in chief in the order of merit ; and those 



who have the highest standing are admitted as 
cadets as soon as vacancies occur in the college. 
When admitted, they study for two years a great 
variety of subjects connected with military sci- 
ence and practice ; and when the course is com- 
pleted, the cadets are eligible to the reception of 
commissions in the cavalry and infantry, a cer- 
tain number of which are placed at the disposal 
of the college. 

CALIFORNIA was a part of the territory 
which was ceded to the United States at the 
close of the Mexican war. It was admitted into 
the Union as a state Sept. 9., 1850. 

Educational History. — The foundation of the 
school system of the state was laid by the consti- 
tutional convention at Monterey, in 1849, by a 
provision for appropriating for school purposes 
the proceeds to be derived from the sale of the 
500,000 acres of land, granted by Congress to new 



CALIFORNIA 



111 



states, for the purpose of internal improvements. 
This measure was carried after a sharp struggle, 
and by one vote. The constitution also provided 
for a superintendent of public instruction, and 
empowered the legislature to provide for a system 
of common schools, to be kept open at least three 
months in the year. The first legislature, of 
1849 — 50, took no action on school matters; but, 
in 1850 — 1, the second state legislature passed a 
crude law providing for the apportionment of the 
state school moneys, pro rata, to sectarian and re- 
ligious as well as to public schools. In 1852 — 3, 
lion. Frank Smile drafted and secured the pas- 
sage of a more complete school law, which re- 
mained in force until 18.")."). when Hon. D, It. 
Ashley secured the passage of a revised law 
which contained stringent provisions against the 
apportionment of public moneys for the support 
of sectarian schools. This law was not materially 
changed until 1N64, when the state superintend- 
ent secured the passage of important financial 
amendments which more than doubled the school 
revenue. Among these provisions was the levy- 
ing of a state tax of rive cents on the hundred 
dollars. 

A state normal school was organized in 1 862, 
and was located in San Francisco. In 1806. "an 
act to provide for a system of common schools." 
drafted by the state superintendent, was passed 
under the title of the Revised School Law. 
This law remains, with a few unimportant 
changes, on the statute books at the present day. 
In 1869, the state university was established at 
Berkeley, near Oakland. In 1874, the state-tax 
was increased so as to yield a revenue of $7 
per unit of the school census, — a revenue which. 
in 1875, amounted to $1,100,000. 

The first public school was opened in San 
Francisco, Dec, 1849, by John C. Pelton, after- 
wards city superintendent of San Francisco. In 
1866, the whole state attained to a free-school 
system, rale-bills being abolished by law. Pre- 
vious to this time, most of the country schools 
eked out their limited amount of school moneys 
by monthly rates of tuition. The total amount 
of money expended for public school purposes 
from 1851 to 1875 was $20,000,000. 

Slate Superintendents. — The following is a list 
of the state superintendents : (1) John 6. Mar- 
vin, from 1851 to 1854; (2) Paul K. Hubbs, 
from 1854 to 1857; (3) Andrew J. Moulder, 
from 1857 to 1863 ; (4) John Swett, from 1863 
to 1868; (5) O. P. Fitzgerald, from 1868 to 
1872; (6) Henry N. Bolander, from 1872 to 
1876 ; (7) Ezra S. Carr, the present incumbent, 
who entered upon his duties in 1876. 

School St/stem. — The schools of the state are 
under the supervision of a superintendent of 
public instruction, county superintendents, and 
city superintendents, all elected by popidar vote. 
The state board of education is composed of the 
governor, the state superintendent, and six county 
superintendents, all being members ex officio, 
and has power to adopt a uniform series of text- 
books, to issue life diplomas, to adopt a course of 
studies for the schools of the state, and to make 



rules and regulations for the government of the 
schools. The city boards of education are 
elected by the people directly, under special city 
charters and local school laws. Besides these, 
there are boards of district school trustees, chosen 
at special school elections, for the term of three 
years, one trustee being elected annually. There 
are boards of examination for the state, for the 
counties, and for the cities. The state board of 
examination is composed of the state superin- 
tendent and four professional teachers appointed 
by him, at a salary of $200 a year, and has power 
to prepare questions for the state, city, and 
county examinations, and to issue, on the result, 
of such examinations, educational diplomas, 
valid for 6 years, and first, second and third 
grade certificates, valid for 4. .'!. and 2 years, re- 
spectively. The county boards Of examination 
are composed of the county superintendent, and 
from 3 to 5 professional teachers, holding first 
grade certificates, appointed by the county super- 
intendent , for the term of two years, at a compen- 
sation of $3 a day. and traveling expenses. They 
are authorized to hold quarterly comity examina- 
tions, and to issue first, second, and third grade 
certificates, valid for 3 years, 2 years, and 1 year, 
respectively. The city boards of examination 
are e< imposed of the city superintendent and four 
professional teachers, holding educational diplo- 
mas, and elected by the city board of education. 
Their powers are similar to those of the state 
and county boards. All boards of examination 
must be composed exclusively of professional 
teachers. 

The schools must lie kept open at least six 
months in the year to set ure the state apportion- 
ment, and to all children from 5 to 21 years of 
age. Separate schools may be established for 
colored children at the option of the local boards. 
The daily school sessions must not exceed six 
hours, and. for primary children under s years 
of age, must not exceed 4 hours. For district 
school libraries, there is an allowance of $50 a 
year, out of the state apportionment, to be ex- 
pended by the trustees. No sectarian or deno- 
minational doctrines can be taught in the schools. 
There is a compulsory education law, but no pro- 
visions for properly enforcing it. 

The school revenue consists of the annual in- 
terest of the state school fund, invested in 6 per 
cent and 7 per cent bonds. This fund amounts 
to $1,737,5011, and the annual interest to $97,560. 
There is a state tax sufficient to raise $7 for each 
child between the ages of 5 and 17, as shown by 
the last preceding school census, amounting, in 
1875, to $1,100,000; a county school tax, at a 
rate not less than $3 per unit of the school census; 
nor exceeding 5(1 cts. on each hundred dollars of 
the county assessment roll. The amount raised 
from the county and city school tax in 1875 was 
Sl.l 15.000. Besides these, there is a district 
school tax. submitted to local vote, for building 
purposes, or for maintaining schools, not to ex- 
ceed, in any one year, SI on each $100. 

There is no supervision by school inspectors. 
County superintendents are required to visit and 



112 



CALIFORNIA 



examine every school once a year, but this is 
merely nominal. Each school district has a 
board of three trustees ; and incorporated cities 
have special boards of education, as well as city 
superintendents. 

The salaries of teachers are as follows : Aver- 
age monthly salary of male teachers $84,93 ; 
of female teachers, $68.01. 

The course of instruction as prescribed by law 
for the public schools, must include the follow- 
ing branches of study : reading, writing, spelling, 
arithmetic, grammar, geography, the history of 
the United States, physiology, natural history, 
drawing, and music. There is a course of study 
adopted by the state board of education ; but as 
there is no way to enforce it, but little attention 
is paid to it in the country districts. Bach city 
has its own special course. In San Francisco, 
German and French are taught in a part of the 
primary and grammar departments. The high 
schools have the usual course of study in order 
to prepare pupils for admission to the state uni- 
versity. 

Educational Condition. — The total number of 
school districts in the state is 1579. The number 
of schools in each of the three grades is as 
follows : state university, 1 ; high schools, 14 ; 
first-grade (grammar) schools, 875 ; second-grade 
(intermediate) schools, 770 ; third-grade (pri- 
mary) schools, 515 ; total number of schools, 
2,205. 

Besides these, there are public evening schools 
in San Francisco, free to men and boys, and kept 
open 10 months in the year. These schools are 
graded, with special classes in book-keeping and 
drawing. The number of teachers, in 1875, was 
25 ; of pupils, 1,100. 

The following are the principal items of the 
school statistics for 1875 : 

Number of pupils enrolled 130,930 

Average daily attendance 78,027 

Number of teachers, males 1,033 

females 1,660 

Total receipts $3,390,359. 

Total expenditures $2,658,241. 

Normal Instruction. — The State Normal 
School was organized in 1861, at San Francisco, 
but in 1870 was removed to San Jose. The 
building was erected at a cost of $250,000. 
This school is open to both sexes, and is entirely 
free. The number of students in 1875 was 240, 
mostly young women; the number of instructors 
was 9. The annual cost of the school is about 
$20,000. The total number of graduates, from 
its foundation to 1876, was 378. 

Secondary Instruction. — There are 14 high 
schools in the state, of which 2 are located in 
San Francisco, one for girls, and one for boys. 
There is one in each of the following cities : Oak- 
land, Sacramento, Stockton, Los Angeles, San 
Jose, Vallejo, Petaluma, Grass Valley, Nevada, 
Marysville, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz. These 
schools, which fit students for admission into the 
state university, contain 1,500 pupils, taught by 
43 teachers. Besides the high schools, there is a 
large number of flourishing private schools, of 



which some are for boys exclusively, others for 
girls, and some for both sexes. 

Denominational Schools. — The denominational 
schools are quite numerous and extensive. In 
San Francisco, six Roman Catholic schools give 
instruction to 600 boys and 850 girls ; besides 
which, the Presentation Convent School, for girls, 
has 700 pupils and 26 teachers ; and the Sacred 
Heart Presentation Convent, 750 pupils and 26 
teachers. The Academy of Notre Dame, at San 
Jose, has 550 pupils and 30 teachers. Other 
Catholic schools in various parts of the state give 
instruction to 1,385 pupils. The Protestant 
schools in various parts of the state give instruc- 
tion to about 1,500 pupils. 

Supericrr Instruction. — The California State 
University (q. v.) crowns the public school sys- 
tem, being entirely free in all its departments. 
Other institutions of a similar grade are included 
in the following list : 




California College 
Christian College 
Pacific Meth. College 
Sacred Heart College 
St. Ignatius College 
SantaBarbaraCollege 
St. Mary's College 
Santa Clara College 
Univ. Mound College 
University of Cal. 
Univ. of the Pacific 



?! 



1871 
1872 
1862 
1873 
1855 
1871 
1861 
1851 
1*59 
1869 
1851 



Religious 
Denomina- 
tion 



Baptists 
Christians 
Meth.Ch.S. 
Rom. Cath. 
Rom. Cath. 
Indep.Prot. 
Rom. Cath. 
Rom. Cath. 
Presbyt. 
Non-sect. 
Meth. Epis. 



Vacaville 
Santa Rosa 
Santa Rosa 
San Francisco 
San Francisco 
Santa Barbara 
San Francisco 
Santa Clara 
San Francisco 
Berkeley 
Santa Clara 



Special Instruction. — The principal institu- 
tions for special instruction are the following : 
The California Institute for the Deaf and Diunb 
and the Blind, near Berkeley, established in I860, 
and supported by the state ; the Pacific Theo- 
logical Seminary (Congregational), at Oakland ; 
the Theological Seminary, at San Francisco; the 
School of Design, at San Francisco, organized in 
1873 ; besides which, there is the medical depart- 
ment of the University of California, the Medical 
College of the Pacific, and the California College 
of Pharmacy. 

There is no state reform school, but the San 
Francisco Industrial School serves the purpose of 
one, as minors from other counties may be com- 
mitted to its care on the payment of a stipulated 
sum. The school connected with this institution 
is well graded and equipped, and the buildings 
for the accommodation of its different depart- 
ments are large and spacious. 

Teachers' Associations. — The first state teach- 
ers' convention was held in San Francisco, in 
Dec, 1854; the first teachers' institute met in San 
Francisco, May, 1863, imder the direction of 
State Superintendent Moulder. The third state 
institute, in 1863, gave a marked impulse to 
educational interests. The California State Edu- 
cational Society was organized in 1863, with 
John Swett as president. It admitted to mem- 
bership only holders of state educational di- 
plomas. This society for five years controlled 
the California Teacher. In 1875, a state edu- 
cational association was organized at San Jose. 



CALIFORNIA COLLEGE 



CALISTHENICS 



113 



Educational Literature. — The first educational 
journal was the California Teacher, commenced 
in July 1863, published under the general control 
of the State Educational Society, and, edited, for 
the first four years, by John Swett and Samuel 
I. ('. Swezey. It was saved from a speedy termi- 
nation by a state subscription. In 1873, it 
was taken from the control of the society, and 
■became the organ of the state superintendent. 
An educational newspaper, called ike School- 
master, commenced in 1*74, is published in Los 
Angeles. There is no work treating of the 
schools of the state. The only historical sketch 
of the progress of public education is to be 
found in Superintendent Swett'a Biennial Re- 
port for 1865 — 6/ containing a summary of 
legislation, and of the state reports, from 1849 
to 1866. 

CALIFORNIA COLLEGE, at Yacavffle, 
Cal., was founded in 1871, by the Baptists. It 
includes both collegiate and theological depart- 
ments, has an endowment fund of about $20,000, 
a corps of 8 instructors, and 160 students, of 
whom 50 belong to the collegiate department. 
The value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is esti- 
mated at $25,000 : and its library contains about 
2,500 volumes. A. S. Worrell, A. M., is (1876) 
the president of the institution. The cost of 
tuition per annum is about $50. 

CALIFORNIA, University of, at Berke- 
ley. 4 miles N. of Oakland, was organized in 1 869, 
and forms a part of the public educational system 
of the state. It is under the control of a board of 
22 regents, of which the governor, lieutenant gov- 
ernor, state superintendent of public instruction, 
speaker of the assembly, president of the state 
agricultural society, and president of the mechan- 
ics' institute of San Francisco are ex officio mem- 
bers. It is open to both sexes, young women be- i 
ing admitted on the same terms as young men. 
Its endowment fund consists of the 150,000 
acres of land granted by Congress in aid of agri- 
cultural schools, and the 72 sections, comprising 
46,080 acres, set apart for a " seminary fund " 
from the public school lands. The 150,000 acres 
were sold at an average price of $ 4 per acre, 
yielding $600,000; the seminary fund amounted 
to $35,000, making a total of $635,000. The state 
appropriated $300,000 for the erection of suit- 
able buildings; and the site of 16(1 acres of land, 
on the hills at Berkeley, overlooking San Fran- 
cisco, was given by the College of California, 
which was merged in the university. The state 
appropriates for current expenses $50,000 a 
year in addition to the revenue of the endow- 
ment fund. In 1875, James Lick endowed the 
university with 8700.000, to be expended in 
erecting and maintaining an observatory on Mt. 
Hamilton, in the coast range, 00 miles south of 
Berkeley. The departments, or colleges, fully 
organized arc the college of letters, or the classical 
department, and the scientific school. Little has 
been done as yet, towards organizing the agricult- 
ural college, or the colleges of mines or mechanics. 
The college of medicine is in San Francisco, un- 
der a separate faculty. It consists of the Toland 



medical colleges, nominally transferred to the 
university. The total number of students in De- 
cember. [875, was 366, of whom 40 were young 
women. The first president of the institution 
was Henry Durant, the founder of the < lollege of 
California, who died in 1874. He resigned his 
presidency in 1872, and was succeeded by Pro- 
fessor D. C. Oilman of Vale i follege. 

CALISTHENICS (Gr. ttdXdg, beautiful, and 
<T\9fi>oc, strength), a system of physical exercises 
for females, designed to promote strength and 
gracefulness of movement ; or, by assisting the 
natural and harmonious development of the 
muscular system, to improve the health, and add 
to the beauty of personal appearance. Calistlvn- 
ic and gymnastic exercises are based on the 
same principle, — that exercise is essential to the 
proper development of the physical as well as 
mental faculties, and to the maintenance of their 
healthy condition ; and that, in education, it is 
requisite that suitable exercises should be system- 
atically employed. The only difference between 
calisthenics and gymnastics consists in the adapt- 
ation of the former to the physical education of 
girls; and, of course, the exercises employed re- 
quire a less violent muscular action. These 
exercises may be practiced with or without ap- 
paratus. The latter, which should be employed 
first, consist in such movements as bring into 
regular and systematic operation all parts of the 
body. The movements are neither violent nor 
complicated, bring in fact only such as are re- 
quired in the ordinary exercise of the limbs. Their 
advantage over those required in the common 
active sports of girls consists in their systematic 
regulation so as to ensure an equal and regular 
action of the muscles : while long continued 
sports of any particular kind, such as trundling 
the hoop, using the skipping-rope, etc., have the 
reverse effect. ( 'alisthenic exercises should, how- 
ever, be SO varied as to exhilarate the spirits as 
well as task the muscles, or they will lose much 
of their beneficial effect : since while the body 
is exercised, the mind must be interested. The 
simplest apparatus used consists of wands or 
poles, dumb-bells, backboards, elastic bands with 
handles, light weights, etc. With such instru- 
ments, a great variety of beneficial, graceful, and 
interesting exercises can lie performed ; and when 
whole classes are exercised simultaneously, there 
will necessarily be a healthful mental excitement 
mingled with the physical training, particularly 
when the movements are regulated by the rhythm 
of music, which is usually the case in modern 
schools. The utility of such exercises, when 
properly and judiciously employed cannot be 
doubted, especially after the age of 12 or 14 years, 
before which they should rarely, if ever, be resort- 
ed to. Numerous ailments to which females are 
peculiarly liable are due to the neglect of proper 
physical training, and may be prevented or cured 
by a judicious employment of calisthenic exer- 
cises. Many injurious practices, such as tight 
lacing, are necessarily precluded by the regular 
resort to such exercises. Ling, the celebrated 
Swedish author of kinesipathy or the movement- 



114 



CALISTHENICS 



cure, has written very enthusiastically upon the 
importance of free gymnastic exercises, as a 
means of promoting health as well as of curing 
disease. (See Die allgemeinen Grande der Gym- 
nastik, published at Stockholm, in 1840.) He 
founded the Central Institute at Stockholm, 
subsequently conducted by Prof. Branting. 
Many excellent manuals giving full practical di- 
rections to teachers, are now published. In social 
life, dancing is one of the most attractive and 
beneficial of calisthenic exercises, and were it dis- 
sociated from the fashionable dissipation with 
which it is too often allied, would meet with uni- 
versal favor. Some of the most eminent teachers 
of females have regarded this species of exercise 
as the best even for schools. Mrs. Willard says, 
" The grace of motion must be learned chiefly 
from instruction in dancing. Other advantages, 
besides that of a graceful carriage, might be 
derived from such instruction, if the lessons were 
judiciously timed. Exercise is needful to the 
health, and recreation to the cheerfulness and 
contentment of youth. Female youth should 
not be allowed to range unrestrained, to seek 
amusement for themselves. If it were entirely 
prohibited, they would be driven to seek it by 
stealth ; which woidd lead them to many im- 
proprieties of conduct, and would have a perni- 
cious effect upon their general character, by in- 
ducing a habit of treading forbidden paths. The 
alternative that remains is to provide them with 
proper recreation, which, after the confinement 
of the day, they might enjoy under the eye of 
their instructors. Dancing is exactly suited to 
this purpose, as also to that of exercise ; for per- 
haps in no way can so much healthy exercise be 
taken in so short a time." Miss C. E. Beecher, 
in Educational Reminiscences, remarks, " When 
physical education takes the proper place in our 
schools, young girls will be trained in the class- 
rooms to move heads, hands, and arms gracefully; 
to sit, to stand, and to walk properly, and to pur- 
sue calisthenic exercises for physical development 
as a regular school duty as much as their studies. 
And these exercises, set to music, will be sought 
as the most agreeable of school duties." 

In all such exercises, certain general rules and 
directions are to be kept steadily in view. They 
should never be practiced immediately after 
meals, nor very near the time of eating, as diges- 
tion cannot be properly performed when the 
system is in an exhausted condition. The best 
time for exercise is early in the morning or to- 
wards evening. In school, these exercises, being 
of a moderate character, may come after the 
mind is wearied with protracted intellectual 
work, for then they will prove a relief ; but in- 
tellectual efforts cannot effectively be put forth 
after the physical system has become jaded and 
fatigued by protracted exercise. Calisthenic 
exercises should always be commenced and fin- 
ished gently ; indeed, all abrupt transitions from 
gentle to violent exertions, or the contrary, 
should be avoided. It is by moderate and pro- 
longed or repeated exercise that the physical 
organs are to be developed or improved, not by 



CAMBRIDGE 

violent and fitful efforts. The weaker organs 
should receive the most attention, so that the 
whole system may receive a harmonious develop- 
ment. The dress should be light and easy ; and 
the department in which the exercises are taken 
should be spacious, cool, and well-ventilated. All 
such exercises require to be practiced with many 
precautions, and with a due regard to the con- 
dition of the individual. Teachers may be the 
means of doing much injury by indiscriminately 
requiring all their pupils to go through the same 
amount of exercise. The effect upon every pupil 
should he carefully watched ; and, in some cases, 
the advice of a careful physician should not be 
dispensed with. — See Catharine E. Beecher, 
Physiology and Calisthenics VS. Y., 1856); and 
Educational Reminiscences (N.Y.,1874); Kings- 
ley, Health and Education (Lond. and N. Y., 
1874) ; Watson, Manual of Calisthenics (N". Y., 
1864) ; Trall, The Illustrated Family Gym- 
nasium (N.Y., 1857) ; Dio Lewis, New Gym- 
nastics (Boston, 1862); BARNET,7%e Gymnasium 
at Home VS. Y., 1871). (See Gymnastics, and 
Physical Education.) 

CALISTHENTUM, a newly coined term, 
applied to an apartment or hall in which calis- 
thenic exercises are practiced ; formed after the 
analogy of gymnasium. 

CALLIGRAPHY. See Penmanship. 

CAMBRIDGE, University of, one of the 
oldest and most famous institutions of learning 
in England. A school is said to have been 
founded at Cambridge, by a party of monks, as 
early as 1109 ; and, twenty years later, Alfred 
of Beverley, the historian, lodged in the town, 
and studied. The records of the university are 
preserved in the Tower, and show the university 
to have been in full operation in 1229. Edward I., 
in 1291, granted it the first formal charter of 
privileges, which was amplified by succeeding 
sovereigns. Edward II. obtained the first papal 
recognition of the university. Henry YI. founded 
King's College ; and his consort founded Queens', 
which obtained a second patroness in the con- 
sort of Edward IV. Henry VIII. consolidated 
and enriched earlier foundations to form Trinity 
College ; but, from 1257, the date of the found- 
ing of St. Peter's College, private munificence 
was, and still is, yet more active in endowing 
the various foundations. A new era began with 
Queen Elizabeth, in the 13th year of whose 
reign, on the basis of existing charters, the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge was incorporated, under 
the title of " the Chancellor, Masters, and Schol- 
ars of the University of Cambridge." The uni- 
versity is a federal republic of 17 colleges (or, 
with Cavendish College, 18), maintained solely 
by the endowments of founders and benefactors. 
Each college is a lesser republic, with its own 
statutes, but is subject to university law. The 
present statutes were confirmed, in 1858, by 
Queen Victoria. The legislative and executive 
bodies are composed of members of the colleges. 
All masters of arts and doctors in divinity, law, 
and physic, whose names are on the university 
register, have the right to vote in the senate- 



CAMBRIDGE 



115 



The electoral roll is a smaller body, consisting 
of all who have resided, during the preceding 
year, at the university, together with heads, 
officers, and examiners ; and by it many of the 
university officers are elected. The senate, in 
1876, numbered 5,816; the electoral roll, 31 8. 
Meetings of the senate (congregations) are held 
fortnightly during terms, for conferring degrees 
and transacting busingss^-'The council of the 
i ^__ _aenata-e«nststs oluie chancellor, and vice-chan- 
cellor, ex officio, and 16 other members of the 
senate on the electoral roll, chosen by the latter 
body. All resolutions for conferring degrees, etc. 
(graces), must be sanctioned by the council be- 
fore they are submitted to the senate. The ex- 
ecutive consists of the chancellor, who is the head 
of the university and non-resident (usually a 
prince or a nobleman); the vice-chancellor, always 
the head of a college, wielding the full powers of 
the chancellor, and, j>ro tern., a magistrate for the 
university, the town, and thj county ; ythe high 
■""■•"•■"Steward, the commissary, the sex riri, the as- 
sessor, all exercising judicial functions ; the pub- 
lic orator, who is the mouth-piece of the senate ; 
the librarian; the registrary, for the registration of 
graces and the custody of records ; two proctors 
and two pro-proctors, who maintain discipline and 
attend congregations to read graces and register 
votes ; the university marshals (constables) ; the 
esquire bedells; and the university counsel, solic- 
itor, moderators, and syndic's, the last being 
members of special committees for specific duties. 
The university sends two members to parliament, 
elected by the senate, — a privilege first granted 
by James I. — There are 33 professors: of divinity, 
four; of law, three; of physic, medicine, anatomy, 
comparative anatomy, Greek, Latin, Hebrew. 
Sauskrit, one each ; of Arabic, mathematics, 
astronomy, two each ; of natural experimental 
philosophy, experimental physics, botany, geol- 
ogy, mineralogy, chemistry, moral theology or 
casuistry, modern history, political economy, 
music, archaeology, fine arts, one each. The 
oldest, the Margaret professorship of divinity, 
dates from 1502. There are five regius profess- 
orships : divinity, civil law, physic, Greek, and 
Hebrew. Erasmus was the first professor of Greek, 
and the third Margaret professor. The stipends 
are from endowments, the university chest, and 
fees. A few are richly endowed. There are three 
terms: (1) Michaelmas, or October term (Oct. 1. 
to Dec. 16); (2) Lent, or January term (Jan. 13. 
to Friday before Palm-Sunday); (3) Easter, or 
Midsummer term (Friday after Easter to Friday 
after Commencement day, which is the last Tues- 
day but one in June). An under-graduate must 
reside in the university two-thirds of each term, 
i. e., about six months during the year. — Mem- 
bers of colleges are classed as follows: (1) Heads 
of colleges, styled Master (at King's, Provost; at 
Queens', President) ; (2) Fellows of colleges, 
elected by the Society from distinguished grad- 
uates — in one or two colleges, after examination 
— numbering in all about 400 ; (3) Noblemen 
graduates, doctors in the several faculties, bach- 
elors in divinity, masters of arts, and of law ; 



(4) Bachelors of Arts, Law, and Physic; (5) Fel- 
low commoners, usually younger sous of the 
nobility, or young men of fortune ; (G) Scholars, 
generally elected by competition, and placed on 
the foundation ; (7) Pensioners (/. e., boarders), 
who form the great body of the students ; and 
(8) Sizars, who are students of limited means, 
and enjoy certain emoluments and immunities. 
— Degrees are conferred in arts, law, medicine, 
divinity, and music. The first degree is that 
of Bachelor (B. A.), for which there are three 
requisites : (1) a period of residence, (2) to be a 
member of a college, or a non-collegiate student , 
and (3) to pass examinations. The honor examina- 
tions (triposes), nine in number, are held only 
once a year. Those who pass in these are ar- 
ranged in three classes according to merit, and. 
in the mathematical triposes, are styled, respect- 
ively, wranglers, senior optimes, and junior op- 
times, the senior u rangier heading the list. 
The subjects of this tripos (35 are named in the 
schedule) embrace the whole range of pure 
mathematics, and mathematics applied to nat- 
ural philosophy. '1 he examination lasts nine 
days : and the publication of the list in the 
senate house, is the great excitement of the year. 
This tripos is the most ancient (the printed lists 
in the Calendar begin with 1747 — 8). and has 
given Cambridge its peculiar renown. The clas- 
sical tripos ranks next in fame, age (first held in 
1824), and numbers. It lasts eight days. The 
moral sciences tripos, lasting G days, embraces 
moral, political, and mental philosophy, logic, 
and political economy. The natural sciences 
tripos includes (1) chemistry, and other branches 
of physics, (2) botany, (3) geology and palaeon- 
tology, (4) mineralogy, and (5) comparative ana- 
tomy, physiology, and zoology. Besides these, there 
are the triposes of law, of history, and of theol- 
ogy. A pass in any of these tripost s entitles to 
1!. A., the holder of which may become ML A. 
after three years. The university, in 1888, in- 
stituted local examinations. conducted at various 
places. (See Examinations.) — The university 
is a body which holds public examinations, and 
confers degrees ; the professors lecture, but hardly 
can be said to teach ; the colleges train, lodge, 
and board the under-graduates. The most effect- 
ive teaching is done by private tutors (coaches). 
The names of the colleges, with the date of the 
foundation of each, are as follows: St. Peters, 
1257; Clare, 1326; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville 
and Cains, 1348; Trinity Hall, 1350; Corpus 
t'hristi, 1352: King's, 1441; Queens'. 1 448 ; 
St. Catharine's, 1473; Jesus, 1496; Christ's, 
1505; St. John's, 1511; Magdalene, 1519; 
Trinity, 1546 ; Emmanuel, 1584 ; Sidney Sus- 
sex, 1598 ; Downing. 1800 ; Cavendish, 1876. 
The whole number of under-graduates, in 1876, 
was 2,175, the largest number (533) being in 
Trinity, and the next (359) in St. John's. There 
were also 74 non-collegiate students. Cavendish 
College aims to give a less expensive education 
to students, and at an earlier age than the others. 
— The university buildings are numerous : the 
senate house, adjoining which is the library, 



116 



CAMPE 



rich in 4,000 manuscripts and containing half a 
million of volumes; the geological museum ; the 
observatory, in charge of Professor Adams; Ad- 
denbrooke's hospital, the Pitt Press, the botanic 
garden, the Fitzwilliam Museum, etc. There are 
various societies in the university for promoting 
research : the Antiquarian, Philological, and 
Philosophical societies. The Union combines a 
reading-room, library, and debating club. It has 
a handsome and spacious building. — See Fuller, 
History of Cambridge from 1066 to 1634; Car- 
ter, History of Cambridge (London, 1753) ; 
Dyer, History of Cambridge; Cooper, Annals of 
Cambridge (Cambridge, 1842 — 53); Cambridge 
University Commission Report (1852 — 3); Cam- 
bridge University Calendar (annual) ; Students' 
Guide to the University of Cambridge (1874); 
Bristed, Three Years in an English. University, 
3d edit. (N. T., 1873) ; Everett, On the Cam 
(London, 1866). 

CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, a prominent 
educational writer of Germany, was born in 1746, 
and died in 181 8. Having studied theology at 
the university of Halle, he occupied for several 
years a position as minister. In 1777, he accepted 
from Prince Francis of Dessau the appointment 
of councilor of education (Educationsrath) to 
the Philanthropin, and became its president in 
place of Basedow, who had resigned in 1776. 
The institution made marked and rapid progress 
under his direction ; but his personal relations 
to Basedow were so unpleasant, that he resigned 
after a few months. He then founded an edu- 
cational institution, similar to the Philanthropin, 
at Trittow, near Hamburg, where he remained, 
until 1787, when Puke Charles of Brunswick 
called him to his capital, in order to reform, con- 
jointly with some other prominent educators, the 
school system of the duchy. The reformatory 
scheme of the duke could not, however, be car- 
ried out, in consequence of the opposition of the 
consistory and the diet. Campe was the most 
prominent representative of the principles on 
which the Philanthropin was founded. He 
avoided the eccentricities of Basedow, and thus 
gained for the principles which they both repre- 
sented, a much larger number of friends. He gave 
so great a prominence to utilitarian considera- 
tions that he declared he valued more highly the 
merits of the man who introduced the use of the 
potato, or invented the spinning-wheel, than those 
of the author of the Iliad. The educational ideas 
of Campe were set forth in two periodicals, the 
Sraunschweigisches Journal (4 vols., 1 788 — 91), 
and Allgemeine Revision des gesammten Schul- 
und Erziehungswesens (16 vols., 1785 — 91). 
In the ninth volume of the latter was published 
a translation of Locke's Thoughts on Education; 
and in volumes xn. to xv., Rousseau's Emile, 
both with copious notes. The works of Campe 
are very numerous, including many popular 
juvenile books. 

CANADA, The Dominion of, a federal 
union of provinces and territories, comprising, 
in 1876, all the British possessions in North 
America, except the island of Newfoundland. 



CARLETON COLLEGE 

Its area is estimated at 3,513,325 sq. miles ; and 
its population, according to the census of 1871, 
was 3,718,747. The imperial act under which, in 
1867, the Dominion was established, imposed 
upon the several provincial legislatures the duty 
of providing for public education within their 
respective jurisdictions. Since that time, all the 
older provinces have revised their legislation upon 
this subject ; while the younger members of the 
confederation have laid the foundation of new 
.systems of public instruction. A full account of 
the school systems of the several provinces, which 
differ in essential points, will be found, in this 
work, under their respective titles. See Canada 
Educational Directory and Year-Book, by 
Alexander Marling (Toronto, 1876). 

CANE HILL COLLEGE, at Cane Hill, 
near Boonsboro, Washington county, Arkansas, 
was chartered in 1852, and reorganized in 1868. 
It is under the control of the Cumberland Pres- 
byterian Church. The institution has prepara- 
tory and collegiate departments. In 1873 — 4 
there were 3 instructors, and 68 preparatory and 
18 collegiate students. The Rev. F. R. Earle, 
A. M., is (1876) the president, 

CAPITAL UNIVERSITY, at Columbus, 
Ohio, was organized in 1850 by the Evangelical 
Lutheran synod of Ohio and the adjacent states, 
which, in 1876, formed a part of the Synodical 
Conference. It includes a preparatory or gram- 
mar school, and collegiate and theological de- 
partments. It has a library of 2,500 volumes, 
a faculty of 6 professors, 2 of whom teach 
both in the collegiate and the theological de- 
partment, and 64 students, including those of 
theology. Much attention is given to the study 
of German, which extends through all the classes 
of the three departments, and is partly used as 
a means of instruction. The annual tuition fee 
in the grammar school is $25 ; in the college, 
$40. In the theological department, which, with 
a few brief intermissions, has been in successful 
operation since 1830, no charge is made for tui- 
tion; and indigent young men, possessing the nec- 
essary qualifications for the ministry, are sup- 
ported by the Synodical Education Society. 
The Rev. Dr. Wm. F. Lehmann is (1876) the 
president of the institution. 

CARLETON COLLEGE, at Northfield, 
Minn., was organized in 1866, by the Congrega- 
tionalists. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, and 
an English department, the latter embracing 
those pupils whose tune or means will not allow 
them to secure a thorough classical education. 
The college department was not organized until 
Sept., 1870. Both sexes are instructed in the 
same classes, and may take the same degrees. 
There were, in 1875, 216 students, of whom 13 
belonged to the collegiate, 82 to the preparatory, 
and 111 to the English department. The corps 
of instructors numbered 10. The first board of 
trustees was elected by the state conference of 
Evangelical churches, which now annually ap- 
points a visiting committee. The board of 
trustees is self-perpetuating, but a majority of its 
members, according to the provisions of the or- 



CARTHAGE COLLEGE 



CATECHISM 



117 



ganic act, must be Congregationalists. In 1871, 
the college received $50,000 in cash from Wm. 
Carleton, of Charlestown. Mass.. and the board 
of trustees voted to give his name to the institu- 
tion, and to hold his gift as an endowment. In 
1875, the endowment fund had increased to 
about $80,000. The library, in 1875, numbered 
2,000 volumes. The Wm. H. Dunning Cabinet, 
donated to the college in 1875, is a valuable col- 
lection of geological specimens. A museum of 
natural history has been commenced. The col- 
lege has three buildings and a beautiful site of 
about twenty-five acres. The tuition fee in the 
collegiate department is $8 per term of 1 3 weeks. 
The president of the institution is (1876) Rev. 
James Woodward Strong, 1). D. 

CARTHAGE COLLEGE, at Carthage, 111., 
was founded in 1870, by the Evangelical Lutheran 
Church (General Synod). It commenced as a 
classical school, and the college department was 
not organized until 1873. It comprises two de- 
partments, the collegiate and the academic, the 
former embracing three different courses of study, 
the classical, the scientific, and the philosophical. 
The institution had, in L875, '.) instructors and 
203 students, of whom 53 were females. It is 
supported partly from endowments, and partly 
by tuition fees. The endowments, amounted, 
in 1KT5, to about $40,000. The annual tuition 
fee is from $24 to $28. The college library 
numbered about 3.000 volumes, and the two 
literary societies of the college, the Galileo and 
the Cicero, have also each commenced the forma- 
tion of a library. L. K. M. Easterday was the 
principal of the institution while it was a clas- 
sical school (1870 to 1873) ; and the. Rev. D. L. 
Tressler was subsequently elected president of 
the college. 

CATECHETICAL METHOD, the method 
of instruction by question and answer, accord- 
ing to which the pupils are required to answer 
the questions of the teacher, so as to show what 
explanations they particularly need in order to 
obtain a correct knowledge of the subject ; or 
sometimes they commit to memory and recite 
answers to set questions from a text-book. This 
was the method employed in teaching the truths 
of Christianity in the early churches, each re- 
sponse to the question being the formal state- 
ment or definition of a dogmatic truth ; and when 
the object is to impart definite information in brief 
and precise language which the pupil is expected 
to commit to memory and recite verbatim, this 
method is of great value. There are but few 
subjects, however, which can be properly taught 
in this way; since, in training the intellectual 
faculties, the sequence of facts, thoughts, or 
ideas, is more important than their clear ap- 
prehension or expression singly and disconnect- 
edly. On this principle, there are several objec- 
tions to the catechetical method as one of general 
application: (1) The pupil is deprived of a 
proper exercise of the expressive faculties, being 
required only to repeat what has been enunciat- 
ed in the language of others; (2) The logical 
relations of the facts learned are apt to be un- 



noticed by the pupils, from the absence of those 
intermediate connective words and phrases by 
which ordinarily those relations are indicated ; 
(3) The pupil, by learning merely the answer 
to a question, fails to obtain a full idea of the 
truth, a part of which, and sometimes the most 
essential part, is expressed in the question itself. 
Thus, if a pupil is asked, What is an island? 
and he answers, Land surrounded by water, he 
does not entirely express the fact, but only a 
disjointed fragment of it. Many text-books 
constructed on the catechetical plan are liable 
to this objection ; others, however, obviate it by 
invariably making the answer a complete state- 
ment, the gist of the question being repeated. 
Thus, the answer to the question, What is an 
island? would be, An island is Umd surround- 
ed l'ii water. When the catechetical method is 
employed in giving oral instruction, the teacher 
should be careful to keep this principle in view. 
A skillful use of this method will always be 
found effective in opening up to the mind of the 
pupil the fundamental ideas and principles of a 
subject previous to its formal study by the pupil 
himself, or, when difficulties arise, in leading 
the pupil's mind, by an adroit series of inter- 
rogatories, to such an analysis of the statement 
or problem in question as will enable him to 
apprehend the elementary facts or principles in- 
volved, and thus to solve the difficulty without 
further aid. This, however, is not so much an 
application of the catechetical method as a skill- 
ful use of interrogation, one of the most valuable 
anil indispensable means of imparting informa- 
tion. (See Interrogation.) The Socratic method 
was an illustration of this, being employed to 
bring conviction to the learner's mind by obtain- 
ing, in answer to the questions asked, a series of 
admissions leading finally to his assent to the 
truth proposed. 

The catechetical method was formerly very 
popular in schools, and almost universally cm- 
ployed; but, in proportion as mechanical meth- 
ods of recitation and rote-teaching gave place 
to such as appealed directly to the pupil's intel- 
ligence and powers of expression, the mere 
question-and-answer system of instruction be- 
came discredited and was abandoned. In its 
place, the topical method is now in quite gen- 
eral use. This requires that the pupil shall give 
a connected statement, not simply as an answer 
to a question, but as logically expressing the 
knowledge which he has acquired in regard to 
the topic assigned bvthe teacher. 

CATECHETICAL SCHOOL. See Alex- 
andrian School. 

CATECHISM (Gr.K.aT7!xiai*6<, instruction), 
an elementary work containing a summary of 
principles, especially of religious doctrine, re- 
duced to the form of questions anil answers. The 
name catechism for religious works of this kind 
was probably first proposed by Luther, wdiose 
two famous catechisms appeared in 1529. Sum- 
maries of Christian doctrines, in the form of 
questions and answers, under other names, are, 
however, of much earlier origin, and can be 



M8 



CATECHISM 



CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS 



traced to the eighth century. Among the early 
works of this class, those by Kero, a monk of St. 
Gall, and one probably written by Otfried of 
Weissenburg, were the most famous. Subse- 
quently, we find similar books in use among the 
Waldenses and Bohemian Brethren. These 
works contained mostly the Apostles' Creed, 
the Lord's Prayer, and, since the fourteenth 
century, the Ten Commandments. Luther, who 
devoted special attention to the religious in- 
struction of children, published his first ele- 
mentary work on this subject in 1520. A few 
years later, Justus Jonas and Johann Agricola 
were commissioned to prepare a catechism em- 
bracing the entire creed of the Reformation, but 
subsequently Luther undertook the work him- 
self. Both of his catechisms were received by the 
Lutheran Church among the symbolical books. 
The most celebrated among the catechisms which 
originated in the Reformed Church were the 
Geneva catechisms, compiled in the French lan- 
guage by Calvin (the smaller in 1536, the larger in 
1541), the Zurich catechism, which, in 1639, was 
received as a symbolical book, and especially the 
Heidelberg catechism, compiled in 1563 by 
order of the elector of the Palatinate, and gener- 
ally adopted by the German and Dutch Re- 
formed Churches. In the Anglican Church, the 
Church Catechism, which, in 1552, was com- 
piled by John Poynet, sanctioned by Edward VI., 
and published in 1553, obtained a great author- 
ity. The Presbyterian Church has generally 
adopted the shorter Assembly Catechism, which 
was compiled by committees of the Westminster 
Assembly, presented to the House of Commons 
in 164*7 and 1648, and in the latter year by 
resolution of Sept. 15., 1648, ordered to be 
printed " by authority," for public use. This 
catechism is also extensively used among the 
Independents and Congregationalists in Great 
Britain and America. In the Wesleyan Church 
of England, the cathechisms in use have been ar- 
ranged by the Rev. Richard Watson. For the 
Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States, 
a series of three catechisms, prepared by Rev. 
Dr. Kidder, was adopted by the General Con- 
ference of 1852. In the Roman Catholic Church, 
the Tridentine Council ordered the compilation 
of a catechism " for the use of pastors." It was 
published in Rome, in 1566, under the title of 
Caiechismus Romunus. It was, originally, not 
in the shape of questions and answers, though it 
has this form in later editions. Among the 
numerous catechisms prepared for the use of 
children, those by Canisius (1554 and 1566), 
Bellarmin (1603), and Bossuet (1687) have had 
the largest circulation. The Vatican Council, in 
1870, decreed the preparation of a common 
catechism for the whole church, which is to be 
essentially that of Bellarmin. In the Greek 
Church, the catechism prepared by Mogilas, 
metropolitan of Kiev (1642), was recognized as 
a standard, in 1672, by a synod at Jerusalem. 
Many other religious denominations, besides those 
mentioned, have also their denominational cat- 
echisms; and it may, therefore, be said that the im- 



mense majority of the children of Christian 
parents receive their first instruction in the tenets 
of Christianity by means of catechisms. The ob- 
ject of a catechism is, more or less, not only to 
present to children, in the most lucid form, the 
tenets of the religious communion of which the} r 
are expected to become active members in after 
life, but to impress these doctrines indelibly 
upon their minds. 

CATECHUMEN (Gr. Karnxol'^evoc, in- 
structed by word of mouth), the name given, in 
the early Christian church, to a convert who was 
receiving catechetical instruction preparatory to 
baptism. The catechumens were divided into dif- 
ferent grades or classes according to the degree 
of their proficiency, only those ' of the highest 
grade, who had been pronounced fit for baptism, 
being permitted to be present at the adminis- 
tration of the Lord's Supper. This appellation 
was afterwards given to the younger members 
of any Christian church who were undergoing 
instruction to prepare them for the rite of con- 
firmation, or for the Communion, in which sense 
the term is still used. (See Catechism.) 

CATHEDRAL AND COLLEGIATE 
SCHOOLS (Ger. Bom- tend Sliftsschulen), a 
kind of schools founded in the middle ages in 
connection with cathedral and collegiate churches. 
They are of considerable importance in the history 
of education, because they shared with the con- 
vent schools the honor of being, for a long time, 
almost exclusively the nurseries of instruction 
and education in Christian countries. They 
were originally intended chiefly for educat- 
ing the candidates for the priesthood, but af- 
forded also to others who regarded a good edu- 
cation necessary for their social position, an op- 
portunity to acquire the knowledge needed. A 
few schools in connection with cathedral churches 
appear to have existed even before the founda- 
tion of the Benedictine order; and the towns of 
Aries, Reims, and Orleans are, in particular, 
mentioned as having possessed schools of this 
kind. In England, the episcopal school at York 
enjoyed a high reputation. The systematic or- 
ganization of these institutions as a special class 
of schools, in distinction from the convent schools, 
was due to Bishop Chrodegang of Metz (died 
766). He united the clergymen of his cathedral 
church for a common life on the basis of a modi- 
fied rule of the Benedictine order, and thus be- 
came the founder of a class of religious orders 
known in church history as the Canons Regular. 
These orders, subsequently divided into a large 
number of different branches, regarded it as one 
of their foremost duties to establish schools sim- 
ilar in organization to those of the Benedictines. 
In the management of these schools, greater at- 
tention was paid to strict discipline than to 
excellence of instruction. One brother (f rater), 
of unblamable character, was charged, in each 
establishment of these orders, with the duty of 
superintending the scholars, and of enforcing 
strict discipline, in order that they might become 
able " to rise to the dignities of the church, fitted 
out with ecclesiastical erudition and spiritual 



UECILIAN COLLEGE 



CENTRAL AMERICA 



119 



•weapons." The number of these schools rapidly 
increased, and they made the towns which con- 
tained them the centers of learning. This subjects 
of instruction embraced, besides theology, the 
reading of Latin and Greek classics, as Homer, 
Virgil, Sallust, Statius, Terence, Cicero, and 
Seneca, the making of Latin and Greek verses, 
instruction in painting, calligraphy, church sing- 
ing, and arithmetic. In the celebrated cathedral 
school of Paderborn, instruction was given in 
mathematics, physics, music, rhetoric, and dia- 
lectics. Special interest in the success of these 
schools was taken by Charlemagne (see Charle- 
magne), who, in very emphatic rescripts, urged 
all the bishops to establish schools of this kind. 
During the reign of his son, Louis le De- 
bonnaire, the synod of Aix-la-< 'hapelle, in 816, 
made the adoption of the rule of Chrodegang, 
involving the establishment of a school, com- 
pulsory for all cathedral (episcopal) churches. 
.Many other synods urged the carrying out of 
this law, and demanded the establishment of 
schools, not lor the episcopal churches alone, but 
likewise for other large churches. The rapid 
spread of the Canons Regular, who no longer 
confined their religious communities to the 
capital of the diocese, but established numerous 
" collegiate " churches in smaller towns, greatly 
aided in the steady increase of schools, The col- 
legiate schools of the smaller towns resembled 
the town schools which arose during and after 
the crusades. They provided only for the teach- 
ing of the trvoium; while, in the episcopal city, 
the quadrivium as well as the tritium was 
taught, and the addition of the sacra vagina de- 
veloped the episcopal seminaries. With the de- 
cline of the ( 'anons Regular, this class of schools 
also lost their reputation. The lower studies be- 
gan to be pursued at the parish schools : and for 
the higher branches the universities made much 
more ample provision than had ever been made 
by the cathedral and collegiate schools. — See 
Launoii De scholis celebrioribus s. a Carolo M. s. 
post eundem in Occidents iiistauralis (Paris, 
1072); Ozanam, La Civilisation. Ghretienne chez 
les Francs (Paris, 1849). 

CECILIAN COLLEGE, situated near Eliz- 
abethtown, Hardin county, Kentucky, was found- 
ed by Charles Cecil and sons, in 1800. Though 
a private institution, it was chartered in 1867, 
and confers degrees. It is under Roman Cath- 
olic influence. It comprises a commercial and 
a classical course. 

CENSUS, School. See School Census. 

CENTENARY COLLEGE, at Jackson, 
Louisiana, was established by the state in 1825, 
and taken under the patronage of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South, in 1845. It comprises 
a preparatory and a collegiate department, the 
latter having a classical and a scientific course. 
The buildings are healthfully situated in a grove 
of pine, magnolia, oak. and beech. They consist 
of a commodious steward's hall, two brick dormi- 
tories, each containing twenty-four rooms, and 
a magnificent center building, which has been 
erected at an expense of over $60,000. It 



contains a chapel for public exhibitions, large 
enough to seat over two thousand persons. The 
college possesses a valuable set of philosophical, 
astronomical, and chemical apparatus, and also a 
well-selected mineralogieal and geographical 
cabinet. The value of the college property, in 
1876, was about $100,000, and the income from 
productive funds $10,000. The college library 
contains about 2,000 volumes ; those of the two 
literary societies, about 1 ,600 each. The cost of 
tuition is $60 a year in the collegiate, and $40 
in the preparatory department. Rooms in the 
dormitories are free of rent. In 1872 — 73 there 
were 5 instructors, 100 preparatory and 24 col- 
legiate students, and 203 alumni. The Rev. 
C. G. Andrews, A. M., is (1876) the president. 

CENTRAL AMERICA is a narrow and 
irregular strip of land which forms the southern 
part of North America. It comprises the five 
republics. Guatemala, Honduras. San Salvador, 
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Its total area is 
175,000 sq. m., and its population, according to 
the census of 1865, 2,665,000. Of these 134,000 
are whites; 1,000.000 are mestizos, or the off- 
spring of whites and Indians; 1,500,000 are 
aboriginal Indians ; and the remainder are ne- 
groes, either pure or mixed. The country was 
conquered by the Spaniards in 1525, and re- 
mained subject to Spanish rule until 1823, when 
the five colonies formed themselves into a federal 
republic, which lasted until 1839, when the 
federation was dissolved. There have been re- 
peated federations formed since, but the inhab- 
itants, like the country, are very unstable, and a 
speedy dissolution has in each case followed. For 
a long time, each of the republics has been going 
its own way in politics and also in education 
— a way which thus far has led only to anarchy. 
The great instrument of reform, in all these 
Spanish American republics, seems to have been 
to plunder the Church — a plan which thus far 
has borne no valuable fruit for public education. 

In Guatemala public instruction is still in the 
hands of the clergy, who, on account both of 
these repeated plunderings and of the severe 
laws against them, are incapable of doing much. 
There are 26 primary schools in the capital (10 
for boys and 16 for girls) and several private in- 
stitutions. These are supported mainly by volun- 
tary offerings. For the higher education, there is 
a college in old Guatemala, which formerly had a 
fair reputation. New Guatemala has the colnjii, 
de la Trinidad, the colegio Tridentino, and a 
university besides. The latter is the most famous 
of the ( 'entrul American schools and has many 
students from the other republics. The Sociedad 
patri6Mco-econ&mica, founded in 1795, also sup- 
ports a school for drawing, sculpture, and mathe- 
matics, and publishes a journal. 

Honduras possesses two institutions called 
universities, but they are such only in name. The 
public schools are scarcely worth mentioning, 
ami education is at the lowest possible point. In 
1874, the number of public schools was 197, 
which were attended, on an average, by 25 pupils 
each, show'ing about one pupil for 60 inhabitants. 



120 



CENTRAL COLLEGE 



CENTRE COLLEGE 



San Salvador also possesses a university which 
has the reputation of being the second in Central 
America. Primary schools are few in number ; 
reading and reckoning are taught in them more 
•or less indifferently ; writing is a luxury in all 
these republics which everybody cannot afford. 

Nicaragua has a more demoralized popula- 
tion even than the other republics, owing to the 
former filibustering expeditions from abroad, and 
also to the many political revolutions and parti- 
san dissensions which have occurred. There are 
two universities in name, one in Leon and one in 
Granada. The first possesses a small library of 
1500 volumes; the other has none. In 1873, the 
whole number of schools for males was 92, with 
an attendance of 3,871; and for females, 9, with 
an attendance of 532. The whole number of 
children of school age (7 to 15) was 30,000 — 
males, 12,000, and females, 18,000. 

In Costa Rica, the schools are somewhat better 
attended, but both the amount and the manner 
of instruction given are pitiable. A very short 
time suffices to forget what little has been learned. 
Moritz Wagner gives a rather gloomy picture 
of these schools. He leads us into dark, damp 
rooms, in which teachers of unexampled igno- 
rance give instruction in reading, writing, and 
reckoning to some dozen of barefooted children, 
who are crowded closely together and full of im- 
patience to escape. There is a university as well 
as a lyceum in San Jose, and another lyceum in 
Cartago. The university has six chairs, and the 
professors receive a salary of §100 a year. Juris- 
prudence and theology are the chief studies. 
Mathematics and a little Latin are taught, but 
no Greek. There are about 100 students. The 
lyceums are no better. See Le Roy in Schmid, 
Pudagogische Encyclopadie, vol. x., art. Siid- 
americn; Squiek, The States of Central America 
(N. Y., 1857). 

CENTRAL COLLEGE, at Fayette, Mis- 
souri, under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, South, of that state, was chartered 
in 1855. It comprises a preparatory and a 
collegiate department. The latter embraces five 
schools ; namely, pure and applied -mathematics, 
moral philosophy, English language and litera- 
ture, ancient languages and literature, and phys- 
ical science. Each student is required to attend 
at least three schools. The degrees conferred by 
Central College are (1) Graduate in a School, 
(2) Bachelor of Philosophy, (3) Bachelor of 
Arts, (4) Master of Arts. The degree of grad- 
uate in a school is given upon passing an ex- 
amination on the subjects taught in that school. 
The degree of bachelor of philosophy is con- 
ferred upon graduates in the schools of English 
literature, moral philosophy, and physical science 
who pass satisfactory examinations in the studies 
of the junior and intermediate classes of mathe- 
matics. To obtain the degree of bachelor of 
arts, the student must graduate in the schools 
of moral philosophy, physical science 1 , and an- 
cient languages, except the Greek and Roman 
literature, and pass examinations in the studies 
of the junior class in the school of English liter- 



ature, and in part of the studies of the school, 
of mathematics. To obtain the degree of master ■ 
of arts, the student must graduate in the schools, 
of English, Latin, Greek, moral philosophy, nat- 
ural philosophy, and chemistry; also in two mod- 
ern languages, and pass an approved examination 
in all the studies of the school of mathematics. 
The college property is valued at $40,000, and 
the productive funds amount to $60,000. In 
1873 — 4 there were 7 instructors, and 33 pre- 
paratory, and 111 collegiate students. The Rev. 
J. C. Wills, D. D., is (1876) the president. 

CENTRAL TENNESSEE COLLEGE, 
at Nashville, Tenn., was organized in 1866. It 
is under the patronage of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, and is supported almost entirely 
by the Freedmen's Aid Society of that church. 
Through the Methodist Missionary Society and 
the Freedmen's Bureau, the buildings now occu- 
pied, valued at $45,000, wer*e secured in 1869. 
The college is designed mainly for the education 
of colored youth of both sexes. It embraces an 
academic department, for English education ; a. 
normal department, for training teachers ; a 
preparatory school, a classical collegiate course, 
and a theological department. In 1873 — 4, there 
were 14 instructors, 2!i2 students in the prepara- 
tory and lower departments (139 males and 123 
females), and 21 in the theological department. 
The Rev. J. Braden, D. D., is (1876) the presi- 
dent. 

CENTRAL UNIVERSITY, at Richmond, 
Kentucky, was chartered in 1873, and is under 
the control of the Southern Presbyterians. It 
has property valued at $70,000, and productive- 
funds to the amount of $150,000. It was opened 
in 1874 with 75 preparatory students, of wdiom 
40 were preparing for the classical, and 35 for 
the scientific course. The Rev. R. L. Breck, 
D.D., is (1876) the chancellor. 

CENTRE COLLEGE, at Danville, Ken- 
tucky, was first chartered in 1819, and received 
an amended charter in 1824. It was originally 
a state institution, but was purchased by the 
Presbyterian synod of Kentucky, which obtained 
complete control in 1830. Upon the division of 
the synod in 1866, the college was held by that 
part adhering to the General Assembly (North). 
It is supported by tuition fees and the income of 
the endowment, which amounts to $180,000. 
The other property is valued at $75,000. Tuition 
in the college is $50 a year ; but to the sons of 
clergymen and other young men of limited 
means and good character, it is free. The in- 
stitution comprises a preparatory and a collegiate 
department. Special attention is given to the 
German language. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 in- 
structors, 125 collegiate and 50 preparatory stu- 
dents, and about 7,500 volumes in the libraries. 
The number of alumni in 1872 was 754. The 
successive presidents have been as follows : the 
Rev. James McChord, 1820, who died before 
entering upon the duties of his office-; the Rev. 
Samuel Finley, pro tern. , 1822 ; the Rev. 
Jeremiah Chamberlain, D.D., from 1822 to 1826 ;- 
the Rev. D. C. Proctor, D. D., pro tern., 1826 ;. 



CERTIFICATE 



CHARACTER 



121 



the Rev. Gideon Blackburn, D. D., from 1827 to 
1830 ; the Rev.. John C. Young, D.D., from 1830 
to 1857 ; the Rev. Lewis W. Green, D.D., from 
1857 to 1863 ; the Rev. W. L. Breckinridge, 
from 1863 fol868; and Ormond Beatty, LL.D., 
appointed in 1872 and still (1876) in office. 

CERTIFICATE. See License, and Incen- 
tives, School. 

CHAPSAL, Charles Pierre, a French 
grammarian, was born in Paris in 1787, and died 
in 1858. He is chiefly noted for the grammar of 
which he was the joint author with Francis 
Joseph Noel. This work, entitled Nourelle 
grammaire frmtipaise, avec exercises, was very 
popular, passing through as many as 40 editions 
between 1823 and 1858, and is still in use, 
although to a great extent superseded by more 
recent publications. Ohapsal realized from this 
book a large fortune, which he partly expended 
upon charitable objects. At his death, he left 
80,000 francs to the teachers in the outskirts of 
Paris. 

CHARACTER, Discernment of. The per- 
ception of the peculiarities of individual char- 
acter by its external manifestations constitutes 
an essential preliminary to all sound and judi- 
cious educational treatment. There is an endless 
diversity in the natural inclinations and capacities 
of children ; and, therefore, no system of educa- 
tion can claim to be scientific that fails to re- 
cognize this fact, and to supply (1) the principles 
and rules that should guide the educator in 
discerning these individual peculiarities, and (2) 
the practical methods of treatment best adapted 
to each. Generally, however, education is car- 
ried on with but little or no such discrimina- 
tions; pupils, whatever may be their tempera- 
ment, physical condition, state of health, mental 
capacities, or moral proclivities, are treated 
according to the same system or plan. It is 
true, there is in every mind a kind of instinctive 
perception of the peculiarities of character, either 
the result of an inexplicable impression or prej- 
udice, formed with little observation, or a 
positive judgment derived almost unconsciously 
from an attention, more or less superficial, to 
the person's appearance, actions, and "words on 
different occasions. A systematic study of the 
external indications of character has not, how- 
ever, been generally, or usually, enjoined upon 
the teacher as a preparation for the work of 
training and instruction. Nevertheless, the most 
distinguished educators have fully recognized the 
principle. " Let him that is skilled in teaching," 
says Quintilian, "ascertain first of all when a 
boy is entrusted to him, his ability and disposi- 
tion .... When a tutor has observed these indi- 
cations of disposition and ability, let him next 
consider how the mind of his pupil is to be man- 
aged. Some boys are indolent, unless you stimu- 
late them ; some are indignant at being com- 
manded ; fear restrains some, and unnerves 
others; continued labor forms some ; but with 
others hasty efforts succeed better. Let the 
boy be given to me, whom praise stimulates, 
whom honor delights, who weeps when he is un- 



successful. His powers must be cultivated under 
the influence of ambition : reproach will sting 
him to the quick ; honor will incite him ; and in 
such a boy I shall never be apprehensive of in- 
difference." Here we have prescribed, in moral 
education at least, an adaptation of treatment 
to special traits ; and few will deny that educa- 
tion is perfect in its plan and efficient in its 
results in proportion as its agencies and opera- 
tions are adapted to the peculiarities of the indi- 
vidual character which it is to form or unfold. 
When children are educated at home by private 
teachers, and, indeed, always in that part of edu- 
cation which belongs to the family or home circle, 
there is a wide scope for such discrimination ; 
but when large masses of children are taught 
together, as in public schools, a discrimination 
of individual traits, and a corresponding adapta- 
j tion of method and requirement becomes, except, 
within quite narrow limits, impracticable; still, 
it has been questioned whether, in the organiza- 
tion of such schools, the classification of the 
children should not be based upon other con- 
siderations than merely their apparent profi- 
ciency in a few elementary branches of study. If 
to secure these intellectual acquirements be the 
exclusive end of the teaching to be given, the 
usual classification is. of course, proper; but. even 
then, it should be constantly corrected according 
as individual capacity unfolds itself. Some pu- 
pils will make much more rapid progress than 
others ; and if these are kept back in older that 
the general or average progress of the class may 
be brought up to a given standard, their future 
progress will be greatly obstructed : their mental 
activity and elasticity will be impaired by the 
want of due exercise ; and their interest in study 
will be more or less extinguished. Moreover, 
j not finding the natural craving of their minds 
for exercise gratified, their sensuous nature will 
be unduly developed, ami they will be inclined 
i to plunge into frivolous and idle amusements. 
In large schools, conducted almost entirely with- 
out any of tie discrimination here referred to. the 
individual is sacrificed to the mass: and many a 
bright youth loses not only the best hoursof his 
life. but. by untoward habits and a want of due 
training, the very spring . if his intellectual nature. 
The moral influence of such indiscriminate treat- 
ment is still worse : since there is nothing that 
requires so delicate and careful a consideration 
as the proper methods of guiding, controlling, 
and training the dispositions of children. 

In the discernment of the character of chil- 
dren, a careful attention should be given to the 
temperaments ; indeed, a knowledge of tempera- 
mental distinctions is one of the most important 
of the teacher's accomplishments. Says an ex- 
perienced educator, " If I know the temperament 
of a child, I know how to approach him to ac- 
complish a given object, to what motives to appeal, 
what influences to bring to bear upon him, etc." 
The four great distinctions, of temperament, — 
hervous. sanguine, lymphatic, and bilious are 
strongly marked and easily discerned. In the 
Scientific Basis of Education by John flecker 



122 



CHARACTER 



CHARLEMAGNE 



(N. Y., 1868), they are thus described: "The 
peculiarities of the nervous temperament spring 
from the fact, that in such a physical organiza- 
tion, the brain and nervous system predominate, 
and their indications take precedence in the 
make-up of the individual, both as to proportional 
size and activity. The functions of mental life 
are stronger than others in the system. The 
sanguine temperament, in like manner, indicates 
the predominance of the lungs and arterial 
system, as compared with the other physiological 
functions. The lymphatic temperament is ac- 
companied by a similar predominance of the func- 
tions of the stomach and digestive apparatus, 
and of the glandular and lacteal system ; and 
the bilious temperament, by a similar predomi- 
nance of the functions of the liver, — the great 
secreting organ of the body." The same writer 
enumerates with much minuteness the peculiari- 
ties of disposition attendant upon these distinc- 
tions of temperament. "Up to the age of pu- 
berty," he remarks, " growth being the leading 
necessity of life, the lymphatic conditions, as a 
general rule predominate." Children of a nervous 
temperament when the brain is well developed, 
" are eager to learn, and learn easily and fast, 
being readily impressed through the mental fac- 
ulties." They are, however, less retentive of 
what they learn, than those of the bilious 
temperament, have less warmth of disposition 
than those of the sanguine temperament, and are 
less susceptible to the ordinary methods of train- 
ing than those of the lymphatic temperament. 
Children of the sanguine temperament are said to 
be volatile, more swayed by the pleasures of the 
senses and less interested in merely intellectual 
employment ; but they are characterized by a 
great degree of active energy, and hence desire 
and need more physical exercise. Children of 
the lymphatic temperament receive impressions, 
as distinguished from ideas, readily, but do not 
retain them as permanently, as those of the bil- 
ious temperament ; they lack also the physical 
activity of the sanguine temperament. The bil- 
ious temperament is said to give permanence 
to all impressions, though their reception is com- 
}3aratively slow and difficult. " When we con- 
sider," says Mr. Hecker, "that children in a 
school are collected, not as operatives in a fac- 
tory, for what they can do, but for what can be 
done to them — what they can receive — it is 
evident that differences of temperament, which 
involve such important variations in the proper 
mode of training, cannot be ignored in classifica- 
tion, without severely affecting the results of edu- 
cation." This writer, however, who has made to 
a very great extent the phrenological discrimina- 
tions of brain structure the " scientific basis of 
education," remarks in this connection, "It is 
not to be supposed that the mental disposition of 
the child resides in the temperament. This depends 
directly upon the organization of the brain ; but 
the -temperamental conditions exert a marked 
influence upon the activity of the brain, and, 
both directly by growth and indirectly by the 
senses, modify the mental disposition." 



To what extent the principles of phrenology 
may be applied to education, by affording a 
means of scientific discrimination, has been con- 
siderably discussed. The only question to de- 
cide is, whether phrenology affords a reliable 
means of discerning the mental peculiarities of 
different individuals, or how far such pecidiarities 
are manifested in cerebral structure ; since, if they 
are unerringly thus indicated, a means is in this 
way afforded, in connection with the tempera- 
ments, of ascertaining the capacities and capa- 
bilities of children, which educators cannot prop- 
erly ignore. 

In whatever way, however, the educator may 
obtain his knowledge of the peculiar dispositions 
and talents of his pupils, it is essential that this 
knowledge should be acquired, and that it should 
modify his treatment of his pupils,, physical, 
moral, and mental. — See Spukzheim, Princi- 
ples of Education, with Appendix by S. R. 
Wells (N. Y., 1847) ; Hecker, Scientific Basis 
of Education (N. Y., 1868) ; Bain, The Study 
of Character (London, 1861). 

CHARLEMAGNE, Charles the Great, 
or Charles I., king of the Franks and emperor 
of the West, was born in 742, and died in Aix- 
la-Chapelle, in 814. He was one of the greatest 
monarchs that ever reigned, and no less distin- 
guished in the history of education than in po- 
litical history. Though, from his earliest youth, 
'a great and impetuous warrior, he fully recognized 
the importance of the educational interests of his 
empire, and patronized them with a devotion 
such as has been shown but by few princes. It 
was his clearly conceived plan to elevate the 
Franks and the Germans to an educational 
level with the countries which at that time ex- 
celled in the world of letters, — chiefly Italy and 
Ireland. Amidst all his wars of conquest and 
the cares of avast and steadily extending empire, 
he never ceased to labor to supply the deficiencies 
of his early education. His thirst for knowledge 
extended to all the different branches of science. 
The letters which he addressed to Alcuin abound 
in grammatical, arithmetical, astronomical, and 
theological questions. He completely mastered 
the Latin ; and he studied Greek in order to be 
able to compare the Latin translation of the 
gospels with the original. He personally dis- 
cussed with the bishop the most subtle theolog- 
ical questions, and was indefatigable in searching 
for all the information necessary to a thorough 
understanding of all controverted points. He 
appreciated profound learning, and was anxious 
to attract to his court as many scholars as pos- 
sible. His chief adviser was Alcuin, with whom 
he became acquainted in 781, and whom he ap- 
pointed instructor of his court school (palat- 
inate school). Though he succeeded in gathering 
at his court a brilliant galaxy of men of genius, 
he was himself never satisfied, incessantly aiming 
at still higher results. His desire to have twelve 
teachers like St. Augustine and St. Jerome 
drew from the astonished Alcuin the reply, that 
the Creator himself had only had two such men. 
Alcuin, conjointly with Rhabanus Maurus, Egin- 



CHARLESTON 



CHEEVER 



123 



hard, and others, instituted at the court of Charle- 
magne a kind of literary academy, in which the 
emperor himself and several members of his 
family took an active part. Though this may 
not have been an academy of science in the 
modern sense of the word, there was probably 
some established association of the literary men 
living at the court. 

Charlemagne being convinced that the clergy 
were the only class who could furnish the large 
number of instructors whom he needed for his 
subjects, adopted measures for the thorough edu- 
cation of that class. In 787, he addressed a letter 
to the abbot Bangulf at Fulda in which he urged 
the most thorough instruction of all candidates 
for the priesthood, in order that they might be 
enabled to understand more fully the Sacred 
Scriptures, and to communicate their knowledge 
more effectively to others. He also enjoined that 
schools should be established in connection with 
all the cathedrals and convents. In 78!*, it was 
ordered that reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- 
mar, and singing should be taught in these schools. 
Attributing very great importance to the devel- 
opment of the language of the people, in 794, 
he issued an edict requiring that the faithful 
should be taught the Lord's Prayer and the 
Apostles' < "reed in German, and that no one 
should teach that Cod could only be worshiped 
in the Latin, Creek, or Hebrew tongues. In 81)2, 
he enjoined upon all priests, parents, and god- 
fathers to provide for the instruction of children 
committed to their care, in the tenets of the 
( Ihristian faith and in the Lord's Prayer ; and, 
in 804, he ordered that all those who did not 
know the Lord's Prayer and the Creed should be 
scourged, and required to fast until they had 
learned both. These efforts were zealously sup- 
ported by the bishops ; and the councils held at 
Mayence, Reims, ami Tours declared in favor 
of using the native tongues spoken in the em- 
pire, for the instruction of the people, in place 
of the Latin. Even the idea of organizing a 
system of public instruction began to be con- 
ceived at that time, as appears from a rescript 
addressed by bishop Theodulf of Orleans to the 
priests of his diocese, admonishing them to keep 
school every-where (/«'/■ villas ft V /cos), and to 
ask no pay, but only to receive gratuitous offer- 
ings in return for the service rendered. — See 
Caillard. Histoire de Charlemagne (4 vols., 2d 
edit., Paris, 1819) ; Lorenz, Karl ties Grosseii 
Prirnt- iinil Hoflehen, in Raumer's Bilker. 
Taschenbuch, 1832) ; Heppb, Das Schnlwesen 
des MittelaUers (Marburg, 1860) ; Hallah, Bit- 
rope during the mid/Me ages ; Schmidt, Gesch. 
tier Padagogik, vol. n. 

CHARLESTON, College of, at Charleston, 
South Carolina, was founded in 1785. It is non- 
sectarian. The patronage has been almost entirely 
•confined to the city, one great object being to 
prevent the youth of Charleston from losing 
their acclimation by absence from the city during 
a critical period of their lives. There being 
no dormitories, the students enjoy the advan- 
tage of domestic influences. The institution 



has a valuable museum of natural history, a 
library of 10,000 volumes, productive funds to 
the amount of $200,000, and scholarship funds 
to the amount of $33,000. The value of the 
college property is $50,000. In 1875 — 6. there 
were 5 instructors and 35 students. The pres- 
idents have been as follows : the Rt. Rev. Robert 
Smith, the Rt. Rev. N. Bo wen, the lion. Mit- 
chell King, the Rev. Jasper Adams, the Rev. 
Dr. Brantley, Win. P. Finley, and N. R. Middle- 
ton, LL. I), (now in office). 

CHART (Cr. x<>P'>K, I at. cJiartci,& leaf of 
paper), a large sheet generally of pasteboard, 
containing a synoptical exhibit of letters, words, 
colors, plants, etc.. to be used in giving instruction, 
particularly to classes. This is a very useful 
piece of school apparatus, since by means of it 
the eye is addressed, and large numbers of pupils 
may be taught simultaneously ; while the teacher 
is relieved from the trouble of writing out or draw- 
ing on the blackboard what is to be presented. 
In teaching color by object lessons a chart is in- 
dispensable, as it exhibits, in a methodical way, 
the objects themselves. Several excellent charts 
for this purpose have been constructed. Charts 
are also very useful in teaching phonics. In 
higher instruction, there are many subjects in 
which the use of charts affords an important 
means of illustration ; and. hence, we find in 
school-rooms charts of botany, physiology, 
chemistry, astronomy, etc. While the rapid 
sketching of an illustration on the blackboard 
has many advantages for certain kinds of illus- 
tration and teaching, the more accurate delinea- 
tion of objects by charts is often to be preferred, 
and, therefore, no school-room can be completely 
furnished without sets of these articles. 

CHEEVER, Ezekiel, one of the earliest 
and most celebrated teachers of New England, 
illustrious not only for the extraordinary length 
of his service, which lasted seventy years, but 
for his scholarship and classical attainments. He 
was born in London, England, in 1614. where 
he received an excellent education. At the age 
of 23, he emigrated to America, landing at 
Boston. He did not remain there, however, but 
took part with Theophilus Eaton, Rev. John 
Davenport, and others in planting the colony of 
New Haven: and held the office of deacon, from 
1 644 to 1 650, in the first church established at 
that place. He commenced his career as a 
school-master in 1638, teaching the first free 
school of Xew Haven till 1641, when he took 
charge of a grammar school of a higher grade. 
These schools, like the New England schools in 
general, were not common or public schools, 
open to all without expense, but were partly 
supported by endowments and partly by tuition 
fees. The principal studies pursued were Latin 
and Greek. Until 1650, Cheever continued to 
take charge of this school, and as is remarked by 
one of his biographers, " devoted to the work a 
scholarship and personal character wdiich left 
their mark forever on the educational policy of 
New Haven." At the date mentioned, he re- 
moved to Ipswich, in Massachusetts, where he 



124 



OHEBVER 



took charge of the grammar school of that town, 
and made it famous by his faithfulness, scholar- 
ship, and skill. From 1061 to 1670, he taught 
the Town Free School in Charlestown, in the 
latter year removing to Boston, which became 
the scene of his labors for 38 years thereafter. 
Here he was appointed head -master of the 
"Free Schoole," known since 1790 as the " Latin 
School," being engaged by the governor and 
select men at a salary of " sixtie pounds p. an.", 
and allowed the "possestion and use of ye schoole 
house." This school, under Ms long and faithful 
service, became the chief classical school, not 
only of Massachusetts Bay, but of all the English 
colonies in America. Some of the most eminent 
men of the period were educated under Master 
Oheever; and in the autobiographies which 
some of them have written, they have left most 
sincere testimonials of respect and affection for 
their old and venerable teacher, as well as highly 
interesting pictures of school life in those early 
days. Among these pupils the Rev. Dr. Cotton 
Mather became the most celebrated; but per- 
haps the most interesting sketch of Mr. Cheever's 
school is contained in the Autobiography of the 
Rev. John Barnard, drawn up in 1766, in the 
85th year of the writer's age, and first printed 
in the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical 
Society. " I remember once," says Barnard, " in 
making a piece of Latin, my master found 
fault with the syntax of one word, which was 
not so used by me heedlessly, but designedly, and, 
therefore, I told him there was a plain grammar 
rule for it. He angrily replied, there was no 
such ride. I took the grammar and .showed the 
rule to him. Then he smilingly said, " Thou art 
a brave boy ; I had forgot it." And no wonder; 
for he was then above eighty years old." He 
was a strict disciplinarian, and corporal punish- 
ment was often resorted to, and not sparingly 
applied, in his school ; but severity was tempered 
with kindness, and his venerable presence was 
accompanied by " an agreeable mixture of majes- 
ty and sweetness, both in his voice and counte- 
nance," that secured at once obedience, reverence, 
and love. Such is the pleasant testimony of 
one of his pupils. He died in 1708, in the 94th 
year of his age ; and we are told by Dr. Mather 
that " he held his abilities in an unusual degree 
to the last, his intellectual force being as little 
abated as his natural." Says one of his biogra- 
phers, " It was his singular good fortune to have 
lived as an equal among the very founders of 
New England, with them of Boston, and Salem, 
and New Haven, — to have 'taught their children, 
and their children's children, unto the third and 
fourth generation — and to have lingered in the 
recollections of his pupils and their children, the 
model and monument, the survivor and represent- 
ative of the Puritan and Pilgrim stock, down 
almost to the beginning of the present century." 
At his funeral, which took place from the school- 
house, there were present the governor, council- 
ors, ministers, justices, and gentlemen ; and Dr. 
Mather preached a funeral sermon on the occa- 
sion, in which he not only eulogized his "faithful, 



OHEKE 

successful, venerable, and beloved teacher," but 
took occasion to deliver a lecture upon the duty 
of towns and parents to provide for the education 
of children. This sermon was printed under the 
quaint title of " CorderiuS Americanus, an Es- 
say upo?i the Good Education of Children, and 
what may Hopefully be Attempted for the Hope- 
of the Flock ; in a Funeral Sermon upon Mr. 
Ezekiel Cheever, the Ancient and Honourable 
Master of the Free-School, in Boston, etc." 

The most noted of Cheever's publications was- 
a Latin accidence, entitled A short introduction 
to the Latin Tongue, which, for more than a 
century, was the hand-book of most of the Latin 
scholars of New England, and very highly com- 
mended. An edition of this celebrated work 
was published in 1838, with testimonials from 
the most distinguished scholars, asserting its 
merits, and commending its restoration to use in 
the schools. President Quincy of Harvard Col- 
lege said, "It is distinguished for simplicity, 
comprehensiveness, and exactness; and, as a 
primer or first elementary book, I do not believe 
it is exceeded by any other work, in respect to 
those important qualities." — See Bakkard, Edu- 
cational Biography (N. T., 1861). 

CHEKE, Sir John, an eminent English 
scholar and teacher, was born at Cambridge, in 
1514, and died in 1557. He was educated in, 
the university of Cambridge, and was appointed 
in 1'540, professor of Greek in that institution. 
In 1544, he became tutor to prince Edward ;. 
j and on the accession of his pupil to the throne, 
I he was rewarded with an annuity and a grant of 
j land. In 1551, he was knighted, and soon after 
I rose to the office of secretary of state. On the 
! accession of Mary, he was compelled to leave 
England, as he had favored the cause of Lady 
Jane Grey, and he supported himself for some 
time at Strasburg by teaching Greek. Being 
arrested in Flanders, by order of Philip II. of 
Spain, he was carried a prisoner to London and 
confined in the Tower, when, in order to save 
his life, he abjured his religion, and became a 
member of the Catholic Church. Repentance 
for this act, it is said, preyed upon his mind, 
and shortened his days. He wrote many works, 
evincing profound scholarship and excellent taste; 
among which may be mentioned, Epistles on the 
Death of Bucer, and Be Pronunciations Gra- 
ces potissimum lingual disputationes (Basel,. 
1555). The only work in English published by 
liim was a pamphlet entitled The Hurt of Sedi- 
tion, hair Grievous it is to a Commonwealth 
(1549). Among his unpublished manuscripts, 
was a translation of the Gospel of St. Matthew, 
in words derived solely from Saxon roots, and 
a plan to change the English orthography by 
a kind of phonography — spelling by sound- 
Before his time, the study of the Greeklanguage 
and literature had been greatly neglected in 
England ; but, through his efforts, it was estab- 
lished as an essential part of a learned educa- 
tion. He was deservedly considered one of the 
most learned men of his age. — See Steype, TJie 
Life of Sir John Chehe (Loud., 1705). 



CHEMISTRY 



125 



CHEMISTRY, although one of the youngest 
branches of physical science in its development, 

is one of the most important, from an educational 
point of view. But the attentii m may be so readily 
arrested by its many easily recognized points of 
contact with the individual and society, in its 
numberless applications in the household, the 
shop, the farm, etc., as well as in the industrial 
processes on a grander scale, that any value it 
may possess, as a purely disciplinary agent, may 
be overlooked, even by teachers of it, and it may 
be regarded too much, simply as a low utilitarian 
element in an educational course, however valu- 
able it may be admitted to be. It is, neverthe- 
less, true that, in recent years, much that had 
contributed a peculiar attractiveness to chemis- 
try as a branch of instruction, seemed inex- 
tricably involved in discussion. The perspicuity 
of its nomenclature, the precision of its state- 
ments, the simplicity and comparatively limited 
number of the laws involved in its most com- 
plex phenomena, were all apparently affected. 
But it has at last emerged from this formative 
condition, so changed to be sure, that many well 
educated in chemistry a few years ago may be 
obliged to recast their knowledge in new moulds. 
but with a system of philosophy which has much 
clearer and more comprehensive generalizations. 
It has, moreover, lost nothing of its peculiar 
character as perhaps the most sharply defined 
branch of physical science. The changes have 
not been so much those of abandonment of views 
formerly held, as of their expansion, to provide 
for the wonderful accumulation of facts since 
the science first took form about the beginning of 
the century. The old nomenclature, survives only 
in a few general principles. The names, being- 
out of accord with established and accepted facts, 
were too precise, and expressed too much. 

It may be felt that the New Chemistry is 
too elaborate and complex to permit of profitable 
introduction; but a closer examination will show 
that it still possesses its former peculiar sim- 
plicity and directness of statement, that its no- 
tation is as expressive as ever, that it requires 
no application of mathematical analysis in work- 
ing out or stating its generalizations, that these 
are. as easily reached from facts within the com- 
prehension of the pupil, as ever, and that they 
are just as susceptible of reproduction, for and 
by the pupil, with comparatively little and in- 
expensive apparatus. No doubt, more depends 
now upon the faithfulness with which it is 
taught. There is more of a philosophy, as well as 
a larger body of facts, and the mind of the pupil 
must be led to discern the principles that under- 
lie the facts. A necessity for the conception 
of a threefold division of matter arises in the 
modern explanation of chemical phenomena. The 
indivisible, indestructible^ insensible atoms of the 
old chemistry are accepted ; but the interpola- 
tion is required of equally insensible groups of 
atoms, called molecules, between the atoms and 
the sensible aggregations of matter called masses. 
The word molecule henceforth ceases to be used 
interchangeably with atom. Forces may act 



upon or within these molecules: and when they 
act within, a chemical change is said to occur. 
Thus, ice composed of molecules is converted 
into water by releasing these molecules, in a great 
measure, from cohesive attraction, and thus allow- 
ing them perfect freedom of motion among them- 
selves, apart from any directive force. By con- 
tinued heating, repulsive force predominates; and 
they separate, but still as molecules, the atoms 
as such being unaffected. The electrical current, 
whatever that may be, invades these molecules; 
dissects off atom from atom ; demonstrates the 
molecules to be groups of hydrogen and oxygen 
atoms, held together by a force named chemical 
affinity or chemical attraction, or better still 
chemism. However chemical phenomena may be 
influenced by physical conditions, they involve, 
essentially, only this play of the atomic force, 
between atoms, within molecules. This appar- 
ently restricted and sharply defined character of 
the field of chemistry is calculated to render it 
more easy of comprehension, as a whole, by the 
pupil, than most other branches of physical sci- 
ence ; whilst it still retains, in a high degree, the 
ai [vantages conceded to such branches as in- 
struments for the culture of the faculty of abstrac- 
tion and generalization, and for fostering a habit of 
careful, close inductive reasoning, in connection 
with that of cautious, patient observation, — habits 
that have so much to do with the formation of 
correct judgments in the affaire of every-day life. 
Although a fuller consideration of the purely 
disciplinary qualities of chemical studies might 
exhibit them in favorable comparison with soma, 
of the usual branches taught, there can be no 
doubt that it very properly holds its place, largelj 
by reason of the character of the information it 
imparts. It may be regarded, therefore, as the 
chief aim of the teacher of chemistry, to make 
the pupil acquainted with the chemical proper- 
ties of matter, and with the leading processes by 
which comparatively worthless material has high 
value imparted to it. And yet the manner in 
which this information is acquired, to whatever 
extent the science may be taught, has far more 
to do with the subsequent practical value of the 
study than the amount; and a proper mode of im- 
parting the facts will also prove of high educa- 
tional value in other respects. It is only facts so 
connected, and so lodged in the mind that they 
readily suggest themselves when an occasion may 
demand them, that are fruitful. But chemistry 
has such a body of minute facts, that the text- 
books are necessarily constructed largely on a 
cyclopedic plan ; masses of facts are classified 
as well as they can be, and are pigeon-holed 
away for reference rather than for a connected 
inductive study. Nothing is more natural for 
the pupil than to run into the vicious habit of 
simply memorizing. There is no tendency more 
decided in pupils with memories well trained by 
early studies. It will require very little encour- 
agement on the part of a teacher to have the 
pupil reproduce the numerical statements of 
a lesson, the specific gravities to the last dec- 
imal, the equivalents of elements, the melting 



126 



CHEMISTRY 



points, etc. Tet these form the very class of facts 
which scarcely survive the day of recitation, and 
for which the chemist would rely upon his rei- 
erence-book in case of need. This is also true ot 
a lar^e number of other facts of subordinate im- 
portance. Again, facts of the highest importance, 
assigned by a proper classification to one place, 
may find most forcible re-statement, m many 
other places, and in other connections. It rests 
with the teacher to direct the pupil continually 
in his study, bv calling his attention to the most 
important facts, and by holding them up to 
view in all their relations, particularly in their 
practical bearing upon each other. A compar- 
atively few facts, thus exhaustively studied, will 
form a nucleus around which further chemical 
knowledge may accumulate, whilst the nimdwill 
be impressed with the interdependence of chem- 
ical processes. It is also apparent that the 
process by which these facts are accumulated is 
an educating process of the highest order. The 
pupil soon falls into the habit of considering all 
facts in their relations, and refuses to be satisfied 
with uncorrelated facts; and he carries this habit 
into the consideration of all matters, and seeks a 
wider view of every subject. 

In teaching chemistry, three methods readily 
suggest themselves : (1) By text-books ; (2) By 
lectures, accompanied by experiments; and 
(3) By experiments or investigations performed 
by the pupil. These methods are so different in 
themselves and in the end to be accomplished, 
that they cannot be compared as to effectiveness; 
but they so fully supplement each other, that 
they should as far as possible accompany each 
other. The tendency, at the present time, is to 
undervalue the text-book. Whilst there can be no 
doubt that, by itself, it yields the least return for 
the time, attention, and drudgery of both teacher 
and pupil, as an adjunct to either of the other 
methods, it not only imparts fullness to the 
knowledge, but also renders it more precise. An- 
other incidental advantage of the highest charac- 
ter consists in a certain facility for reference, 
which its study imparts ; and. in many cases, an 
ability to make use of the literature of the 
science, and, by means of it, to study up a 
subject, or investigate a particular case, may be 
of far more value than a memory thoroughly 
crammed with facts. 

Lectures accompanied by illustrative experi- 
ments are generally conceded to be valuable, and 
to some extent indispensable, aids in teaching 
physical science. Text-book study, however 
faithful and earnest, must be supplemented by 
them. The facts formulated in words must be 
vitalized, and re-enforced by their objective re- 
production. Presented thus directly to the senses, 
they not only become more intelligible, but pos- 
sess a peculiar charm, that impresses them upon 
the memory, and renders the whole study more 
profitable, as well as more attractive. But lectures 
are more particularly adapted to teach the gen- 
eral principles of the science, and to develop, to 
its fullest extent, the disciplinary value of the 
mode of reasoning employed in the investigation 



of the truths of nature, and also to cultivate the- 
faculty of observation. They are, however, 
in no wise adapted to displace the text-book. 
They are feeble in teaching details, bimple^ 
statement and re-statement, and illustration com- 
bined, will not impress these upon the memory. 
If the pupil be required to take full notes, or in- 
deed be allowed to take any notes at all, it will 
be at the loss of much that is peculiarly valuable 
in such lectures. With the faculty of observation 
in the pupil generally untrained, any division of 
attention between writing, and listening, and ob- 
serving will greatly reduce the proper effect of 
the lecture. Great pains should be taken to ar- 
range the matter, and bring it before the pupil 
so that the salient points may impress themselves- 
upon the memory; and the lecture should be filled 
in from memory afterward, or it may be a still 
better plan, in many cases, to furnish, on the 
blackboard, a very brief syllabus of the lecture. 
But much of the effectiveness of a lecture is lost 
in attempting even incidentally to teach numerous 
details by means of it. It cannot be expected, 
nor is it at all necessary, to reproduce all, or in- 
deed a very large proportion, of the facts and 
processes of the text-book, in order that it may 
be fully comprehended. There are many facts, 
and processes in chemistry that possess a typical 
character, aiding directly in the comprehension 
of many others, and these are the ones most 
likely to be drawn upon by the lecturer. There- 
is no branch of physical science that admits of a. 
fuller illustration and verification of its facts 
with comparatively limited and inexpensive ap- 
paratus, nor any in which the want of thorough 
practical knowledge and skill on the part of the 
experimenter is productive of less damage to- 
the apparatus employed. Up to a very recent 
date, simple entertainment and amusement have 
been regarded, almost equally with instruction, 
as the objects of such lectures. The most sen- 
sational experiments that the science and the 
means at command could afford, were impressed 
into service; and these, too, often loosely con- 
nected, or arranged in the order of the text-book. 
There is still unfortunately a residuum of expec- 
tation of something of this kind. The apparatus- 
and experiments with it are apt to be made the- 
display features of the instruction. Whilst simple 
entertainment, or even amusement, may some- 
times legitimately accompany lectures on chem- 
istry, it should be only as a natural incident; and 
even then, should not occur too often, since it is 
apt to create an expectation of, if not a desire for, 
such features; and this will seriously divert the 
attention of the pupils from the line of thought 
which should always connect the experiments. 
Every experiment should come upon the scene 
like a well-trained servant, just at the right 
point of time to add its proper effect to the 
total effect of the lecture ; and, in no ease, 
should it control the lecturer. An experiment 
without such a subordinate relation is as much 
out of place as a word without proper con- 
nection in a discourse. As the text-book is- 
largely a compendium of details, its somewhat 



CHEMISTRY 



127 



arbitrary plan of arrangement, and its formal, 
systematic, didactic treatment must give way 
to the more instructive, as well as more attract- 
ive, Baconian method of insinuating knowledge 
into the mind of the pupil in the manner in 
which it was discovered. Topics should be taken 
up, discussed, and illustrated. The most familiar 
phenomena should be noticed, and the lecturer 
should place himself, with his appliances, in the 
position of an investigator, — an interrogator of 
nature, and an interpreter of her replies. The 
point of attack, and the line of investigation 
should be carefully determined upon and wrought 
out, so as to evoke the most valuable information, 
and exhibit the logic of facts inductively em- 
ployed. The pupil will readily follow the in- 
vestigator in his alternate inductions and deduc- 
tions, as he "guesses and checks his guesses." 
He will thus not only learn the subject, but ac- 
quire, in a measure, the attitude of mind by 
which facts are discovered, judged, and arranged, 
and by which also they may be turned to prac- 
tical account. To take a very simple case: car- 
bonic acid being selected as the subject, a burn- 
ing candle may suffice to start the inquiry which 
will lead up to it, and far beyond it. Then, out 
of the numerous questions that suggest them- 
selves, the chemist might ask whether, as the 
material of the candle evidently undergoes a 
radical change, the air surrounding it is affected? 
It is placed in a jar, and covered ; it goes out. 
Is the air changed ? Test with lime-water. Yes. 
"Wilt a splinter change it in the same way? Try. 
Yes. It is then allowable to guess that all burn- 
ing bodies affect the air in the same way. The 
guess may be checked by employing a wax taper; 
then an oil-lamp ; then a gas-jet. The inference 
then becomes the very plausible hypothesis, that 
burning bodies invariably affect the air surround- 
ing them in such a way. that it will render lime- 
water turbid. All would be satisfied to stop at 
this conclusion ; but a jet of burning hydrogen 
is at hand, and on repeated trials, each time 
with greater care,- it fails to give the result pre- 
dicted from the hypothesis. The many facts only 
led up to that degree of certainty; the one dis- 
cordant fact shakes the whole fabric. The case 
is now looked at anew. What have these bodies 
in common so as to produce this identical result 
in burning, which hydrogen has not? Carbon. 
A piece of charcoal is tried. It confirms the 
conjecture which led to the experiment with it. 
More cautiously than before, the hypothesis would 
then be modified to suit the new fact, — bodies 
containing carbon in burning modify the atmos- 
phere in a certain way. From this point, all the 
leading properties of carbonic acid could be 
developed, with but little more apparatus than 
may be found in any household : its specific 
gravity, by pouring it from ordinary pitchers, or 
running it off by means of a syphon, by weighing 
it in a paper bag on ordinary scales, etc.; its solu- 
bility in water, and the solvent properties it im- 
parts to the water, by passing it through lime- 
water, until the precipitate is re-dissolved, then 
re-precipitating it by boiling the solution, etc. 



The other constituents of the atmosphere are. 
in a similar way, readily brought within the range 
of inquiry. Such a mode of treatment has for 
the pupils all the freshness of an original inves- 
tigation. It arouses a spirit of inquiry, and 
quickens observation; since they will be far more 
apt to observe closely when they are to discover 
what is to be seen, than if required simply to 
see what is described. There will, moreover, be a 
pleasing surprise at the evolution of clear general 
principles from apparently confused inquiries. 
In such lectures, a sensational experiment with- 
out a direct bearing upon the subject, would be 
entirely out of place. Humble and apparently 
trifling experiments are frequently found to pre- 
sent the truth in its simplest, clearest, most in- 
telligible form. In all cases the chemical notation 
should be freely employed. All reactions should 
be expressed by symbols upon the blackboard. 
One fact, however, should be continually kept in 
mind in arranging such a lecture, and bringing 
the phenomena before the pupils ; namely, that 
in pupils of all ages, without any previous train- 
ing in this direction, the power of observation is 
generally exceedingly feeble, and that they can 
follow the lecturer but slowly. They are very apt 
to overlook or mistake the feature to be observed, 
or to be misled by some unavoidably prominent 
accessory. An examination upon a lecture of 
the simplest character will reveal this fact. The 
most salient points, even, will often be found to 
be wanting. A great part of the value of the 
illustrations of scientific lectures in our higher 
institutions, and of the highly elaborated popular 
lectures is lost for the same reason. This dif- 
ficulty may be remedied in a great measure by 
adding the other method of teaching suggest ed; 
that is, by allowing the pupil, under the direction 
of the teacher, to perform the experiments and 
conduct the investigation, requiring him to keep 
accurate notes, and. in some cases, to reproduce 
the results in the form of a lecture. Chemistry 
is peculiarly adapted to this mode of instruction. 
A few test-tubes, flasks, corks, etc.. and very little 
material will put it into the power of the pupil 
to reproduce the explanation of many facts. He 
will learn more by a few failures than by a whole 
series of experiments successfully exhibited in a 
lecture, and will realize how much of care and 
painstaking accuracy must be expended in the 
preparation of every successful experiment. He 
will appreciate the importance of the most 
trifling essential condition, and will find that 
here no oversights, no mistakes, no negligence 
can be condoned; but that failure follows them 
as inexorably as effect follows cause. He will be 
surprised to find how apparently trifling an over- 
sight often lay between him and success, and will 
learn to estimate conditions by other standards 
than their apparent magnitude or importance. He 
will thus form the habit of observing closely, and 
of noticing every thing exhibited in the course 
of lectures, and will carry this habit into all the 
affairs of life.— See Daubexy (Prof. Charles G.B.), 
On the Study of Chemistry as a Branch of Edu- 
cation, in Lectures on Education (Lond., 1855). 



128 



CHICAGO 



CHICAGO, the principal city of Illinois, the 
commercial metropolis of the North-western 
section of the Union, and the fifth in population 
of the cities of the United States. Its population, 
according to the national census of 1870, was 
298,977 ; but, according to the special census 
of 1874, was 395,408. This city was incor- 
porated March 4., 1837 ; and the first census 
was taken in July of that year, when_it was 
found to contain a population of 4,170. Its 
rapid growth is probably without a parallel in 
history. During the 20 years preceding the cen- 
sus of 1874, its increase was nearly 579 per cent. 
The public schools of Chicago were first classified 
and graded by John C. Dorr, the first superin- 
tendent, who served from May, 1854, to March, 
1856, when he was succeeded by William H. 
"Wells, who continued in office till August, 1864, 
and was succeeded by Josiah L. Pickard, the 
present incumbent. The first public school 
building was erected in 1844, but there was no 
published school report till 1854. 

School Statistics.— For the year ending August 
31., 1875, the following statistics were reported : 

Number of schools ' 41 

Number of pupils enrolled 49,121 

Average daily attendance 32,999 

Number of teachers 700 

Number of months schools were open 10_^ 
Amount received from school tax fund.. .. S765 ,968.21 

do do from state fund 109,044.40 

do do from rents, interest, etc. 91,684.58 



Total receipts. 



1,697.19 



Amount paid for teachers' salaries $535,706.79 



do 
do 
do 
do 



"do for school buildings 155,564.26 

do for school sites 9,769.98 

do for fuel and supplies 75,729.22 

do for other expenses 38,068.24 



Total expenditure $S14,838.49 

The school age is from 6 to 21 ; and the num- 
ber of children in the city between those ages 
•was reported, in special census of Oct. 1., 1874, 
as 102,555, out of a total population of 395,408 ; 
of these 15,947 were reported as at work, and 
33,547 as neither at work nor in school. The 
whole number of children reported as enrolled in 
the public schools was, at this date, only 36,416 ; 
and the number in private schools, 16,645. 

School System. — The system consists of a 
board of education of fifteen members, appointed 
by the mayor of the city, subject to the approval 
of the common council, 1 high school, 3 division 
high schools, 1 normal school, 21 district schools 
with grammar and primary departments, and 15 
independent primary schools. The term of office 
of the members of the board is three years, five 
members being appointed each year ; and at least 
five years' previous residence is requisite for eli- 
gibility to appointment. By the " act to estab- 
lish and maintain a system of free schools", which 
went into operation July 1., 1872, the board of 
education has power, "with the concurrence of 
the city council", (1) To erect or purchase build- 
ings suitable for school-houses, and keep the 
same in repair; (2) To buy or lease sites for 
school-houses with the necessary grounds; (3) To 



issue bonds for the purpose of building, fur- 
nishing, and repairing school-houses, for purchas- 
ing sites for the same, and to provide for the 
payment of said bonds; and to borrow money for 
school purposes upon the credit of the city. It 
is also empowered, (1) To furnish schools with 
the necessary fixtures, furniture, and apparatus ; 
(2) To maintain, support, and establish schools, 
and supply the inadequacy of the school fund for 
the salaries of teachers from school taxes; (3) 
To hire buildings or rooms for the use of the 
schools or the board ; (4) To appoint teachers 
and fix the amount of their compensation ; (5) 
To prescribe the school-books to be used, and 
the studies to be pursued in the schools ; (6) To 
divide the city into school districts, and, from 
time to time, to alter the same, and create new 
ones as circumstances may require ; and (7) To 
enact such ordinances as may be necessary or ex- 
pedient for the proper management of the 
schools. The board of education is not per- 
mitted to increase the expenditures beyond the 
amount received from the state common school 
fund, the rental of school lands, and the amount 
annually appropriated for such purposes; nor 
can it levy or collect taxes, or demand that the 
city council shall levy any tax for school pur- 
poses, except on its concurrence. The officers of 
the board are a president, vice-president, secre- 
tary, clerk, assistant clerk, school agent, and 
messenger ; also a superintendent of schools and 
an assistant superintendent of schools, to the 
latter of whom is entrusted the more immediate 
supervision of the work of instruction and dis- 
cipline in the schools. There is also a building 
and supply agent, who has the immediate super- 
vision of all the buildings and grounds used for 
school purposes, and who attends to all repairs, 
and to the purchase of needed supplies. 

The course of study, below the high school, 
comprises eight grades, four of which are known 
as grammar grades, and four as primary grades; 
the grammar schools, however, embrace all the 
eight grades, instruction in the four lower grades 
being given in the primary departments. The 
high school course is arranged for four years, 
and affords instruction in the higher English 
branches and in the modern languages, preparing 
for college such of its pupils as desire it. The 
division high schools are organized with a course 
of study for two years, excluding all foreign lan- 
guages, except German, which is an optional 
study. 

The studies prescribed for the primary 
schools are reading, the rudiments of arithmetic, 
spelling, elementary geography, and writing; to 
these, in the grammar schools, are added higher 
geography, English grammar and composition, 
and the history of the United States. Music and 
drawing are systematically taught throughout 
the course. To each grade some topics are as- 
signed for which no text-books are provided. 
These topics constitute the oral course, which 
includes various branches of science presented in 
a familiar way, and designed to develop the in- 
telligence of the pupils, as well as to impart 



CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 



129 



useful information. German is taught in 15 
schools, besides the high schools, and is super- 
vised by a special superintendent. There is a 
division high school hi each division of the city ; 
and the studies taught are natural science, lan- 
guage, mathematics, history, and civil govern- 
ment. German, music, and drawing are op- 
tional. The establishment of these schools, with 
their brief and practical course of study, was 
dictated by the fact that more than fifty per cent 
of those who annually enter the High School, 
leave before the completion of the second year. 

Examination., Licensing, and Appointment 
of Teachers. — Candidates for teachers' certifi- 
cates are examined by a committee of the board 
of education, consisting of four members, and the 
superintendent. Those who pass the examina- 
tion receive, at first, jiar/ial certificates, testifying 
to their moral character and intellectual attain- 
ments. After trial, and upon the joint recom- 
mendation of the committee on the appointment 
of teachers and the committee on the school 
in which the teacher is employed, the board of 
education grants a, full certificate, certifying to 
the competency of the holder in regard to all 
matters of instruction and discipline. No person 
is eligible to any position as a teacher who is not 
eighteen years of age. Teachers are appointed 
annually by the board of education, and at other 
times by a committee of the board, when vacan- 
cies occur. These latter appointments are sub- 
ject to confirmation by the board. Each teacher, 
in the four higher grades, is responsible for tin- 
instruction and discipline of 48 pupils, and in 
the lower grades for 02. About half the teach- 
ers in the high and normal schools are males ; 
bat in the other schools there are very few males, 
— only 21 out of a corps of 671. 

Salaries of Teachers. — Male teachers receive 
from $1,000 to $3,000 per annum, according to 
position aud experience. Female teachers re- 
ceive from $550 to $2,000. Certain salaries are 
attached to particular positions, and no distinc- 
tion as to sex is recognized in this regard. 

The private schools in ( 'hicago are quite nu- 
merous, and many of a high degree of efficiency. 
The census of 1874 enumerated 144 such schools, 
including the various classes of parochial and 
denominational schools, female seminaries, select 
schools, kindergartens, etc. The number of pu- 
pils in these schools was reported as 28,251, — 
14,113 males, and 14,138 females. The whole 
number of teachers employed was 097, of whom 
239 were males, and 458 females. 

CHICAGO, University of, in Chicago, 
Illinois, was chartered in 1857 and opened in 
1858. The budding, a magnificent structure, 
costing over $1 17,000, is situated in the southern 
part of the city, in a beautiful grove of oaks. 
This site was donated by Stephen A. Douglas. 
The charter provides that the majority of trust- 
ees and the president of the university shall be 
Baptists, but otherwise no religious test or par- 
ticular religious profession is required for admis- 
sion to any department of the university, or for 
election to any professorship or other place of 



honor or emolument in it. The institution em- 
braces a preparatory department, a collegiate 
department, a law department, and a med- 
ical department. The preparatory department 
comprises a classical course of four years 
and a scientific course of two years. Be- 
sides the regular preparatory department. Way- 
land Institute, at Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, for- 
merly W'ayland University, is now conducted as a 
preparatory department of the university. The 
collegiate department comprises a classical course 
of four years ; a scientific course of four years : 
a course in astronomy of two years ; and a 
course in practical chemistry of two or three 
years. Provision is made for students who de- 
sire to take only a partial course. Young women 
are admitted to the preparatory and collegiate 
classes on the same terms as young men. There 
is a museum with a valuable collection of speci- 
mens in human anatomy and physiology, zool- 
ogy, entomology, geology, numismatics, etc. The 
university also has valuable chemical and philo- 
sophical apparatus. The library contains about 
20.1100 volumes. In the rear of the university 
building and attached to it. is Dearborn Observ- 
atory, established in 1865, which forms the astro- 
nomical department. It is designed not only 
to furnish instruction in astronomy, but also to 
make original researches in that science, and aid 
in its application to geography. This observato- 
ry contains a fine equatorial refracting telescope. 
of 23 feet focal length, and lsi inches aperture, 
constructed by Alvan Clark in 18(14, and a 
meridian circle of the first class constructed in 
Hamburg, with all the necessary appliances. 
It is under the direction of Prof. Truman H. 
Safford, The price of tuition in the university 
is $70 per annum ; room rent, $20. The uni- 
versity property is valued at $700,000. and there 
are scholarship funds to the amount of $48,000. 
The law department was organized in 1858. It is 
now also a department of the Northwestern Uni- 
versity (at Evanston, Illinois), and is known as 
the Union College of Law of the University of 
Chicago and the Northwestern University. The 
course of study is for two years. The Rush 
Medical College forms the medical department 
of the university. This college was chartered 
in 1843, and organized in 1844 ; it became con- 
nected with the university in 1874. The new 
college building is near the new county hos- 
pital. In 1874 — 5, there were, in the prepar- 
atory and collegiate departments, 8 professois and 
7 other instructors ; in the law department, 5 
professors and 2 lecturers; and in the medical 
department, 1 1 professors. The number of stu- 
dents was 611; namely, medical, 203; law, 103 ; 
Wayland institute, 96 ; preparatory, 100 ; col- 
legiate, 109, of whom (allowing repetitions) 
3 were resident graduates, 3 in astronomy, 7 in 
practical chemistry, 22 in partial courses, and 79 
in the regular classes. The Rev. John C. Bur- 
roughs, LL.D., was elected president in 1858 
and remained in office 15 years, when he was 
succeeded by the present incumbent, the Rev. 
Lemuel Moss, D. D. 



130 



CHILDHOOD 



CHILI 



CHILDHOOD. See Age. 

CHILI, a republic of South America, having 
an area of 126,034 sq. m., and a population, hi 
1872, according to official calculation, of 2,003,346, 
exclusive of 70,400 independent Araucanians. 
This is one of the few flourishing states of South 
America. It has been almost entirely free from 
civil wars, and its progress in education, litera- 
ture, commerce, and general prosperity exceeds 
that of almost any other South American state. 
The government favors immigration from Eu- 
rope ; and, in 1865, the number of foreign born 
persons was 23,220, among whom there were 
3,876 Germans, 3,092 English, and 2,483 French. 
According to art. 5 of the constitution, the Cath- 
olic religion was permitted to the exclusion of 
all others ; but, in 1856, a treaty with England 
guaranteed full religious liberty to all English 
subjects ; and, in 1865, an Act of Toleration was 
adopted as an amendment to the constitution, 
authorizing not only the exercise of non-catholic 
religious worship, but also the establishment of 
non-catholic schools. The number of Prot- 
estants is limited almost to the English and Ger- 
man immigrants and their descendants. Only a 
few Protestant congregations have been estab- 
lished among the natives by missionaries from 
the United States. The national language is the 
Spanish. 

The Spanish conquest of the country began 
about 1535 ; and, during the Spanish rule, Chili 
formed a viceroyalty under the name of Estre- 
madura. The war of independence began in 1810, 
and was virtually terminated in 1818. The in- 
dependence of the country, however, was not 
recognized by Spain until 1844. 

Public instruction in Chili is under the direc- 
tion of the minister of justice and ecclesiastical 
and educational affairs. It is his duty to inspect 
all the schools and colleges supported by the 
national treasury, to appoint all the teachers and 
employes, to apply to congress for the necessary 
sums for their support, and to present every 
year a report on the condition and progress of 
education. The university of Chili regulates 
the studies and examinations which candidates 
for the different scientific courses are required to 
pass, examines and prescribes the text-books, 
makes out the programmes of examination, etc. 
The primary schools are, moreover, under the 
immediate direction of a general visitor of schools, 
who has deputies in all the provinces, and whose 
central office is at Santiago. It is his duty to 
visit the schools constantly, and to receive detailed 
information regarding the number of pupils and 
the conduct of the teachers, as well as the finan- 
cial condition. The municipalities of each prov- 
ince exercise a vigilant inspection, and aid, ac- 
cording to the extent of their local treasuries, in 
supporting the educational institutions. 

Primary Instruction. — The first organization 
of primary instruction in Chili was due to the 
zeal of President Montt, who regarded public 
schools as the firmest support of republican in- 
stitutions. He offered in 1853, a reward of 1000 
pesos for the best treatise on the following 



three questions : (1) What influence has public 
instruction on manners, public morality, in- 
dustry, and the development of public wealth? 
(2) What educational organization is the most 
appropriate in view of the national peculiarities, 
of the country and of its inhabitants? (3) 
AVhat is the best way to provide for the support 
of public instruction ? The prize was awarded, 
in 1855, to Miguel Luis and Gregorio Victor 
Anrunate'gui ; and the views of the successful 
treatise were the basis on which the organization 
of public instruction was begun. According to this 
treatise, there were, in 1855, 394 public primary 
schools for boys, with 15,707 pupils ; 95 schools 
for girls, with 4,297 pupils ; total 489 schools 
and 20,004 pupils. The number of private 
primary schools was, for boys 194, with 5879 
pupils, for girls 105, with 939 pupils ; total 299 
schools, with 6,818 pupils. The aggregate num- 
ber of public and private primary schools was- 
788, with 26,822 pupils. Eight years later, in 
1863, the number of schools had increased to 
985 (588 public, 397 private), with 47,717 pupils 
(35,470 in the public schools, and 12,247 in the 
private). Of the 197 new schools which had 
been opened, 150 were female schools ; of the in- 
crease of 20,895 new pupils, 11,027 were girls. 
The school population, embracing the children 
from the 7th to the 15th year of age, numbered 
in 1863, 167,409 boys and 167,838 girls; which 
shows that, notwithstanding the great progress 
that had been made, nearly six-sevenths of all 
the children of school age were growing up 
without any instruction. In bringing these facts 
to the knowledge of the country, the minister of 
public instruction stated, that, to carry out the 
law of 1860, which prescribed the establishment 
of a primary school for every 2,000 inhabitants 
and of two schools of a higher grade in the chief 
town of each department, the sum of 970,000 
pesos would be required, instead of 208,000 pro- 
vided for in the budget; also, to carry out the law 
of 1860, it would be necessary to establish 1670 
elementary and 100 higher schools, besides those 
previously established. As the government did 
not deem it advisable to raise the cost of public 
instruction to the amount thus demanded, it 
encouraged the formation of private associations 
for the promotion of public instruction, and also 
authorized the "Brothers of Christian Schools" 
to establish schools ; but though much has been 
achieved in this way, the number of schools is still 
insufficient, and the number of children attend- 
ing school in proportion to the total population, 
was, in 1872, only 1 to 25. The number of public 
schools, in the same year, was 451 ; of private 
schools 706 ; the aggregate number of children 
attending school (public and private) was 54,821, 
and the annual expense for each scholar averaged 
8.98 pesos. — The number of schools for adults, 
which are designed to afford the advantages of 
education to those who have grown up illiterate,- 
was, in 1855, 10 ; and in 1863, 30, of which 24 
were supported by the state. Two normal schools, 
one for male and one for female teachers, were 
established by President Montt, in 1863.- The 



CHILI 



CHINA 



131 



candidates for admission are required to be 18 
years of age, and to furnish certificates of good 
behavior and good health. They are educated at 
the expense of the state, but engage to accept 
the position of teacher at the place assigned to 
them by the government. The smallest salary 
paid to a teacher is 300 pesos. The course of 
instruction in the normal schools is for 3 years. 
Tin; public primary schools arc supported by the 
state, by municipalities, or by monastic organiza- 
tions. Elementary instruction embraces reading, 
writing, the elements of practical arithmetic, and 
legal weights and measures. The primary schools 
of a higher grade, which are gradually to be estab- 
lished in the capital of each department, but 
the number of which is as yet quite small, teach 
also Spanish grammar, higher arithmetic, draw- 
ing, an outline of the history of < 'hili, the con- 
stitution of Chili, and book-keeping. 

Secondari/I»struetion. — The secondary schools 
of the republic embraced, in 1863, 13 state 
lyeeums with 2,537 pupils, 4 episcopal seminaries 
supported by the state and. therefore, also re- 
garded as state institutions, 6 monastic colleges 
with 210 students, and 53 private colleges with 
2868 students. The study of the classical lan- 
guages has of late, somewhat declined. 

Superior Instruction. — The highest institu- 
tion of the country is the Institute national, 
comprising the university of (.'hili, a preparatory 
college, and a school of fine arts. The university, 
which embraces five faculties (philosophy and 
philology, law and political science, natural sci- 
ence and mathematics, medicine, and theology) 
is entirely modeled after the best institutions of 
the kind in Europe, and a large number of the 
professors are distinguished scholars of Germany 
and Erance. The university is richly endowed, 
and possesses excellent collections. It has pub- 
lished a year-book, called Anales </<' la JJhi- 
versidad de Chile, by means of which it keeps 
up a communication with similar institutions 
in Europe and America. Among the institu- 
tions connected with the university, are an ob- 
servatory, a national museum, and a national 
library. 

Special Instruction. — Of special schools, 
there are, at Santiago, a national school of art and 
industry, a military academy, a school of agri- 
culture and veterinary science, with a model 
farm ; a school of midwifery, an institution for 
the deaf and dumb, and a conservatory of music. 
The most important schools in the provinces are 
a school of mining at Copiapo, a nautical school 
at Valparaiso, a mariners' school at Ancud, a 
school of fine arts and industry at Talca ; and 
commercial colleges at Valparaiso and Quillota. 

In accordance with the recommendations of 
the prize essay, the government makes an annual 
appropriation for the establishment of public 
libraries in connection with public schools: and a 
large number have already been established. — 
See Le Roy, in Schmid's Realencyclopadie, vol. 
ix, pp. 848 — 857 ; Anales de la Univei-sidad de 
Chile; Amunategui, De la instruction primaria 
en Chile (Santiago, 1856). 



CHINA Proper is a country of eastern Asia, 
extending from Ion. 98° E. to 123° E., and 
from lat. 18° N. to 43° N. Its .area is about 
1 ,553,000 sq. miles, or nearly half that of all 
Europe. Inclusive of its dependencies, it has an 
extent estimated at 3,970,000 sq. miles. The 
population of China Proper is estimated at about 
404,000,000, (see Behsi und Wagner, BevSlke- 
rung der Wrde, vol. m. Gotha. 1K75), while that 
of the vast dependencies, Mantchooria, Tibet, 
Mongolia, and Corea, is believed not to exceed 
20,000,000. The traditions of the Chinese point 
to an immigration from the west, and distinctly 
affirm the savage character of their ancestors. 
(See L'Histoife generate de In Chine by Pere 
Mailla.) Unlike the civilizations of western 
Europe, which were all imposed from without, 
the Chinese civilization seems to have developed 
spontaneously from within. Stagnant though it 
be in many respects, the claim that Chinese civili- 
zation has remained stationary for thousands of 
years seems unfounded. < 'ivilization has had a 
peculiar development in China, but still it lias 
made progress. There is an intense national 
pride among the people, which is not altogether 
without justification; as there is scarcely a 
modern invention of any note, with the excep- 
tion of electricity and the steam-engine, which 
was not known to them many centuries ago. 
The mariner's compass, gunpowder, printing, 
porcelain, and paper were known to them soon 
after the Christian era. The chief religions 
are Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taonisni; 
and the lack of religious elements in these 
systems has led to the charge that the Chinese 
nation is atheistic. Confucianism, for example, 
recognizes no personal God as an object of divine 
worship, while the other religious systems have 
grown into a farrago of jugglery, necromancy, 
and devil worship. In all the empire, there is 
but one temple consecrated to the worship of 
the Supreme Deity, and but one worshiper — 
the emperor — who celebrates the pageant once a 
year. This, however, is a degradation from an 
earlier and purer form of monotheism. The 
works of the ancient sages, and even the earlier 
works of Confucius abound in passages showing 
a higher and purer conception of God than after- 
ward obtained. (See Life and teachings of Con- 
fucius, by Dr. Legge.) The language, like every 
thing else Chinese, is sui generis. It is neither 
Semitic, nor Aryan, nor Turanian. It is not, how- 
ever, a monosyllabic language, as is commonly 
said, this error being due to the form of the 
printed words, in which the syllables are sepa- 
rated, whereas they are not separated in meaning. 
The alphabet is also peculiar. Instead of employ- 
ing letters to represent sounds, they have letters 
to represent things and words. Hence, the lan- 
guage contains many thousand signs. A dic- 
tionary of the second century of our era contains 
9,353 signs. The imperial dictionary of Kang- 
he, the most recent work of the class, gives 
43,960. This makes the language one of extra- 
ordinary difficulty. The written language is 
only mastered by a small percentage of the pop- 



132 



CHINA 



ulation, and even scholars do not by any means 
master the whole number of signs. A knowledge 
of ten or twelve thousand is sufficient to make 
an accomplished graduate ; and, with a knowl- 
edge of two or three thousand, one may make a 
very fair start as a literary man. The literature 
is said to be the most extensive in the world. 
The most prominent works are the so-called 
Glassies, which are supposed to have been 
supervised by Confucius. They are five in num- 
ber, and are held in the highest reverence, being 
looked upon as a standard from which there is 
no appeal. They are the sacred books of Con- 
fucianism, and are replete with rules for daily 
conduct, public and private. Apart from these 
Glassies, and the commentaries upon them, which 
are legion, the most important part of Chinese 
literature consists of the histories of the several 
dynasties. The historian of the western Han, 
which ended A. D. 84, gives a catalogue of the 
works in the imperial library, comprising clas- 
sics, philosophy, poetry, military tactics, mathe- 
matics, and medicine. The literature probably 
suffered somewhat from the barbarism of Chi- 
hwang-te.who attempted to immortalize himself, 
about 210 B. C, by destroying all the hterature 
of the ages that preceded him. 

Education is held in the highest honor. No 
government provision, however, is made for pub- 
lic education. The government fosters it only 
by making it the road to distinction, and by sup- 
porting the various examinations. Knowledge 
centers in a mere acquaintance with the apho- 
risms of the Glassies. A scanty knowledge of 
reading, writing; and arithmetic is all but uni- 
versal; but, owing to the peculiar structure of 
the language, one may be able to read a little, 
withoxit having any knowledge whatever of the 
rest. Not more than three males in a hundred 
can read the classical books with readiness, and 
not more than one woman in a thousand. The 
only course of instruction necessary to obtain a 
government position, is a classical and histor- 
ical one. The consequence is a disregard for all 
branches of study, which are not practical, and 
hence a most astonishing narrowness of all culture. 
The rights and duties of the government, and of 
the individual in his several social relations, form 
the chief subject of Chinese books and instruc- 
tion. Confucius, in Ins system, adopts the prin- 
ciples of dependence and subordination, and the 
instruction of the schools aims to impress them 
carefully upon the student. The great end of 
all instruction in China is not so much to fill 
the head with knowledge as to make quiet and 
orderly citizens. Any thing like general culture 
is entirely unknown, except where the Chinese 
have been forced into contact with European 
nations. They have no need of science, for the 
Classics contain all that is worth knowing, 
and no need of geographical and historical 
knowledge beyond that of their own people, for 
they are "celestials," and all outside are "barba- 
rians". Female education is almost unknown. 
Girls are very seldom instructed in anything but 
ordinary house-work ; and yet a learned woman 



is held in honor. It is not thought right that 
parents should conduct the education of their 
own children, because the relation of parent and 
child is a holy one and would be disturbed by 
the necessary severities of the teacher. Chil- 
dren begin their studies with their sixth and 
seventh year. There is no compulsory educa- 
tion. School-teachers are not appointed by the 
state and need no official permission. Parents 
choose the teachers, who receive from $45 to 
$90 a year with board. A teacher takes from 
twenty to thirty scholars. Public school-houses 
do not exist. The arrangement of the schools is 
very simple; a teacher has a table and arm- 
chair, and every scholar has to provide himself 
with a desk and a chair. There is in every 
school-house a little altar dedicated to Confucius 
and to Wun-tschong-ya, the God of Science. 
Upon entering school, the boys receive their 
school names in place of their so-called " milk 
names." The first school-book is the Path to 
the regions of classical and historical literature. 
It begins with the methods of instruction and 
their necessity, the importance of the duties of 
children and brothers; and then follows an over- 
sight of the different branches of knowledge : 
the great powers, heaven, earth, and man ; the 
four seasons and the points of the compass ; the 
five elements, " metal, wood, water,, fire, earth ;" 
the five cardinal virtues, " love, justice, wisdom, 
cleverness, truth ;" the five kinds of grain, the 
six domestic animals, the seven passions, the 
eight notes of music, the nine grades of relation, 
the ten social duties. After this, follow rules for 
a course of academical study, with an index of 
the books to be used, a short account of the 
universal history of China, together with a 
list of the successive dynasties of the empire. 
The idea is, to take advantage of the receptivity 
of the memory at this period, to store it with 
facts to be afterward digested. The method of 
learning to read is as follows : The book is open 
and the teacher begins to read ; the scholars 
have each a book, and with eyes upon the book 
pronounce word for word after the teacher. Only 
a line is read at a time, and this is repeated until 
the scholars have learned the pronunciation of 
every sign, and the fine is then learned by heart. 
When this is learned, the scholar goes to the 
teacher, lays the book upon the table, turns his 
back to him, and recites it. Besides reading, 
writing is taught in all the primary schools, 
but there is no instruction in reckoning, geog- 
raphy, universal history, natural history, foreign 
languages, or even in religion. This reading and 
writing, however, for the most part, is the mere 
ability to pronounce or make the signs, and does 
not imply an understanding of what is read or 
written; as if one should read or write Latin or 
Greek words without any comprehension of 
their meaning. Those who wish to devote them- 
selves to study receive a thorough exposition of 
the Classics, and write verses and essays. The 
written language is so difficult, that more time 
is consumed by the Chinese student in mastering 
it than is given in western countries to the ac- 



CHINA 



133 



quirement of a liberal education ; and the cele- 
brated literary examinations are limited to the 
inquiry whether the candidates can read and 
write with readiness and grace. This study is 
overseen by teachers who have passed an exam- 
ination. When one has acquired some reputa- 
tion for learning, a number of young people 
gather around him to prepare themselves for 
examination under his instruction. Such private 
colleges are numerous both in the city and coun- 
try. Lectures are given by the teacher upon 
the Classics, and essays and verses are written 
upon them once a week by the students. It is the 
custom of these students to learn a large num- 
ber of standard essays by heart, in order to ob- 
tain a finished and correct style. There are four 
literary degrees : The first corresponds to our 
B. A., the second is the degree of " licentiate." 
the third, that of doctor, and the fourth, the 
degree of "member of the imperial academy." 
Public examinations tor the degrees have existed 
in China since the Tang dynasty. There are 
three examinations fur the first grade. The first 
is held by the mandarin of the district, and 
lasts several days. The candidate has to furnish 
sewn essays and verses upon seven subjects, with- 
out a book or other help. The second examina- 
tion is conducted by the prefect of the district, 
assisted by the literary chancellor of the province. 
The third examination is under the control of 
the chancellor, and is held twice in every three 
years. Whoever passes all three examinations 
receives the degree of "blooming talent," and 
although he has no claim to position, he is still a 
man above the common people. If he neglects 
his studies, he may lose his rank; hence he must 
be present at the examinations up to his sixti- 
eth year. Thousands of men of this degree be- 
come school-teachers, doctors, letter-writers, ad- 
vocates, etc. The examinations for the second 
degree are held every three years, in the capital 
of each province, by two imperial examiners 
from Peking. The average number of applicants 
is twenty thousand, of whom about two hundred 
pass. Besides the imperial examiners from 
Peking, about sixty-five literary officers and a 
multitude of servants assist. When the candidates 
enter the apartment, they are searched for books 
and papers wliich might give them an unfair 
advantage ; they then receive the work, and are 
shut up in cells of about 12 sq. ft., and high 
enough to admit of their standing. The exami- 
nation hall contains about 7,500 of these, arranged 
around open courts ; these are paraded by sol- 
diers to prevent any communication between the 
candidates or with the outer world. The exami- 
nation consists chiefly in the writing of themes, 
and is intended to last nine days and three 
■ nights. When the work is done, it is examined 
first by a subordinate commission, to see if the 
formalities have all been observed. No essay 
may have more than seven hundred signs, nor less 
than one hundred ; and correction is in no case 
allowed. The work is afterward laid before the 
imperial examiners, who give the final judgment. 
It is considered an honor to attempt this exami- 



nation, and failure is never looked upon as a dis- 
grace. The licentiate is entitled to a position 
after some years, and has the right to hoist a 
flag before his house. The examination for the 
degree of doctor is held every three years at 
Peking, ami only licentiates are allowed to 
undergo it. This examination is the same as 
that for the degree of licentiate, except that the 
examiners are of higher rank. The names of the 
: successful candidates are entered upon the civil 
service list, and they receive the first vacant 
position. The examination for membership of 
the imperial academy takes place every three 
| years at the imperial palace ; this degree is 
equivalent to an office, since the members of 
the academy are maintained by the state. 

Contact with European nations is gradually 
breaking down the popular estimate of the Clas- 
sics, and gradually European education is being 
introduced. In 1866, a mechanical workshop 
J was opened in Shanghai, in which the imperial 
1 officers were commanded to study. In l^(i7. a 
! polytechnic school was opened in the sea province 
Ku-tschien. for the instruction, by foreign teach- 
ers, of talented young Chinamen in machinery. 
| In 1868, a university was opened at Peking j 
where the instruction was afterward on the 
European plan. This caused a good deal of ex- 
| citement among the conservatives, but all to no 
i avail. A great observatory has been built for 
the university, and many costly instruments ob- 
tained from Europe. The student in the uni- 
versity must (I) have taken a course in the 
classics ; (2) he must live in the university 
building, and be present from morning until 
evening; (3) he has to pass a monthly and 
semi-annual examination ; (4; after three years 
he has to pass an examination for dismissal ; (.">) 
he receives board and lodging free, and about 
Sl."i a month pocket money. Those who pass 
the final examination are viewed as belonging 
to the higher classes of learned men. Besides 
scientific instruction, the "six tine arts" are also 
taught : (11 Society maimers. (2) -Music, (3) Arch- 
ery, (4) Carriage driving, (5) Writing,! <>1 Beckon- 
ing. Brince Kung, who was the chief mover in 
founding the university, complained bitterly of 
the decay of mathematics and astronomy, ow- 
ing to a monopoly of the mandarins, who hail 
procured a law forbidding any one to study 
astronomy under heavy penalties. He viewed 
it as the greatest glory of the dynasty to have 
restored to his father-land the mathematical and 
astronomical studies, and whatever the Europeans 
have built upon them, as an old property of the 
nation. In this way he justified to the jealous 
( 'hinamen the introductii >n of foreign teachers and 
h ireign inventions. The Boman ( 'atholie ( Ihurch, 
which had. in 1 872, in China proper, 2(i vicariates 
apostolic, and 3 prefectures apostolic, and, in the 
( 'hinese dependencies, 3 vicariates, with a Cath- 
olic population of about 400,000, supports a 
large number of schools, some of which are of a 
high grade. The number of native priests is 
considerable; and most of them receive a Euro- 
pean education in the propaganda at Borne, and 



134 



CHRIST CROSS ROW 



CHRISTIANS 



in a Chinese missionary seminary at Naples. 
The Protestants, who have formed native con- 
gregations in the treaty ports, with an aggregate 
membership (in 1869) of 5,624, have also some 
schools, and make considerable progress in cir- 
culating the Bible. In 1872, the Chinese govern- 
ment sent 30 students to the United States, and 
30 more were to come each year for the succeed- 
ing four years; in all 150. — See Schmidt, Ge- 
schickte der Pddagogik ; Coukcy, L' Empire du 
Milieu (Paris, 1867) ; Davis, Description of 
China and its Inhabitants (2 vols., London, 
1857); Gutzlaff, China Opened (2 vols., Lon- 
don, 1838); Hanspach, Reports, for the Years 
1863 and 1864, of the Chinese Vernacular 
Schools (Hongkong, 1865); Hue, L' Empire Chi- 
nois (2 vols., 4th edit., Paris, 1862); Williams, 
The Middle Kingdom (N. T., 1848). 

CHRIST CROSS ROW, or Criss Cross 
Row, a famDiar designation formerly applied to 
the first line, or row, of the alphabet, as arranged 
in the old horn-books, or primers. In these books, 
which consisted of only a single page, the letters 
were printed in the following manner : 
+ Aabcdefghijklmnopq 
rfstuvwxyz etc. a e i o u 
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ 
RSTUVWXYZ. 

The first line commencing with a cross was 
called the Christ cross row, or briefly the cross 
row. The term was, however, frequently ap- 
plied to the whole alphabet. Thus, we read in 
Dove's Polydoron (1631), " Of all the letters in 
the cross row a w is the worst.'' " The cross was 
placed at the beginning," says Johnson, "to show 
that the end of learning is piety." 

This term is often referred to by the old writ- 
ers. In Shakspeare's Richard III., allusion is 
made to it by Clarence when he says of the 
king : 

•'Me hearkens after prophecies and dreams, 
And from the cross row plucks the letter 6." 

Cotgrave mentions "La croix de par Dieu, or 
La croix de Jesus, the Christ' s-crosse-r owe, or 
horne-boolce, wherein a child learns it." In Spec- 
imens df West Country Dialect, we find the 
following words, used by one who is teaching 
the alphabet : 

" Ston still there, and mind what I da zk to ye, and 
whaur I do point. Now ; criss-cross, girt a, little a, 
b, c, d. That's right, Billy; you'll zoon lorn the 
criss-cross lain." 

In the autobiography of John Britton, born in 
1771, in Wiltshire, England, the following pas- 
sage occurs: " I learnt the Christ-cross-row from 
a horn-book, on which were the alphabet in 
large and small letters and the nine figures in 
Roman and Arabic numerals. The horn-book is 
now a rarity." — See Tim bs, School Days; Bar- 
nard's Journal of Education, vol. xii, art. 
A-D-C-Books and Primers. (See also Horn- 
Book, and Primer.) 

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, College of 
the, at St. Louis, Missouri, was established by 
Roman Catholics in 1855. It comprises a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate department . and has a 
library of 15,000 volumes. Its buildings, grounds, 



etc., are valued at $150,000. In 1873-— 4, there 
were 30 instructors, 270 preparatory and 34 col- 
legiate students. The Rev. Brother James is 
(1876) the president. 

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, 
at Memphis, Tennessee, was opened in 1871. 
It is a Roman Catholic institution, having a col- 
legiate, a scientific, a commercial, and a prepar- 
atory department. The college possesses valuable 
philosophical apparatus and a library of about 
1,500 volumes. The value of the college prop- 
erty is 140,000. In 1874—5, there were 9 in- 
structors and 127 students, of whom 48 were of 
a collegiate grade. Brother Maurelian is (1876) 
the president. 

CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 
Oregon, is under the control of the Christians. - 
It was formerly known as Monmouth University, 
but was chartered under its present name in 
1865. The value of its buildings and other prop- 
erty is estimated at $20,000 ; the amount of its 
productive funds is about the same. The college 
has two separate courses of study, the classical and 
the scientific ; and there is also a preparatory 
course. Both sexes are admitted. A student may 
receive a certificate of graduation in any of the 
following departments : (1) sacred history, 
mental and moral sciences ; (2) natural science; 
(3) mathematics ; (4) classics. To obtain such 
certificate it is required that the candidate should 
have been a student of Christian College at least 
one year, and that he should pass a satisfactory 
examination in all the prescribed studies of the 
department. In 1873—4, there were 9 instruct- 
ors and 180 students. T. P. Campbell, A. M., is 
(1876) the president. 

CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, at Canton, 
Missouri, was chartered in 1853, and organized 
in 1856. It was founded by the Christian de- 
nomination for the education of both sexes. Its 
buildings, grounds, etc., are valued at $100,000. 
In 1872 — 3 it had 8 instructors and 166 students. 
W. H. Hopon, A.M., is (1876) the president. 

CHRISTIANS (sometimes, but improperly, 
pronounced Christ-ians), Christian Denomina- 
tion, Christian Connection, and Christian 
Church, are names chosen, in the United States, 
by organizations of Christians who "seek to 
unite the followers of Christ of every persuasion, 
by the breaking down of party walls, party 
spirit, and sectarian feeling and practice, and by 
infusing into the minds and hearts of all lovers 
of the common Saviour a liberal spirit, thereby in- 
ducing liberal practice." (See Wellons, Annual 
of the Christian Church for 1875, Suffolk, Va., 
1875.) They have no ride of faith and practice, 
save the holy scriptures, and the only test of 
fellowship agreed upon is Christian character. 
They believe that the right of private judgment 
and entire liberty of conscience, in reference to 
those points of doctrine and practice not con- 
sidered essential to salvation, should be accorded 
to, and enjoyed by, all ; and that, therefore, all 
who believe in, and love and serve, the Lord 
Jesus Christ, ought to be received into the fel- 
lowship and communion of the Church. They 



CHRIST'S HOSPITAL 



CHURCH OP GOD 



135 



are generally Antitrinitarians and Baptists ; 
they cherish prayer meetings, Sunday schools, 
anil missionary enterprises, and are congregational 
in church government, holding annual and state 
conferences, and a quadrennial general conven- 
tion. The first organization of the kind was 
effected, and the name Christians, to the exclusion 
of all other names, adopted, through the influence 
of Rev. J. O'Kelly, in a conference held in Surry 
County. Va.. Aug. 4., 17114. The new organization 
consisted of seceders from the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. A similar organization was established, 
a few years later, by seceders from the regular 
Baptists, in the New England States; and a third 
in 181)4, in Kentucky and Tennessee, by a number 
of Presbyterians. Soon after, the three bodies 
met in general convention and were consolidate! I 
into one denomination. The war interrupted 
the connection of the Southern with the Northern 
conferences, and the former organized a Southern 
general convention, which held its first session 
in 1866, and the fourth in 1874. The main 
body had, in 1875, 1 1 *J 7 ordained and 210 un- 
ordai ted ministers, and 611,701 members. The 
Southern branch had. in the same year, 6 confer- 
ences. 57 elders, 12 licentiates, and about 10,000 
members. 

The main branch, according to the almanac 
published by the denominational publishing 
house at Dayton, Ohio [The Christian Almanac 
for 1876), had, in 1875. the following educational 
institutions: Union Christian College, at Merom, 
Sullivan County, Indiana ; Starkey Seminary 
at Eddytown, Yates County, X. Y. ; Proctor 
Academy, Andover, N. H., and the Christian 
Biblical Institute, at Stanfordville, Dutchess 
County. N. Y. The latter institution was for- 
merly situated at Eddytown, X. Y., and was. 
in 1872, removed to Stanfordville, where sixty 
acres of land had been bought for it, at a cost of 
$18,000. The Institute building and a student's 
home had been erected by the Hon. David Clark, 
of Hartford, Ct., at a cost stated to have been 
between $20,000 and 330,000, and were present- 
ed to the convention as his free gift. It oilers 
free tuition to worthy young men and women ; 
also the free use of class-books and library, ami to 
students without families the free occupancy of a 
lodging and study-room in the Students' Home. 
The Southern branch controls the Suffolk Col- 
legiate Institute, at Suffolk, Va., and the 
Oraham High School, at Graham, X. C. 

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, or The Bute-Coat 
School, one of the most famous charitable in- 
stitutions of London, incorporated by Edward 
Yl., in 1553, as a hospital for orphans and found- 
lings. It derives its name, Blue-Coat School, 
from the costume of the boys, which has con- 
tinued from its foundation. This consists of a 
blue woolen gown or coat with a red leathern 
girdle, yellow breeches and stockings, and a black 
worsted cap. Charles II. founded a mathemat- 
ical school in the hospital, in 1672, the students 
of which are called King's boys. The age of ad- 
mission is between seven and fifteen, except for 
the King's boys and the "Grecians," or boys of the 



highest, class, of whom eight are annually sent to 
Oxford and Cambridge. The government of 
the institution is vested in the lord-mayor and 
aldermen of London, and those who have con- 
tributed to the institution the sum of £400. The 
total income of the hospital is about £50,000. 
The old buildings, which were destroyed in the 
great tire of 1 666, were replaced by others erect- 
ed under the direction of Sir Christopher Wren. 
I The present edifices were erected in 1825. It has 
ceased to be a charitable institution, and is now 
essentially a classical school. Latin and Creek 
form the basis of its course of study, but all the 
elementary branches, including drawing, the mod- 
em languages, etc., are also taught. In 1683, a 
preparatory school was built at Hertford, in 
which the hospital children are nursed and in- 
structed till they are old enough to enter the 

Bel 1. The girls remain permanently here. Many 

illustrious names are found in the list of its 
graduates, among whom may be mentioned, 
Camden, the historian. Bishop StillinghVct. 
Richardson, the novelist, Coleridge, Lamb, and 
Leigh Hunt. 

CHRONOLOGY. See History. 

CHURCH OF GOD, a denomination of 
Baptists in the United States, organized in 1830 
by the Rev. Mr. Winebrenner, formerly a minis- 
ter of the German Reformed Church. The pe- 
culiar name was adopted as being the most scrip- 
tural. Besides baptism and the Lord's Supper, 
they hold feet-washing to be a positive ordinance 
of perpetual standing in the church, and obliga- 
tory on all ( hristians. In church government, 
this denomination is Presbyterian. A number 
of congregations form an eldership, which meets 
annually. The General Eldership, consisting 
of delegates from annual elderships, meets tricn- 
nially. There were, in L875, L3 elderships, about 
400 churches, and about 25.0110 members. Sev- 
eral efforts were made, between 1854 and 1866, 
to establish a denominational school, but they all 

failed. In 1872, the General Eldership was vis- 
ited by a delegate from the general conference 
of the Free Will Baptists (who, like the Church 
of God, are Arminian in theology), wdio proposed 
on behalf of that body, that the Church of God 
should take an interest in Hillsdale College, a de- 
nominational school of the Free Will Baptists at 
Hills lale. Michigan, by endowing a professorship 
and designating a professor. The offer was ac- 
cepted, a professor chosen, and a visiting com- 
mittee to the college appointed. The chair was 
to lie endowed by the sale of scholarships, At 
the next General Eldership, in 1875. the board 
of education were, however, compelled to report 
that the effort to raise an endowment fund of 
SI 0,000, had failed.no more than $200 having 
been obtained. In accordance with the request, 
the board of education was relieved from the 
charge of completing the arrangement with tin 1 
authorities of Hillsdale College. At the same 
time, it was resolved to form a chartered or in- 
corporated society to take charge of the educa- 
tional interests of the church, and similar socie- 
ties in all the annual elderships. 



136 



CINCINNATI 



CINCINNATI, the metropolis of the state 
of Ohio, having a population, in 1870, of 216.239. 

Educational History. — The first effort made 
in behalf of education was that of John Kidd, 
who, in 1818, devised $1,000 per annum, charge- 
able upon the "ground rents of his estate," to be 
expended for the education of the poor children 
of the city. His title to his estate, however, prov- 
ing defective, his devise failed. The next bequest 
was that of Thomas Hughes, who, in 1824, left a 
tract of land the perpetual rent of which, 
amounting to §2,000, was to be applied to the 
same purpose. The following year, the legislature 
passed a general law applicable to the state, but 
making no special provision for education in the 
cities. Owing to inherent defects, however, this 
law became inoperative; and, in 1830, the city's 
representatives in the state legislature procured 
the passage of a law by which an independent 
organization was given to the schools of Cincin- 
nati. This provided for the appointment of a 
board of trustees and visitors, and directed the 
council to divide the city into ten districts, in 
each of which they were required, within ten 
years, to purchase a lot on which a building of 
brick or stone, two stories high, and containing 
two school rooms, should be erected; the cost of 
which was to be defrayed by taxation. Much 
opposition was encountered, however, by the 
trustees in carrying out these provisions, the ob- 
jection, on the part of the people, to taxes levied 
for such a purpose being very strong. Want of 
means, and the unfriendliness of the city council, 
also, produced such delay, and the accommoda- 
tions provided for the pupils were so insufficient, 
that the sympathy of the people was in danger 
of permanent estrangement from the cause of the 
schools. At this juncture, the friencla of education 
resolved to place the benefits derived from the 
schools before the people. Annual examinations 
of the pupils were publicly held, to which emi- 
nent men, members of the press, and teachers 
from other states, were invited; and these were 
followed by imposing street parades of the school 
children, which were continued for several years. 
The result was a hearty endorsement of the pub- 
lic schools by the people, so that, in 1833, amodel 
school-house was built, and.in 1834 and 1 835, eight 
public-school houses were erected — the whole 
at an expense of $96,159.44, which was met by the 
issue of city bonds. The cause was furthered still 
more by the establishment, about this time, of 
the Western College of Teachers, and the open- 
ing of the Woodward High School, which offered 
to receive annually, for gratuitous instruction, 
ten boys to be selected by the school board from 
the common schools. In 1837, the constitution 
of the school board was changed so as to consist 
of two members, instead of one. from each ward. 
In 1839, schools were established in orphan 
asylums; in 1840, the German language was in- 
troduced into the common schools; and, in 1842, 
night schools were opened. The harmony of the 
schools was disturbed, in 1842, by a violent dis- 
cussion in regard to the use of the Bible in the 
schools, which has been carried on with great 



acrimony, at intervals, ever since. The Central 
High School, with a graded course, was estab- 
lished in 1847 ; the Woodward High School and 
the Hughes High School, in 1851. In 1 852, the 
Woodward and the Hughes funds were merged in 
the city-school fund, the whole being managed 
by a union board. In 1849, colored schools were 
established by law, and the study of the German 
language was authorized in some of the district 
schools. The organization of intermediate schools 
was begun in 1854, the object being the consoli- 
dation of pupils in such a manner that fewer 
teachers would be needed. In 1857, the first 
normal school was opened, the number of teach- 
ers at that time being 300. In 1869, the Bible 
question was again discussed, and, in the legal 
struggle which resulted, it was excluded from 
the schools. In May, 1873, the legislature passed 
an act for the re-organization and maintenance 
of common schools, which is substantially the 
present law of the city. — The supervision of the 
schools was first provided for in 1850, the first 
general superintendent being Nathan Guilford, 
who was elected by popular vote. He served two 
years, and was suceeeded by Dr. Merrell, who re- 
signed shortly after. In 1853, the law was 
changed, and the annual appointment of a super- 
intendent by the board was ordered, A.J. Bickoff 
being the first incumbent of the office under the 
new law; he was succeeded, in 1866, by John 
Hancock, and, in 1874, by Jno. B. Peaslee. 

School System. — The system, at present (1876), 
comprises 26 district, 4 intermediate, and 2 high 
schools, for whites; and 4 district schools, one 
intermediate, and one high school, for colored 
persons; in addition to which, there are inter- 
mediate departments in 10 of the district schools. 
There are, also, 10 district night schools, and one 
evening high school. The legal school age is- 
from 6 to 21 years. Three courses of study have 
been adopted by the union board of high schools, 
denominated the classical, the technological, and 
the general; the first two intended as preparatory 
to kindred courses in the university, the last, for 
pupils whose education ends in the high school. 
The fund for the support of the schools is derived 
from a special three-mill tax on property, the state 
tax, the income of the Woodward and Hughes 
funds, tuition fees paid by non-residents, etc. 
The chief items of school statistics are : 

No. of children of school age 76,477 

" " " enrolled in public schools 28,999 

" " " in average daily attendance 21,929 

" " " attending private schools 16,464 

" " " " night schools 3,279 

No. of teachers in public schools 545 

Receipts (1876) $695,000 

Expenditures (1876) $691,700 

Many other educational institutions exist in 
Cincinnati. The Catholic parochial schools edu- 
cate, it is estimated, about 17,000 children ; and 
different religious orders, male and female, annu- 
ally educate many children and young ladies in 
denominational and conventual schools. The 
University of Cincinnati, which is liberally en- 
dowed, took possession of its new building in. 
1875, and is now in active operation. 



CINCINNATI, UNIVERSITY OP 



CLASS 



137 



CINCINNATI, University of, in Cincin- 
nati, Ohio, was organized under the act passed 
by the general assembly of Ohio, April 16., 1*70, 
" to enable cities of the first class to aid and 
promote education." It consists of three depart- 
ments : the Academic, or Department of Litera- 
ture and Science ; the School of I design ; and the 
Observatory. It is to be maintained by any 
funds either heretofore or hereafter given to the 
city, for the purpose of founding or aiding an 
institution for promoting free education. The 
statute also authorizes any persons or bodies 
corporate, holding any estate or funds in trust 
for the promotion of education or any of the 
arts or sciences, to transfer the same to the city 
as a trustee for such purpose, thus affording a 
means of consolidating the various funds now 
existing, which separately are of little or no 
avail for their intended purpose. The same 
statute, furthermore, authorizes an annual tax. 
by the city, of one-tenth of a mill, for the sup- 
port of such institutions. The endowment of 
the University of Cincinnati consisted, in 1876. 
of the estate devised to the city by the late 
Charles MeMieken, in 1857, the annual tax of 
one-tenth of a mill, and donations for special 
purposes, amounting, in the aggregated si 25,000. 
The donation of the old observatory property, on 
Mt. Adams, is upon the condition that the city j 
shall maintain an observatory in connection with 
the university, and was accepted by the city : 
council accordingly. 

The institution is managed by a board of 
directors, consisting of the mayor ex officio and 
18 members, appointed by the common council. 
It is open to both sexes. The receipts, in 1875, : 
amounted to $119,748.92; the expenditures 
were $108,806.84, including $54,683.28 for build- 
ing purposes. The academic department was 
opened in 1873. Three courses, of four years 
each, have already been established ; namely, (1) 
The Classical Course ; (2) The Scientific Course; 
(3) The Course in Civil Engineering. Besides 
these regular courses, provision is made for stu- I 
dents desiring to pursue particular branches ex- 
clusively. The work during the first year is rig- I 
idly prescribed ; but. after that, a large amount 
of option is allowed, except in the civil engineer- 
ing course. Candidates for the degree of B. A. 
or B. S. must choose at least one principal study 
in which to take a full course of three or four 
years. For the former, this may be either an- 
cient languages, modern languages, or some other 
literary branch ; for the latter, chemistry and 
physics, natural history, geology, mathematics, 
astronomy, or some other science. The re- 
mainder of the elective time may be devoted to 
other full or partial courses. Instruction is free 
to all who are bona fide residents of Cincinnati; 
but tuition fees are charged to non-residents. The 
course pursued in the city high schools constitutes 
the requirements for admission. 

The north wing of the university building was 
completed, and occupied by this department, in 
October, 1875. In 1876, there were 10 instructors 
and 51 students. H. T. Eddy, C. E., Ph. D., is | 



(1076) dean of the faculty. The School of Design 
was established in connection with the Ohio 
Mechanics' Institute in 1863, but they are now 
entirely separate. This school occupies rooms in 
the Cincinnati College building; and there are day 
and evening sessions. It is designed especially for 
residents of ( 'incinnati, but others may be ad- 
mitted. The full course is for four years. lni87C, 
there were 6 instructors and 402 students, of 
whom 242 were in the classes in drawing and 
design. 133 in wood-carving, and 27 in modeling. 
The Observatory was established about 1*44. The 
new site is on .Mt. Lookout, 6 m. from the city, 
one of the highest points in Hamilton County. 
Besides an astronomical library, it is supplied with 
first class instruments, among them the Mitchel 
refractor of 12 inches aperture. It is (1876) un- 
der the direction of Ormond Stone, A. M. 

CIVIL GOVERNMENT. See Science of 
Government. 

CLAFLIN UNIVERSITY, at Orangeburg, 
South Carolina, under the auspices of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church, was chartered in 1869, 
and opened in 1870. It was established prima- 
rily for the education of colored youth of both 
sexes, but no one is excluded on account of race, 
color, or religious opinions. The buildings, 
grounds, etc.. are valued at $40,000. In 1872, 
the state established its agricultural college and 
mechanics' institute in connection with the uni- 
versity. Three departments are now in opera- 
tion, namely : a common English department, a 
classical preparatory and higher English depart- 
ment, ami an agricultural and scientific depart- 
ment. In 1874 — 5. there were 5 instructors and 
L88 students, of whom 151 were in the common 
English department, 37 in the higher English, 
anil 65 in the scientific and agricultural depart- 
ment. The agricultural college and mechanics' 
institute has a productive endowment of 
$180,000. The Baker Theological Institute is 
connected with the university. The Rev. Ed- 
ward Cooke. D.D., is (1876) the president. 

CLASS (L;it. cli/ssix, from (Jr. k'/aoir. from 
Ka'/iiv, to call, because applied to an assembly of 
the people when called together), a number of 
pupils or students in a school or college, of the 
same grade of attainments, receiving the same in- 
struction, and pursuing the same studies. When 
large numbers of pupils are to be taught, a care- 
ful distribution of them into classes becomes requi- 
site; indeed, nothing is so important, previous 
to the work of instruction, as an accurate classi- 
fication. Heterogeneous masses of children can- 
not be instructed simultaneously. They may be 
made to perform mechanically certain school ex- 
ercises, — may, perhaps, be taught to read, to 
spell, to write, and to cipher to some extent ; but 
it can only be by rote, without the due exercise 
of their intelligence, and. hence, without proper 
mental development. A poorly classified school 
can never be really efficient, whatever talent in 
teaching may be brought to bear upon it. There 
is no doubt that individual teacliing has many 
advantages over the teaching of classes ; since 
there is a better opportunity to observe the pu- 



138 



CLASS 



pils' peculiar traits of character, and to adapt the 
instruction to them ; but class teaching approx- 
imates to individual teaching in proportion as 
the classification is so accurate as to bring to- 
gether under the influence of the teacher pupils 
of a like grade of attainments, and of similar 
disposition, temperament, and mental constitu- 
tion. Of course, such a degree of accuracy in 
classification is ordinarily impossible ; but this 
is the ideal standard to which the teacher should 
always endeavor to approximate in organizing 
the classes of his school. 

A proper limit as to the size of classes should 
be carefully observed. This is difficult to fix 
by the statement of any particular number, since 
the number of pupils that may be properly 
placed under the instruction of a single teacher 
will vary with the age and character of the pu- 
pils, the evenness of the grade, and the skill and 
experience of the teacher himself. When the 
number is between 50 and 100, or over, as it 
sometimes is in the large city schools, of course 
no proper result can be effected. "In a large 
class," says Reid (Principles of Education), 
" each of whom seldom, and at best only for a 
short time, receives individually any attention 
from the teacher, the progress is slow, the facul- 
ties little developed, and the education altogether 
very imperfect." The danger inseparably con- 
nected with the indiscriminate treatment of pu- 
pils of different characteristics has been often 
referred to by experienced educators. Thus, we 
find in a work designed to aid practical teachers, 
the following important admonitions : "In every 
class, however weU graded, the ptipils will differ 
much in age, health, mental capacity, and home 
advantages. A correct and judicious classifica- 
tion will reduce this inequality to a minimum ; 
but there will still remain a wide field for the 
exercise of discrimination, care, and caution on 
the part of the class-teacher. The lessons should, 
in all respects, be adapted to the average ability 
of the pupils of the class ; but, even beyond this, 
some allowance will often have to be made in the 
case of pupils of quite inferior mental capacity 
or opportunities for home studies ;" and further, 
" Teachers are especially admonished to be con- 
siderate toward pupils of a delicate constitution, 
an over-excitable brain and nervous system, or in 
temporary ill health. Many children of this class 
are precocious in mental activity and exceedingly 
ambitious to excel ; and the greatest care is re- 
quired to prevent them from injuring themselves 
by an inordinate devotion to books and study." 
(See How to Teach, N. T., 1873.) The compar- 
ative advantages and disadvantages of home (in- 
dividual) instruction, and school (class) instruc- 
tion are quite fully discussed in Isaac Taylor's 
Home Education. "A principal and necessary 
distinction," he remarks, " between the two sys- 
tems is this, that while, in the one, all methods 
of instruction and modes of training are or may 
be, with more or less exactness, adapted to the 
faculties, tastes, and probable destination of the 
pupils singly, and may be accommodated to the 
individual ability of each ; in the other system, 



that is to say at school, it is the mass of minds 
only, or some few general classes, at the best, that 

can be thought of And yet even this undistin- 

guishmg mechanism, which is proper to a school, 
and which carries all before it with a sort of 
blind force, is in itself, in some respects, a good; 
and if some are the victims of it, to others it may 
be beneficial. There are children who are not 
to be advanced at all, except by the means of 
a mechanical momentum ; and such might well 
be sent from home to school, on this sole account, 
that they will then be carried round on the ir- 
resistible wheel-work of school order But al- 
though in a large school, even when broken up 
into classes, little regard can equitably be paid 
to individual peculiarities of faculty or taste, 
the principle which is characteristic of home edu- 
cation, may readily be extended to schools not 
much exceeding the bounds of a numerous fam- 
ily. In fact, it is only the personal ability of the 
teacher, his tact, his intelligence, and his assi- 
duity, that can fix the limits within which the 
principle of adaptation may be made to take ef- 
fect." The number of pupils that should be 
placed in a class is, therefore, a matter requiring 
the utmost exercise of good judgment, taking 
cognizance of all attending circumstances. 

What should constitute the basis of classifica- 
tion is also a matter requiring a careful consider- 
ation. The several grades of the course of study 
shoidd, of course, be exactly defined, and all the 
subjects, or parts of subjects, prescribed, should 
be carefully adjusted, so that the various require- 
ments of the grade may be accomplished simul- 
taneously, and a due proficiency in each may 
constitute the basis of distribution or promotion 
at every reorganization of the classes. Still, let 
the adjustment be as nice as practicable, some 
diversity will be found at the end of each period 
of instruction. One pupil, for example, will 
have made good progress in arithmetic, but very 
little in reading, writing, grammar, etc. What, 
then, is to be done ? If the average progress is 
taken, pupils of such unequal attainments in 
particular studies may be brought together, that 
the teacher will find it impossible to give instruc- 
tion to one portion of the class without neglect- 
ing the other, or will be obliged to divide his 
class into sub-grades, and thus sacrifice much 
time in attending to each separately. This dif- 
ficulty is often, measurably, obviated by selecting 
some one branch of instruction, as arithmetic, 
and basing the classification upon the pupils' at- 
tainments in this subject, working constantly 
thereafter to bring the pupils, as far as may be 
necessary, up to the same standard in other sub- 
jects. 

Whether a school is best taught by classes or 
by subjects, is a question that has received much 
attention from educators ; that is to say, whether 
each teacher shall instruct a particular class in 
all the branches of study which the pupils are 
required to pursue ; or whether each class shall 
be taught in succession by several teachers, each 
one taking a particular subject or class of sub- 
jects. The diversity of attainments, mental 



CLASSICAL STUDIES 



139 



tastes, and special skill among teachers, would 
seem to dictate the subject system rather than 
the class system ; since, were certain branches as- 
signed as a specialty to each teacher, there would 
be more time for the careful study by the 
teacher, not only of the branches themselves, but 
of the proper methods of teaching them ; and. of 
course, better work would necessarily be done. 
Other considerations, however, seem partially or 
wholly to neutralize tins apparent advantage. 
The success of a teacher, especially of young pu- 
pils, depends upon his thorough knowledge of 
their disposition, and also upon their familiarity 
with his characteristics ; and this knowledge it 
would be difficult to acquire if the teacher were 
required to spend but a short time with each 
class, and his means of acquiring it were dis- 
tributed over a number of classes. Some edu- 
cators, however, take a view directly opposed to 
this. " If the pupil," says Wickersham, "recite 
always to the same teacher, he may become fa- 
miliar with certain lines of thought, but he will 
most likely be confined to them. He might be 
trained by a more unvaried discipline, but it 
is a discipline in one direction. He becomes im- 
bued with his teacher's peculiar opinions, ac- 
quires his maimers, and is apt to create a little 
world in which his teacher is the reigning sover- 
eign and himself the most conspicuous citizen of 
the realm. It is much better for all pupils to 
have different teachers, with different tastes, tal- 
ents, and opinions ; but it is very important that 
this should be the case with advanced pupils." 
Nevertheless, it has generally been found that 
much better discipline. — a firmer control, prevails 
in schools conducted under the class-teaching 
plan than in those taught on the subject or de- 
partmental system ; and, consequently, the for- 
mer is the prevalent mode of organization in 
large public schools. In district or private 
schools consisting of but few pupils, and in insti- 
tutions of a higher grade, as high schools, col- 
leges, and universities, the other system is in- 
variably, and of couise necessarily, employed. 

Instead of requiring all the members of a class 
to study the same branches, some schools are so 
organized that pupils recite different studies in 
•different classes. This method has sometimes 
been denominated a loose classification. It en- 
courages unequal attainments, the pupil being 
stimulated to do his best in each study without 
any regard to his progress in other studies. This 
is. of course, a great disadvantage. Besides, it 
requires a constant change of classes in the 
working of the school, and, consequently, makes 
the discipline more difficult. " I recommend," 
says Wickersham (School Economy), "a close 
classification, with such departures from it as 
overriding circumstances may make expedient." 
—See Wells, Graded Schools (N. Y., 1862); 
Wickersham, School Economy (Phil., 1864); 
Isaac Taylor, Home Education (London and 
N. Y., 1836) ; Le Vaux, Science and Art of 
Teaching (Toronto, 1875). 

CLASSICAL STUDIES, a term denoting 
the study of the Latin and Greek languages and 



literatures. The word classical is derived from 
the Latin word classicus, that is, relating to 
the classes of the Roman people, especially to 
the first class. The best authors known to the 
Romans, both Latin and Greek, were rated as 
dassici, that is, of the first class, or classics. The 
expression is sometimes used to designate the 
standard authors of any nation, but it is chiefly 
applied, as it was originally, to the standard Latin 
and Greek writers. 

The study of Latin and Greek occupies a very 
prominent part in the educational history of the 
; Christian and civilized world, and still constitutes 
a principal branch of instruction in institutions 
of the middle and higher grades. The Romauic 
countries, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and France, in 
which new languages gradually and slowly arose 
out of a mixture of the Latin and the native lan- 
] guages, naturally retained the Latin as their 
I exclusive literary language. Li the Germanic 
l world, a knowledge of Latin was no less indis- 
pensable, on account of the connection of the 
churches with the see of Rome. The sacred 
scriptures, and the ecclesiastical literature in 
general, were only accessible in Latin ; and, as 
none of the native languages had a literature, 
Latin was the only key to the scanty amount of 
information which, at that time, was attainable. 
In the cathedral, collegiate, and convent schools 
of the middle ages, Latin was not only a subject 
of study, but also the vehicle of instruction. 
( harlemagne. in the schools founded by him, 
promoted the study not only of Latin, but also 
of Greek. His example, however, found little 
imitation : and, until the end of the fourteenth 
century, Greek was taught in but few of the 
schools of western Europe, and even the knowl- 
edge of Latin was quite rare. Though it was the 
official language of the Church, the acquaintance 
of the great majority of priests with it appears 
to have been very imperfect. 1 he growing op- 
position to scholasticism awakened a new inter- 
est in the Latin classics ; and. from the beginning 
of the fourteenth century, when the learned 
Byzantine Emmanuel Chrysoloras taught Greek 
in Italy, the study of the Greek language and 
literature spread throughout western Europe. 
The Reformation, while it favored the use of 
the native languages in preference to the Latin, 
for divine worship, encouraged the study of 
the Latin classics in opposition to the writings 
of the representatives of mediaeval .scholasticism. 
At the same time, a great impulse was given 
to the study of Creek, since the Protestant 
churches urged a thorough study of the Creek 
Testament, in preference to the Vulgate. In the 
Protestant as well as in the Roman Catholic 
countries, the Latin remained the usual medium 
of literary productions, and thus Latin classics 
continued to be a very important agent in the 
education of the European nations. The increas- 
ing interest in the natural sciences, and the spread 
of utilitarian tendencies, which found a distin- 
guished representative in the Philanihropin,\eA, 
in the second half of the eighteenth century, 
to a considerable restriction of Latin, in all 



140 



CLASSICAL STUDIES 



schools of a lower grade, and to a fierce controversy 
in regard to the propriety of classical studies, in 
general, in the course of instruction prescribed 
for schools of a higher grade. This controversy 
is not yet ended ; and the relative importance of 
these studies, as compared with other subjects of 
instruction, is still greatly disputed. The op- 
position to the prominence which was formerly 
accorded to classical studies in colleges, gymna- 
siums, and similar schools, has been so far suc- 
cessful, that the course of instruction in all schools 
of this grade, now embraces subjects formerly ex- 
cluded ; and, moreover, institutions of a higher 
grade have been organized, in which classical 
studies are either entirely excluded, or reduced 
to a secondary or auxiliary position. A large 
number of American colleges and universities 
have arranged, in addition to the full classical 
course, a scientific course, from which Greek is 
always and Latin generally excluded ; and the 
large patronage which this arrangement has 
attracted presents, of course, a very strong in- 
ducement for all colleges to yield to what appears 
to be a general demand. In Germany, a sharp 
controversy is still pending on the question 
whether the state government should confer 
upon the real-schools in which either Greek or 
classical studies, in general, are excluded, the 
right of conferring certificates of maturity for 
the university. On the part of those who de- 
mand that classical studies should be retained as 
a prominent and essential part of a higher edu- 
cation, it is argued that the organic structure of 
the Latin and Greek languages is more nearly 
perfect than that of any other language, and that, 
by the great diversity of their inflections, they 
express more fully and exactly all the various 
and minute modifications of thought. The fact 
that they are no longer living languages, is urged 
as an advantage; because, being complete organ- 
isms, they afford a better means of mental dis- 
cipline than the modern languages, which are 
continually undergoing important changes. The 
mutual relation of the two classical languages is 
represented as such that they supplement each 
other, the Latin being more artistic, rhetorical, 
and pathetic ; while the Greek bears, to a greater 
extent, the impress of naturalness, refinement, 
and freedom. The literatures of Rome and Greece 
are regarded as no less indispensable than their 
languages. Translations, it is claimed, will never 
succeed in reproducing all the excellencies of a 
literary masterpiece ; and the standard works 
of classic literature are models of such perfection, 
that, like the ancient works of plastic art, they are 
sure to remain for all time the instrumentality 
for teaching those who aspire to a higher edu- 
cation. There is no country, in either Europe 
or America, which, for its intellectual develop- 
ment, has not leaned on the pillars of the Latin 
and Greek classics, and a normal and continuous 
growth of our modern literatures is not conceiv- 
able, without an uninterrupted connection with 
the chief sources of our intellectual life. This 
connection is necessary for all branches of science ; 
for some, as theology, philosophy, philology, law, 



and medicine, it will obviously appear so indis- 
pensable that no student of any of these sciences 
will ever think of disputing it. 

John Stuart Mill, in an address delivered in 
the university of St. Andrews, on his inaugura- 
tion as rector, strongly expressed his preference 
for classical studies as compared with modern 
languages. " The only languages," he says, "and 
the only literature to which I would allow a 
place in the regular curriculum, are those of the 
Greeks and the Romans, and to these I would 
preserve the position in it which they at present 
occupy." The superiority of the Latin and Greek 
languages over any other, ancient or modern, is 
thus explained by Mr. Mill : "The principles and 
rides of grammar are the means by which the 
forms of language are made to correspond with 
the universal forms of thought. The distinctions 
between the various parts of speech, between 
the cases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, 
the functions of particles, are distinctions in 
thought, not merely in words. Single, nouns and 
verbs express objects and events, many of which 
can be cognized by the senses ; but the modes of 
putting nouns and verbs together, express the 
relations of objects and events which can be 
cognized only by the intellect ; and each different 
mode corresponds to a different relation. The 
structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. 
The various rides of syntax oblige us to dis- 
tinguish between the subject and predicate of a 
proposition, between the agent, the action, and 
the thing acted upon ; to mark when an idea is 
intended to modify or qualify, or merely to unite 
with some other idea ; what assertions are 
categorical, what only conditional ; whether the 
intention is to express similarity or contrast, to 
make a plurality of assertions conjunctively or 
disjunctively ; what portions of a sentence, 
though grammatically complete with them- 
selves, are mere members or subordinate parts 
of the assertion made by the entire sentence. 
Such things form the subject-matter of universal 
grammar ; and the languages which teach it best 
are those which have the most definite rules, and 
which provide distinct forms for the greatest 
number of distinctions in thought — so that if we 
fail to attend precisely and accurately to any of 
these, we cannot avoid committing a solecism in 
language. In these qualities, the classical lan- 
guages have an incomparable superiority over 
every modern language, and over all languages, 
dead or living, which have a literature worth be- 
ing generally studied." Mr. Mill also claims that 
"the pre-eminence of the ancients in purely liter- 
ary excellence — in perfection of form — is not 
disputed, that their composition, like their sculp- 
ture, has been to the greatest artists an example, 
to be looked up to with hopeless admiration, but 
of an inappreciable value, as a light on high, 
guiding their own endeavor." 

The Hon. William E. Gladstone, who as a clas- 
sical scholar has few, if any, equals among the 
great statesmen of the nineteenth century, 
strongly maintains the hereditary claims of clas- 
sical studies to a prominent position in a modern 



CLASSICAL STUDIES 



141 



curriculum for secondary and superior schools. 
He denies the right of natural science, modern 
languages, modern history, or other studies, to a 
parallel or equal position. "Their true position," 
he says, " is ancillary, and as ancillary it ought to 
be limited or restrained, without scruple, as much 
as a regard to the paramount matter of education 
may dictate . . . .The modern European civiliza- 
tion, from the middle ages downwards, is the 
compound of two great factors, the Christian re- 
ligion for the spirit of man, and the Wreck (and 
in a secondary degree the Roman) discipline fur 
his mind and intellect. St. Paid is the apostle 
of the Gentiles, and is, in his own person, a sym- 
bol of this great, wedding. The place, for ex- 
ample, of Aristotle and Plato in ( 'hristian edu- 
cation is not arbitrary, nor in principle mutable. 
The materials of what we call classical training 
were prepared in order that it might become not 
a mere adjunct, but (in mathematical phrase) the 
complement of Christianity in its application to 
the culture of the human being, as a being 
formed both for this world and the world to 
come." 

In the conflict between the advocates of clas- 
sical studies in our higher schools and their 
opponents, the former generally take the ground 
that Latin and Greek, both the languages and 
the literatures, supplement each other. Where 
a comparison between the two is made, the pref- 
erence is generally given to the Latin, partly 
because the knowledge of Latin grammar is 
supposed to be of superior utility, and partly 
with a view to the fact, that Latin is not only 
the key to an understanding of the Latin clas- 
sics, but, for a long period, has been the universal 
language of Christendom; and also because the 
Latin works, since the restoration of letters, 
are in themselves of considerable value for the 
knowledge of every kind which they afford, even 
to this day. many valuable works being published 
in that language. The I ireek language, too, is 
by no means without its champions ; and, though 
none of them would venture to disparage the 
study of Latin, they regard the Greek as the 
superior representative of classic antiquity. ( See 
Latin, and Greek.) 

The method of teaching and studying the clas- 
sical languages and literatures must, of course, 
vary according to the object or purpose for which 
they are taught or studied. In some schools, the 
study of these languages (particularly Latin) has 
been adopted for the sole or chief purpose of 
showing their relation to the English language, 
and of giving a clear insight into the mean- 
ing of English words derived from them. Where 
this is the exclusive object, a comparatively small 
amount of time will be found sufficient for this 
study. In classical schools, colleges, gymnasiums. 
etc., classical studies are generally pursued for 
the purpose of cultivating and developing the 
mental faculties, and introducing the student to 
the literary treasures of which they are the keys. 
It is obviously of the greatest importance, that 
the teacher should be fully conscious of the pre- 
cise aim that is to be attained, and that the pu- 



pils themselves should, as soon as possible, be 
made to understand the objects and advantages 
of the study. The first reading exercises will, of 
course, serve chiefly to familiarize the pupil with 
the grammatical rules ; but, as soon as he under- 
stands the peculiar structure of the language, the 
teacher should strive to unveil, as much as pos- 
sible, what is beautiful and excellent in the clas- 
sic authors selected for study. Both translation 
! and explanation should aim not only at increas- 
ing a knowledge of the vocabulary and the gram- 
mar, but at the training of the mind to compre- 
hend, to appreciate, and to admire these beauties 
and excellencies. The finer parts of a classic 
author will, of course, require the greatest and 
most concentrated attention of the pupil : and. 
therefore, the greatest possible exclusion of mere 
grammatical explanations. It is evident that 
none but teachers of the best skill and attain- 
ments are competent to give this kind of instruc- 
tion. The college graduate who has just com- 
pleted his course, however well he may have been 
taught, cannot be expected to make the impres- 
sion, and accomplish the success, by his teaching, 
which can only spring from a professor of ripe 
scholarship, cultivated taste, and experience in 
giving instruction. There is no doubt that clas- 
sical studies have suffered in repute as the agen- 
cies of a higher education, by the mechanical 
methods employed by teachers. The letter, and 
not the spirit, has been taught ; and the conse- 
quence has been, that the perusal of the sub- 
liinest masterpieces of ancient history, oratory, 
and poetry has commonly degenerated into the 
study of petty grammatical subtleties, only puz- 
zling the mind of the student without informing 
or elevating it. Next in importance to the emploj - 
ment of competent teachers, is the selection of 
proper text-books, in order to produce the best 
results in this department of instruction. The 
books at first needed by every pupil are a gram- 
mar, a dictionary, and books for translation. 
The grammars anil dictionaries used should be 
those specially prepared for pupils: for the 
wants of pupils are different from those of 
teachers and scholars. As regards the editions 
of classic authors, some teachers prefer texts with 
notes, others those without notes. In the former 
case, the notes should be exclusively calculated 
to promote the pupil's knowledge of the language 
and a clear understanding of the writer's mean- 
ing. The use of translations is generally dis- 
couraged by teachers ; though all know, that 
'• ponies " are great favorites with students. 
There are some educators who regard a judicious 
use of translations as not only not hurtful, but 
commendable. When a knowledge not only of 
the classic language, but also of its literature is 
desired, the use of the entire work of an author is 
preferable to that of selections, such as are found 
in reading-books. An introduction, giving the 
pupil information in regard to the author of the 
work, facilitates a correct understanding of the 
work itself, and increases the pupil's interest. 
Geographical and historical explanations should 
be given wherever they are needed. The trans- 



142 



CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN 



lations should "be at first literal, but should, in- 
variably, be converted into good English, and 
should reproduce, as much as possible, the excel- 
lencies, as well as interpret the meaning, of the 
original. Of course, the pupil should not be dis- 
couraged by too harsh and minute a criticism of 
his efforts. Minor faults should, at first, be passed 
over, and the pupil's mind gradually trained to 
facility, accuracy, and elegance of expression. 

See H. Barnard, Studies and Conduct (Hart- 
ford, 1873), giving the views of Byron, Chatham, 
Donaldson, Be Quincey, Froude, Gladstone, Her- 
schel, Hodgson, Locke, Lowe, Macaulay, Marti- 
neau, Mill, Milton, Niebuhr, Southey, Temple, 
Tyndall, Vaughan, and Whewell, respecting clas- 
sical studies; Hodgson, Classical Instruction: Its 

Use and Abuse (London, 1854); J. W. Donald- 
son, Classical Scholarship and Classical Learn- 
ing (London, 1856) ; R. Rauchenstein, Die Zeiige- 
massheit der alien Sprachen in unsern Gymna- 
sien (Aarau, 1850); Beneke, Erziehungs- wnd 

Unterrichtslelire, 2d vol. (3d edit., Berlin, 1864); 
Thaulow, GymnasialrPadagogik (Kiel, 1858); 
Laas, Gymnasium und Realschule (Berlin, 1875). 
CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN, or Christian 
Greek and Latin Writers. The ideas and life 
of pagan Greece had been expressed and beauti- 
fied, and the growth of pagan genius had ceased 
in Greece before the coming of Christ. The Greek 
language remained to embody the new ideas of 

Christianity ; the expression of them by Christ 
and his apostles in the New Testament is the 
earliest Christian Greek. These ideas rapidly 
affected all serious thought. A long succession 
of Christian Greek writers followed, many of 
admirable eloquence, more of wonderful subtlety 
and learning, — apologists, preachers, commen- 
tators, historians, philosophers, and poets. The 
Greek language, meantime, was most carefully 
studied from generation to generation, and 
changed very slowly. 

The center of controlling thought and genius 
early moved westward. There had been an 
after-growth of pagan literature at Rome ; but, 
in the second century of our era, Africa became 
the nurse of genius, and Christianity its inspira- 
tion. Minutius Felix, Tertullian, Cyprian, Com- 
modian, Arnobius, Lactantius, and Augustine 
appeared in rapid succession. The Latin language 
expanded and strengthened, to express the new 
ideas and life. An original Roman poetry for 
the first time appeared, new in its form and 
thought, and living on the lips of the people. 
A new mythology of the saints displaced the 
heathen deities. History was rewritten, phi- 
losophy drawn to new and higher applications, 
Christianity became the religion of the state, 
and the services of the church, the canon law, 
and the proceedings of the courts were in Latin 
throughout the Western world. At the decline 
and fall of the Roman empire, the mingling of 
barbarians with Romans changed the spoken 
dialects of the common people so much that they 
are called new languages, — Italian, French, Span- 
ish, and the like. But the priests and lawyers 
and scholars continued to read, write, and speak 



Latin ; and, when learning revived, the book 
Latin was carefully cultivated. All important 
works in science or learning were written in it, 
and also much literature. This practice continued 
till recent times. Bacon, Milton, and Sir Isaac 
Newton used it, and critical commentaries on 
ancient authors are still often written in Latin. 

The earliest Christian Latin differed little 
from the heathen Latin ; but, after it ceased to 
be folk speech, the free use of the living idioms of 
feeling was gradually lost, and the number and 
precision of its technical terms immensely in- 
creased. The late Latin follows the general 
rules of ancient Latin grammar more closely 
than did the ancients themselves, and is proba- 
bly the most perfect language which ever existed, 
for the purposes for which it has been cultivated, 
for precision, brevity, and perspicuity in dealing 
with its own range of subjects. 

The early Christians detested and feared the 
pagan religion and manners, and the literature 
in which they are made alluring. The pagan 
books were often destroyed, and the Christian 
authors displaced them almost entirely. Through 
the darkest period of the middle ages, the works 
of the Christian writers were almost the sole 
reading, and the study of them and their lan- 
guage, almost the sole learning, of western Eu- 
rope. At the pagan renaissance, the admirers 
of the older heathen writers claimed for them 
the place of honor ; and heated contests were 
waged between the advocates of the Christian 
and the heathen Latin, which ended in a victory 
for the heathen, and the establishment of the 
pagan authors as the text-books for the study 
of Latin and Greek in the schools of Europe. 

The great Christian writers have always been 
the delight of Christian scholars ; and no long 
period has ever passed without expressions of 
regret from eminent educators, that the best years 
of youth should be spent in mastering the de- 
tails of heathen life, and dwelling on the 
thoughts of heathen heroes to the exclusion of 
the Bible and Christian heroes ; and it has been 
yielded to by many, only on account of the train- 
ing to be derived from the study of the Latin and 
Greek languages, which were thought to be found 
only in the heathen books. But Christians also 
have written Greek and Latin well. All the 
grammatical forms are preserved, and used in 
their works according to the rules of our gram- 
mars. Whatever is to be gained from an acquaint- 
ance with a synthetic language, and from strange 
modes of expression, may be had from studying 
them ; and, at the same time, the student may 
imbibe from their perusal the noblest thoughts. 
The modern science of language has changed the 
estimate placed on classic periods, and it now 
teaches the recognition of many admirable lan- 
guages, and the study of all dialects and periods 
in their relation to thought and history ; and it 
has been said that no other thought or history is 
so interesting or so important as that embodied 
in Christian Greek and Latin, and that these 
should, therefore, have the place of honor in the 
linguistic studies of our universities. 



CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN 



CLEVELAND 



143 



The knowledge of Christian Latin especially 
is necessary to all original researches into the 
history of modern civilization and of modern 
philosophy, since the early history of the Euro- 
pean nations, their laws, charters, diplomas, and 
treaties, the councils of the church, and the 
works of the founders of modern science, are all 
written in it. It is also essential to original 
researches into the history of the modern lan- 
guages ; the peculiarities of etymology, syntax, 
and orthography, are to be explained from the 
later Latin, for the most part. The history of 
modern literature, the spirit emerging in the 
works of the early masters, like Csedmon, Dante, 
and Milton, is to be understood only by the 
study of the Latin fathers. From considerations 
like these, the fitness of these writers to be used as 
text-books in our schools ami colleges, has lately 
been strongly urged, and attempts are making 
to introduce them in France and Austria. In the 
United States, there lias alvvays been a consid- 
erable use of the Historia Sacra, as a Latin 
book for beginners. Two editions are now pub- 
lished : Epitome Histories Sacra, L'Homond 
(Baltimore); Historia Sacra (Phila.). A consider- 
able part of it is also included in Allen and 
Greenough's Latin Primer (Boston). The New 
Testament, in Greek and Latin, is used in several 
editions prepared for schools ; also the Greek 
Testament, by Spencer (New York); and Greek 
and L •<//», by Lefsden (Phila.). A series of Chris- 
tian classics in Oreek and Latin, prepared with 
notes, like the common text-books for our schools 
and colleges, and edited by F. A. March, is also 
appearing in New York under the name of The 
Douglass Series, Mr. Benjamin Douglass having 
given a fund to promote the publication, and to 
establish the study in Lafayette College. The 
following have appeared : Latin Hymns, Euse- 
bius, Athenagoras, Tertullian; Justin Martyr 
is in press, Augustine in preparation, and others 
are to follow. Other books which may be used 
as text-books, are : Sanctorum Patrum Opuscuht 
selecta ail usum prasertim studiosorum theo- 
logice, H. Hurter (Innspruck), of which 31 
volumes had appeared in 1876. Books pre- 
pared for the French schools: Tertullien, Au- 
gustine, Erasme, Peres de I'Eglise Latine, Mor- 
ceamc choisis des Peres Grecs, St. Dasile, Gre- 
goire, Ghrysostome, each a few pages with little 
or no apparatus, but with a translation added. 
There are stereotyped texts of the Confessions 
of St. Augustine, of the De Sacerdotio of Chry- 
sostom, by Tauchnitz, (Leipsic); of Eusebius and 
Josephus by Teubner (Leipsicj. Accessible trans- 
lations of several authors are in The Antenicene 
Fathers, Edinburgh; Bohn's Ecclesiastical Series, 
Ixmdon ; Rcessler, Bibliathek der Kirchenvater 
in Uebersetznngen, (Leipzig, 1776 — 86) ; Thal- 
hoper, Bibliothek der Eirchenvd/er, Auswahl 
der vorzilglichsten patristiscJien Werke in deut- 
scker Ucbersetzung (Kempten), of which, up to 
1876, 175 parts have appeared. Great Li- 
braries of the Fathers are those edited by Gal- 
landi (Venice, 1765 — 88), and by J. P. Migne 
(Paris), not yet complete. Of all the most emi- 



nent authors there are many editions, commen- 
taries, and other works of elucidation. Students 
will also find the following works convenient: 
Lexicon Manuale ad Scrip/ores ■media' el infima? 
Latinitatis, by W. H. M. D'Arnis (Paris, 1866); 
Greek Lexicon from 146 B. 0. to 1000 A. D., 
by E. A. Sophocles (Boston, 1870). 

CLASSIFICATION. See Class. 

CLEVELAND, an important city in Ohio, 
being the second in the state in population. 
The number of inhabitants in 1870, was 92,829 : 
in 1876, it was estimated at 140,000. 

Educational History. — The general assembly 
of the state, as early as 1821. provided for the 
establishment of school-districts, the election of 
school committees, and the levying of a tax for 
school purposes ; and. in 1825, it made further 
provision for education. The act of incorporation, 
in 1836, authorized the city council to provide 
for the support of common schools, to levy a 
tax of not more than one mill on the dollar of 
the assessed valuation of property for the pur- 
chase of sites and the building of school-houses, 
and one mill additional for the support of a 
school in each of the three wards of the city, for 
a term of not less than six months in the year. 
The administration of school affairs was vested 
in a board, entitled the Board of Managers of 
Common Schools, appointed by the city council 
fin- the term of one year. In 1859, by special 
legislation, the election of members of the board 
of education was placed in the hands of the 
people, one member being elected in each ward, 
and one half of the wards electing annually. The 
city council, however, still retained its control of 
the finances ; but it was required to "provide 
and support such number and grade of schools, 
in said city, as may be necessary to furnish a 
good common-school education to all the children 
residing therein", and to "support two high 
schools." In 1868, a law was passed removing 
all restraints on the part of the city council from 
the board of education, except that the purchase 
of sites and the erection of school-buildings were 
made dependent upon the consent of the council. 
In 1837 — 8, the number of pupils enrolled in 
the schools was only H40 ; and there were only 6 
schools. In 1850 — 51, there were 32 teachers 
employed; the average attendance in all the schools 
was 1650 ; and the number enrolled, 2,304, out of 
a school population of 6,742. In 1860 — 61, the 
school population was 14,625; enrollment, 5,081; 
average daily attendance, 3,962, with 83 teachers. 
In 1870 — 71, the school population had increased 
to 34,544; enrollment, 13,184; average daily at- 
tendance, 8,174, with 188 teachers. — In 1846, a 
high school for boys was opened by order of the city 
council ; and, in the following year, a department 
for girls was established in the same school. For 
two years, the new institution met with much op- 
position, it being "maintained by some that it 
was illegal, by others that it was inexpedient", 
to levy taxes for the support, of schools for 
higher education. The people, however, gave 
their support to the policy, and the follow- 
ing year, a law was passed authorizing and 



144 



CLEVELAND 



CLINTON 



requiring the city council to "establish and 
maintain a high school" Since that time, two 
other high schools have been established — the 
West High School, in 1864 ; and the East High 
School, in 1872. — The supervision of the schools 
"was, in 1841, vested in an acting manager of the 
public schools, who was a member of the board, 
and its secretary. The office of superintendent 
of schools was created in 1853, and has been 
filled as follows : Andrew Freese, 1853 — 61 ; 
Luther M. Oviatt, 1861—3; Anson Smyth, 1863 
— 7; Andrew J. Eickoff, the present incumbent 
(1876), from 1867. This officer is elected by 
the board of education for a term of two 
years. There are, besides, three associate super- 
intendents, one (a female) specially for primary 
schools. — The chief duties of the superintend- 
ent are to supervise the work of instruction 
in all the schools of the city, visiting the schools 
as often as possible, noting defects, and recom- 
mending measures to remove them ; to inspect 
the school buildings, and report on their condi- 
tion ; and to fix the time and mode of the 
examination of schools. Candidates for teach- 
ers' licenses are examined by a board of six 
examiners, appointed by the board of edu- 
cation. — The School System consists of a normal 
school, 4 high schools, 19 grammar schools, 
and 15 primary schools, making a total of 39 
schools. These schools receive all children six 
years of age and upward, without regard to 
color. There are four courses of study prescribed 
for the high schools : an English course, of 3 
years ; a German-English course, of 4 years; a 
Latin-English course, of 4 years; and a classical 
course, of 4 years. The course of study pre- 
scribed for the grammar and primary schools com- 
prises the branches usually taught in common 
schools, including music, drawing, and the ele- 
ments of natural science. German is taught in 
most of the schools (introduced in 1870). All the 
teachers of the primary and grammar schools, 
both principals and assistants, are females. 

School Statistics. — The following items are re- 
ported for the year 1876 : 

Number of children of school age 46,990 

Number of pupils enrolled 20,771 

Average daily attendance 14,069 

Number of teachers, 326 

Receipts (1875) 8497,174.67 

Expenditures (1875) $356,095.24 

Besides the public schools, there are private 
schools and seminaries in considerable number; 
also German and English schools, and de- 
nominational schools, the latter including several 
Eoman Catholic institutions. The Cleveland 
Female Seminary is an institution for the supe- 
rior instruction of women, chartered in 1853. 
St. Mary's Theological Seminary, a Eoman Cath- 
olic institution, was founded in 1849. The 
Ohio State and Union Law College, founded in 
1856, in 1874, had 4 professors, and a library of 
3,000 volumes. The Cleveland Medical College, 
founded in 1843, had, the same year, 15 in- 
structors, and 92 students; there is also a col- 
lege, connected with the homoeopathic hospital. 



CLINTQTJE (Gr. kUuti, a couch or bed), a 
French word used, in medical schools, to denote an 
examination or treatment of patients by medical 
or surgical professors in the presence of their 
pupils, for the purpose of giving practical in- 
struction ; hence the term clinical instruction 
or lectures, because originally given or delivered 
at the bedside of the sick. (See Medical 
Schools.) 

CLINTON, De Witt, one of the most il- 
lustrious of American statesmen, of deserved 
celebrity, not only on account of his brilliant 
talents, high culture, and comprehensive views, 
but for his earnest philanthropy and his zealous 
efforts in behalf of popular education. He was 
born at Little Britain, Orange Co., N. Y., March 
2., 1769, and died in Albany, Feb. 11., 1828. 
After graduating at Columbia College, New 
York, with great distinction, in 1786, he studied 
law, and was admitted to the bar in 1788. He 
also entered the field of politics, sustaining the 
interests and principles of the republican party, 
of which his uncle, George Clinton, was then the 
leader in the state of New York. After filling 
various offices under the latter as governor of the 
state, he was elected to the legislature, serving 
successively in the assembly and in the senate, and 
at the age of 33 was appointed to a seat in the 
senate of the United States. This he resigned 
to assume the position of mayor of the city of 
New York, which he filled, at intervals, for ten 
years. He also served as lieutenant-governor of 
the state ; and Ins advocacy of the construction 
of the Erie and Champlain canals made him so 
popular, that, in 1816, he was elected governor 
of the state, virtually by the unanimous voice of 
the people ; and his administration was contin- 
ued, with the exception of an interval of two 
years, during a period of twelve years. His wise 
and comprehensive measures, particularly in be- 
half of internal improvements and common- 
school education in the state, gave him a wide 
popularity and fame ; and, in 1825, he partic- 
ipated in a grand popular celebration on the 
occasion of the completion of his greatest meas- 
ure, — the establishment of a water communi- 
cation between Lake Erie and the Hudson Eiver. 
As he was borne in a barge along that magnifi- 
cent canal (called the Grand Erie Canal) he 
was every-where saluted with the ringing of 
bells, the firing of cannon, and other joyous dem- 
onstrations. 

It is not, however, intended to dwell here upon 
his brilliant career as a statesman and politician, 
but to refer to his connection with the cause of 
education, and the mighty impulse which was 
given to it in the state of New York by his 
genius and public-spirited exertions. The foun- 
dation of the state school fund had already been 
commenced ; but nothing had been done for 
public education in the city of New York. In 
1805, Clinton, then mayor of the city, joined 
with several distinguished citizens in obtaining 
an act of incorporation for the Society for Estab- 
lishing a Free School in the city of New York, 
for the education of such poor children as do not 



CLINTON 



CO-EDUCATION 



145 



belong to, or are not provided for by, any re- 
ligious society ; and for a period of 21 years, 
from 1805 to 1820, he was the president of the 
society. This society was afterwards known as 
the Public School Society, and its operations fill 
a large space in the educational annals of the city. 
In 1809, on the occasion of the inauguration of 
its first large school (for it commenced with a 
few poor children, in a single room), Clinton 
delivered an interesting address, in which he 
referred to the previous work of the society in 
connection with the Lancasterian system, in the 
following words : " When 1 perceive that many 
boys in our school have been taught to read and 
write in two months, who did not before know 
the alphabet, and that even one has accomplished 
it in three weeks — when I view all the bearings 
and tendencies of this system — when I contem- 
plate the habits of order which it forms, the 
spirit, of emulation which it excites, — when I 
behold the extraordinary union of celerity in in- 
struction and economy of expense, — ami when I 
perceive a great assembly of a thousand children 
under the eye of a single teacher, inarching with 
unexampled rapidity and with perfect discipline 
to the goal of knowledge, I confess that I rec- 
ognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human 
race — I consider his system as creating a new 
era in education, as a blessing sent down from 
heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this 
world from the power and dominion of ignorance.'' 
The merits of the mutual system of instruction 
as a means — and then the only means — of diffus- 
ing the benefits of education among all classes of 
the people, had impressed themselves deeply 
upon his philanthropic mind. He discerned 
clearly, to use his own language, that " the first 
duty of a state is to render its citizens virtuous 
by intellectual instruction and moral discipline, 
by enlightening their minds, purifying their 
hearts, and teaching them their rights and their 
obligations." He took an active part in enlarg- 
ing the means of education by augmenting, and 
rendering more available, the school fund of the 
state. In 1826, in his annual message, he re- 
marked, "Our common schools embrace chddren 
from 5 to 16 years old, and continue to increase 
and prosper. The appropriation for the school 
fund for the last year was $80,670, and an equiv- 
alent sum is also raised by taxation in the several 
counties and towns, and is also applied in the 
same way. The capital fund is $1,333,000, which 
will be in a state of rapid augmentation from 
sales of the public lands and other sources ; and 
it is well ascertained that more than 420,000 
children have been taught in our common schools 
during the last year. The sum distributed is 
now too small, and the general fund can well 
warrant an augmentation to' $120,000 annually." 
In May, 1824, the Presbyterian Society for the 
Promotion of the Education of Youth elected 
De Witt Clinton its president, and he continued 
to occupy this position till his death. On taking 
the chair, he delivered an address, in the course 
of which he said, " Monitorial education, Sun- 
day schools, and Bible societies are the great 



levers which must raise public opinion to its 
proper elevation." He also took an active inter- 
est in the Infant School Society of New York, 
founded in 1827, upon the plan of similar insti- 
tutions in Great Britain. These schools were 
designed to receive such children of the laboring 
poor, as had not attained the age at which they 
could be received into other schools. Indeed, 
such were the active beneficence and public spirit 
of De Witt t 'linton, that, in the community to 
which he belonged, there was scarcely an enter- 
prise designed, in any way, to promote the good 
of mankind, in which he did not take a leading 
part. Among such may be further mentioned, 
the New York Hospital and the Ken- York 
Hin/ttn'ciil Society, of the latter of which he was 
the president from 1817 to 1820. He was also 
a member of most of the literary and scientific 
institutions in the United States, and of several 
of those of Great Britain and the continent of 
Rurope. It was well remarked by Dr. Samuel 
H. Cox, one of his distinguished contemporaries, 
that " he was remarkable at once for the com- 
bination of great qualities, and the happy equi- 
librium of their adjustment. He was unquestion- 
ably a man of genius, a scholar, a jurist, a states- 
man, an enlightened political economist, a deep 
and practical projector, and a polished gentle- 
man." — See Hosack. Memoir of Dr Will Clinton 
(N. Y., 1829) ; S. S. Randall, History of the 
Common-School System of the Stale of New 
York- (N T . Y.. 1871). (See also New York.) 

COACH, a cant term applied to a private tu- 
tor (particularly in the English universities), who 
prepares students to pass the public examinations 
(hence the verb coach, to give such instruction). 
Such tutors are graduates from the university, 
and are prepared for the special function which 
they perform, not only by scholarship, but by ex- 
perience in the particular requisites of the college 
examinations, as well as by address in teaching. 
— See Bristed, Five Years in on English Uni- 
versity (N. Y„ 1852). 

CO-EDUCATION of the Sexes, a term 
used to denote the system of educating males 
and females together, that is, in the same insti- 
tution, school, or class, and by means of the same 
studies, and methods, pupils of each sex receiving 
the same school training and culture. This sys- 
tem, in the lower grades of schools, has been al- 
ways prevalent in the United States, as being the 
most convenient and economical for small com- 
munities. Where only one small district school 
could be supported, of course, the separate in- 
struction of boys and girls was out of the question. 
This practice, so common, appeared, and still ap- 
pears, to receive not only the tolerant assent of 
parents as a necessity, but, in most cases, an un- 
qualified approval, as being not simply expedient, 
but, in all respects, the best to be adopted. In 
some of the large cities, as the schools grew 
large, and were composed of children gathered 
from all classes of society, it was often deemed 
best to organize separate boys' and girls' schools; 
especially, as this could be done without any in- 
jury, but, probably with a benefit to the clas- 



146 



CO-EDUCATION 



sifioation. Private seminaries, however, have 
generally been separate schools, except those for 
the youngest pupils. Passing from the grade of 
primary schools, we find the propriety of co-edu- 
cation to be a question among educators ; while 
many parents prefer that even the youngest 
children of their families should attend schools 
exclusively for either sex. Those who oppose 
co-education allege as reasons for their views, 
(1) That there is need of a better adaptation of 
instruction and discipline to the peculiarities of 
the sexes than is possible in mixed schools ; (2) 
That the manners of the girls are unfavorably 
affected by the constant example of the rougher, 
coarser conduct of the boys, the latter receiving 
but little or no benefit from the presence of the 
girls; and (3) That the moral character of each is 
liable to be impaired by a premature develop- 
ment of the sexual instincts, caused by the 
constant presence of the other sex. With but 
few exceptions, these arguments are advanced by 
those who have only theoretically considered the 
subject, or by those whose practical experience 
has been in connection with mixed schools of 
which the discipline and management were im- 
perfect, thus leading to abuses which, under 
proper and normal circumstances, would have 
been eliminated. On the other hand, where 
there has been a thorough and proper trial of 
the co-education of boys and girls, the testimony 
seems to be strongly, and almost exclusively, 
favorable to that system. In many of the large 
cities of the Union, this is the prevalent plan of 
organization, and the reports of superintendents 
are quite emphatic in its approval. The alleged 
benefits arising from it are chiefly the fol- 
lowing : (1) Improvement in discipline, the self- 
will, violence, and rudeness of the boys being- 
restrained by the presence of the girls ; while 
the girls' manners are rendered more easy and 
self-possessed by daily school association with 
the other sex; (2) Improvement in instruction 
and study, the diversities of the sexes prevent- 
ing extreme methods, and exclusive, one-sided 
training and study. Thus, it is said, that the 
tastes of the boys for severer studies, such as 
mathematics, are corrected by the inclination of 
the girls for the lighter and more sentimental 
studies, general literature, poetry, etc.; (3) A 
more sound and healthy development of both 
sexes; in support of which it is asserted that 
" schools kept exclusively for girls or boys, re- 
quire a much more strict surveillance on the 
part of the teachers. The girls confined by 
themselves, develop the sexual tension much 
earlier, their imagination being the reigning 
faculty, and not bridled by intercourse with 
society in its normal form. So it is with the 
boys, on the other hand. Daily association in 
the class-room prevents this tension, and supplies 
its place by indifference. Bach sex testing its 
strength with the other, on an intellectual plane, 
in the presence of the teacher — each one seeing 
the weakness and strength of the other, learns 
to esteem what is essential at its true value. . . . 
That the sexual tension be developed as late as 



possible, and that all early love affairs be avoided- 
is the desideratum; and experience has shown, 
that association of the sexes on the plane of in- 
tellectual contest is the safest course to secure 
this end." Thus, the theory of one side in re- 
gard to sexual peculiarities is just the reverse of 
that of the other ; but it is claimed that prac- 
tical experience confirms the latter, wliile the for- 
mer is only a theory ; and for this claim there 
appears to be a pretty strong foundation. The 
citation given above is from the report of one of 
the most experienced school superintendents of 
the United States, and is based upon an obser- 
vation of the mixed system in large public 
schools for fifteen years. (See School iteport of 
St. Louis, 1869 — 70.) In the city of New York, 
in 1874, the number of mixed grammar schools 
was reported as 13. containing, in average at- 
tendance, 2,400 pupils ; and the superintendent 
in his report for that year remarked: " A careful 
examination of these schools, as to their disci- 
pline and progress in scholarship, has elicited 
nothing to discredit, in any way, this mode of or- 
ganization, as compared with that of the other 
schools. The principals commend it as possess- 
ing many advantages over the plan of separating 
male and female pupils of such an age and grade 
of attainments, and parents seem to approve of 
it." In New York, however, most of the schools 
are organized on the extreme separation system. 
The report of the U. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, for 1874, states that there are in the 
United States 561 schools (secondary), contain- 
ing 64,129 pupils, male and female (boys, 32,711; 
girls, 27,942 ; of others, sex not reported); while 
the number of separate schools for boys, report- 
ing to the Bureau, was 195, with 13,592 pupils ; 
and for girls, 275, with 20,458 pupils. This 
would seem to indicate, as might naturally have 
been expected, a tendency to separate schools for 
girls ; but, at the same time, shows that, in sec- 
ondary education in the United States, the mixed 
system prevails. There is, unquestionably, a 
natural reluctance on the part of many parents 
to send their daughters to schools in which boys 
are also educated; but this apprehension of danger 
seems to give way after a trial of co-education ; 
and, it is claimed that corrupt influences are 
more liable to abound in schools exclusively for 
either sex, but particularly in separate schools 
for girls. " To insure modesty," says Richter, 
" I would advise the education of the sexes to- 
gether ; for two boys will preserve twelve girls, 
or two girls twelve boys, innocent, amidst winks, 
jokes, and improprieties, merely by that instinct- 
ive sense which is the forerunner of natural mod- 
esty. But I will guarantee nothing in a school 
where girls are alone together, and still less 
where boys are." 

All the facts and views here considered have, it 
must be observed, reference only to that limited 
education which is carried on in schools, where 
boys and girls are brought together for a brief 
period to receive instruction in those branches 
of study which are pursued for the purpose of 
intellectual education. The question whether 



CO-EDUCATION 



147 



such a limited co-education is expedient and 
proper, does not involve a consideration of the 
extent to which the distinction of sex requires a 
diversification of method in education in a lar- 
ger sense, as comprehending physical, moral, and 
mental training. Extreme opinions, however, 
prevail on this point. Dr. Clarke says, in Sex 
in Education, " None doubt the importance of 
age, acquirement, idiosyncrasy, and probable 
career in life as factors in classification. Sex 
goes deeper than any or all of these." On the 
other hand, it is contended that sex is not to be 
considered ; and this is the position of most 
women who have written on this question. 
"Education," says Caroline H. Pall, "is to be 
adapted neither to boys nor to girls, but to indi- 
viduals. The mother, or the teacher, has learned 
little who attempts to train any two children 
alike, whether as regards the books they are to 
study, the time it is to take, the attitudes they 
are to assume, or the amusements they are to be 
allowed." The general principle, without doubt, 
is, that education should be adapted to the in- 
dividual ; but as there are many diversities of 
character, both physical and mental, which arise 
from the difference of sex, and, consequently, are 
common to all of the same sex, boys cannot, in 
every respect, be educated as girls. It is against 
this ■' identical co-education," as he calls it. that 
Dr. Clarke, in Sex in Education, so warmly in- 
veighs. "Boys," he says, "must study and work," 
"in a boy's way, and girls in a girl's way;" which 
may be very true, and yet by no means invali- 
date the propriety of school co-education. 

In respect to the higher education of women, 
this question takes a wider range ; and, since 
the diversities of sex are, at this stage, more com- 
pletely developed, the arguments against co-edu- 
cation become more emphatic on the part of those 
who view the subject from a theoretical stand- 
point. These may be summed up as follows: (1) 
The physiological peculiarities of the female sex 
render it impossible that young women should 
undergo the same continuous mental labor as 
young men, without the sacrifice of their health, 
and without impairing the functions proper to 
their sex; (2) The constitution of the female 
mind is so diverse from that of the male mind, 
that it requires different studies, different modes 
of instruction, and different regimen in every 
respect ; (3) The career in life which is the 
destiny of woman demands a preparation diverse 
from that which is to fit a young man for the 
special duties of his sphere. The first of these 
positions is, of course, of paramount importance; 
although it is not simply an argument against 
co-education, but against affording to young 
women the same facilities for a higher education 
as are afforded to young men, whether they are 
educated together or not. " Appropriate educa- 
tion of the two sexes," says Dr. Clarke, "carried 
as far as possible, is a consummation most de- 
voutly to be desired ; identical education of the 
two sexes is a crime before God and humanity, 
that physiology protests against, and that ex- 
perience weeps over." Doubtless, this position 



was based upon certain facts which came under 
the writer's observation as a physician ; but it is 
contended that these cases were peculiar and ab- 
normal, the result of an imprudent disregard of 
individual peculiarities, and that they were not 
sufficiently numerous to form the basis of so 
sweeping a generalization ; and that there are 
no facts of the kind within the range of actual 
experience in co-education to warrant this asser- 
tion. Hence, in the words of Miss Anna C. 
Brackett, "the men, generally, and seemingly 
without appreciation of its logical results, ap- 
prove of what Dr. Clarke has said : the women 
of largest experience condemn, denying his prem- 
ises, disproving his clinical evidence by adding 
other facts, and protesting against Ins conclu- 
sions." 

Co-education in the higher institutions of 
learning has, during the last few years, been 
thoroughly tried in the United States ; and tha 
' system has rapidly advanced, stimulated by the 
success which appears uniformly to have attended 
i the experiment. But a few years ago, there was 
' not one college in the United States, which af- 
forded equal instruction to both sexes ; in L874, 
according to the report of the U. S. ( 'ommis- 
sioner of Education, there were 97 colleges and 
universities in which the co-educative system 
prevailed. Of the academies, normal schools, and 
high schools, only about seventeen per cent are 
for boys exclusively, nineteen per cent for girls 
exclusively, and more than sixty per cent for 
both sexes. The testimony of those experienced 
as instructors in the higher institutions, as well 
as of the alumna themselves, appears to favor 
strongly the principle and practice of co-educa- 
tion. In 18S3, Horace Mann accepted the posi- 
tion of president of Antioeh College, which had 
just been established ; and, as the co-education 
of the sexes in such an institution was then a 
novel experiment, he had many misgivings as to 
the result Five years afterward, however, in a 
letter to Mr. Combe, of Edinburgh, he stated, 
"We really have the most orderly, sober, diligent, 
and exemplary institution in the country. We 
passed through the last term, and are more than 
half through the present ; and I have not had 
occasion to make a single entry of any misde- 
meanor in our record book — not a case for any 
serious discipline." Mrs. Mann, in the Life of 
Horace, Mann (Boston, 1865), says: " No one 
conversant with the daily life and walk of Anti- 
oeh College can deny that the purity and high 
tone of its morals and maimers, in both depart- 
ments, were unequaled by those of any other 
known institution." In 1868, the Westminster 
Review said : "Antioeh College has been visited 
by Emerson. Theodore Parker, Oliver Wendell 
Holmes, Dr.Bellows, and other distinguished men; 
ami the testimonies as to its superior character 
have been uniform." The writers of the article 
referred to ( The Suppressed Sex, Westminster 
Review, Oct. 1 868), stated, that he had resided in 
the vicinity of Antioeh College under circum- 
stances that afforded ample opportunities for 
forming an acquaintance with its plan , professors, 



148 



CO-EDU CATION 



and students ; and, although quite familiar with 
the University of Virginia, Harvard, and to some 
extent with English universities, he expressed 
Ins "entire conviction that, in none of those male 
institutions, can there be found anything com- 
parable to the moral elevation, the refinement, 
or the intellectual enthusiasm which characterize 
the students of Antioch." As to the ability of 
the female students to perform the intellectual 
tasks assigned to those of the other sex, the testi- 
mony of college presidents and professors is uni- 
formly and strongly favorable. President Fair- 
child, of Oberlin, in 1874, said, " During my ex- 
perience as professor — twenty-seven years in all — 
I have never observed any difference in the sexes 
as to performance in recitation. President 
Angell, of the University of Michigan, said (1874), 
" We have not had the slightest embarrassment 
from the reception of women. They have done 
their work admirably, and, apparently, with no 
peril to their health." President White, of Cornell 
University, in an address delivered in 1874, said, 
" The best Greek scholar among 1,300 students 
of the University of Michigan a few years since, the 
best mathematical scholar in one of the largest 
classes of the institution to-day, and several 
among the highest in natural science and in the 
general courses of study, are young women." 
President Magill, of Swarthmore College, in an 
address before the Pennsylvania State Teachers' 
Association, August, 1874, said, " As a rule, the 
more faithful and conscientious discharge of their 
duties, which characterizes the young women, 
has produced a slight difference in their favor, 
in the matter of scholarship. The average stand- 
ing of the nine young women, for the four years, 
was 86.8 ; that of the four young men, 82.2." 
Professor Orton, of Yassar College, in an ad- 
dress (entitled Four Years in Yassar College) 
before the National Educational Association, 
August, 1874, said, "Yassar graduated last June 
42, being just half the number who have been 
connected with the class. Amherst graduated 
62 out of 95, and Cornell 65 out of 261 — a pain- 
ful example of 'the survival of the fittest'. Dur- 
ing the past year, eleven per cent of the under- 
graduates in Vassar have been kept from college 
duties more than ten days on account of illness; 
while at Amherst, where the physical education of 
the young men is more carefully attended to than 
at any other college, the percentage was twenty- 
one." Professor Hosmer, of the University of 
Missouri, in a paper entitled Co-Education of the 
Sexes in Univei-silies, read before the National 
Educational Association in 1874, cited many in- 
stances of an experience unfavorable to the co- 
education of young men and women, and thus 
very forcibly illustrated the need of great vigi- 
lance and caution in the management of institu- 
tions where the sexes are thus educated. Still he 
sums up the matter in the following words: 
" The co-education of the sexes in universities is 
possible ; even to some extent desirable, on ac- 
count of a certain good influence which the sexes 
may exert upon each other. That co-education 
is a matter of no difficulty, we are not to believe; 



much less that it is to be accepted as the power 
which is to produce straightway a mifiennium of 
purity and good order." 

As to the effect of such an education upon the 
after physical health and vigor, and the longevity, 
of the female students, the statistics are. proba- 
bly, insufficient to decide the question either way. 
Those given in Adelia A. F. Johnston's essay on 
Oberlin College are very interesting and suggest- 
ive, and seem to disprove the danger which, some 
physicians have alleged, is attendant on such a 
system of co-education. Of the 620 women grad- 
uated, up to 1873, at Oberlin College, some, she 
says, have been "teachers in our common schools 
and in our high schools, missionaries, both in the 
home and foreign field, professors in female 
medical colleges, founders of asylums and homes 
of refuge, and leaders in all benevolent enter- 
prises." The number of deaths among the 
alumni is stated to have amounted to a little 
over 10 per cent ; among the alumnce, to 9.67 
per cent. Twenty cases of alumnce, the names of 
j whom are taken in alphabetic order from the roll, 
' are cited, to show how many, seventeen years after 
1 their graduation, were leading lives of healthful 
vigor and activity ; and the facts in regard to 
each afford additional testimony in disproof of 
the peril of "identical co-education" as regards 
the health of the students. In brief, it may justly 
be said, that the testimony of practical educators 
is greatly in favor of the co-education of the 
sexes in the higher institutions of learning. 
The recently established Boston University 
has been organized avowedly on the principle, 
that a "university should exist not for one sex 
merely, but equally for the two." " It welcomes," 
says the University Year Book, vol. n., "woman 
not merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to 
the chair of the professor. It is the first institu- 
tion in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to 
admit the two sexes to common advantages in 
classical collegiate studies ; the first in the world 
to open the entire circle of post-graduate profes- 
sional schools to men and women alike." 

In Europe, co-education is generally discour- 
aged ; still, the principle seems to be gaining 
strength, in consequence of the results of the pro- 
visions made for the higher education of women. 
In Switzerland, women have been admitted to 
the various departments of the universities since 
1864. In the university of Zurich, many young 
Russian women have been educated ; and in the 
university of Berne there were, in 1875, 32 female 
students, pursuing then' studies without any dis- 
crimination as to sex. Women are now welcomed 
to university instruction in Vienna, Paris, 
Eome, Leipsic, Gottingen, Breslau, and some 
other European institutions. Efforts have been 
made, unsuccessful as yet, under the leadership 
of Miss Jex Blake, to open to female students the 
university of Edinburgh ; and, practically, co- 
education is sanctioned in connection with the 
" university examinations for women " in Eng- 
land, since the lectures supplied by the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge, for the purpose of afford- 
ing a preparation for these examinations, are 



COLBURN 



COLBY UNIVERSITY 



149 



open to both sexes. (See University Examina- 
tions.) In London, in 1 874. a college was opened 
under the name of College for Men and 
Women, which recently reported about 500 
students. In Cambridge, the establishment of 
Newnham Hall and Girton College for young 
women shows the growth of public sentiment in 
favor of the higher education of women, and is a 
step toward co-education in the University 
Plenum. Cirton College holds simultaneous 
examinations with those of the university, and 
uses the university examination questions. Ac- 
cording to the report of the National Union for 
Improving the Education of Women (1874), 
more than two-thirds of all the professional 
lectures of the University of Cambridge have 
been thrown open to women. Public sentiment 
in Great Britain is growing in favor of co-edu- 
cation. Some of the great leading journals have 
already commenced to advocate it. The 'Exam- 
iner declares. " We believe the separation of the 
sexes in the worlds of learning and thought to be 
simply evil. To allow young men and young 
women to meet together for amusement and 
frivolity, and strictly to part them when at work 
with any serious endeavor, is surely foolish.'' — 
>See E. H. Clarke, M. It. Sex in Education 
(Boston, 1873) ; and The Building of a Brain 
(Boston, 1874) ; Anna C. Brackbtt, The E<lu- 
cation of American Qirh (X. V.. 1874); E. IS. 
Dcffby, No Sex in Education (Phila., 1874); 
Westminster Review, Oct. 1868, s. v. The Sup- 
pressed Sex, and Oct. 1878, s. v. The Educa- 
tion of Women in America; llos/au I'nirer- 
sity Year Bank, vols. i. and n. : I>. Beai.e, Uni- 
versity Examinations far Women (London, 
1875); Report of the Public Schools of St. Louis, 
for 1860—70, and" 1872—3; Report of the ( 'om- 
missioner of Education (Washington, 1875). 

COLBTJB.N, Warren, one of the most emi- 
nent American mathematicians and teachers, 
w;us born at Dedham, Mass., March 1.. 1793. and 
died at Lowell. Sept. 15.. 1833. 1 1 is parents 
were poor; and Warren, who was the eldest son 
of a large family, could attend the district school 
only a portion of the year, working during the 
remainder on his father's farm. Subsequently, 
he worked in the factories, till having turned 
his attention to machinery, he followed, for some 
time, the trade of a machinist. He had, how- 
ever, always been diligent in the improvement 
of his mind, manifesting an unusual talent for 
arithmetic ; and, in his twenty-third year, he 
entered Harvard College, at which he graduated 
in 1820. After leaving the college, he taught a 
private school in Boston; and in 1821 published 
his First Lessons in Mental Arithmetic, the 
book which made him famous. The publication 
.of this work, to a certain extent, revolutionize! 1 
the method of teaching arithmetic then in vogue, 
substituting for the mechanical working-out of 
problems by rule, exercises in intellectual arith- 
metic, of a simple and progressive character, re- 
quiring not only calculation but analysis. In 
his address on Teaching Arithmetic, delivered in 
1 830, before the American Institute of Instruc- 



tion, he compares what he called the old and the 
new system, thus describing the latter : " By the 
new system, the learner commences with practical 
examples, in which the numbers are so small 
that he can easily reason upon them ; and the 
reference to sensible objects gives him an idea at 
once of the kind of result which he ought to pro- 
duce, and suggests to him the method of proceed- 
ing necessary to obtain it. By this he is thrown 
immediately upon his own resources, and is com- 
pelled to exert his own powers. At the same 
time, lie meets with no greater difficulty than he 
feels himself competent to overcome. In this 
way, every step is accompanied with complete 
demonstration- Every new example increases 
his powers and bis confidence; and most scholars 
soon acquire such a habit of thinking and rea- 
soning for themselves, that they will not be satis- 
fied with anything which they do not under- 
stand, in any of their studies. Instead of study- 
ing rules in the book, the reason of which he 
does not understand, the scholar makes his own 
rides; and his rules are a generalization of his 
own reasoning, and in a way agreeable to his own 
associations.'' The composition of this look was 
the result of Colbttrn's own teaching, and em- 
bodied his methods. "The pupils," he said, "while 
under tuition, made his arithmetic for him." 
The sale of this book was enormous, not only in 
the United States, but in Great Britain, reach- 
ing, it is said, in the former 100,000 copies, and 
in the latter 50,1)00 copies, annually. It was 
also translated into most of the languages of 
Europe, as well as into some others. Its plan is 
that which was conceived by Pestalozzi, but 
Colburn realized it, and adapted it to general 
use. George B. Emerson, in the Schoolmaster 
(1842). says of this work: ■• Colburn s First 
Lessons is the only faultless school-book that 
we have. It has made a great change in the 
mode of teaching arithmetic, and is destined to 
make a still greater. It should be made the 
basis of all instruction in this department." Col- 
burn's career as a practical teacher was quite 
short, continuing only three years. The subse- 
quent part of his life was spent in the work of 
superintending a large manufacturing company, 
first at Walthani. afterwards at Ljwell : but he 
delivered several courses of lectures on natural 
history and physics, published a Sequel to the 
First Lessons (1824), compiled a school text- 
book on algebra, and also a series of reading- 
books, on an original plan. It was, however, his 
First Lessons that gave him his celebrity as an 
educator, and that will ever associate his name 
with the subject. of oral or intellectual arithmetic. 
" There are few men," it has been remarked. 
" wdio, in so short and quiet a life, have done so 
much good, and rendered their names so familiar 
as Warren Colburn." — See Barnard, Educa- 
tion,!/ Biography (N. Y., 1801). 

COLBY UNIVERSITY, at Waterville. 
.Maine, under the control of the Baptists, was 
founded in 1820. There are four fine college 
buildings. The value of the college property is 
§1 50,000, and the amount of productive funds. 



150 



COLLEGE 



$200,000. Scholarships to the number of 60, 
yielding from $36 to $60 per annum each, have 
been founded for the benefit of students needing 
aid. The charge for tuition, room-rent, and use 
of library is $41 per annum. The institution 
has a gymnasium, a cabinet of natural history, 
especially rich in the departments of conchology 
and ornithology, and a library of about 10,000 
volumes. The two literary societies have libra- 
ries of about 3,000 volumes each. The Water- 
ville Classical Institute is under the control of 
the trustees of the university, and serves as a 
preparatory department. The regular university 
course is the ordinary four years' course of 
American colleges. Persons of suitable age and 
attainments are allowed to pursue a partial 
course for any length of time not less than one 
year, selecting such studies as they may desire. 
On leaving the institution, they are entitled to a 
certificate of their respective acquirements in 
the studies in which they have passed an exami- 
nation. The courses of study are now open to 
young women on the same terms as to young 
men. In 1873 — 4, there were 7 professors and 
62 students, of whom 5 were females; namely, 
senior class, 7; junior, 16 ; sophomore, 14; fresh- 
man, 25. The Rev. Henry E. Robins, D. D., is 
(1876) the president. 

COLLEGE (Latin collegium, originally mean- 
ing any kind of association) is a name given to 
large classes of educational institutions, especially 
in the United States, England, and France. The 
academic use of the word college began about 
the beginning of the 13th century, and originated 
in the following manner. The students who 
flocked to the university towns often came into 
collision with the citizens, and frequent brawls 
resulted. In order to protect the public peace, 
as well as to watch over the students, lodging- 
houses were provided in which the students were 
under the charge of a superior. These houses 
were called colleges; and this name was afterwards 
applied to any academic institution of a certain 
grade, whether connected with a university or 
not. Colleges appear to have first been estab- 
lished in Paris ; and soon afterward in Oxford 
and Cambridge, in Bologna and Padua, and 
in Prague and Vienna. They were richly en- 
dowed by popes and other dignitaries of the 
church, princes, and powerful families ; and, in 
some of the university towns just named, they 
became so numerous in the loth century, that 
almost every student of the university was a 
member of some one of the colleges. 

France. — In Paris, several monastic orders 
founded colleges to give to their younger mem- 
bers an opportunity to study theology and philos- 
ophy at the great seats of learning; other colleges 
were founded in some of the French provinces and 
in several foreign countries. Among the oldest 
French colleges were the College of St. Thomas, 
the Danish College, College des Dix-huit, the Col- 
lege Grec (founded in 1206), the College des Bons 
Enfanls (1208), that of the Pre?nonstratensians 
(1252), the Sorbonne, founded in 1253 for 16 
poor students of theology, and subsequently one 



of the most famous of French colleges, the Col- 
lege cle la Congregation de Clugny (1269), and 
the College de Navarre, founded in 1304 by the 
Queen of Navarre. In France, these colleges 
were almost exclusively situated in Paris, where 
their number, up to the end of the 13th century, 
rose to 15, and subsequently increased to about 
100 ; many of these, however, were of little im- 
portance. From their origin, it is plain that 
colleges were not originally designed to give in- 
struction, but merely to look after the students, 
and also to help the poorer ones in their course 
at the university. The teaching, however, be- 
longed entirely to the university. This was 
gradually changed, and the colleges, from being 
merely auxiliary to the university, became 
finally the centers of instruction. By limiting 
lectures and disputations to a single department, 
the colleges became so many distinct faculties ; 
and the university assumed the character of a 
union of colleges. In modern times, the term 
college is, in France, the distinctive name for 
schools of secondary instruction, corresponding 
to the gymnasiums of Germany and other coun- 
tries. The higher class of these schools are 
called lyceums (see Lyceum), the lower, com- 
munal colleges (colleges communaux). In 1873, 
there were 78 lyceums and 236 communal col- 
leges ; besides, a number of private institutions 
of a similar grade were called colleges libres. 
These colleges have the character either of Latin 
schools or real-schools. The former strive to 
emulate the lyceums, though consisting some- 
times of only a few of the lower classes, and 
frequently giving special prominence to a scien- 
tific course of instruction. The latter class of 
colleges generally exclude Latin, and are real- 
schools for pupils of the middle class, who intend 
to devote themselves to industry, commerce, arts, 
and agriculture. Many of them prepare their 
pupils to enter the special schools. There is a 
great variety in the courses of instruction of 
these schools. Among the best schools of the 
kind is the College municipal Cliaptal of Paris, 
founded in 1844 by the city. It consists of 6 
classes. The subjects of instruction in the first 
or lower class are (1) Religion ; (2) Arithmetic 
(decimal and common fractions; exercises in the 
metrical system ; calculation of extension, sur- 
face, and solids); (3) French and General Gram- 
mar ; (4) German and English ; (5) Geography; 
(6) General History ; (7) Geometrical Drawing ; 
(8) Free-hand Drawing; (9) Singing. In the second 
class, the same subjects are taught, and, in ad- 
dition, the elements of geometry and mathemat- 
ical geography. Those of the third class, besides 
the studies of the preceding class, give instruction 
in algebra, natural philosophy, chemistry, stere- 
ometry, mineralogy, and book-keeping. Those of 
the fourth class discontinue arithmetic, and take 
up trigonometry, Latin, Italian or Spanish, 
mechanics, botany, and zoology, hi the fifth class, 
the history of French literature, hygienics, and 
technology are added. In the sixth or highest 
class, are taught geology, cosmography, industrial 
and political economy , and the history of France. 



COLLEGE 



151 



The subjects taught in all the six classes are 
religion, French (in the lower classes grammar, 
in the higher literature), German or English, 
history, drawing, and singing. The College de 
France, in Paris, is an institution of a higher 
grade than either the communal colleges or 
lyceums, presenting a system of instruction 
almost as comprehensive as that of a complete 
university. It was founded by Francis I., in 1530, 
and its professors have always borne the name 
of leeteurs royaux. It has counted among its 
pn ifessors some of the greatest scholars of France, 
and has at present 28 professors and several 
distinct courses, embracing all the different sci- 
ences, law. medicine, as well as classic, modern, 
European, and oriental literature. 

Great Britain and Ireland. — The colleges 
founded in England in connection with the uni- 
versities of Oxford and Cambridge, were not in- 
tended to afford instruction, but to aid students 
in passing through the university. The rich en- 
dowments which were conferred upon the col- 
leges, however, soon enabled them to give to 
their inmates instruction as well as aid, and so 
increased their reputation and importance, that 
the. university, with its four faculties, gradually 
lost its hold of the students, and retained little 
more power than the conferring of degrees and 
other honors. The studies designed to prepare 
the students for the academic degrees, were 
chiefly pursued in the colleges, and it was espe- 
cially the lectures of the faculty of arts which 
were transferred to the colleges. " The colleges," 
said one of the speakers during the discussions 
upon the Cambridge bill, in the Bouse of Com- 
mons, May 30., 1856, "have overshadowed and 
practically almost monopolized the teaching of 
the university." Every college is a corporation 
of its own, having its own statutes, and electing 
one of its members for the legislative and exec- 
utive authorities of the university. The general 
name given to the heads of the colleges is Heiuls 
of Houses ; but there is a considerable diversity 
in the titles which the Heads of Houses have in 
different colleges. In some, the head is called 
Master, a title which prevails in ( Cambridge ; in 
others. Provost, President, Procurator, Warden, 
Rector, Perpetual Rector, or Dean. Most of the 
Heads of Houses are Doctors of Divinity. Next 
to the Heads of Houses are the Fellows, a num- 
ber of graduates who receive an income from 
the funds of the college, and are permitted to 
retain their positions for life, unless they inherit 
estates of greater income, or marry. The num- 
ber of fellowships in Cambridge is 130 ; in Ox- 
ford. 540. The Heads of Houses arc elected for 
life by the Fellows. A portion of the under- 
graduates also derive an income from the funds 
of the colleges, and are called Foundation Mem- 
bers. Members not on the Foundation constitute 
a large number of graduates who continue their 
names on the lists of the college in order to have 
the right to take part in the sittings of the sen- 
ate, and of independent under-graduates, who ac- 
cording to their rank and expenditures, are 
called Noblemen. Gentlemen Commoners, Fellow 



Crmimoners, Commoners, or Pensioners (the 
terms used at the two universities not quite 
agreeing). The under-graduate, on entering col- 
lege, is assigned to a " tutor," who is to him in 
/urn parentis, superintends his conduct, and 
provides for his instruction in the different stud- 
ies by the college lecturers or sub-lecturers. 
The latter instruct those students whom the 
lecturer cannot admit to his classes, either for 
the want of room, or for some other reason. The 
tutor may be, at the same time, a college lec- 
turer. The instruction in the college aims almost 
exclusively at preparing the student for the ex- 
aminations, which are partly college and partly 
university examinations. The college examina- 
tions are called collections, and take place at the 
end of every term, when each student has to 
answer in writing several questions relative to 
all the studies pursued by him. (For the uni- 
versity examinations, see Univkrsitv.) Oxford 
University contains 21 colleges and 5 halls; 
Cambridge. 1 7 colleges or halls (the two terms 
in Cambridge meaning the same). Next to these 
most important institutions. Trinity College. 
Dublin, holds a high rank. The Queen's Uni- 
versity in Ireland consists of three colleges, lo- 
cated in Belfast, Cork, and Galway. Until about 
1 830, dissenters' colleges were not allowed to grant 
degrees without requiring the graduates to sub- 
scribe to the thirty-nine articles. This caused 
a great deal of political agitation, which resulted 
in granting the privilege to these institutions, and 
also in founding the University College, King's 
College, and the University of London, in which 
the thirty-nine articles are not insisted upon as 
a condition of admission. These institutions 
have also served to promote the study of the 
natural sciences; Oxford and Cambridge being 
still, in this respect, strongholds of conservatism. 
The "great public schools." such as Eton and 
Rugby, are. in effect, colleges. Of these there 
are 17. some of which have also the name college; 
as Eton College, Dulwich College, Wellington 
College, and Winchester College. Some of the 
schools classed as grammar schools (see Gram- 
mar Schools) are also styled colleges. Besides 
these, there are many theological colleges, classi- 
fied as follows: Established.il; Wesleyan, 7 ; 
Congrcgationalist, 11; Roman Catholic, 11; 
Baptist.!*; Presbyterian, 3 ; Calvinist, 2; Meth- 
odist. 2; Unitarian, 1 : Free Religious Thought, 
1. There were also, in 1875 (according to 
H'/ii/tnfi-er's Almanack for 1876), five "Ladies' 
Colleges." 

United States. — The American colleges grant 
degrees in the arts, and give the ordinary course 
of under-graduate instruction. Some ofthe older 
colleges, as Yale and Harvard, add instruction in 
theology, law, and medicine, and thus approach 
to the rank of universities in the European sense 
of the word. Most of the so-called universities, 
however, furnish only collegiate instruction : ami 
there is, as yet, no fixed distinction between the 
terms college and university in the United States. 
The institutions of this kind considerably differ 
in their mode of organization. On the one hand. 



152 



COLLEGE 



are those which, adhering to the old system, have 
fixed standards of admission and a curriculum 
strictly prescribed ; on the other, those which 
have no fixed standard of admission nor pre- 
scribed curriculum, their course of studies being 
arranged in schools, among which the student 
may select at will. Of the former (the prevailing 
system) Yale may be taken as a representative ; 
of the latter, the University of Virginia. Be- 
tween these two extremes, are those that allow a 
greater or less freedom of choice to the student. 
Some, like Harvard and Yale, have distinct scien- 
tific departments ; others, like Cornell Univer- 
sity, have parallel courses in winch greater atten- 
tion may be paid to science or to modern lan- 
guages than in the classical course. With some 
of the colleges, professional schools are connected. 
Of about 3o0 institutions in the United States, 
styled colleges or universities, and possessing the 
right to confer degrees, a large majority have 
preparatory, and some, inferior departments, 
which often, especially in the West and South, 
comprise the greater part of the students. Har- 
vard, Yale, and a few others have post-graduate 
courses of study. The principal degrees confer- 
red are as follows : under-graduate, — Bachelor 
of Arts, of Science, of Philosophy, of Literature, 
of Letters; post-graduate, — Master of Arts, Doctor 
of Philosophy, Doctor of Science; professional, — 
Civil Engineer, Mining Engineer, Bachelor of 
Laws. Bachelor of Divinity, 1 >octor of Medicine ; 
honorary, — Doctor of Divinity, Doctor of Laws. 
The degree of Master of Arts is ordinarily con- 
ferred, as of course, upon Bachelors of Arts of 
three years' standing; but, in some institutions, it 
implies a course of post-graduate study, and it is 
often honorary. Many details respecting the 
course of study will be given in the articles on 
the different institutions, and matters relating to 
professional and other special degrees will be 
noticed under the appropriate heads. Only the 
range of studies open to candidates for the 
degree of Bachelor of Arts will be noticed here, 
and, for this purpose, Harvard and Yale will be 
taken as examples. The term of study for this 
degree is, in almost every institution, four years ; 
the method of instruction is ordinarily a combi- 
nation of lectures, recitations, and written ex- 
aminations. 

In Harvard, the course of study includes 
Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin (language and 
literature, including ecclesiastical Greek and the 
elements of Roman law), Anglo-Saxon, English 
language and literature, German, French, Italian, 
Spanish, Romance philology, rhetoric, political 
economy, logic, metaphysics, ethics, history (in- 
cluding international law), mathematics (includ- 
ing the higher branches), physios (including 
mechanics, astronomy, optics, acoustics, electric- 
ity, etc.), chemistry (including mineralogy), nat- 
ural history (including physical geography, me- 
teorology, geology, botany, zoology, palaeontology, 
and comparative anatomy and physiology), music, 
and the fine arts. In many of these branches, 
several parallel courses are arranged. The pre- 
scribed studies occupy the whole of the fresh- 



man year, and about one third of the sophomore 
and junior years. For the senior year, only cer- 
tain written exercises are prescribed. The re- 
mainder of the time is occupied by electives, in 
the choice of which the student is limited only 
by his qualification to pursue them. The clas- 
sics or mathematics may be pursued through the 
entire four years. The requirements for admis- 
sion are embraced in two courses, distinguished 
by a preponderance of the classics and mathe- 
matics respectively. The first course embraces- 
Latin grammar and composition, with the trans- 
lation of Latin prose at sight; Caesar, De Bello 
Galileo, Books I. — IV., inclusive ; Sallust, Cati- 
line; Ovid, 4,000 lines ; Cicero, eight orations 
and Cato Major ; Virgil, Bucolics, and JEne'id, 
Books I. — VI., inclusive ; Greek grammar and 
composition ; Goodwin and Allen's Greek 
Reader, or Xenophon's Anabasis, Books I. — LV., 
inclusive, with the Seventh Book of Herodotus ; 
Homer's Iliad, Books I. — III. inclusive, omitting 
the catalogue of ships ; arithmetic, including the 
metric system of weights and measures, with the 
rudiments of logarithms ; algebra, through quad- 
ratic equations ; as much plane geometry as is 
contained in the first 13 chapters of Peirce's 
Geometry ; ancient history and geography ; mod- 
ern and physical geography ; English composi- 
tion ; the translation at sight of either easy 
French prose or easy German prose ; and either 
elementary botany, rudiments of physics and 
1 of chemistry, or rudiments of physics and of 
j descriptive astronomy. The second course em- 
braces Latin grammar; Caesar, De Bello Galileo, 
Books I. and II.; Cicero, six orations and 
Cato Major; Virgil, JEne'id., Books I. — VI., in- 
clusive ; Greek grammar ; Goodwin and Allen's 
Greek Reader, first 111 pages, or Xenophon's 
Anabasis, Books I. — IV., inclusive ; Homer's 
Iliad, Books I. and II., omitting the catalogue of 
ships ; algebra, as much as is contained in the 
larger treatises of Greenleaf , etc.; solid geometry, 
as much as is contained in Peirce's Geometry ; 
plane trigonometry ; elements of plane analytical 
geometry ; with arithmetic, plane geometry, 
history, geography, English composition, French 
or German, and physical science as in the first 
course. 

In Yale, the course of instruction and the terms 
of admission are similar to those of the better 
class of colleges throughout the country. The 
course of instruction includes the Greek and 
Latin languages and literatures (three years), 
mathematics (two years) , history , rhetoric, French 
or German (two terms, junior year), natural 
philosophy, logic, astronomy, physics, mental 
philosophy, political and social science, chemistry, 
natural theology and evidences of Christianity, 
moral philosophy, geology, anatomy and physi- 
ology, the history of philosophy, constitutional 
history, the constitution of the United States, lan- 
guage and the study of language. In some of 
these subjects, the instruction is imparted simply 
by lectures. The course of instruction is strictly- 
prescribed, except that the differential and in- 
tegral calculus may be substituted for Greek 



COLLEGE 



153 



or Latin during the first two terms of the 
junior year. 

The requirements for admission are Latin 
grammar; Sallust, Bettum Jugurthin urn, or four 
books of Caesar; Cicero, seven orations; Virgil, 
Bucolics, Georgia;, and the first six books of 
the JEiw'id; Arnold's Latin Prose Composition, 
first twelve chapters ; Greek grammar ; Xeno- 
phon's Anabasis, four books ; Homer's Iliad, 
three books; Greek history ; higher arithmetic, 
including the metric system of weights and 
measures ; algebra ; Euclid, first two books ; 
English grammar and geography. In the post- 
graduate course, facilities are afforded for the 
study of Anglo-Saxon, the American Indian lan- 
guages (especially the dialects of the Algonquin 
family), Sanskrit, the Chinese and Japanese 
languages, Hebrew, and some other branches not 
in the under-graduate course. 

According to the Report of the U. S. Com- 
missioner of Education for 1874, there were, in 
the United States, 343 universities and colleges, 
with 3,783 instructors and 56,692 students, dis- 
tributed according to the following table : 



STATES and TERRITORIES. 


DO 

o 


.5 3 

& 

55 
8 

136 

53 

6 

3.3 

232 

132 

138 
42 
711 
56 
32 
77 

132 
99 
38 
46 

175 
19 
20 
61 

419 
31 

258 
30 

256 
15 
33 

130 

64 

20 

72 

23 

84 

54 

7 

4 

S 






s 

2 

12 
3 
1 
6 

23 

17 

17 
7 

12 
7 
3 
7 
7 
7 
3 
6 

17 
3 
1 
4 

26 
6 

34 
7 

27 
1 
8 

19 

12 
3 
8 
3 

10 
5 
2 
1 
2 


•'74 




39 

752 




855 




45 




574 




] 904 




1,613 
829 






206 




802 




82 




355 




477 




1,517 




817 




167 




271 




1,358 




55 




265 




645 




3,010 




267 


Ohio 


2,430 




180 




2 238 




253 




287 




757 




691 




161 




1.284 




171 




664 


Colorado 

Utah 


144 
15 




56 


In the foregoing table, the co 
versities are placed together, bi 
only the collegiate department 
stood. When there is a medics 
ological department, the statists 
are given elsewhere under the ap 


lieges am 
t in sucl 
s to be i 
d, law, o 
is of the 
Dropriate 


1 uni- 
i case 
mder- 
r the- 
same 
title. 



Some aggregate statistics from the same re- 
port are given in the following table: 

No. volumes in college libraries 1.S70.455 

No. volumes in society libraries 406,144 

Aggregate value of grounds, buildings, 

and apparatus $39,170,223 

Amount of productive funds 28, 080, 309 

Aggregate iucome therefrom 1,801,890 

Receipts from tuition fees 1,768,929 

Amount of scholarship funds 1,999,338 

State appropriation for the preceding year fill, 676 

The denominational character of the colleges 
as nearly as can be ascertained was, in 1875, as 
follows: 

Baptist 36 

Free Baptist 4 

Seventh-day Baptist 2 

I Ihristian ;> 

Congregationahst 19 

Cumberland Presbyterian fi 

Evangelical Association 2 

Friends 4 

Lutheran 15 

Masonic 1 

Methodist Episcopal 47 

Methodist Episcopal, South 9 

Methodist Protestant 1 

Moravian 1 

Mormon 1 

Presbyterian 24 

Protestant Episcopal 19 

Reformed 3. 

German Reformed 3 

Roman Catholic 67 

State 12 

Swedenborgian 1 

Unitarian 1 

United Brethren 3 

United Presbyterian 4 

Fnivirsalist 4. 

Uusectarian 34 

A few colleges are not contained in this enu- 
meration, it being uncertain to what denomination 
they belong. All the important institutions, 
however, are included. 

The presidents of nearly all the leading col- 
leges in the United States met at Hanover, N. 
II., in November 1874, and discussed, among 
other things, college athletics (boating etc.). the 
taxation of college property, optional studies 
and the comparative importance of classical and 
scientific studies, and the college and university 
system. It was resolved not to interfere in 
any way with regattas and boating. While the 
influences attending these pastimes might some- 
what divert attention from study, and thus lower 
the standard of scholarship, the physical training 
and development secured thereby were deemed 
amply sufficient to compensate for any such un- 
favorable results. Some of the presidents took 
strong ground against the taxation of college 
property. President Eliot warmly argued in 
favor of optional studies, contending that the 
United States is the only country which com- 
pels a student to pursue prescribed branches 
after the age of 19. In the discussion on class- 
ical and scientific studies, each side had its 
advocates; but the general opinion was, that 
the languages and sciences should be studied as 
means of mental discipline only, during the 
freshman and sophomore years, and that the 
succeeding years — junior and senior — should be 



154 



COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS 



COLOMBIA 



devoted to philosophy, literature, and special 
sciences, leaving the languages and mathematics 
optional during the junior year. — See Noah 
Porter, The American Colleges and the Amer- 
ican Public (N. T., 1870); Jex-Blake, A Visit 
to some American Schools and Colleges (Lond. 
and N. Y.); Own, College Life; lis Theory and 
Practice (N. Y., 1867); F. Arnold, Oxford and 
Cambridge; their Colleges etc. (London). 

COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS. See Cathe- 
dral Schools. 

COLOMBIA, United States of, formerly 
New Granada, a republic in the northern part of 
South America, formed of nine federal states, 
the combined area of which is variously esti- 
mated at from 480,000 to 521,000 sq. m., and 
the population at about 2,900,000, composed of 
whites, negroes, Lidians, and mixed races. The 
whites are mainly Spanish, either by birth or 
by descent; they speak the Spanish language and 
generally profess the Catholic faith. The 
country was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536 
and 1537, and was created a viceroyalty of 
Spain, under the title of New Granada, in 1718. 
After various insurrectionary attempts, the 
Spanish rule was finally thrown off in 1819, and 
an alliance was formed with Venezuela and 
Quito, under the name of the Republic of Co- 
lombia. The chronic anarchy which has always 
reigned among the South American republics, 
put an end to this union in 1829, and the pres- 
ent republic was organized in 1831. 

Under the Spanish rule, primary instruction 
was chiefly in the hands of the Church ; and 
higher instruction was confined to the colleges. 
Li the latter, a very superficial instruction was 
given in the classics, history, geography, and the 
elements of natural science ; a smattering of 
theology was also included. A number of these 
colleges still exist, but are of little importance. 
The chief ones are the Colegio Nacional de San 
Bartolomeo, in Bogota, and the colleges in Car- 
tagena, Popayan, Mompox, Tunja, and Call 

After the overthrow of the Spanish power, 
Bolivar aimed to set public instruction upon a 
firm footing. As a preliminary step, the church 
property was sold, and all cloisters which had less 
than eight monks were suppressed. The con- 
stitution of 1821 limited the right of voting to 
those citizens who coidd read and write ; it also 
provided that the national congress should con- 
trol public education. Very considerable ad- 
vancement was made under Bolivar's administra- 
tion towards an efficient school system ; but, un- 
fortunately, his dictatorial proceedings, together 
with the anarchical spirit of the people, produced 
such political confusion, that nothing resulted 
from it. Until the year 1863, the only schools 
were the relics of the old church and cloister 
schools, a few private institutions, and some local 
schools, supported by the municipalities. Public 
instruction was first placed definitely under the 
direction of the national government by the con- 
stitution of 1863. The law of May 30., 1868, 
determines the relation of the national govern- 
ment to the several states in the matter of edu- 



cation, prescribing the. following as its duties : 
Besides managing the national university, it is 
required to maintain normal schools for both 
sexes ; also to establish primary schools, which 
shall serve as a standard for the establishment of 
similar schools by the several states. The found- 
ing of agricultural schools, together with the en- 
tire direction of what school books and apparatus 
shall be used, is entirely in the hands of the gov- 
ernment. The law also provides for a central 
normal school in the capital of the republic. 
This law remained a dead letter until November 
1., 1870, when a decree was issued upon the sub- 
ject, providing for a national school board in Bo- 
gota, and a state school board for each of the 
states to which a national school officer is sent. 
The public schools are either primary schools or 
higher schools, and are for both sexes. The 
primary school gives instruction in reading, 
writing, and arithmetic, the rudiments of the 
Spanish language, the elements of physiology and 
hygiene, singing, natural history, and the history 
of the nation. The higher schools add to these 
branches the elements of algebra and geometry, 
and an elementary knowledge of natural science 
and general geography. In the girls' schools, the 
same subjects are taught, though to a less ex- 
tent ; and various feminine accomplishments, 
such as house-keeping etc., are added. The cen- 
tral normal school has a four years' course. The 
subjects studied are grammar, Spanish literature, 
the French and English languages, universal 
history, the national history, algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry, general geography, astronomy, in- 
dustrial physics and chemistry, mechanics and 
mechanical drawing, natural history and agricul- 
ture, anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, music, 
vocal and instrumental, and gymnastics. The 
law further provides for a normal school in the 
capital of each state, the expense of which is 
borne by that state. A teachers' association is 
connected with each of these normal schools. 
Schools are also provided for those small chil- 
dren whose parents are unable to provide them 
with the first rudiments of education. Every 
public school must have its own building, which 
includes the dwelling of the principal ; it also 
has a garden for the practical study of botany, 
gardening, etc. The law provides, too, that pub- 
lic instruction shall aim at moral culture, but 
the national government does not interfere with 
religious education. The course of instruction 
in the schools must, however, be so arranged 
that sufficient time may remain for religious in- 
struction by the pastors, or such other persons 
as the parents may choose. Parents and guard- 
ians must either send their children and wards, 
between the ages of seven and fifteen, to the pub- 
lic schools, or provide other satisfactory instruc- 
tion for them. As yet, however, there is no 
penalty for a non-compliance with this provision, 
although there is a strong sentiment in favor of 
compulsory education. Besides these schools, 
the government has established schools in the 
military barracks, for the instruction of the sol- 
diers in the common branches of learning. 



COLOR 



155 



In Colombia, however, as elsewhere, the doc- 
trine of state rights has been a troublesome ele- 
ment. No act of the national congress becomes 
a law in the several states, until it has been 
adopted by their respective legislatures ; and 
there is not a single provision of the law per- 
taining to education which has nut been fiercely 
disputed by the several states; but it has finally 
been adopted by all but Antioquia. A further 
disturbing element in carrying out the law. was 
Ultranmntanism. The government called many 
prominent teachers from abroad, and especially 
from Germany, for the national normal schools,' 
— a measure at which the clerical party took great 
offense. The exclusion of religious instruction 
from the schools also caused a great deal of op- 
position from the clergy; nevertheless, the system 
of national instruction has continually grown in 
favor with the people, and now seems to be as 
well established as the restless character of the 
people admits. A number of educational journals 
are published, of which the following are the 
principal : Ln Escuela Normal, El Maestro de 
Escueln. Ln Escuela Primaria, El Monitor, and 
Lit Revista. 

COLOR, as a branch of object instruction, is 
of great interest and value ; since, at an early 
age, children take particular notice of colors, and, 
hence, lessons upon this subject furnish an excel- 
lent opportunity for training them to distinguish 
resemblances and differences, and for encouraging 
the formation of those habits of attention and 
comparison which are necessary to the successful 
study of other subjects. From the fact that 
many persons are found to be color-blind, it is of 
great importance that suitable lessons should lie 
given children to enable teachers and parents to 
ascertain whether this defect exists in any under 
their care, before they become old enough to en- 
gage in any occupation in which color-blindness 
would be an insurmountable defect. Besides, by 
the early training of children to observe colors, 
much of the inability to distinguish them, which 
is commonly not discovered until later in life, may 
be overcome by education. Furthermore, a gen- 
eral knowledge of colore, and of their relations to 
each other, is of importance in nearly every avo- 
cation of life. This becomes especially apparent 
when it is remembered how much depends upon 
color in the manufacture of materials for dress, 
furniture, household decorations, in the work of 
artists, and in various other kinds of employment. 

Since a knowledge of color can be gained only 
through the sense of sight, the methods for 
teaching it in school should be so arranged that 
the pupils may have abundant exercise of this 
sense in distinguishing colors. For the first les- 
sons, place before the pupils the best colors that can 
be procured, in order that they may obtain cor- 
rect conceptions as to what are good reds, yel- 
lows, blues, greens, purples, etc. Commence 
with showing a single color, as red, and leading 
the pupils to compare red cards, paper, silk, 
worsted, etc., with it, and thus to notice resem- 
blances and differences between the true red and 
the several objects compared with it. Give sim- 



ilar exercises, with each of the primary and sec- 
ondary colors, singly ; then place two of these 
colore before the pupils, and let them select ar- 
ticles to match each of the given colors. Pro- 
ceed in a similar way with the other colors; and, 
finally, place several or all of them before the 
pupils at the same time, and require them not 
only to point out the colors as named, but to se- 
lect colored articles to match each. 

Frequent changes in the mode of giving these 
exercises on color will increase the interest of the 
children in the subject, and add to their knowl- 
edge of it. especially when each one has some- 
thing to do in the exercise. After the pupils 
have learned to know each of the six colors used 
in the previous lesson, fresh interest may be 
given to the subject, by supplying each child with 
a piece of colored paper, taking care that those 
who sit side by side shall, as far as possible, hold 
different colore. When the papers have been 
distributed, the teacher may say, " Now, look at 
your paper, see what color you have, then fold 
your arms so as to hide your paper. Now, look 
at the color which 1 show you ; all who know 
that they have a like color may hold it up. — 
Kight. — Now, look at this color, — all who have 
one like it, hold it up." Proceed in the same 
manner with each color ; — to close the lesson, re- 
quest one pupil to collect all the red papers, 
another all the blues, another the greens, etc. 
Similar lessons may be given for the purpose of 
teaching children to distinguish shades of colors, 
as dark and light reds, blues, greens, etc. 

If it be desired to continue these lessons, and 
teach that the six colors previously shown may 
lie divided into two groups— primary and sec- 
ondary — procure artists' paints: red (carmine), 
yellow (chrome), blue (ultramarine); also a small 
palette, and a palette knife. Place a little yel- 
low and blue on the palette, side by side, re- 
questing the pupils to notice what colore are 
used. Then, with the knife, mix these two 
colors together until grmi appears in place of 
the yellow and blue. Then ask the pupils what 
color has been produced by mixing the yellow 
and blue. Proceed in a similar manner to mix 
red and blue, to produce purple ; red and yellow, 
to produce orange. The teacher may now write 
on the blackboard for the pupils to learn : Mix- 
ing yellow and blue will produce green. Mixing 
red mid blue will produce purple. Mixing red 
mill yellow will produce orange. Then pupils 
may select the two primary colore that will pro- 
duce given secondaries, also the secondary that 
may lie made from two given primaries. Show 
thi' pupils also that light and dark colors maybe 
formed by mixing white or black with other 
colore. Provide exercises by which the pupils 
| may do something to indicate that they know 
each fact taught. 

In order that children may understand har- 
mony of colors, they must be led to observe that 
to produce harmony, the three primary colors 
must be grouped together ; that if two of them 
I exist in a given secondary, the other primary 
! will harmonize with that secondary. To accom- 



156 



COLORADO 



plish this result by teaching, arrange colored 
paper, or other material, so that red and green, 
yellow and purple, blue and orange, pale green 
and violet, may be compared, and the sensation 
noticed. Request the pupils to tell what colors 
are compared in each instance ; also whether 
the three primaries exist in each group; as well 
as to observe that the colors of these groups 
harmonize. Next, compare red and orange, blue 
and green, yellow and green, requiring the 
pupils to observe the effect on the sense of 
sight; also to state which primaries exist in each 
group, and to notice that the colors of these 
groups do not harmonize. These lessons will 
be more or less useful in proportion to the 
amount of exercise which the pupils have in 
distinguishing and comparing colors, and in 
observing their relations. — See N. A. Cal- 
kins, Primary Object Lessons, 15th ed. (N. T., 
1871) ; Burton, The Culture of the Observing 
Faculties (N. Y.,1865); Currie, Principles and 
Practice of Early and Infant School-Education 
(Edin., 1857). (See also Senses.) 

COLORADO was organized as a territory 
Feb. 28., 1861, from parts of Kansas, Nebraska, 
New Mexico, and Utah. The part which is 
situated north of the Arkansas river and east of 
the Rocky mountains, was included in Louisiana, 
purchased from France in 1803 ; the remainder 
formed part of the territory ceded by Mexico 
to the United States in 1848. In 1870, the area 
of Colorado was reported as 104,500 sq. m.. and 
its population as 39,8ti4, winch included 456 col- 
ored, persons, 7 Chinese, and 180 Indians. The 
settlement of the territory, it may be said, was 
begun in June, 1858, by a party of gold-seekers 
from Georgia, consisting of nine persons, under 
the leadership of W. G. Russel. The region se- 
lected by these for settlement was near the pres- 
ent city of Denver, then within the limits of 
Kansas. Previous to this time, however, there 
were a few Mexicans in the southern portion of 
the territory, engaged in stock-raising. 

Educational History. — Among the acts passed 
by the first legislative assembly, which met Sept. 
9., 1861, was one that provided for the establish- 
ment of a system of public schools, to be under 
the supervision of a superintendent of public in- 
struction, county superintendents, and district 
directors. At this time, the school population 
of the territory was very small ; hence, the law, 
although comprehensive and liberal, was of little 
practical use. At a subsequent session of the 
legislature, the office of superintendent of public 
instruction was practically abolished by making 
the territorial treasurer superintendent ex officio, 
with a salary of $100 per annum. Unlike most 
of the recently settled states and territories, Col- 
orado had for her pioneers not families, but indi- 
viduals, not women and children, but gold-hunt- 
ing men and adventurous explorers, few of whom 
were to be found for two successive years in the 
same locality, and none of whom intended to re- 
main for a longer time than was required to 
gather a fortune. Hence but little interest was 
manifested in schools (indeed, at that period, 



there was scarcely any necessity for their estab- 
lishment), until about the year 1869, by which 
time the natural resources of the territory — agri- 
cultural, mineral, and climatical — had been made 
manifest to such an extent, that railroads were 
projected, colonies were organized in the east, 
and those who had been here during the preced- 
ing years felt no desire to emigrate. The num- 
ber of school children increased rapidly, and the 
necessity for a permanent and liberal school sys- 
tem not only became apparent, but was demanded 
by the people. In 1870, the school law was re- 
vised ; the office of superintendent of public in- 
struction was again created ; and Wilbur C. 
Lothrop was appointed to fill the office for two 
years, and re-appointed, in 1872, for a second 
term. Before the expiration of his second term, 
however, Mr. Lothrop resigned, and Horace M. 
Hale was appointed to fill the vacancy, and re- 
appointed for the full term ending in Febru- 
ary, 187.6. 

School System. — The superintendent of public 
instruction is appointed by the governor and 
confirmed by the legislative council, holds the 
office for two years, and receives an annual salary 
of $1200. He has a general supervision of the 
county superintendents and of the public schools, 
and is required to report biennially to the gov- 
ernor. The comity superintendents (25 in num- 
ber) are elected at the regidar county election 
for two years ; they receive five dollars for each 
day's service, are required to examine teachers, 
to grant certificates (valid for a period not ex- 
ceeding one year), to apportion the county fimd, 
to visit the schools twice each term, and to make a 
report each year to the superintendent of public 
instruction. The district directors, consisting of 
a president, a treasurer, and a secretary, are elected 
on the first Monday of May in each year by the 
tax-paying voters of each district. The directors 
employ teachers, make all contracts for the main- 
tenance of the schools, and perform such special 
duties as may be delegated to them by the citi- 
zens at the time of their election, such as fixing 
the course of study, designating the kind of text 
books to be used, specifying the time during 
which the schools shall be in session, levying spe- 
cial taxes for building and other purposes, etc. 
School districts are bodies corporate, formed 
from time to time by the county superintendent. 
They may, at a special election called for the 
purpose, vote to issue the bonds of the district 
for the purpose of building school-houses. Many 
of the incorporated towns have special school 
laws differing somewhat from the general school 
law. The school fund is obtained from a county 
tax (not less than two mills on the dollar), from 
the proceeds of fines collected in the several 
counties for breaches of the penal laws, from 
all moneys arising from the sale of waifs and 
estrays, and from a special tax levied in each 
district whenever the citizen voters so direct. 
The county fund and penal fund are apportioned 
quarterly to the several districts, according to 
the number of persons in each between the ages 
of 5 and 21 years. There is no state school tax. 



COLORADO COLLEGE 



COLORED SCHOOLS 



157 



It is provided that the Bible shall not be ex- 
cluded from the schools, but that no pupil shall 
be required to read it contrary to the wishes of 
his parents or guardian. Teachers' institutes are 
held in the several counties at the call of the 
county superintendents ; but there is no regularly 
organized teachers' association, nor state normal 
school. The school year begins October 1st. 

Educational Condition. — Prom the report of 
Sept. 30., 1875. it appeared that there were in 
the territory 329 school-districts, 280 public 
schools, and 172 school-houses. The number of 
children of school age — from 5 to 21 — was 
23,274, and the number of pupils enrolled 
10.1 85. The whole number of teachers employed 
was 377. of whom 172 were males, and 205 fe- 
males ; and the average monthly salary paid to 
the male teachers was §60, and to the female 
teachers, §50. The whole amount of money ex- 
pended for school purposes during the preceding 
year, was $210,813.86 ; and the total value of 
the school houses and furniture was $414,008. 
The increase during the preceding year was as 
follows: In number of school-districts, 16 per 
cent; in schools. L8 percent, in school-houses, 
10 per cent ; in school population, 16 per cent ; 
in value of school property, 23 per cent. 

Secondary and other Instruction. — The High 
School of Denver was established in 1873, and 
will graduate its first class in 1877. There are 
also several private and denominational schools, 
including a school of mines, in Denver. There 
is also a school for deaf-mutes at Colorado 
Springs. A proposed state university has been 
chartered, and located at Boulder. Forty acres of 
ground have been set apart for its use, and §30,000 
are now (1871!) in the hands of the trustees to be 
appropriated to the erection of buildings. Col- 
orado College, at Colorado Springs, was estab- 
lished in 1874 by the Congregationalisms ; and 
Evans University, at Evans, was chartered in 
1874 by the Presbyterians. A school of mines 
has also been commenced, at Golden, as the fut- 
ure scientific school of the projected state uni- 
versity. 

COLORADO COLLEGE, at Colorado 
Springs, Colorado, was organized in 1874. It 
is under the control of Congregationalists. Pre- 
paratory and collegiate departments have been 
established. In 1873 — 4, it had 5 instructors, 
and 25 preparatory and 15 collegiate students. 
It admits both sexes. 

COLORED SCHOOLS, a class of schools 
designed for the instruction of colored children. 
Such schools are quite common in many parts 
of the United States, especially in the South, 
where the negro population is very large. Thus, 
in South Carolina, in 1874, the whole number 
of children of school age (6 to 16, inclusive) 
enumerated was 230,102, of whom 84,975 were 
white, and 145,127 colored children; and of a 
total enrollment of 100.719, the white children 
numbered 44,470, and the colored children 
56,249. In all the old slave states, and in many 
of the northern states, the feeling of aversion to, 
or prejudice against, the negro race is so strong, 



I that the public school system can be made effect- 
ive only by the establishment of separate schools 
i for colored children ; since many white parents 
would refuse to permit their children to attend 
schools in which the " co-education of the races'' 
was carried on. This feeling is sometimes strong 
even in new communities. Thus, in Montana, t In- 
legislative requirement of separate schools, ac- 
cording to the report of the superintendent for 
1873, has practically excluded colored children 
from all opportunity to obtain an education; 
and he remarks, in tins connection, that " prej- 
udice shoidd not be permitted to stand in the 
path of justice." and urges, that the schools should 
be open to all children without regard to color. 
In some of the older and larger northern states. 
this distinction, of separate schools for white 
and colored children, is fast passing away. Thus, 
in Pennsylvania, in 1874, there were only 73 
schools for colored children out of an aggregate 
number of schools of 16,641 ; and an attendance 
of only 2,500 pupils, out of about 440,11(10. In 
the state of New York, the whole expenditure 
for school purposes in 1874, was $12,298,729; 
and of this only $66,126 was expended for the 
support of colored schools in the state, those in 
the towns costing only $7,768, and those in the 
cities. $58,458, of the latter of which $46,676 
was expended for the support of the colored 
schools of New York City- In that city, separate 
schools for colored children have existed since 
the establishment of the African Free School, 
in 1787, by the Society for promoting the manu- 
mission of slaves, incorporated in 1785. [nl838, 
the name African Schools was changed to ( '<»/- 
ored Schools, on the petition of the teachers. Pre- 
vious to this time, these schools had been trans- 
ferred to the Public School Society, which then 
had the charge of all the other common schools 
of the city. In 1835, the whole number of pupils 
enrolled in these schools was about 1608, with 
an average attendance of 757 ; and the annual 
report of the city superintendent for 1875 shows 
an enrollment of only 1958, and an average at- 
tendance of 872. Although, by the Oivil Rights 
Bill, passed by the state legislature in 1873. all 
the schools were practically tlu'own open to 
colored children, few have taken advantage of 
this, but have apparently preferred to remain in 
the separate schools provided for them, though 
their attendance is often at considerable incon- 
venience in consequence of the remoteness of 
their places of residence from the schools. 

In some of the states, the prescribing of sep- 
arate schools for colored children is a great hard- 
ship, since their numbers are not sufficient to 
warrant the establishment of good schools, if any 
at all. Thus, in the Ohio state report for 1873, 
it is stated that, " in many districts, colored chil- 
dren are practically deprived of school privileges 
and advantages, especially where the number by 
enumeration is less than twenty; and the separate 
schools established for them are sometimes con- 
tinued in session a less number of weeks than 
the schools for white children in the same district. 
It is a significant fact that, of the 23,020 colored 



158 



COLORED SCHOOLS 



COLUMBIA COLLEGE 



youth of school age in the state, only 5,950 are 
under instruction." It has been claimed by some 
that the fourteenth amendment to the constitu- 
tion of the United States, which denies the right 
of any state " to make or enforce any law which 
shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
citizens of the United states," prohibits the 
establishment of separate schools for colored 
children ; but decisions of the supreme courts in 
New York and Ohio have settled this question 
in favor of the separate schools, provided these 
schools afford their pupils advantages equal to 
those provided for white children. Such was 
also the decision of the superior court of Marion 
County, Indiana, in 1874, which held that "the 
classification of scholars on the basis of race or 
color, and their education in separate schools in- 
volve questions of domestic policy which are 
within the legislative discretion and control, and 
do not amount to an exclusion of either class." 
Hence, the state law of May 13., 1859 was sus- 
tained as constitutional ; and it was decided that, 
while it remained in force, colored children were 
" not entitled to admission into the common 
schools provided for the education of white 
children." 

The feeling in regard to mixed schools for 
white and colored children is very diverse in 
different localities. In some places, there is a 
most intense opposition to such schools ; while, 
in others, and sometimes in the same state, there 
is a complete acquiescence of all citizens in the 
arrangement. In 1873, the school superintendent 
of Illinois issued a circular of inquiry, in regard 
to this subject, to the county superintendents, 
asking for facts and results; and out of 77 
counties reporting, there were in 1 0, no persons 
of color to be educated ; in 41 , colored children 
attended the same schools as white children ; in 
10, the colored children were in separate schools; 
in 16, some were in separate schools, while others 
attended the same as whites ; in 30, no objections 
to the co-education of the races were reported ; 
but in 27, trouble, of a more or less serious na- 
ture, was stated to have occurred. Some of the 
superintendents were strongly in favor of co-edu- 
cation, while others, including some from coun- 
ties where the schools were mixed, expressed 
their opposition to it in the strongest terms. 

The opposition to the co-education of the races 
in the Southern states is, as might be expected, 
very strong. This was made manifest in the 
public expression of opinion in regard to the 
Civil Rights Bill while it was pending in the 
the United States Senate, in 1874. In Co- 
education of the Wliite and Colored Races, by 
Rev. W. H. Ruffner, state superintendent of 
schools in Virginia, published in Scribner's 
Monthly (May, 1874), the author said, "An act of 
Congress requiring the south poles of all mag- 
nets to attract each other, would not be a whit 
more absurd than one requiring education to be 
conducted on a race mixture in the late slave 
states." " There are now," he said, " more than 
a million and a half of children, white and black, 
in the public schools of the fifteen ex-slave states;" 



and he expressed the opinion, that the passage of 
any law enforcing co-education would have the 
effect to ruin the common school system in every 
one of those states. As long as this feeling of 
aversion to the co-education of whites and blacks 
exists, whether prejudice or not, it would seem 
to be the duty of legislators to respect it ; and 
not to endeavor to force upon communities a 
school organization which they abominate, as 
long as the equal rights of all citizens are re- 
spected. At the same time, it must be borne in 
mind that experience seems to show that these 
race distinctions disappear in time; but that 
this time may be prolonged by unwise violence 
and haste. Probably, not in the present genera- 
tion will the existence of colored schools cease, 
at airy rate in the Southern states; but that they 
will finally disappear, as a feature of American 
common-school systems, there are many that 
entertain no doubt. 

COLUMBIA COLLEGE, in the City of 
New York, was incorporated by royal charter in 
1754, and was called King's College. It was sus- 
pended during the revolution, and reorganized, 
in 1787, under its present name, Columbia 
College. The college grounds comprise the block 
bounded by Madison and Fourth avenues, and 
49th and 50th streets. The value of grounds, 
buildings, and apparatus is $787,700 ; the amount 
of productive funds, 84,581,700, on which the 
annual income is $205,000. These figures are 
exclusive of the medical school. Certain so- 
cieties and corporations, including each reli- 
gious denomination in the city of New York, 
may send students to be educated free of charge. 
Fourteen scholarships have recently been estab- 
lished, of the annual value of $ 100 each, and 
six fellowships (one in science and one in litera- 
ture) of the annual value of $500 each. The 
fellowships are offered for competition to the 
senior class upon graduation, and are tenable 
for three years. The fellows are required to 
continue their studies under the direction of the 
president of the college, but they may choose the 
place of study. The institution comprises the 
college proper, the school of mines, the law 
school, and the medical school. The college 
proper has 8 professorships : (1) Greek language 
and literature ; (2) German language and litera- 
ture ; (3) chemistry ; (4) mathematics ; (5) 
mathematics and astronomy ; (G) moral and in- 
tellectual philosophy, and English literature ; (7) 
mechanics and physics ; (8) Latin language and 
literature. The course is the ordinary four years' 
course of American colleges, leading to the degree 
of Bachelor of Arts. The college has an astro- 
nomical observatory, a herbarium, and valuable 
chemical and philosophical apparatus. The cost of 
tuition is $100 per annum, but it may be remitted 
to indigent students. The school of mines was 
established in 1864. It has 8 professorships : 
(1) mineralogy and metallurgy ; (2) civil and 
mining engineering ; (3) analytical and applied 
chemistry ; (4) general chemistry ; (5) mechan- 
ics ; (6) mathematics ; (7) physics ; (8) geology and 
palaeontology. The system of instruction includes 



COLUMBIA 



COMENIUS 



159 



five parallel courses of study; namely, (1) civil 
engineering; (2) mining engineering ; (3) metal- 
lurgy ; (4) geology and natural history ; (5) ana- 
lytical and applied chemistry. The course of in- 
struction occupies three years. Those who com- 
plete it receive the degree of Engineer of Mines. 
Civil Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. 
There is an advanced course for graduates 
of the school for the degree of Doctor of Phi- 
losophy. For candidates not qualified to enter 
the first year, there is a preparatory year. 
Collections of specimens and models, illustrating 
all the subjects taught in the school, are access- j 
ible to the students, including crystal models, 
natural crystals, pseudomorphs. ores and metal- 
lurgical products, models of furnaces, specimens 
illustrating applied chemistry, fossils, economic 
minerals, rocks, Olivier 's models of descriptive 
geometry, models of mining machines, and models 
of mining tools. The cost of tuition is 9200 
per annum, but it may be remitted to indigent 
students. The law school, now in Oreat Jones 
street, was opened in 1658. Under the direction 
of Theodore W. Dwight, LL. D., it has attained 
a high reputation. The College of Physicians 
and Surgeons, on the corner of 23d street and 
Fourth avenue, became the medical department 
of Columbia College in 1860, but the connection 
is little more than nominal. The number of in- 
structors, students, and volumes in the libraries, 
in 1875 — 6, was as follows : 

Departments. Instructors. Students. Volumes. 

College (proper) 13 172 17,500 

School of Mines 23 220 6,000 

Law School 573 4,000 

Medical School 29 410 1.2110 



Total 71 1,375 28,700 

According to the triennial catalogue of 1870, 
the total number of graduates of all the schools 
was 3.K34, of whom 2,721 were living. There 
were 2,109 graduates in arts. s68 in medicine, 
487 in law, 37 in mining, and 333 honorary grad- 
uates. The presidents have been as follows : 
the Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, 1754 — 63; Myles 
Cooper, LL. D., 1763 — 75; Benjamin Moore, 
A.M., pro tern., 1775 — 6; Wm. S. Johnson, 
LL.D., 1787—1800; the Rev. Dr. Charles H. 
Wharton (who probably did not act), 1801; the 
Rev. Benjamin Moore. D.D., 1801— 11; the Rev. 
Wm. Harris, D.D., 1811—29; Wm. A. Duer, 
LL. D., 1829 — 12 ; Nathaniel F. Moore, LL.D., 
1842—9 ; Charles King, LL. D., 1849—64 ; the 
Rev. Frederick A. P. Barnard, LL.D., the present 
incumbent, appointed in 1864. 
COLUMBIA, District of. See District 

OF < 'OLUMBIA. 

COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, nearWash- 
ington, D. C, was chartered in 1821 as the 
Columbian College, and opened in 1822. In 1873, 
the name was changed by act of Congress to the 
Columbian University. A majority of the board 
of trustees and overseers are Baptists, but the 
institution is required by its charter to be un- 
sectarian. It comprises a preparatory depart- 
ment, a college department, a law department, 
and a medical department. The institution has 



not a large endowment, and is supported prin- 
cipally by tuition fees. The value of its real 
estate is about 8500,000. 

The regular course of instruction (4 years) 
in the college department is comprised in seven 
schools, as follows: (1) School of English ; (2) 
School of Greek; (3) School of Latin; (4) 
School of Modern Languages; (5) School of 
Mathematics : (6) School of Natural Science; 
(7) School of Philosophy. Certificates of pro- 
ficiency are given to students who pass an exam- 
ination in certain prescribed studies in any school. 
A diploma of graduation is given to those who 
pass an examination in all the obligatory studies 
of any school. (1) The degree of Bachelor of 
Letters is conferred on students who obtain 
diplomas in the schools of English. Creek, Latin, 
Modern Languages, and Philosophy, and who 
receive a certificate of proficiency in the School 
of Mathematics or of Natural Science. (2) The 
degree of Bachelor of Science is conferred on 
students who obtain diplomas in the schools of 
English, Modern Languages. Mathematics, Nat- 
ural Science, and Philosophy. (■'!) The degree 
of Bachelor of Arte is conferred on students who 
obtain diplomas in any six schools, and who re- 
ceive a certificate of proficiency in the residuary 
school of the entire course. (4) The degree of 
Master of Arts is conferred on students who, 
after obtaining diplomas in all the schuols of 
the college, sustain a final and satisfactory 
examination, in review of all the studies pre- 
scribed for this degree. The cost of tuition in 
the college is $60 a year, but it is remitted in 
favor of students intended for the ministry. 
The medical department, known as the National 
Medical College, is in the city of Washington. 
The law department (opened in 1826) is also in 
Washington. The college, in 1875 — 6. had 12 
instructors, 103 preparatory and 48 collegiate 
students, and a library of 5.750 volumes ; the 
law school, 5 prof essors and 130 students; and 
the medical college, 1 1 instructors and 54 
students. The presidents of the university have 
been as follows: the Rev. Wm. Staughton, D.D., 
1821—1827; the Rev. Stephen Chapin, D.D.. 
1828—1841: the Rev. Joel S. Bacon, DD.,1843 
—1854; the Rev. Joseph G. Benney, D.D., 1855 
—1858; the Rev. Ceo. W. Samson, D.D., 1859 
— 1871; James C. Welling, LL. D., the present 
incumbent, appointed in 1871. 

COMENIUS, John Amos, the forerunner 
of Basedow and Pestalozzi, and one of the great- 
est educators of modern times, was born at 
Komna. in Moravia, March 28., 1592. and died 
Nov. 15., 1671. From his birthplace, he re- 
ceived the name Komensky, Latin Comenius, 
by which his family name was so fully sup- 
planted, that even his grandson, I). E Jablon- 
skv. ilid not know it. He studied in Herborn 
and Heidelberg, and taught fur a time a school 
of the Bohemian Brethren in Prerau. Moravia. 
He afterward became a preacher of this church 
at Fulneck, likewise in Moravia, assuming at the 
same time the direction of the school. In com- 
mon with the Protestants of Moravia and Bo- 



160 



COMENIUS 



hernia in general, he suffered great hardships at 
the hands of the Austrian government ; and the 
Thirty Years' war also entailed upon him the 
most serious losses. At the sack of Fulneek by 
the Spaniards, he lost his library and manu- 
scripts, and the greater part of his property. In 
1624, Protestant preachers were driven from the 
country, and Comenius was compelled to conceal 
himself. In 1628, he left Bohemia, and settled 
at Lissa, in Poland. Soon afterward he assumed 
the direction of the gymnasium of this town, 
and, while in this position, gained a European 
fame by the publication of his first great work 
(in 1631), the Janua linguarum reserata (Gate 
of Tongues unlocked), a new method of teaching- 
languages, especially Latin. This book met with 
an extraordinary success, being translated into 
twelve European, and even into several Asiatic 
languages. At a synod held in Lissa, in 1632, 
he was elected bishop of the Bohemian Brethren. 
In 1638, he received a call from Sweden, to re- 
form the educational system of that country, but 
he did not accept it. He sent, however, to the 
Swedish government a Latin translation of the 
greatest of his pedagogical works, the Didactica 
magna seu omnes omnia docendi artiflcium, 
which he had planned in Lissa as early as 1629, 
and had now completed in German. An extract 
from this work having been printed by some of his 
friends in England under the title Prodromus 
Pansopkice (London, 1639), he received an invi- 
tation from England to reform public instruction 
there. In compliance with this invitation, he 
went, in 1641, to London, but political troubles 
in Ireland prevented his accomplishing anything. 
In 1642, he was invited to Sweden to consult 
with Oxenstiern, the chancellor of the kingdom, 
on educational matters. Oxenstiern had read 
the Prodromus, and recommended Oomenius to 
pursue his undertaking, but first to care for the 
needs of the schools. The Swedish government 
established Comenius in the Prussian town of 
Elbing to compose a work upon his method. 
After laboring four years, he returned in 1646 
to Sweden. Three commissioners examined his 
work, and declared it proper for printing when 
Oomenius should have finally revised it. He re- 
turned to Elbing to do this, and thence, in 1648, 
he went to Lissa, where, in the same year, he 
brought out his work, the Nbvissima linguarum 
inethodus, which substantially brought to a close 
his literary labors in behalf of a reform of the 
methods of instruction. Li the same year, the 
Bohemian Brethren elected him Senior Bishop 
and President of the Synod, a position which he 
retained to the end of his life. In 1650, upon an 
invitation from Prince Rakoczy, he went to 
Hungary and Transylvania, and remained there 
four years, during which time he organized a 
school at Patak (also called Saros Patak). Here 
Comenius wrote, among other works, his cel- 
ebrated Orbis Sens ualium Pict us, which was pub- 
lished in 1657 at Nuremberg, and, in various 
forms has continued a favorite book for children 
down to the present time. In 1654, Oomenius re- 
turned to Lissa, where he remained until 1656, in 



which year the Poles burned the city. He lost on 
this occasion his house, his books, and his manu- 
scripts, the labor of many years. He fled into 
Silesia, thence successively to Brandenburg, Stet- 
tin. andHamburg, and in August, 1656, to Am- 
sterdam, where he remained until the end of his 
life, highly honored by all who knew him, and 
liberally supported by some wealthy merchants 
whose children he instructed. He printed his 
Opera Didactica (4 vols.) , at Amsterdam, in 1657, 
at the expense of Lorenzo de Geer, one of his 
patrons. 

Comenius 's position in the history of pedagogy 
is chiefly that of a reformer. His dissatisfaction 
with the prevailing modes of teaching was, doubt- 
less, largely increased by the neglect of his own 
early education. He did not go to a Latin school 
until his sixteenth year ; and his mind was al- 
ready sufficiently developed to be dissatisfied 
with the artificial and worthless instruction there 
received. At that time, the study of the Latin 
language was the only means of culture; and the 
ability to read and write it, was regarded as all 
that was valuable in education. Oomenius in- 
sisted upon a study of the mother-tongue as 
of greater importance than that of the Latin, 
and declared, moreover, the study of languages to 
be a means of knowledge, not an end. The aim 
of education, he asserted, is the development of 
complete men, and the profoundest knowledge 
possible of the world without and within. The 
ideal order of instruction in things, as opposed 
to instruction in language, is : (1) A Pan- 
sophia, in which the sum of human knowledge 
should be treated in its relations to God, the 
world, and reason ; (2) A Panhisloria, which 
should be divided into six classes : biblical his- 
tory, natural history, history of inventions, dis- 
tinguished examples of virtue, history of dif- 
ferent religious customs, and the history of the 
world ; (3) A Universal Dogmatic, or psychol- 
ogy. In this outline, Comenius adopted a great 
many of the principles of Bacon's Inslauralio 
Magna. With Bacon he insisted strongly upon 
a study of nature at first hand and unfettered by 
traditional prejudices. He insisted, too, upon 
the equal instruction of both sexes. Education 
aims at the development of the human being, and 
to shut any one out from it, is injustice. The 
school should be no respecter of persons. He 
strongly insisted upon the necessity of physical 
education, and called the attention of educators 
to the importance of providing airy school- 
rooms and pleasant play-grounds. The true 
order of instruction must be learned from nat- 
ure. Art can do nothing except by imitation. 
Upon this point Comenius uses many fantastic 
analogies, with all of which, however, he mingles 
a great deal of truth. Many studies are, at the 
same time, to be avoided, as dissipating the men- 
tal strength. All studies must be so ordered 
that the later are always founded on the earlier, 
and the earlier supported by the later. Words 
must be learned only in connection with things. 
In the study of science the scholar must, as 
far as possible, have the objects themselves be- 



COMENIUS 



COMMENCEMENT 



161 



fore him ; and, when this is impossible, correct 
drawings should be used. His Orbis Pietus is 
devoted to the exposition of this principle, and 
is the first attempt at a system of " object teach- 
ing." In the study of languages, one's mother- 
tongue must come first. Children may only learn 
that part of a language which deals with the no- 
tions of childhood. Every language is to be 
learned more through practice than by rule. 
Rules must be grammatical, and not philosoph- 
ical. They must give the form, and not the ex- 
planation. Rules are necessary only where the 
language differs from the mother-tongue. These 
thoughts may seem commonplace enough at 
present, but it required no little genius at that 
time to originate them. Schools he divided into 
four classes : The mother school, the vernacular 
school, the Latin school, and the university. The 
mother school must be in every house. Here the 
child learns the use of the senses and the use of 
language. The child enters the vernacular school 
in its sixth year, and learns reading, writing, arith- 
metic, singing, hymns, the catechism, the Bible, 
universal history, etc. In the Latin school, Latin. 
Greek, Hebrew, and the mother-tongue are stud- 
ied, together with physics, chronology, ethics, and 
Biblical theology. The university should be a 
place for universal study. In all this, intellectual 
culture must not be separated from morality and 
religion. According to him, all learning is a 
means for the moral elevation of mankind. The 
present Kfe is to be viewed as a preparation for 
the life eternal; and children ami youth must be 
taught, both by precept and example, to connect 
this life with God and his commandments. The 
importance, however, of t'omenius as an educator 
lies less in what he did than in the reform which 
he inaugurated. His theory that education 
should be a development of the whole man, that 
educational methods should follow the order of 
nature, that nature itself should be studied, and 
that education should aim at knowledge — this, 
though imperfectly understood by himself, con- 
stitutes a solid foundation for an enduring fame. 
(Jomenius always designated < Germany, to which 
country he principally owed his education, as 
his native country, although Slavic (Czechic) 
blood may have flowed in Ms veins. He was 
master of both the languages spoken in Mo- 
ravia, his native land, the German and the 
Czechic : and he acknowledged their respective 
advantages, but he expressed his regret that 
there was more than one language. 

The second centennial anniversary of Come- 
nius's death was celebrated in 1871, with ap- 
propriate solemnities, not only in Moravia, but 
in almost all the countries of Europe, as well as 
in the United States; and the Teachers' Associa- 
tion in Moravia concluded to erect a monument 
to his memory. A fine statue of the great edu- 
cator has since been executed in Saxon sand- 
stone with much genius and skill by the cele- 
brated sculptor. Professor Seidan, in Prague; 
and, since August 23., 1875, it has adorned the 
square before the castle in Prerau. A list of 
the educational works of Comenius is given in 



Raumer's Oeschichte der Padagogik (translated 
in Barnard's German Teachers and Educators); 

most of them are contained in the edition of 
the Opera Didactica, published by Comenius 
himself. A complete list of all his works, edu- 
cational as well as others, has been published 
by l'alacky in the Jdhrimcher des BShmischen 
Museums, 1829. German translations of the 
pedagogical works of Comenius, with notes ami 
biography, are published by Dr. Th. Lion, in 
Biblioihek padagogischer Classiker (Umgen- 
salza, 187S), and by Beeger and Zoubek in Rich- 
ter's Pddagogische Bibliothek (Leipsic; of the 
translation of the Didactica Magna in this col- 
lection the 3d edition appeared in 1875). — See 
also Lautbecher. Job. Amos Comenius' Lehr- 
hunst (Leipsic, 1853); Gindely, Ueber des J. A. 
Comenius' Leben mid Wirhsamheit in der 
Frem.de, in the proceedings of the Vienna Acad- 
emy of Science (Vienna. 1855J ; Quick, Essays 
on Educational Reformers (London and Cin- 
cinnati). 

COMMENCEMENT denotes,™ the United 
States, the occasion on which degrees are con- 
ferred by colleges and universities upon their 
graduates. This takes place in June or duly, 
and closes the scholastic year, so that the name 
in this respect appears to be a misnomer. The 
exercises connected with the commencement 
sometimes begin on Sunday with a commence- 
ment sermon to the graduating class. On the 
two or three following days, the literary societies 
among the students hold their annual meetings, 
and orations are delivered before the societies 
and before the alumni association. A general 
reunion of the alumni of previous years is held, 
and, frequently, also the graduatesof a particular 
class hold, by appointment, a special reunion. 
The board of trustees also holds its annual meet- 
ing, receives the report of the president of the 
institution for the past year, and makes the nec- 
essary regulations for the year ensuing. All 
these transactions precede " commencement day". 
on which the president of the institution, in 
the presence of the board of trustees, the fac- 
ulties, and as many friends and visitors as the 
occasion may bring together, confers upon the 
graduates the degrees (see Degrees) for which 
their special studies and examinations have pre- 
pared them. The conferring of the degrees is 
preceded by orations delivered by the members 
of the graduating class, the " valedictory" and 
"salutatory" addresses being assigned to the 
scholars holding the highest rank in the class. 
The Latin language is frequently used by the 
" salutatory" speaker, as well as by the president 
in conferring the degrees. 

For the students of colleges and universities, 
the commencement is an occasion of peculiar in- 
terest. The ambition to excel at that time, acts as 
a powerful and most beneficial incentive to as- 
siduous study. The reunion of former graduates 
tends to nourish, in all the former students of 
these institutions, a spirit of devoted attachment 
to their Alma Mater, and thus secures to the 
cause of collegiate education a large and influen- 



162 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES 



COMPANIONSHIP 



tial number of zealous friends and patrons. The 
large concourse of the relatives and friends of 
the pupils, as well as of the friends of education, 
and, in smaller towns, of the town population 
in general, diffuses among the people at large 
an acquaintance with these institutions and a 
care for their success, and gives them a pop- 
ularity which no other feature could secure. 
A glance at the reports, in American newspapers, 
of the commencement exercises during the 
months of June and July, reveals a national in- 
terest in collegiate institutions, which is hardly 
found to an equal extent in any other country ; 
and, if the wealthy citizens of the United States 
have acquired a world-wide reputation by their 
liberal donations for educational purposes, the 
popular commencement exercises may claim to 
have very largely contributed to this result. 
Commencement exercises may, therefore, be con- 
sidered a very potent agent in stimulating the 
zeal of the students, and in fostering among all 
classes of the people a just appreciation of the 
value of higher education. 

COMMERCIAL COLLEGES. See Busi- 
ness Colleges. 

COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 
See Bureau op Education. 

COMMON SCHOOLS, the name given in 
the United States to schools maintained at the 
public expense, and open to all. These schools 
are public elementary schools, although the com- 
mon-school system of any state or city often in- 
cludes schools of several grades, as primary, 
grammar, and high schools, besides normal 
schools for the special instruction and training 
of teachers. Common schools in the rural districts 
are called district schools, being under the super- 
vision and control of the officers of the school 
district; and for the same reason those situated in 
the wards of a city are sometimes called ward 
schools. Common schools are established by 
legislative enactment, and are supported by funds 
derived from legislative appropriation. (See 
School Fund.) The expensive common-school 
systems of large cities are, however, chiefly, if not 
wholly, supported by local taxation ; thus, in 
the city of New York, the amount received by 
apportionment from the state for the support of 
the common schools of the city is very much 
less than the amount of tax paid by the city for 
the support of the common-school system of 
the state. There is no uniform common-school 
system in the United States — no national system 
of public instruction, the organization and con- 
trol of the common schools being left to the in- 
dividual states ; and, even in the states, the tend- 
ency is to almost exclusive local authority. The 
history and description of the common-school 
system of each state is given, in this work, under 
the name of the state ; for an account of public 
or popular education in general, see Public 
Schools. (See also National Education, and 
United States.) 

COMPANIONSHIP, as one of the neces- 
sary conditions of a child's life, is an important 
element in education ; indeed, the influence of a 



child's companions, either for good or evil, is 
often far greater than any that can be exerted 
by parents or teachers. The social nature of a 
child is stronger than that of an adult ; and, 
therefore, to educate it by itself, excluding it 
from all intercourse with children of its own 
age, would result not in a natural or normal 
development, but in a kind of monstrous distor- 
tion. The selfish principles of its nature would 
attain a disproportionate growth and strength ; 
and it could have neither sympathy nor self- 
control. Hence, companionship is necessary for 
several reasons : (1) To develop the social sym- 
pathies and affections of the child ; (2) To 
cultivate properly its moral nature ; (3) To bring 
into play its intellectual activities, and to accus- 
tom it to their ready exercise. Besides, without 
suitable and congenial playmates, it would not 
be properly or sufficiently stimulated to bodily 
exercise ; and its physical growth and develop- 
ment would be incomplete. " How many young 
girls," says Schwarz, " have become diseased in 
body and in soul by reading ! How many have 
lost their health by close application to orna- 
mental needle-work ! They ought, therefore, to 
be directed, at all suitable times to engage in 
free bodily exercise, and even in some of the 
more quiet and gentle gymnastic exercises ; they 
should enjoy frequent opportunities of appropri- 
ate amusement in the society of others of the 
same age." Companionship, therefore, being in- 
dispensable, it is of the greatest importance that 
it should be of the right character. It is partic- 
ularly true of children, that "evil communications 
corrupt good manners ;" and not only manners, 
but morals ; indeed, the society of the debased 
will inevitably undermine the whole character, 
leaving it but an example of incorrigible deprav- 
ity. Nevertheless, a youth must gradually be 
accustomed to the exercise of considerable free- 
dom in selecting his or her associates ; since the 
circumstances of after life will necessitate this 
independence of choice. The great desideratum 
is, that the child's mind should be so impressed 
with right principles, that it will avoid the com- 
panionship of those whose conduct and language 
it perceives to be vicious. There is, however, al- 
ways need of great vigilance in order to prevent 
corrupting companionship, even when the greatest 
care has been exercised in the previous moral 
training of a youth ; for the stronger will must 
always control the weaker will, when brought 
together, and children learn much faster from 
each other than from their elders. To influence 
a young person, so as to form his character in a 
particular direction, or fully to control his ac- 
tions, it is requisite to cultivate a certain degree 
of companionship with him. Parents who pur- 
sue this course, — fathers making companions of 
their sons, and mothers, of their daughters, are 
the most successful in establishing the character 
of their children. To a limited extent, the same 
principle may be applied in school education. 
The austere teacher who never strives to culti- 
vate any other relation between himself and his 
pupil than that of authority, will never exert 



COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS 



COMPOSITION 



163 



any considerable influence over his moral charac- 
ter ; while, on the other hand, he who is easy 
and familiar, who cultivates the friendship, 
esteem, and confidence of Ms pupil, will rind the 
latter always glad to be his companion, and will 
be able to control his conduct to an almost un- 
limited extent. 

COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. See 
Examinations. 

COMPOSITION, as the formal expression 
of thought, and as a branch of school exercise, 
has usually been confined to that which is writ- 
ten ; but by some the signification of the term 
has been so extended as to embrace also the oral 
use of language in the expression of a logically 
connected series of ideas. Thus, it has been 
said that " oral composition may be cultivated 
from a very early period, indeed from the be- 
ginning of the pupil's school education ; and 
whatever degree of facility he attains in it will 
secure his more rapid advancement when he 
entjrs on the study of written composition ;" 
which is undoubtedly true. At the same time. 
as nothing is gained by extending the application 
of a term beyond the limits of ordinary usage, 
it would seem best to restrict the word compo- 
sition to the written expression of thought; more 
especially as this requires a somewhat diversj 
training from that which is needed in oral dis- 
course. Of course, the habit of using language 
correctly in all the oral school exercises, as well 
as in ordinary conversation, is not only useful 
but essential as an antecedent preparation for 
written composition ; and in view of this, it is 
important that pupils should be accustomed, in 
all their recitations, to be accurate in expression. 
and not only to use the proper forms of words, 
but to construct complete sentences, instead of 
such fragmentary phrases as are very often made 
use of in answer to the questions of the teacher. 
M i neover, in all recitations which do not abso- 
lutely require a verbatim repetition of the lan- 
guage of the text-book, the pupil should be ac- 
customed to use his own language as far as pos- 
sible, thus drawing upon the resources of his own 
vocabulary, and his constructive power in expres- 
sion. But all this is only auxiliary to written 
composition, which requires special and peculiar 
exercises, beginning ahnost as soon as the pupil 
has learned to write simple words and sentences ; 
indeed, rudimental exercises in composition may 
constitute an essential part of object lessons, the 
teacher writing on the blackboard instead of 
requiring the pupils to write on the slate or on 
paper. For example, in the description of an 
object, the pupils observe and state each quality 
successively, and the teacher writes each separate 
statement on the blackboard, observing strictly 
the rides for punctuation and the use of capitals; 
and then the pupils are required to put the whole 
into a connected statement, which the teacher 
also writes on the blackboard. Thus, suppose the 
object is a piece of glass. The pupils say, and 
the teacher writes. Glass is hard. Glass is solid. 
Glass is brittle. Glass is transparent. Then 
the whole is formed into a connected statement ; 



and the teacher writes, Glass is hard, solid, 
brittle, and transparent. Such simple exercises 
are susceptible of a very great variety, and, con- 
sequently, may be made to afford a great deal of 
valuable training both in thought and language. 
Reading also may be made available in training 
pupils in the ready and correct use of language, 
by requiring them constantly to reproduce, in 
their own modes of expression, the substance of 
the lessons read ; and, as soon as they have learned 
to write with sufficient fluency, to set down 
on paper, or on the slate, portions of these state- 
ments. Akin to this kind of exercise, is the 
reading of simple narratives by the teacher, and 
requiring the pupils to give the substance of 
them in their own language. 

In all these cases, the pupils are trained chiefly 
in the use of words and the construction of sen- 
tences; but the teaching of composition requires, 
(1) a cultivation of thought ; and (2) a cultiva- 
tion of the faculty of expression. Thought im- 
plies ideas and their logical arrangement accord- 
ing to certain laws of association. The mind 
must recall all that it has learned upon the sub- 
ject under consideration. — ideas, facts, proposi- 
tions, opinions, ire., and arrange them into a 
symmetrical whole. To do this well requires 
not only maturity of mental culture, but much 
practice in the use of language, filling the memory 
not only with a vocabulary of words, but a large 
accumulation of phrases, and other forms of ex- 
pression, associated regularly with certain re- 
current ideas. The difficulty experienced by pu- 
pils in writing compositions is proverbial ; and 
to a considerable extent, it is to be hoped, 
obsolete; since modern methods of instruction 
have gone far towards eradicating many of the 
absurd educational practices of by-gone times. 
one of which was to require young pupils to 
write formal compositions upon difficult abstract 
themes without any. or with very inadequate, 
preliminary preparation and training. The ne- 
cessity of such training is now pretty generally 
recognized, and suitable graded exercises are 
employed; such as the following : (1) Conversa- 
tions upon familiar objects, such as usually 
engage the attention of children ; (2) Sentence- 
making, in various forms, and affording practice 
in the application of grammatical rules ; (3) 
Formal descriptions of objects ; (4) Simple narra- 
tives; (5) Didactic essays, graduated from the 
simplest composition upon such subjects as a 
horse, a cow, a flower, &c, up to those upon 
complex abstract themes ; (6) Argumentative 
compositions, in which the principles and rules 
of logic and rhetoric may find an application and 
illustration. Each of these classified forms of 
exercise needs much continuous practice ; and 
the pupil should not be required to write mis- 
cellaneous compositions until he has been suc- 
cessively trained in those of the first four classes, 
and has acquired a fair degree of readiness at 
each stage of his progress. In all the exercises, 
however, of whatever grade or kind, it is very 
essential that the pupil should, as much as pos- 
, sible, be induced to make use of his own experi- 



164 



COMPOSITION 



COMPULSORY EDUCATION 



ence in selecting subjects for composition, writ- 
ing of what he has himself seen and heard, and 
using the simplest and most direct language he 
can command. 

Mere grammatical exercises are of little use 
in teaching composition; perhaps, they are 
rather a hindrance, since the exclusive atten- 
tion to the construction of sentences without 
regard to their meaning or logical coherence, 
tends to the formation of habits that are directly- 
opposed to success in actual composition. The 
great point is to accustom the pupils, by constant 
daily practice, to the free expression of their 
thoughts in writing. Let them have something 
to say, and then require them to write it in the 
most natural way, employing their own modes of 
thinking and using language, and thus, in the 
course of time, developing a style ; since style is 
only the pecidiar impress of a writer's individu- 
ality upon his forms of expression. Paraphrases 
and translations, however, afford a very valuable 
kind of exercise in composition ; but should not 
be employed except in the more advanced stages 
of the instruction. 

In the correction of compositions, the teacher 
should exercise great prudence, so as to impart 
the kind and degree of instruction adapted to 
the pupil's progress ; and, at the same time, not 
discourage his efforts by too minute criticism. 
If a class is under instruction, the prevailing 
errors of the pupils, as discerned on a perusal of 
the compositions, will suggest certain topics on 
which instruction is needed ; and this may then 
be illustrated by examples culled from the com- 
positions without referring to them individually. 
Especially should the teacher avoid holding up 
any of the pupils' efforts to ridicule or severe re- 
buke, unless the inaccuracies are such as result 
from sheer carelessness. A pupil's whole intellec- 
tual career may be vitiated by an imprudence of 
this kind ; since, in general, there is nothing in 
respect to which persons, whether adults or chil- 
dren, are so sensitive as in regard to then: efforts 
in written composition. 

When the compositions have been carefully 
read, and the errors pointed out by suitable marks, 
the pupils should be required to transcribe them, 
so that they may be presented for further revi- 
sion. The study of grammar and composition 
should be pursued together in the early stages, 
and rhetoric and composition in the latter. A 
distinguished writer thus sums up the require- 
ments of these two branches of study : " Rheto- 
ric, to become a useful branch of modern educa- 
tion, should embrace a gradually progressive 
course of exercises, embodying successively the 
facts of language, in the use of words and the 
construction of sentences ; it should include the 
practice of daily writing, for successive years ; 
frequent exercises in the logical arranging of 
thought for the purposes of expression, and the 
adapting of the forms and character of expres- 
sion to thought ; and it should be accompanied 
by the close study and critical analysis of the 
works of distinguished writers, with the view to 
acquire a perfect mastery over every form of 



style." — See William Russell, Intellectnul 
Education, in Barnard's American Pedagogy; 
Currie, The Principles and Practice of Com- 
mon - School Education (Edinburgh, 1872) ; 
AVickersham, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 
1865). 

COMPULSORY EDUCATION, a term 
commonly used to designate the compulsion of 
parents by state law to provide an education for 
their children. We find the principle that the 
government of a state has the right, and that it 
is its duty, to watch over the education of all the 
! children within its jurisdiction, for the first time 
expressed in the legislation of Athens and Sparta. 
Solon gave a law enjoining on parents to have 
their children instructed in music and gymnastics, 
and providing further, that no son was bound to 
support his father in old age, if the latter had 
neglected to have him instructed in some profit- 
able trade. In Sparta, according to the legisla- 
tion of Lycurgus, the state charged itself with 
the entire education of all male children, after 
they had attained their seventh year. In Rome, 
the state did not interest itself at all in the edu- 
cation of children, it being left to the care of the 
mothers. During the period which followed the 
downfall of the Roman empire, little provision 
was made, in any of the countries of Europe, for 
the education of children. Only the candidates 
for the priesthood and the children of noblemen 
and persons of affluence received instruction in 
the cathedral, collegiate, convent, or parochial 
schools; but the mass of the people grew up 
without any instruction. (See Cathedral and 
Collegiate Schools, Convent Schools, and 
Parochlu, Schools.) The capitularies of Charle- 
magne imposed upon all parents the obligation 
to send their children to a convent or parochial 
school, to obtain the necessary instruction in re- 
ligion. These schools were also required to teach 
reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and sing- 
ing; but no compulsion was to be imposed in 
regard to any of these subjects. A new interest 
in the cause of universal education was awakened 
by the revival of classical studies, in the fifteenth 
century. More than one of the educational writ 
ei's of that time demanded that the state govern- 
ment should recognize and enforce the principle, 
that parents should be obliged to send their 
children to school. Luther said, that he regarded 
it as a " duty of the state authorities to compel 
their subjects to send their children to school," 
in order that the community might have well- 
educated clergymen, jurists, physicians, teachers, 
and other officers ; and the new church constitu- 
tion of Saxony, of 1528, which was chiefly com- 
piled by Melanchthon, required that clergy- 
men should admonish the people to send their 
children to school, " in order that persons might 
be educated so as to be competent to teach in the 
church, and to govern." The church constitution 
of Wiirtemberg, of 1559, provided that the 
pastors should admonish their congregations at 
least twice a year, to send their children regular- 
ly to school. Similar provisions were made in 
other German states, without, however, adopting 



COM PU LSORY EDUCATION 



165 



the principle of compulsion ; but, in regard to 
instruction in the catechism, which was given in 
the church on Sundays and other holy-days, a 

punctual attendance was enforced; and tines were 
imposed upon the parents of children who. instead 
of being present to receive this religious instruc- 
tion were found running about in the streets. In 
1640, the General Synod of Wurtemberg recog- 
nized the duty of requiring all children to go to 
school, and resolved that all parents should be 
rined, whose children failed to attend. !t was, 
however, found extremely difficult to enforce this 
provision; and new rescripts were issued in 1(170, 
L672, and 1679, to remind the parents of their 
duties. The first law defining the school age 
of children, was given by the I >uke of Brunswick- 
( Vile, who commanded the parents and guardians 
of children to send them to school from the sixth 
year of age. The movement in behalf of compul- 
sory education now made steady though slow 
progress in all the German states. Prussia intro- 
duced it in 17,'S'J ; Bavaria, which was one of 
the latest, in 1*02. Compulsory education has, 
since the beginning of the nineteenth century, 
been the general rule in the German states ; and 
it is a remarkable fact, that, in all the fierce 

conflicts which have been caused by educational 
legislation, no party has made any serious op- 
position to the principle, that the state govern- 
ment may and ought to demand that parents 
should provide some kind of instruction for their 
children. This kind of legislation, in Austria, 
began in the eighteenth century with laws pro- 
viding that magistrates should send to school- 
teachers, twice a year, lists of all children entering 
the sixth year of age. and that the teachers should 
return monthly lists of absence. Although the 
school attendance steadily increased, the number 
of children growing up without education was 
still very large. After the disastrous war with 
Prussia, in 1866, the Austrian government has- 
tened to introduce a new educational law similar 
to that of Prussia, providing for the rigorous en- 
forcement of the principle of compulsory edu- 
cation. In some provinces, it was found ex- 
tremely difficult to provide for a sufficient num- 
ber of teachers and schools, and to compel t he- 
attendance of children. The statistics of school 
attendance show, however, a steady increase, and 
there is no systematic opposition to the principle, 
which is now being rapidly carried into effect. 
The cantons of Switzerland, with the single excep- 
tion of Geneva, and the Scandinavian kingdom 
have enacted laws similar to those of ( ierinany ; 
and Denmark, in particular, has had a stringent 
law on compulsory education in operation since 
1M14, and has thus effected a remarkably high 
average education of its entire population. Jn 
Prance, the public-school system was. for the first 
time, regulated by the educational law of 1833, 
which embodied the ideas of GuizOt and Cousin. 
Neither this law, however, nor the subsequent 
regulations recognized the principle of compul- 
sory education ; and the school attendance, espe 
daily in many of the rural districts, continued 
to be very small. Louis Napoleon favored the 



principle of compulsion, and M. Duruy, his min- 
ister of public instruction from 1863 to 1869, 
was one of its most zealous advocates; but the at- 
tempts made to introduce it into the legislation 
of France had to be abandoned in consequence 
of the powerful opposition which it met with. 
After the proclamation of the republic, in 1*70. 
one of the most enthusiastic champions of com- 
pulsory education. Jules Simon, was appointed 
M mister of Public Instruction ; and the new 
educational law proposed by him embodied the 
principle ; but the National Assembly refused 
to adopt the law, 13 of the 15 bureaux voting 
against it. The principle is generally advocated 
in Fiance by the Liberals, and opposed by the 
Catholic party. In England, public opinion has 
always been strongly adverse to a participation 
of the state government in school matters. An 
important advance toward the principle of com- 
pulsory education was, however, made in 1870, 
by the adoption of a bill brought in by William 
Kdward Forster, according to which, within one 
year, provision was to be made for the education 
of every child in England and Wales. The ques- 
tion of compulsory attendance was very earnest- 
ly discussed in Parliament, and was finally left to 
the separate school hoards, which have a certain 

discrctioiian power of enforcing attendance; hut 

it seems that the advocates of compulsion do not 
mean to be content until its ultimate adoption. 
Liverpool. Manchester. Oxford, and many other 
towns have passed by-laws, compelling the at- 
tendance of children in the public schools. The 
Italian Parliament, in 1871, adopted a new 
School law according to which elementary in- 
struction is required to be given every-where free 

of charge, and attendance at scl 1 is obligatory 

on all children. In Belgium and the Nether- 
lands, every commune is compelled by law to 
make provision for a public school ; and, in 
Belgium, indigent children receive, on the ap- 
plication of their parents, gratuitous instruction; 
but neither of these two states has, as yet, recog- 
nized the principle of compulsory education. In 
Russia, Peter the Great desired to make edu- 
cation obligatory ; but the obstinate resistance 
of his subjects, who called education " their 
destruction." prevented him from carrying out 
his design : and the consequence is. that Hussia 
is still among the least educated countries of 
Europe, there being, in 1H75, 1 scholar for about 
H(i inhabitants. Turkey, in 1S(>9, promulgated 
a law providing for the establishment of a school 
in every locality, and requiring all children, 
both boys and girls, to attend it ; but, no attempt 
of any kind to execute the law had been made 
up to the end of the year 1875. In Greece, 
communal schools were established by law. in 
is.'U, on the German system, that is. on the 
system of compulsory education. By the 6th 
article of the law, all children between the ages 
of five and twelve years must attend the com- 
munal school. Parents are liable to a fine for 
each hour that the child is absent ; but the pen- 
alty has fallen into disuse: and it was found, at 
the census of 1870, that but 33 per cent of the 



166 



COMPULSORY EDUCATION 



grown-up men, and but 7 per cent of the grown- 
up women, were able to read and write. Spain 
and Portugal also have compulsory education 
acts, but they are not fully enforced. 

In America, the right of state authorities to 
require the attendance of all children at school 
was asserted at an early date by some of the 
English colonies. B. G. Northrop, the secretary 
of the Connecticut state board of education, in 
his annual report for 1871, says, that Connecti- 
cut may justly claim to be one of the first states 
in the world, that established the principle of 
compulsory education. Its code of laws, adopted 
in May 1650, he says, contained stringent pro- 
visions for compulsory attendance ; and these 
provisions, with some modifications chiefly de- 
signed to give them greater efficacy, continued 
in force until the revision of the code, in 1810. 
Public opinion so heartily indorsed this principle, 
or rather so thoroughly believed in the necessity 
of universal education, that attendance lost its 
involuntary character. Outside of Connecticut, 
however, little appears to have been done in this 
direction ; and even in Connecticut, the diffi- 
culty in enforcing the law was clearly shown 
when the influx of immigration, in the nineteenth 
century, gave to the state a considerable school 
population of foreign birth. In 1869, a new law 
was, therefore, passed, forbidding manufacturers 
to employ minors under fourteen years of age, 
who have not attended any public school, for 
at least three months in each year. The school 
board appointed an agent to supervise- the en- 
forcement of the compulsory attendance law, 
and the subsequent considerable increase of 
school attendance is partly ascribed to its en- 
forcement. This law makes it the duty of school 
visitors to examine into the condition of chil- 
dren employed in manufacturing establishments, 
and to report violations of the law to the grand 
jurors of the town. In Massachusetts, the 
first educational ordinance, in 1642, enjoined 
the selectmen of every town to see "that 
their brethren and neighbors teach their chil- 
dren and apprentices, by themselves or others, 
so much learning as may enable them to read 
the English tongue, and the capital laws, upon 
penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect 
therein." In 1834, children under fifteen years 
of age were prohibited from working in factories, 
unless they had attended school during three 
months of the preceding year. The present 
school law compels parents and guardians to 
send children in their charge, between the age of 
eight and fourteen, to school twenty weeks every 
year ; and no person can be excluded from the 
public schools on account of race, color, or re- 
ligion. Towns and cities are required to provide 
for the education of orphans and the children of 
drunken parents. In Maine, the school law of 
the state authorizes towns to make by-laws for 
the enforcement of attendance of scholars be- 
tween six and seventeen years of age, and to 
annex a suitable penalty, not exceeding twenty 
dollars, for any breach thereof. In New Hamp- 
shire, an act of the legislature, approved in July 



/<U/r*fl 



1871, provides that all parents, guardians, or 
masters of a child, between the ages of 8 and 14, 
residing within two miles of a public school, , o-i 
shall send such child to school at least 12 weeks - 
each year. Similar acts were passed in the same 
year by the legislatures of Michigan and Texas. 
Nevada passed a law in February 1873, which 
makes it obligatory on parents and guardians 
to send eveiy child between the ages of 8 and 14 
years to a public school for a period of at least 
sixteen weeks in each school-year, at least eight 
of which must be consecutive, unless the child 
is being otherwise instructed, or is excused 
from attendance by the board of trustees for 
some satisfactory reason. The penalty, for non- 
compliance with this act is a fine of not less 
than $50, nor more than $100 for the first offense, 
and not less than $100 nor more than $200 for 
each subsequent offense. In 1874, compulsory 
laws were passed by the legislatures of Califor- 
nia, New.Jersey, and New York. The general 
features of these laws are similar to those of the 
state laws already referred to. The school age 
during which every child is to be instructed is, in 
New Jersey, from 8 to 13, and in California and 
New York from 8 to 14. There is some diversity 
in the time of school attendance each year. New 
Jersey requires 12 weeks, of which 6 must be 
consecutive, New York 14 weeks in a day school, 
or 28 weeks in an evening school, and California, 
two-thirds of the time during which the public 
schools are kept, at least 12 weeks of which must 
be consecutive. The New York law also specifies 
the subjects in which the child is to be instruct- 
ed ; namely, speUing, reading, writing, English 
grammar, geography, and arithmetic. It also 
provides that no child of this age shall be em- 
ployed, unless the employer has a certificate that 
such instruction was given the child the previous 
year, the penalty for violating this law being a 
fine of $50. In many other states, the passage 
of compulsory laws is strongly urged. In Indi- 
ana, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Nebraska, Pennsylvania, and Ehode Island, the 
state superintendents, in their annual reports, or 
the governors in their messages, have of late 
taken a decided stand in favor of such laws. 

The opinions of American educators and legis- 
lators, on the subject of compulsory education, 
continue, however, to be greatly divided. The 
Hon. Edward Searing, state superintendent of 
public instruction in Wisconsin, in his annual 
report for 1874, expresses the opinion, that " the 
difficulties lying in the way of the successful work- 
ing of a general compulsory law are numerous 
and nearly insuperable ; so that there is an over- 
whelming probability of the failure of such a 
law to attain the ends desired." He believes 
that there is in such a law "something essentially 
opposed to the genius of our free institutions, — 
something essentially un-American." He appre- 
hends no peril to the state from the mere fact, 
"that a small fractional part of its children do not 
obtain such primary instruction as the common 
schools afford ;" and the idea that " crime is the 
direct result of illiteracy " is characterized by 



J , c. 



COMPULSORY EDUCATION 



CONCEPTION 



167 



him as a " fallacy quite commonly accepted as a 
truth." An enthusiastic defendant of compul- 
sory education, the Hon. H. I). McCarty. state 
superintendent of public instruction in Kansas, 
in his annual report for 1873, thus replies to 
some of the common objections made to compul- 
sory attendance : " (1) ' Such a law would create 
a new crime' I reply, it ought to. To bring 
up a child in ignorance is a crime, and should 
be treated as such. (2) ' It interferes with the 
liberty of parents.' I reply again, it ought to, 
when they are incapacitated by vice or other 
causes for the performance of essential duties as 
parents. (3) ' It arrogates new power by the 
government.' So do all the quarantine and 
hygienic regulations and laws for the abatement 
of nuisances in time of pestilence. Now, igno- 
rance is as noxious as the most offensive nuisance, 
and more destructive than bodily contagions. 
Self-protection is a fundamental law of society. 
(4) ' It is un-American and unadapted to our 
free institutions.' To put the question in the 
most offensive, form, it may be asked : ' Would 
you have a policeman drag your children to 
school ?' I answer, yes, if it will prevent his 
dragging them to jail a few years hence." 

While, thus, a wide difference of opinion exists 
in regard to the principle of compulsory educa- 
tion, there is an almost entire agreement between 
friends and opponents, as to the character of the 
existing laws. They are. on all sides, declared to 
be deficient. Many laws supply no means 
whatever for the enforcement of the compul- 
sory provisions ; and, in such cases, the state 
superintendents must, of course, report, that the 
law has amounted to little or nothing. Thus, 
the state law of New York was pronounced de- 
fective and inefficient by the state association of 
school commissioners and superintendents, at a 
meeting held in Dec, 1874; and it was unani- 
mously resolved to ask the legislature to " so 
complete and perfect the act already passed, that 
it may better secure the results at which it 
aims." The American laws in favor of compul- 
sory education agree with those of Europe in de- 
signating a certain age, during which the state 
shall enforce the education of every child. A Ger- 
man writer, Riimelin (in Zeitschrifl fur die ge- 
sammte Slaatswissenschaft, vol. xxiv.), contends, 
that the state has the right to demand and to see 
to it, that each of its members receive a certain 
amount of instruction, but that this right does 
not give to it the power of depriving parents, for 
any length of time that may appear necessary to 
state authorities, of the right of disposing of 
their children, but only justifies the state in de- 
manding a certain amount of knowledge deemed 
necessary for the discharge of the duties every 
one owes to society. Every child, therefore, he 
argues, should be dismissed from the public 
school, without any regard to its age, as soon as 
it has acquired the knowledge demanded by the 
state. 

From the stand-point of the Catholic church, 
the claim of state governments to enforce edu- 
cation has sometimes been absolutely denied, on 



| the ground that only the church, not the state, 
j has received the divine commission to teach. 
Some Catholic writers, however, recognize the 
j right of the state to enforce education in concert 
| with the ecclesiastical authorities. The Catholic 
Keal-Encyclopadie des Erziehungs- und Unter- 
richtswesens (vol. iv., 2d ed., Mayence, 1875, 
art. Schulzwang) defines its position as follows: 
(1) The majority of Catholic parents in Germany 
are convinced that the schooling of their children 
is useful, and under the present circumstances 
indispensable. The church has always had the 
same conviction, and the state, therefore, acts in 
concert with both, if if makes school attendance 
obligatoiy. (21 The instruction demanded by 
the state should be limited to what is necessary, 
and be confined to reading, writing, the four 
fundamental rules of arithmetic, and religion. It 
is entirely unnecessary to extend compulsory edu- 
cation to 7 or 8 years, and 5 or 6 hours a day. 
(3) The state has no right to prescribe where the 
knowledge demanded by it shall be obtained. 
This must be left to the parents. (4) Private 
schools cannot claim to be entirely exempt from 
an inspection by state authorities. They should 
work in concert with the church and the state. — 
See the Annual Reports if the U.S. Commis- 
sioner of Education (1871 — 74) ; Y. M. Rich:. 
Special Report on Compulsory Education etc. 
(Albany, 1807) ; D. A. Hawkins, Report on 
Compulsory Education (X. Y, 1874): Francis 
Adams, The Free School System if the United 
Slates (London, 1875); Addresses and Proceed- 
ings of the National Educational Association, 
August. 1871 (X. Y. and Wash., 1872); Li'Kas, 
J)rr Schuhicaiig. ein Stuck moderner Tyrannei 
(Landshut, 18(15); Boedinger, Von den Anf&n- 
gen des Schuhwanges (Zurich. 1865); .Lexisch, 
Der Schulzwang, kein Stuck modemer Barbarei 
(Ratisbon, 1866). 

COMSTOCK, John Lee, M. D., a noted 
American author, and compiler of school books, 
was born in Lyme, Ct., in 1789, and died in 
Hartford, Ct., 1858. After receiving a com- 
mon-school education, he studied medicine : and, 
during the war of 1812, served in the army as 
an assistant surgeon. He afterwards settled in 
Hartford, where he, practiced medicine, and 
where his books were written. He published 
Natural History (1829), System if Natural 
Philosophy (1831), a work which had an extra- 
ordinary success, being translated into several 
languages, and edited for use in Canada, 
London, and Edinburgh. Up to 18li0, it is esti- 
mated that at least 500,000 copies of this book 
had been sold. His other works were Introduc- 
tion to Mineralogy, Element* of Geology, The 
Young Unionist. The Young Chemist. The 
Youth's Book of Astronomy, Outlines of Physi- 
ology , History of the Greek Revolution, History 
of the Precious Metals. Readings in Zoology, 
etc., etc. Though mostly compilations, these 
books possess considerable merit, and some of 
them have had a very wide circulation. 

CONCEPTION, or Conceptive Faculty, 
the faculty of the mind which retains past per- 



168 



CONCEPTION 



ceptions, and forms from them general ideas, or 
notions, sometimes called concepts. In this man- 
ner, the individual impressions obtained by per- 
ception are associated in the mind, according to 
their resemblances and analogies, and become 
the materials of thought; for without general 
ideas thought is impossible. Thus, the child 
perceives a "horse, but the concept in its mind as 
the result of the perception, is not of that par- 
ticular horse, which it will remember to have 
seen at a particular time and place, but of the 
horse as one of a class of animals resembling the 
one seen,; and to each one of this class it is at 
once prepared to apply the name horse. As, if 
you ask a child, How many legs has a horse? 
he answers,/o;«- ; because such is his concept or 
notion of a horse, formed from all the percep- 
tions which he has had of this animal. "Nature," 
says Isaac Taylor, "for purposes which it is not 
very difficult to divine, has allowed an absolute 
predominance to the conceptive faculty during 
the season of infancy, and has granted it a prin- 
cipal share in the mental economy during the 
succeeding years of childhood." Hence, it is 
with this faculty that early education has prin- 
cipally to deal. At this period, the mind is to 
be stored with ideas — images, or mental pictures 
of past perceptions, which it is to employ as the 
material for the exercise of the other faculties, — 
imagination, judgment, reason. "A rich and 
ready conception," says Currie, " is the soil out 
of which grows a sound judgment. The cause 
of error in our judgments lies as frequently in 
the want of materials on which to base them as 
on the want of power to compare them when re- 
quired." He also judiciously remarks, " It is a 
great mistake to hasten on the child to use the 
forms of judgment before his mind is stored 
with the materials to which to apply them, un- 
der the impression that we are teaching him to 
think." The faculty of conception is most active 
in relation to the objects of sight, that is, the 
perceptions derived from that sense give rise to 
the strongest or most vivid conceptions ; hence, 
indeed, the word idea, meaning image or picture 
in the mind. To those who are deprived of the 
sense of sight, the perceptions produced by the 
sense of hearing stimulate, perhaps, with almost 
equal force the conceptive faculty. "The furniture 
of the conceptive faculty, as derived from the ob- 
jects of sight," says Isaac Taylor, " constitutes 
the principal wealth of the. mind, and upon the 
ready command of these treasures, with some 
specific end in view, depends in great measure 
its power." The cultivation of this faculty 
should aim, (1) To give clear, definite ideas of 
objects and their properties ; (2) To imprint 
them deeply upon the mind, so that they may 
be permanently retained, and readily recalled ; 
and (3) To associate them, as far as possible, ac- 
cording to their intrinsic or logical relations. It 
is a well-understood fact that the clearest and 
deepest conceptions are obtained by a close and 
accurate observation of the objects from which 
they are derived. Clearness and strength of per- 
ception are followed by the same qualities in 



conception. Hence, the value of object-teaching, 
the best results of which are the effects produced 
upon the conceptive faculty. In training the 
perception, we are, indeed, training the concep- 
tion ; and it is the latter process that is espe- 
cially valuable, not the former. This training can 
only be carried on by means of language. No> 
idea can be fixed in the mind to be of any prac- 
tical value, unless there is linked with it its 
proper verbal designation. Words as well as 
ideas are the elements of thought. A large 
jaart of elementary teaching consists in analyzing 
the parts and properties of objects, and, after 
leading the mind to form concepts of them 
through sense-perception, applying to them the 
names by which they are commonly known. As 
examples of lessons of this kind, the following- 
are given from Currie 's Early School Education : 

TREE. 

Place — in the ground, in fields, gardens, etc. 

Form — upright, bending, wide-spreading above, with 

waving motion, etc. 
Parts — Root: below ground, branching, etc. 

Trunk: round, solid, pillar-like, firm, dark, 

rough, knotty, etc. 
Leaves: heart-shaped, oval, etc.; soft,. 

greeu, yellow, etc. 
Blossom and fruit in their seasons. 
Sound (in motion) — rustling, gentle, violent, etc. 

GLASS. 

Color — light, stained, clear, transparent, ] 

obscured, etc. 
Form (in windows)— square, round, oval, 

lozenge-shaped, etc. 

Thin, light, hard, brittle, cold, 
sharp, etc. 

SEA. 

Taste— salt, unpleasant, cold, etc. Taste. 

Size — large, broad, deep, etc. 

Color — green, blue, clear, sandy, etc. I &■,/,* 

Form— Surface : plain, wavy, smooth, foam- I "V™- 

ing, etc. J 

Sound {in 'motion)— dashing, murmuring, \ Hear- 

gentle, violent, etc. | ing. 

cool, refreshing, cold, etc. Touch. 

Such lessons admit of an endless variety, and 
may be either entirely objective, that is, given 
with the objects placed before the pupils, or 
purely conceptive : such as those above on the 
free and the sea. Both kinds, however, have the 
same primary object in view, — to train the con- 
ceptive faculty in connection with expression. 
Observation is also greatly stimulated and guided 
by such lessons. Thus, to take so familiar an 
object as the s7cy, of which every child must 
necessarily have a multitude of conceptions, 
although perhaps indefinite and almost useless, 
because not associated with any names. How 
much would his real available knowledge be in- 
creased by an exercise enabling him to enumerate 
the various appearances of the sky by proper 
designations. Thus : — The Sky may be serene, 
stormy, clear, overcast, misty, hazy, foggy, 
gloomy, lowering, bright, resplendent, brilliant,, 
deep, dull, brazen, red, gray, azure, starry, dark, 
lurid, etc., etc. In a similar manner, the sensible^ 
properties of a great variety of familiar objects 
may be recalled and named, and in this way the 
attention of the pupils to minute characteristics. 



Sight. 



Touch. 



CONCERT TEACHING 



169 



may be cultivated, and their command of lan- 
guage much increased. 

The conceptions of the mind are greatly in- 
fluenced by its feelings. An indifferent, apathetic 
mental mood will effectually preclude the forma- 
tion of any deep or durable impressions : on the 
contrary, the conceptions of objects and scenes 
with which the mind has been brought into con- 
tact under circumstances causing deep emotion, 
either of pleasure or pain, are ineffaceable. " The 
cherished and imperishable recollections of child- 
hood, often as bright and clear at eighty as they 
were at twenty, are those treasures of the con- 
ceptive faculty which have, been consigned to its 
keeping under the influence of vivid pleasurable 
emotions." There is no principle which the 
teacher should more earnestly consider than this. 
prompting as it does to the effort to associate 
with the scenes of the child's school life every 
possible object which may excite its interest, 
awaken its delight, and lend a charm to its intel- 
lectual acquirements. — See Isaac Taylor, Home 
Education; Cukkxe, Principles m I Practice 
of Early and Infant School-Education; Russell, 
Intellectual Education, in Barnard's American 
Pedagogy; Porter. The Human Intellect I X.Y.. 
1809). 

CONCERT TEACHING, a mode of in- 
struction in which the pupils memorize what is 
to be learned, by simultaneous repetition. It is 
thus a kind of rote-teaching, anil is subject to all 
the disadvantages and liable to all the objections 
incident to that system. In large schools, in 
which very many pupils are taught together in 
a single class, this has been a common and favor- 
ite practice with teachers ; because it has been 
found a ready way to fix in the memory of chil- 
dren the rudimentary principles of reading, spell- 
ing, arithmetic, etc., and to impart to the pupils 
the ability to repeat, in answer to set questions, 
what has been thus mechanically learned. The 
arbitrary associations established in this way are 
very strong and durable ; and, as some things are 
to be taught arbitrarily, and others to be asso- 
ciated in the mind so that they may be arbitrarily 
suggested, that is, recalled without auy effort of 
reasoning or other mental process, the method of 
concert repetition, has a place in teaching that 
is useful and important. For example, the mul- 
tiplication table would be of little value if it 
were so learned, that the pupil would require to 
reason out, or reckon up, the result of each re- 
quired combination ; the associations must be of 
such a character, that thought is unnecessary to 
recall them, the process of simple suggestion be- 
ing alone required. Hence, in memorizing such 
tilings as arithmetical tables, grammatical de- 
clensions, conjugations, etc., concert teaching is 
valuable, on the principles. (1 ) that all repetition 
is valuable in order to impress the mind; ami ('_') 
that, the sense of hearing lacing strongly appealed 
to, the mental impressions and their associations 
are more durable, and more easily recalled. Be- 
sides, by such exercises, the young pupils are 
constantly employed ; their minds are kept stead- 
ily upon their school work, and a strong social 



or collective sympathy is established, which 
would not be possible by the exclusive employ- 
ment of individual exercises. In this connection. 
Currie says. " By this oft repeated simultaneous- 
ness of thought, action, and emotion, the mass 
becomes welded together, takes on one stamp, 
breathes one spirit. . . .Such is the foundation of 
that simultaneous action with which, under the 
name of collective lessons or gallery lessons, we 
are so familiar in the infant school." So strongly 
is this writer impressed with its usefulness, that 
he styles it " the very essence of the infant-school 
system, springing immediately from the root of 
it, and embodying a first principle of its exists 
ence." 

The exercise of intelligence is, however, to be 
considered the chief instrument of education: 
and this is so much an individual matter, that 
the limits within which concert or simultaneous 
repetition is proper, are quite narrow ; and the 
tendency with most teachers is to transcend 
them. Consequently, the intelligence of many 
pupils, instead of being properly addressed and 
exercised, is kept in a kind of stagnant condition, 
and is thus unpaired rather than benefited. The 
tea her, in giving simultaneous instruction, must 
endeavor to prevent this. The pupils will have 
different temperaments and different degrees of 
mental power; ami. consequently, cannot all 
perform the same work. The questions, when 
addressed to the whole class, will not be adapted 
to all the pupils : and if the teacher should de- 
pend upon a mere simultaneous response, only a 
part of the class would be benefited by the teach- 
ing. A show of hands is a ready ami useful ten- 
tative means of ascertaining the condition of the 
class in this respect ; and thus the advantages of 
the simultaneous and individual plan of teaching 
may be combined, the teacher selecting from all 
who raise their hands those who are to answer, 
and, at the same time, observing carefully who 
do not raise their hands. Then, when the teacher 
wishes a certain answer to be repeated for the 
purpose of impressing it upon the pupils' minds, 
the class may be required to repeat it as often as 
may be necessary in concert. Tact and skill on 
the part of the teacher will make this method of 
elementary instruction very effective. 

In the simultaneous responses, the tones of the 
i voice should be as natural as possible. Without 
' great care on the part of the teacher, concert 
1 exercises are very apt to degenerate into a sing- 
! song monotonous drawl, which undermines or 
1 prevents all proper habits of reading and speak- 
ing. The pupils, too, are very apt to pitch their 
' voices too high, or to use a kind of shouting 
tone, which no intelligent teacher would, for a 
moment, permit. Under the limitations referred 
to, and with all proper efforts to guard against 
the abuses to which this system of teaching is 
peculiarly liable, it is of great value ; but should 
never be employed, except when the common 
nature and common intelligence of the children 
are to be brought into play. — See Currie, The 
Principles and Practice ,f Early and Infant. 
School-Education (Edin. and Lond.). 



170 



CONCORD COLLEGE 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



CONCORD COLLEGE, at New Liberty, 
Kentucky, was established in 1845, and chartered 
in 1866. It is under the control of Baptists. 
Both sexes are admitted on the same terms. The 
institution comprises a classical course, leading to 
the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific 
course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Sci- 
ence. In 1873 — 4, it had 3 instructors and 69 
students. H. J. Greenwell is (1876) the pres- 
ident. 

CONCORDIA COLLEGE, at Fort Wayne, 
Indiana, was organized in 1839 and chartered in 
1848. It is under the control of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Church. The value of its buildings, 
grounds, etc., is $150,000. The library contains 
5,000 volumes. To students whose parents are 
members of the synod, tuition is free ; others are 
required to pay $24 per annum. The college has a 
preparatory and a collegiate course. In 1873 — 4, 
there were 15 instructors and 255 preparatory 
and 133 collegiate students. Dr. W. Sillier is 
(1876) its president. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS. This denom- 
ination takes its name from the fact, that the 
church government is lodged with each local 
congregation or ecclesia. And yet, in this re- 
spect, the Congregationalists do not differ essen- 
tially from the Baptists, the Universalists, and the 
Unitarians. The Congregationalists of the Unit- 
ed States correspond, in general, with the Inde- 
pendents of England, and these names are used 
somewhat interchangeably on both sides of the 
water. The difference as far as there is a differ- 
ence, is found in this, that the word Independent 
has a stronger reference to the absolute and final 
power of the local church, while the word Con- 
gregational suggests more the comity, fellowship, 
interchange between churches that a-ve, neverthe- 
less, independent. The word Congregational 
and that which is peculiarly suggested by it, is 
rather growing in favor in England; but hither- 
to the English Independents have made less of 
councils, conferences, associations, than have the 
American Congregationalists. The general name 
in England embracing the Independents, is "The 
Congregational Union." 

The first Congregational church in America 
was planted at Plymouth in 1620; and the 
second at Salem in 1629. By the year 1700, the 
number of churches was about 130. The Pres- 
byterians and Congregationalists had been kin- 
dred in their history in the old world, and they 
early became kindred here. Until within times 
quite recent, it was the common sentiment, that 
a man who was a Congregationalist in New 
England, would be a Presbyterian in the Middle 
States, and vice versa. When the great wave 
of population began to set 'westward from the 
Atlantic shore, in the early part of the present 
century, these two denominations formed a "Plan 
of Union", by which they worked together in the 
founding of churches, schools, and colleges in the 
Middle and Western States. The great benevolent 
societies like the American Board, the American 
Home Missionary Society, the American Edu- 
cation Society, were union societies between 



these two denominations, until within a few 
years. 

Because of this prevailing sentiment, the Con- 
gregationalists of New England did not, until 
the present century, attempt to found churches 
distinctly Congregational out of New England, 
and not till within the last forty years was any 
special influence put forth in this direction. But - 
now the denomination, in the states and territo- 
ries, numbers 3,438 churches, of which 1,459 are 
in New England, and 1,979 outof New England. 
There are but 57 Congregational churches in the 
Southern States. The number of ministers be- 
longing to the denomination is 3,300. 

The system of common schools originated with 
the Congregationalists of New England in the 
early generations, and so thoroughly inwrought 
is this system with the whole history and habit 
of the denomination, that it would be an anomaly 
to find any number of Congregationalists any- 
where in this country, without public schools. 

Prom the first they built their institutions 
upon the principle of an educated ministry, and 
founded their colleges to this end. The rule has 
been with slight exceptions, from 1,620 untilnow, 
that a Congregational church should have a 
minister, with a collegiate education. In Con- 
necticut, from 1635 — 1835, there were not far 
from 1,000 Congregational ministers, and not 
more than 30 of them were without an English 
university education, or a collegiate education on 
these shores. What was true in that state "will 
be found substantially true in all the New Eng- 
land states. Quite a number of the colleges and 
theological schools which the Congregationalists 
largely helped to build, under the Plan of Union, 
now belong to the Presbyterians. But aside 
from these, their colleges are as follows, with the 
date of their foundation: Harvard, Mass, (1638), 
now Unitarian; Yale, Ct. (1700); Dartmouth, N. 
H. (1769); University of Vt. (1791); Williams, 
Mass. (1793); Middlebury, Yt. (1800); Bowdoin, 
Me. (1802); Amherst, Mass. (1821); Illinois, 111. 
(1830); Oberlin, O. (1834); Beloit, Wis. (1847); 
Iowa, Io. (1847); Olivet, Mich. (1855); Pacific 
University, Oregon (1859); Washburn, Kan. 
(1865); Wheaton, 111. (1860); Ripon, Wis. 
(1863); Fisk University, Tenn. (1867), Carleton, 
Minn. (1867); Tabor, Iowa (1866); Berea, Ky. 
(1858); Drury, Mo. (1873); Thaver, Mo. (1868); 
Doane, Neb. (1872); Colorado, Col. (1874). 

The Congregational theological seminaries are, 
Andover, Mass. (1808) — the oldest theological 
school in the country; Bangor, Me. (1817); New 
Haven, Ct. (1822); Hartford, Ct. (1834); Oberlin, 
O. (1835); Chicago, HI. (1858) ; Pacific Theo. 
Sem., Cal. (1869). 

Of academies and female schools the list is 
too long to be enumerated. Some of the oldest 
and best-known academies to prepare boys for 
college, in New England, are Phillips Academy, 
Andover, Mass.; Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. 
H; andWilliston Academy, Easthampton, Mass. 
Of female academies, there are Mt. Holyoke 
Seminary, Hadley, Mass.; Abbott Academy, 
Andover, Mass.; Bradford Academy, Bradford, 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



CONNECTICUT 



171 



Mass.; Wheaton Academy, Norton, Mass. and 
Wellesley College, at Wellesley, Mass. 

Of CoHgregational colleges in England, some 
of the more conspicuous are, Rotkerham Inde- 
pendent College (1756), with ■which Rev. F. J. 
Falding, D.D., and Rev. H. R. Reynolds are 
prominently connected; Lancashire Independent 
College (180(1), where Rev. J. G. Rogers and 
Rev. J. Baldwin Brown, both London ministers, 
are employed as lecturers; New College, London 
(1850), having among its foremost professors, 
Rev. J. Stoughton, D.U.,and Rev. R. Hulley.D.D.; 
Tkeological Hall of Congregational Churches of 
Scotland (1811), with which Rev. W. L. Alexan- 
der is honorably associated, and several other 
institutions, with the same general character 
and aim. 

The American Education Society, organized, 
in 1816, to assist young men in humble circum- 
stances, in obtaining an education for the Chris- 
tian ministry, has given aid, in the sixty years 
of its existence, to 6,302 young men. It assists 
them only in the collegiate and theological 
■courses, though, in the early years, it gave aid 
also in the preparatory departments. Its prin- 
ciple is not to support, but to help men to help 
themselves. It gives them $100, a year, each. 
The society is now giving its aid to 310 young 
men in thirty different colleges and theological 
schools. Two years since, this society was united 
with the College Society, so called, whose func- 
tion it was to assist young colleges at the West. 
Since the union, the name of the organization is 
"The American College and Education Society", 
and it has now the double duty of aiding young 
•colleges, as well as young men. 

The denomination now carries on its benevo- 
lent work through six societies, which are dis- 
tinctively I 'ongregational, namely: The American 
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 
raising and expending yearly about $475,000 ; 
The American Home Missionary Society ; The 
American Congregational Union (ekurck-build- 
ing) ; The American Missionary Association (work 
among the freedmen of the South) ; The American 
College and Education Society ; and the Con- 
gregational Publishing Society. Besides these, 
the Congregational churches bear a part in the 
union societies, like the American Bible Society, 
American Sunday School Union, etc. The whole 
amount of the benevolent contributions of the 
denomination, last year, was $1,241,014.29. 

While the Congregational system of church 
government lodges the power with eack local 
church, yet it makes much of the advisory power 
of councils. In the settlement and dismissals of 
ministers, — in tke organization of new churches, 
— in cases of difficulty in any local church — it is 
customary to call upon sister churches for coun- 
sel and assistance. There- has also grown up in 
the denomination a large system of interchange 
and fellowship, by means of associations, local 
and state conferences, and now, at length, a trien- 
nial national council. 

From the circumstance, that the Congrega- 
tionalists so early founded their system of public 



schools and their colleges, it has come to pass, 
tkat tkis denomination has furnished tke educa- 
tors of tke country, in tke lower, and especially 
in tke kigker departments, far beyond any otker 
religious denomination in the land. It has sup- 
plied presidents of colleges, and professors in col- 
leges and theological schools in immense num- 
bers. Anything kke an enumeration of names, 
in tkis particular, would require so muck space, 
tkat we will not attempt it. But the fact will 
probably stand unchallenged by all intelligent 
and observing men. A few conspicuous names 
may be mentioned, for the most part belonging 
to by-gone generations. Suck were Increase 
Mather, Edward Holyoke, John T. Kirkland, 
Jared Sparks, presidents of Harvard College; 
Thomas Clap, Ezra Stiles, Timothy Ihvigkt, Jer- 
emiak Day, presidents of Yale College; Eleazar 
Wheelock and Nathan Lord of Dartmouth Col- 
lege. The late Dr. Theron Baldwin, for nearly 
thirty years secretaiy of tke College Society, by 
reason of bis large organizing power in the depart- 
ment of education, fitly finds a place in this list. 
Of men still kving, but wko, by reason of age, have 
passed out of the offices they so long held, and 
may be reckoned as emeriti, we may name Mark 
Hopkins, of Williams College, and Tkeodore 
Dwigkt Woolsey, of Yale College. From tke be- 
ginning untd now, tke presidents and professors 
in the Presbyterian institutions have been largely 
furnished by New England; and the same is true, 
in a lesser proportion, in the institutions of other 
denominations. A catalogue of presidents and 
professors in American colleges and tkeological 
seminaries, including only tke men born and 
reared among tke " Congregationalists," would 
embrace several hundred names. 

CONNECTICUT, one of the original thir- 
teen states of the American Union, having a 
population, in 1870, of 537,454, and an area of 
4.750 sq. m., being the smallest of tke present 
states except Rhode Island and Delaware. 

Educational Bistort/. — This topic may con- 
veniently be discussed under three beads : (I) 
Tke estabksking of sckools ; (II) Tke mode of 
maintaining them ; (IU) Tke mode of supervis- 
ing tkem. 

I. Tke earliest European immigrants to Con- 
necticut establisked sckools very soon after tkeir 
arrival. Two distinct colonies were originally 
planted within the present limits of the state, 

| eack consisting of several towns or plantations. 
Hartford (settled in 1635) was the leading town in 
the Connecticut colony, and New Haven (settled 
in 1638), in the New Haven colony. At first, each 
town acted independently in establishing sckools. 
The earliest records of Hartford are lost, but tke 
oldest extant records show that a school existed 
there as early as 1642. The records of New 
Haven speak of a school there in 1639 — 40, and 
two years later they contain a vote to provide 

1 means for a school. The action of these two 
leading towns no doubt indicates correctly the 
similar action of the other original towns. Tke 
first code of laws for tke Connecticut colony, 
completed in 1650, required "tke selectmen of 



172 



CONNECTICUT 



every town to have a vigilant eye over their 
brethren and neighbors, to see that none of them 
shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their 
families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- 
selves or others, their children and apprentices 
so much learning as may enable them perfectly 
to read the English tongue, etc." The same code 
required every town containing 50 families to I 
" appoint one within their town to teach all such 
children as shall resort to him, to write and 
read ;" and every town of 100 families, to " set 
up a grammar school, the masters thereof being 
able to instruct youths so far as they may be 
fitted for the university." The New Haven 
colony code, prepared in 1655, was equally em- 
phatic in requiring the education of all children. 
The two colonies were united in 1665, and the 
Connecticut code became the law for the whole 
colony. In 1672, that code was revised, and the 
provision requiring a grammar school in every 
town of 100 families, was superseded by a new 
law requiring such a school to be maintained in 
the county town of each of the four counties 
that had then been organized; namely, Hartford, 
New Haven, New London, and Fairfield. This 
law remained in force till 1798. In 1678, every 
town containing 30 families (instead of 50) was 
required to maintain a school. A new revision 
of the code was prepared in 1700, and published 
two years later. Under the revised code, every 
town of 70 families, or more, was required to 
maintain a school eleven months of each year, 
and every town of less than 70 families, to have 
a school at least half of the year. In 1717, these 
requirements were extended to parishes or socie- 
ties, into which several towns of large extent 
were divided, from time to time, for the con- 
venience of people in attending public worship. 
In 1766, each town, and each parish, where there 
was more than one in a town, was authorized to 
divide itself into convenient districts, and main- 
tain within its limits as many schools as might 
be needed to accommodate its inhabitants. Pre- 
vious to this time, the law had required only one 
school in each town or society. The law of 1766 
led, in time, to the " district system" of establish- 
ing and maintaining schools. At first, however, 
the districts were merely subdivisions of towns 
or parishes. In 1794, their separate existence 
began to be recognized in legislation. They 
were authorized that year to locate new school- 
houses by a vote of two thirds of the citizens, to 
lay taxes for the same, and to appoint collectors. 
In 1799, they were empowered to choose clerks 
and treasurers ; and, finally, in 1839, they were 
declared to be "bodies corporate," and were 
authorized to elect their own committees. In 
1795, 1798, and 1799, laws were passed by which 
parishes or societies were invested with full con- 
trol over schools within their limits, and were 
designated by the new name of "school societies." 
Such society might be an entire town, a part of 
a town, or parts of two or more towns ; but all 
action concerning schools was taken by school 
societies, and towns, as such, had no part in 
school affairs. In 1856, school societies were 



abolished, and their powers and duties were trans- 
ferred to the towns. In 1865, the towns were 
authorized to consolidate all their districts, pro- 
vided a majority of the districts in a town con- 
sented. In 1866, the right to consolidate was 
given without that condition; and this law, with 
slight modifications, is still in force. Under this 
law, several towns have abolished their school 
districts and returned to the original " town 
system." 

II. There have been three principal sources of 
support for public schools : (1) Taxes ; (2) Tui- 
tion fees, or rate bills ; (3) The income of per- 
manent funds. 

(1) Taxes. — The earliest schools in Hartford, 
New Haven, Wethersfield, and, doubtless, in the 
other original towns, were supported in part by 
appropriations from the town treasuries. The 
code of 1650 (already mentioned) directed that the 
teachers should be paid " either by the parents or 
masters of such children " as resorted to them, 
"or by the inhabitants in general by way of 
supply, as the major part of those who order the 
prudentials of the town shall appoint." The two 
methods here suggested, — taxes and tuition fees 
— were, doubtless, combined, as they had been be- 
fore that code was formed. In 1690, the general 
court (i. e., legislature) of the colony granted 60 
pounds yearly to each of the county grammar 
schools of Hartford and New Haven, " 30 pounds 
of it to be paid out of the county treasury, the 
other 30 to be paid in the school revenue given 
by particular persons, or to be given for that use, 
so far as it will extend, the rest to be paid by the 
respective towns of Hartford and New Haven." 
In 1693, 20 pounds was voted to each of the 
other two grammar schools. In the revised code 
of 1700 (previously referred to), an important 
change was made. The sum of 40 shillings 
on the thousand pounds was ordered to be paid 
from the colony treasury to those towns which 
maintained schools according to law, in propor- 
tion to their respective grand lists of taxable 
property and polls. This sum was assessed in 
addition to previous taxes, and was thus virtually 
a town tax for schools. If the amount thus re- 
ceived by any town was insufficient to maintain 
its school, the deficiency was to be " made up of 
such estate as hath been bequeathed by any for 
that use, and for want thereof, the one half to be 
paid by the town, and the other by the children 
that go to school, unless any town agree other- 
wise." In 1717, parishes or societies were placed 
on the same footing as towns for maintaining 
schools. The law of 1700, as thus amended, re- 
mained in force, with slight modifications, till 
1820. The most important modifications were 
the following: In 1754, the rate of tax was 
diminished from 40 shillings to 10; in 1766, it 
was increased to 20; and in 1767, was restored 
to 40. The burdens of the Seven Years' war 
(1756 — 63), doubtless, caused the diminution 
of the tax. In 1820, the state school fund had 
become so productive that a law was passed per- 
mitting the discontinuance of the tax whenever 
the yearly income of that fund should amount to 



CONNECTICUT 



173 



$62,000, which occurred the next year. In 1854, 
the town school tax was restored, and it has since 
been repeatedly increased, till it now supplies 
fully half of the funds for the current expenses 
of public schools. In 183!), school districts were 
authorized to tax themselves for current school 
expenses. This is now done most commonly by 
the more populous and wealthy districts. In 
1871, there was appropriated from the state 
treasury 50 cents for each child between 4 and 
1 6 years of age. The next year the sum was in- 
creased to one dollar and a half per child, which 
it now remains. 

(2) Th it inn Fees or Rah' Bills. — These were 
a source of school income from the beginning till 
they were abolished in 1868. Where parents or 
guardians were too poor to pay them, they coidd 
be collected from the town or society. 

(3) Income of Permanent Funds. — A law al- 
ready quoted, passed in 1 1190, refers to "school 
revenue given by particular persons." The quo- 
tation already given from the law of 1700, con- 
tains similar language. In 1733, the public 
lands belonging to the colony, now constituting 
the north-western part of the state, were set apart 
to form a permanent school fund, and the avails 
of these lands, except certain reservations, were 
distributed among the towns then organized, in 
proportion to their tax lists ; parishes receiving 
their portions on the same basis. The money 
thus obtained now constitutes the greater part 
of the " school society funds" belonging to many 
of the former societies. A small part of these 
funds came from the " excise moneys" granted 
by the colony, in 1 766, for the encouragement of 
schools, ami another part from the donations and 
bequests of benevolent persons. The ( 'omieclicut 
School Fund was for more than half a century 
the main source of public school income. By 
the charter granted to Connecticut by ( lharles II. 
of England, in 1662, the colony extended west- 
ward to the l'acitic, and from 41° to 42'-' 2' N. 
lat. The part of this territory now belonging 
to Pennsylvania, was yielded to that state 
after a bitter controversy, but the title of Con- 
necticut to the remainder, lying farther west, 
was confirmed. In 1786, this was ceded to the 
U. 8., except a reservation extending 120 miles 
westward from the W. line of Pennsylvania. and 
known as the " Western Reserve," or sometimes 
as " New Connecticut." This tract, except a 
small part previously disposed of, was sold in 
1795 for $1,000,000, which was the original 
capital of the Connecticut school fund. By ju- 
dicious management, particularly that of James 
Hillhouse. commissioner of the fund from 1810 
to 1825, and Seth P. Beers, from 1825 to 1849, 
the capital was increased to over $2,000,000. 
The first dividend was paid in 1799. The fund 
now bears interest at 7 per cent, and in some 
cases more than that. The income, until 1820, 
was distributed to the school societies in propor- 
tion to their respective amounts of taxable prop- 
erty and polls; since that time it is divided ac- 
cording to the number of children between 4 and 
16 yearsof age. — The Town Deposit Fund came 



from the treasury of the U. S. In 1836, Congress 
directed that the " surplus revenue" then on 
hand should be divided among the states in pro- 
portion to their representation in both houses of 
Congress. Connecticut received 8764,670.60. 
Of this sum $763,661.83 was divided among the 
towns according to their population at the census 
of 1830. Towns organized since that date have 
(with one exception) received their share of the 
town deposit fund which belonged to the towns 
from which they were formed. In theory, this 
money is merely deposited witji the towns by 
the state (whence its name), and is liable to 
be recalled; but, practically, it belongs absolutely 
to the towns. At first, one half of the income 
was devoted by law to public schools ; since 
18.")."), the entire income has been so devoted. 

III. For the first 60 or 70 years in the history 
of Connecticut, there appears to have been uo of- 
ficial supervision of the schools. The "selectmen" 
in each town were to " have a vigilant eye" over 
their townsmen to prevent the " barbarism " of 
ignorance ; but nothing is recorded which indi- 
cates that schools were particularly under their 
care. A law of 1 "02 speaks of a " committee 
for schools" as existing in a part of the towns, 
and similar committees were afterward appointed 
in the parishes; but the duty of these committees, 
so far as appears, extended only to the financial 
affairs of the schools. In 1714, the civil author- 
ity and selectmen of every town were "directed 
and empowered, as visitors, to inspect the state 
of all such schools as are appointed in such town, 
from time to time, and particularly once in each 

quarter of the year and to inquire into the 

qualifications of the masters of such schools and 
their diligence in attending to the service of the 
said schools, together with the proficiency of the 
children under their care." They were also re- 
quired to give such directions as woidd render 
the schools most efficient for the purpose in- 
tended. This law remained in force till 1798, 
when each society — then called a school society — 
was required to " appoint a suitable number of 
persons, not exceeding nine, of competent skill 
and letters, to be overseers and visitors of 
schools," who were to examine and approve 
teachers, displace the incompetent and such as 
disregarded the " regulations by them adopted, 
superintend and direct the instruction of the 
youth in letter's, religion, morals, and manners," 
and in other ways promote the efficiency of 
the schools. When the school societies were 
abolished, in 1856, the appointment of " school 
visitors" was transferred to the towns. 

No state superintendent of schools was chosen 
in Connecticut till 1839. In that year, a board 
of commissioners of common schools was created, 
and authorized to appoint its own secretary, who 
was to " devote his whole time, if required, un- 
der the direction of the board, to ascertain the 
condition, increase the interest, and promote the 
usefulness, of the common schools." The board 
appointed as its secretary Henry Barnard, who 
served the state efficiently in that position till 
1842, wheu the law creating the board was re- 



1U 



CONNECTICUT 



pealed. In 1845, the commissioner of the school 
fund, Beth P. Beers, was appointed by the gen- 
eral assembly superintendent of common schools. 
In 1849, an act was psssed establishing a normal 
school, the principal of which was to be, ex offi- 
cio, superintendent of common schools. Under 
this act, Henry Barnard became superintendent 
in September of that year, and continued to 
hold the office till January, 1855. John D. 
Philbrick succeeded him for two years, and 
David N. Camp was superintendent from Jan- 
uary, 1857, to August, 1865. In July, 1865, 
the state board of education was constituted, and 
was required to appoint a secretary, who by the 
appointment was made superintendent of schools. 
The first secretary was Daniel C. Gilman, who 
filled the position from August, 1865. to Jan- 
uary, 1867. The present secretary. Birdsey G-. 
Northrop, entered upon his duties January 1., 
1867. 

A State Teachers' Association was formed 
April 7., 1846, which meets once a year. Teach- 
ers' Institutes are held iu different parts of the 
state, every year. They are provided for by an 
appropriation of $3,000 a year, from the state 
treasury. Associations of teacher? for mutual 
improvement are formed from time to time in 
some towns. 

School System. — The general supervision and 
control of the educational interests of the state 
are entrusted to the state board of education, 
which consists of six persons, — the governor and 
lieutenant-governor of the state, e.v officio, and 
one person from each of the four congressional 
districts, chosen by the general assembly for the 
term of four years, one going out of office each 
year, but re-eligible. The secretary chosen by 
this board is superintendent of schools, as above 
stated. Towns are required to maintain schools 
for at least 30 weeks in each year, in every 
district containing 24 or more persons between 
4 and 16 years of age, and for at least 24 weeks 
in other districts : but no school need be 
maintained in any district in which the aver- 
age attendance, the previous year, was less 
than 8. Each town has a board of school 
visitors, either 6 or 9 in number, who are 
chosen by ballot for three years, one third go- 
ing out of office each year, but re-eligible. In 
choosing them, no voter may vote for more than 
half of the number to be chosen when it is an 
even number, nor for more than a bare majority 
when it is an odd number. The care of school 
funds and other school property belonging to the 
towns, is entrusted to selectmen, and the visitors 
have charge of strictly educational affairs. They 
examine and certificate teachers, rejecting those 
considered unfit or incompetent, prescribe rules 
and regulations for the management, studies, 
classification, and discipline of public schools, 
and direct what text-books shall be used. They 
approve sites and plans for new school-houses, 
fill vacancies in district offices, make rules for 
the care and management of district libraries, 
and supervise high schools where such exist. 
They annually assign to one or more of their 



number, called acting visitors, the duty of visit- 
ing all public schools in the town at least twice 
in each term. They choose from their own num- 
ber a chairman and secretary, make yearly re- 
turns of the number of children between 4 and 
16 years of age, and draw all moneys from the 
state treasury. They also send to the secretary 
of the board of education such statistical re- 
turns as he may call for. As compensation, they 
are entitled to receive 3 dollars a day, for the 
tune necessarily spent in performing their duties. 
Each town has power to form, alter, and dissolve 
school districts within its limits, and any two or 
more towns may form joint districts of adjoining 
parts of their territory. Each district is a body 
corporate, with all the powers necessary for 
building, purchasing, hiring, and repairing 
school-houses, employing and paying teachers, 
and raising moneys by tax or loan. The name 
or number, and the boundaries of every district 
are to be definitely ascertained and entered on 
its own records, as well as on those of the town 
or towns in which it is situated. Each district- 
chooses yearly by ballot a committee of not 
more than 3 persons, a clerk, treasurer, and col- 
lector. Some large districts choose their com- 
mittees in the same way that school visitors are 
chosen, as already described. The committee of a 
district is its agent, employing its teacher or 
teachers, and taking charge of its affairs ; giving 
notice of district meetings, and calling special 
meetings when deemed necessary, or when one- 
fifth or ten of the voters in the district request 
it in writing. 

Any town may, at any annual meeting, abol- 
ish all the school districts and parts of districts 
within its limits, and constitute itself one district. 
Such town assumes all the property and debts of 
the former district, and chooses by ballot, as 
school visitors are chosen, a committee of 6, 9, 
or 12 male residents, who take the place and 
perform the duties of both district officers and 
school visitors. They arrange for schools, of at 
least 30 weeks in the year, in the different parts 
of the town, and take charge of school-buildings 
and other school property. All towns have 
authority to establish and maintain high schools, 
and to do what is requisite for that purpose. 
The state makes yearly payments for procuring 
and replenishing libraries and apparatus, to such 
districts as comply with certain requirements. 
Teachers are required to be examined and ap- 
proved by the school visitors before commencing 
to teach, and to keep an accurate record of each 
scholar's attendance, in registers provided by the 
state for that purpose. An enumeration of all 
persons between 4 and 16 years of age is made 
yearly, in January, and the number is returned 
to the proper officer by February 5th. The dis- 
tribution of the school finance and state appro- 
priation is based on this enumeration. 

Educational condition.— -The number of school 
districts as returned in 1876, is 1506, of which 
16 comprise each an entire town; obout 200 are 
joint districts, lying in two or more towns, and 
about 1280 are each a part of a town. The 



CONNECTICUT 



175 



number of schools was 1,650 ; of departments, 
2,499. The number of graded schools was 264 ; 
of which 114 had each two departments ; 39 had 
3 each ; 37, 4 ; 23. 5 ; 11,6; 10, 7 ; 5, 8 ; 5, 9 ; 
6, 10 ; 1, 11 ; 7, 12 : 3, 13 ; 1, 19 ; 1, 20 ; 1, 21. 
The whole number of departments in the graded 
schools was 1,093. Hence about 1,406 of the 
public schools were ungraded. 

The support of schools (including the cost of 
building and repairing school-houses) was de- 
rived from several sources; namely, 

School Fuud $148,220.(10 

Town Deposit Fund 46,534.97 

Other Funds 15,614.79 

Total from funds $210,370.36 

State Tax $202,119.00 

Town Tax 66S.167.13 

District Tax 463,775.19 

Total from taxes $1,334,061.32 

Voluntary Contributions 6,881.26 

Other sources 41,545.17 

Total from all sources $1,592,858.11 

The average wages per month of male teach- 
ers was $70.05; of female teachers. $37.35. The 
highest salary of any teacher is $3,000 a year. 

The course of instruction in graded schools 
varies so widely that no definite statement can 
be given. 

School Statistics (for the year ending August 
31., 1875) :— 

Pupils enrolled (or registered): 

In the winter term 98,402 

" " summer term 88,595 

" " whole year 119,489 

Average attendance, winter 71,935 

" " summer 65,251 

" " mean, for the year 68,593 

Total Receipts $1,592,858.11 

" Expenditures :.. 1,552,583.85 

The items of expenditure are as follows: — 

For Teachers* Wages $1,057,242.19 

" Fuel and Incidentals 140,130.42 

" New School-Houses 135.136.46 

" Repairs of School- Houses 77,544.46 

" Library and Apparatus 8,262.15 

" other school purposes, including cost 

of supervision 134,269.17 



Total $1,552,583.85 

Number of Teachers : — 

Iu winter, males, 721; females, 1,910; total 2,631 

"summer, " 272; " 2,324; " 2,5116 

Number of different teachers employed, at least, 
males, 704; females, 2.307; total, 3,011. 

Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, 
at New Britain, was established in 1849, and 
opened for pupils in 1850. It is supported by 
an appropriation of $12,000 a year from the 
state treasury. The number of students, in 1876, 
was 180 ; instructors, 7. The design of the 
school is strictly professional : that is, to instruct 
its pupils in the best methods of organizing, 
governing, and instructing schools, as well as in 
the various branches pursued in the common 
schools of the state. Candidates for admission 
must be at least 16 years of age; must declare 
their full attention to teach in the public schools 
of Connecticut, and must pass a satisfactory ex- 
amination in reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, English grammar, and the history of the 
United States. The course of study embraces, 



besides the branches usually taught in the 
schools, school laws, theory and art of teaching, 
English literature, vocal music, and drawing. 
The full course requires two years. This school 
has a library of about 500 volumes ; a collection 
of models, casts, and apparatus for free-hand 
drawing ; a chemical laboratory, and a philo- 
sophical cabinet and apparatus. 

Secondary Instruction. — Of this grade are 
the high, schools and the academies. The ac- 
count already given of the public schools con- 
tains the facts in relation to the county grammar 
schools, which may be regarded as the high 
schools of Connecticut from 1672 to 1798. The 
Colony School in New Haven (1659 — 62) may 
be considered the prototype of these schools. In 
1798, every school society was authorized to set 
up a high school : and, in 1856, each town re- 
ceived similar authority. But very few towns 
have permanently maintained such schools. In 
many of the larger villages, the highest depart- 
ment of a graded school serves as a high school. 

In 1658, Edward Hopkins, who had been gov- 
ernor of Connecticut, died in London, leaving by 
will a part of his estate to trustees in New 
Haven. Hartford, and Uadley, -Mass.. to be used 
" to give some encouragement in those foreign 
plantations for the breeding up of hopeful 
youths, both at the grammar school and college, 
for the public service of the colony in future 
times." New Haven and Hartford received 
each a few hundred pounds from his estate, with 
which they laid the foundations of the Hopkins 
grammar schools. These schools date from 
1660, though not actually begun till 1664 and 
1665. The school at Hartford was united with 
the high school of that town in 1847, but the 
Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven has 
retained its separate existence, though most of 
its present endowment came from other sources 
than the Hopkins estate. 

In the later years of the 18th century, acade- 
mies began to be established, and a large number 
have been incorporated. A general law for their 
incorporation has been in force since 1838. At 
present, about 25 academies are in active exist- 
ence. In the early part of this century, the 
Plainfield Academy, the Staples Free School, at 
Easton, and Bacon Academy, at Colchester, 
were especially prominent, but they have since 
relatively declined. The most important are 
now the Episcopal Academy, at Cheshire, the 
Connecticut Literary Institute, at Suffield, the 
Norwich Free Academy, the Bulkeley School, 
at New London, and the Morgan School, at 
Clinton. The last three named have large en- 
dowments. Bowen Academy, at Woodstock, 
I>ewis Academy, Southington. the Guilford In- 
stitute. Guilford, and the academies at Durham 
and Glastonbury are also valuable institutions. 

Besides the high schools and academies, there 
are numerous private schools, especially in the 
southern and western parts of the state. Many 
of these are boarding-schools which receive their 
pupils chiefly from New York and other large 
cities. 



1T6 



CONNECTICUT 



Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
There are but few schools of this kind except 
those established by the Roman Catholics in 
communities where citizens of that denomination 
are numerous. In two or three instances, schools 
thus established have been incorporated into the 
public school system. 

Superior Instruction. — Although no college 
was established in Connecticut till 1700, the 
founders of both the original colonies, and espe- 
cially of New Haven, were ardent friends of col- 
legiate education. But Harvard College for a 
long time needed and received their assistance. 
The Connecticut colony appropriated money to 
establish a fellowship there. In every town a 
committee was appointed to receive and forward 
contributions in aid of students at Cambridge. 
New Haven sent 40 bushels of wheat as one 
year's contribution. But the purpose to found 
a, college at New Haven, was cherished from the 
outset, and was never abandoned. At a town 
meeting held early in 1648 — less than 10 years 
after the first settlement — , the town directed a 
committee, appointed to dispose of vacant lots, to 
" consider and reserve what lot they shall see 
meet and most convenient for a college, which 
they desire maybe set up so soon as their ability 
shall reach thereunto." The subject was repeat- 
edly discussed both in meetings of the town and 
in the colonial legislature, but the want of means 
prevented the gratification of their desire. In 
1659, a '• colony school " was set up, in the hope 
that it might in time become a college, but it 
was continued only three years. At length, in 
1699, a plan was devised for establishing the 
long desired college. The leaders in the move- 
ment were the clergymen of the colony. Ten 
of these were selected to act in behalf of the 
whole number, to found, erect, and govern a col- 
lege. In 1700, they performed the duty assigned 
them, and the "collegiate school" was begun. 
The next year, the legislature bestowed on it a 
charter and an annual appropriation of 120 
pounds for its support. It was first located at 
Saybrook, but the president (then called rector) 
lived at Killingworth (now Clinton) a few miles 
distant, and the students pursued their studies 
there under his direction till his death in 1707. 
Afterward, the senior class was instructed by 
his successor at Milf ord. the other classes re- 
maining at Saybrook, where the successive an- 
nual commencements were held. In 1716, the 
trustees decided to remove the school to New 
Haven, and after much contention this was 
accomplished the following year. One year 
later (1718), a generous and timely gift from 
Elihu Yale induced the trustees to give the in- 
stitution the name of Tale College. (See Tale 
College.) 

Trinity College, at Hartford, was chartered as 
Washington College, in 1823 ; and instruction 
was begun in 1824. The name was changed in 
1845. (See Trinity College.) In addition to 
these, there is the Wesleyan University, at 
Middletown, which was founded in 1831. (See 
Wesleyan University.) 



I Professional and Scientific Instruction. — Un- 
Ider this head are included Theological Schools, 
Law Schools, and Scientific Schools, of which the 
following is an enumeration: The Theological 
i Department of Tale College was organized in 
1822. For the year 1875 — 6, it had 99 students. 
JThe Theological Institute of Connecticut was 
founded at East Windsor, in 1834, and was re- 
jmovedto Hartford, in 1865. In 1876, the num- 
ber of students was 16. The Berkeley Divinity 
School was organized in 1851 as the Theological 
Department of Trinity College. In 1854, it was 
removed to Middletown, and was incorporated 
with its present designation. It had 39 students 
in 1876. In 1784, the Litchfield Law School was 
established by Judge Reeve, and it soon became 
the foremost in the U. S., having students from 
all parts of the country. It was continued about 
half a century. The Law Department of Yale 
College was separately organized in 1826, though 
no class was formally graduated till 1843. The 
number of students, in 1876, was 76. The Med- 
ical Department of Tale College was organized 
in 1813. The number of students, in 1876, was 
50. The Sheffield Scientific School of Tale Col- 
lege was begun in 1846, as the Department of 
Philosophy and the Arts, and graduated its first 
class in 1852. Its rapid growth has been due 
mainly to the liberality of the gentleman whose 
name it bears. In 1863, the legislature granted 
to it the income ($8,100) derived from lands 
given by Congress, the previous year, to provide 
colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the 
mechanic arts." The school had 224 students 
for the year 1875 — 6. The School of the Fine 
Arts in Tale College has been quite recently 
established, and has as yet but few pupils. 

Special Instruction. — The American Asylum 
for the Deaf and Dumb was established at Hart- 
ford in 1816, being the first of the kind on the 
Western Continent. It receives pupils from all 
the New England States. The average number is 
usually about 225. The Whipple Home for Deaf- 
mutes, at Mystic River, makes a specialty of 
teaching the deaf and dumb to talk, in which it is 
remarkably successful. The State Reform School 
for Boys, at West Meriden, was established in 
1851, and opened in 1854. It has received in all 
about 2,350 pupils, and has an average number of 
about 300. The Industrial School for Girls, at 
Middletown, was incorporated in 1868, and re- 
ceived its first pupil in January 1870. It has an 
average number of from 60 to 80 pupils, and re- 
ceives from the State $ 3 per week for each pupil. 
It is designed to be a reformatory institution. 
The Soldiers' Orphan Homes, two in number, 
were opened 10 or 12 years ago, at Darien and 
Mansfield. As the class of children for which they 
were designed is now mostly beyond school age, 
they cannot be much longer continued on the 
original basis, but the school at Darien has already 
been somewhat transformed. The School for Im- 
beciles, at Lakeville, was incorporated in 1861, 
though it had been previously carried on as a 
private institution. It receives from the state 
treasury an annual appropriation of $7,000. 



CONSCIENCE 



177 



Educational Literature. — The chief works on | 
the schools of the state are the Report of I lenry 
Barnard, Superintendent of Common Schools. 
for 1853, which contains a carefully prepared 
history of education in Connecticut ; and hi -lyr- 
ical accounts of particular institutions which have 
been published from time to time. Besides these, 
histories of Vale College have been prepared by J 
several persons ; and a full account of Trinity 
College and the Berkeley Divinity School is con- 
tained in Dr. E. E. Beardsley's History of the 
Episcopal Church in Connecticut. The educa- 
tional journals are very important. The Con- 
necticut Common School Journal was first issued 
by Henry Barnard, in August, 1838. Four 
volumes, 4to, were published in the next 4 years, 
and 4 vols, more, previous to 1854. From 1*54 
to 1866, inclusive, 13 vols., 8vo, were issued, 
and after an interval of 4 years 4 vols, more 
(1871 — 74), the last two being 4to. The whole 
number of volumes issued 'is 25. In January, 
1875, all the educational journals of New ling- 
land were combined into the New England 
Journal of Education, published weekly in Bos- 
ton. The Journal of Education was begun by 
Henry Barnard, in 1855, and is still continued. 
The series comprises about 20 large 8vo volumes. 
(See Barnard. Henry.) 

CONSCIENCE, Culture of. The feeling 
of moral obligation, the conviction that certain 
actions are right and others wrong, the sense of 
duty, the moral principle, or by whatever other 
phrase of similar signification we may define con- 
science, is the most important object of culture 
in every department and stage of moral educa- 
tion. The strength of this principle, as an active 
element of character, differs greatly in different 
individuals, whether children or adults. As a 
general fact, however, children are influenced 
but very slightly by a sense of right or duty ; 
they are acted upon by a different class of mo- 
tives. The desire of sensuous enjoyment, the 
love of approbation, emulation, self-will, the hope 
of reward, and the fear of punishment, are the 
usual means by which youthful minds are 
swayed, and their actions controlled. The appe- 
tites are strong ; the moral sentiments, weak. 
Hence, to address the conscience of a child as a 
ruling principle would be a great error ; perhaps, 
a disaster. Still, children should be treated as 
possessing at least the germ of conscience ; and 
they should early be habituated to scan their 
own conduct as well as that of others, and apply 
to it a certain standard of moral rectitude. How- 
ever imperfect this standard in a child's mind 
may be, much will be gained when we have in- 
duced him to ask, in regard to any of his actions, 
" Is it right ?" The enlightenment of conscience i 
is much easier than its development ; to one who 
is deeply impressed with a sense of duty, a 
knowledge of specific right and wrong will be 
very readily acquired. It should be borne in 
mind that, while the child is really restrained by 
the lower motives of conduct, such as those above 
enumerated, the conscience is to be steadily but 
carefully addressed. Thus, if a pupil, whose love 



of approbation is strong, has learned a difficult 
lesson simply to please his teacher, it is right to 
accord him all the praise which he craves as the 
reward of his conduct ; but let not the teacher 
fail to impress upon his mind, at the same time, 
that this praise is given because the action per- 
formed is good — is right; bo that his mind may 
be drawn from his overweening desire for the 
approbation of others, and gradually led to ap- 
preciate more highly the approbation of his own 
conscience : and so in respect to all the lower in- 
centives. If the chilil is punished for a fault by 
an angry teacher or parent, he will rather dread 
the anger than be impressed with the wrongful- 
ness of his conduct ; and, if sly and deceitful. 
the only result of the punishment will lie to ren- 
der Mm more careful to conceal than to avoid 
similar wrong-doing in the future. Hence, the 
interposition of the teacher's personality in con- 
nection with either reward or punishment is an 
obstacle to the moral improvement of the pupil; 
because it diverts his attention from the charac- 
ter of his conduct, as good or bad in itself, to an 
exclusive consideration of its effects upon the 
mind of the teacher, as producing praise or cen- 
sure. Some thoughtless teachers punish their 
pupils for not telling of each other's offenses: 
when they should be glad to perceive an ex- 
hibition of such a sense of honor, and should 
rather encourage and commend it. (If course, 
if a pupil wdio is strenuous in his refusal to act 
the part of a tale-bearer, as mean and wrong, 
could be convinced that his duty demanded that 
he should make known the wrong-doer, he would 
at once yield : but, after a simple statement of 
the case, he should be permitted to exercise Ids 
conscience, without any violence or threats being 
brought against it. A high standard of moral 
excellence in a child is just as striking an in- 
stance of precocity, as great intellectual power 
and attainments : and is. perhaps, as much to be 
discouraged. "Be content." says Herbert Spen- 
cer, " with moderate measures and moderate re- 
sults. Constantly bear in mind the fact that a 
higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must 
be reached by a slow growth ; and you will then 
have more patience with those imperfections of 
nature which your child hourly displays. You 
will be less prone to that constant scolding, and 
threatening, and forbidding, by which many 
parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in 
the foolish hope that they will thus make their 
children what they should be." 

The conscience is not to be cultivated by 
simply giving moral precepts. " Moral educa- 
tion." says Dymond, "should be directed, not so 
much to informing the young what they ought 
to do, as to inducing those moral dispositions 
and principles which will make them adhere to 
what they know to be right," The highest suc- 
cess in this is achieved when the pupil is seen to 
be willing to make self-sacrifice, to practice 
self-denial, in order to do what he feels to be 
right. This point of moral excellence having 
been reached, the individual may, with entire 
safety, be allowed to control his own actions, 



178 CONSTITUTION OP IT. S. 



CONVENT SCHOOLS 



with the assurance that he will not, in any cir- 
cumstance of life, go far astray. 

The basis of moral rectitude has not here been 
considered ; nor is it necessary to plunge into 
any speculations as to what constitutes that dis- 
criminative power between right and wrong 
which is a part of the original constitution of 
the human mind. It may undoubtedly be 
strengthened by religious training of a proper 
character ; and hence, such training constitutes a 
very important agency in the culture of the con- 
science. " Parents," says Hartley, " should labor, 
from the earliest dawnings of understanding and 
desire, to check the growing obstinacy of the will, 
curb all sallies of passion, impress the deepest, 
most amiable, reverential, and awful sentiments 
of God, a future state, and all sacred things." 
(See Moral Education, and Religious Educa- 
tion.) 

CONSTITUTION- OF XT. S., a branch of 
instruction forming part of the course of studies 
pursued in the common schools of many of the 
states of the Union. As the object of common- 
school education is chiefly to prepare for the du- 
ties of citizenship, it is usually deemed essential 
to impart a knowledge of the organic law of the 
nation, as the foundation of those acquirements 
in political science which every citizen needs 
in order to be able to discharge his duties with 
proper intelligence and discrimination. This in- 
struction, besides making the pupils familiar with 
the particular instrument studied, may be made 
the basis for much useful information in regard 
to the elementary principles of jurisprudence 
and governmental organization. An analysis 
of the various provisions pertaining to the three 
great departments of the government, showing 
their respective powers and limitations of power, 
with an explanation of the underlying principles, 
cannot but prepare the youthful mind for more 
advanced studies of this kind, besides being the 
means of a particular culture of the reason and 
judgment, of very great value. The practical 
usefulness of the knowledge thus imparted, par- 
ticularly in boys' schools, is scarcely exceeded by 
that of any other branch of instruction usually 
included in a common-school course. Many 
valuable school text-books on this subject have 
been compiled ; besides which, those designed to 
teach the history of the United States generally 
comprehend also, as an appendix, the Constitution 
of the United States, arranged and adapted for 
school study. — See E. D. Mansfield, American 
Education (N. Y., 1851) ; and (as books of ref- 
erence) Story, On the Constitution of U. 8. 
(N. Y.); Kent, Commentaries on American 
Law (Boston) ; Mansfield, Political Manual 
(N. Y.); Nordhoff, Politics for Young Amer- 
icans (N. Y.); Pomeroy, Constitution and Law 
(N. Y.); Shfppard, Constitutional Text-Book, 
and First Booh of the Constitution (Phila.) ; 
Stearns, Constitution of U. 8., with Concord- 
ance and classified Index (N. Y.) ; Townsend, 
Analysis of Civil Government (N. Y.); An- 
drews, Manual of the Constitution of the U. 8. 
(Cin., 1874). 



CONVENT SCHOOLS. The convents of 
the Christian church were originally founded 
from ascetic and religious, not from literary and 
educational motives ; and, for a considerable 
time after their first establishment, but little 
value appears to have been attributed by their 
inmates to literary culture and education. Basil 
of Caesarea was one of the first who re- 
commended the reception of children into con- 
vents for the purpose of being educated. The 
recommendation was complied with by many 
Eastern convents. Ohrysostom, as well as other 
bishops, expressly ordered that convent schools 
should be opened also to lay pupils, and admon- 
ished parents to send their children for ten or 
more years to convents, in order that they might 
be brought np in the principles of piety. Next 
to the East, the convents of southern Caul, Ire- 
laud, Scotland, and England became the seats of 
Christian scholarship. Lerinum, in southern 
Gaul, had an ecclesiastical seminary from which, 
in the 5th and 6th centuries, many authors and 
scholars proceeded ; and, in the British islands, 
many convent schools which imparted theological 
as well as other instruction, were especially 
famous for the number of missionaries whom 
they educated. 

A new period in the history of convent schools 
begins with the foundation of the Benedictine 
order. By introducing a strict monastic rule, 
Benedict not only developed the idea and organ- 
ization of monasticism, but also made monastic 
institutions one of the strong pillars of the 
church. When, therefore, Benedict and his or- 
der added the instruction of novices, as well as. 
of other scholars, to the regular work of the con- 
vent, he did more for the development of educa- 
tion among the new states emerging from the 
ruins of the Roman empire, than any other man 
up to the time of Charlemagne. (See Bene- 
dictines, Schools of the, and Charlemagne.) 
From the 8th to the 11th century, the Bene- 
dictine schools, and their rivals, the cathedral 
and collegiate schools (See Cathedral and Col- 
legiate Schools), were almost the exclusive re- 
presentatives of Christian education in western 
Europe. Some of these schools, especially in 
Germany, France, and England, attained a high 
degree of prosperity, and gave a powerful im- 
pulse to the progress of education by the revival 
of classical studies. At the time of Gregory VH., 
the convent schools began to decline. The new 
ideas set afloat by the crusades, found the course 
of instruction in the Benedictine schools too nar- 
row and one-sided ; Franciscans, Dominicans, 
and other mendicant orders dislodged the Bene- 
dictines in the affections of the lower classes of 
society, and, therefore, gathered in their schools 
a large number of scholars who otherwise would 
have flocked to the Benedictines ; several popes, 
as Innocent HI., ostentatiously evinced their 
preference for the cathedral schools ; and, finally, 
the rise of the universities displaced the convent 
schools from their rank as the highest class of 
educational institutions. Moreover, the town 
schools soon began to make a powerful compe- 



CONVENT SCHOOLS 



CONVERSATION 



179 



tition for public favor, and created a demand for 
instruction in secular subjects, which led to the 
foundation of new religious orders ; and these. 
like the llieronymites, attempted a new departure 
in the organization of convent schools. The suc- 
cess of the Protestant movement in Germany 
and in other European countries called forth, in I 
the Roman Catholic church, new religious orders, 
which regarded the establishment of schools su- 
perior to those of the Protestants as the surest 
way to obtain a controlling influence over the 
rising generation, and thus to reconquer the ' 
ground which had been lost by the church. 
Among these orders, the Jesuits, the Piarists, 
the Ursulines, ami the many congregations of 
school brothers and school sisters are the best 
known. In the eighteenth century, the convent 
schools lost ground in consequence of the greater ; 
influence winch the state governments exercised 
in the organization and supervision of schools. 
They were obliged to submit in many states to 
the legislation of the state government on school 
matters ; and, by the suppression of the order 
of the Jesuits, were for a long time deprived of 
their most illustrious representatives. In the 
nineteenth century, the convents, though fiercely 
attacked in many states, and totally suppressed 
in some, have found for their schools a very large 
patronage. This is particularly the case with 
the female convent schools, which count among 
their pupils many thousands of Protestants. 

Convent school education is based on the prin- 
ciple that religion should have a predominating 
influence in the education of the child, and that 
a complete retirement from the world is condu- 
cive to the formation of a < 'hristian character. 
The features which distinguish them as a class 
from other schools, consist chiefly in the peculiar 
methods of their management and administra- 
tion. The course of instruction presents no 
marked points of difference from that pursued 
in other schools of the same grade, comprising, in 
England and the United States, as the prospectus 
of these institutions generally informs the public, 
" all the usual brauehes of a sound English edu- 
cation," with French, to which a greater promi- 
nence is given than in the majority of other 
schools. Instrumental and vocal music, and draw- 
ing are carefully attended to as necessary accom- 
plishments; and, in many institutions, the pupils 
have also the •• advantage of the best masters for 
dancing." The superior of each of these schools 
is expected to exercise special care in the su- 
pervision of the deportment of the pupils, 
and the greatest possible attention is given to 
their religious and moral training. The religious 
atmosphere in which the students live, and the 
frequency of the devotional exercises, interwoven 
with the studies, are calculated to produce pro- 
found and lasting impressions ; and it is but 
natural that a considerable proportion of Prot- 
estant pupils reared in Catholic convents, should, 
in after life, embrace a religion under the direct 
influence of which they received their early edu- 
cation. It is equally natural that Protestant 
churches should be greatly opposed to convent 



education, and should earnestly warn Protestant 
parents against placing their children in institu- 
tions which, in so many cases, while affording a 
thorough secular education, divert the minds of 
their pupils from the religious faith of their 
parents. 

CONVERSATION has many claims to con- 
sideration as an agency in education, both in an 
active and passive sense. The child may not 
only receive information by listening to the dis- 
course of his elders and superiors, but is taught, 
through the imitative faculty, to think and speak 
in a correct, easy, familiar, and pleasing manner. 
The mere student of books cannot mingle in so- 
ciety with ease and grace : having been a recip- 
ient simply, he has no habit of dispensing infor- 
mation, lie is, as it were. an intellectual bank of 
deposit, but has no circulating medium. His 
ideas are either imperfect for the want of an 
interchange with those of other minds, or they 
are vague and misty for the want of that prac- 
tical definition which can alone result from cloth- 
ing them in familiar language. His views are 
one-sided ami narrow, because they have not been 
corrected by contrast with those of others. 
"Conversation,". says Bacon, "makes a ready man;" 
that is, the mind, by the constant use of its stores 
of knowledge, applies a practical rule in making 
its acquisitions, and selects that which is available 
and useful. It does not indulge in mystic specu- 
lation, but adapts itself to the demands of com- 
mon sense. The solitary philosopher may, in his 
seclusion, develop ingenious hypotheses and com- 
prehensive theories; but it is only when he comes 
forth and discourses with his fellows that his 
philosophy becomes of any practical use. Young 
persons should be constantly practiced in conver- 
sation with each other, or with their elders, upon 
the subjects of their studies, as well as the inci- 
dents of their experience ; they should be en- 
couraged to talk as well as listen, both for the 
improvement of their power of ready expression 
and for the general culture of their minds. The 
mere reading of books, without talking or writ- 
ing, may make a learned man, but will never 
produce a really useful one. Flippancy, cap- 
tiousness, conceitedness, and forwardness in ad- 
vancing opinions, or in disputing about them, 
should of course be repressed, and humility and 
modesty be cultivated ; candor should always 
be encouraged, as the best guide to knowledge. 
In this way, conversation will be not only an 
important agent in intellectual culture, but one 
of the most effective means in social education, 
that is, in training the individual for useful 
and agreeable intercourse with his fellows. E. I). 
Mansfield, in American Education, thus sums 
up the advantages of conversation as a means of 
education: "(1) The rapidity and ease of con- 
versation enables an intelligent person to com- 
municate information, or suggest ideas, or direct 
attention, with a readiness and a velocity which 
it is impossible to do by reading ; (2) It may be 
done more fully and more accurately, because 
there is an opportunity to ask questions, to ex- 
press different shades of thought, and to illustrate 



180 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD 



COOPER 



in different ways ; (3) Conversation suggests 
rapidly numerous ideas which can only be ex- 
pressed in a very limited manner by written in- 
struction ; and (4) Such instruction may thus 
draw out a sympathy of minds, by which the 
pupil is enlivened, is led forward without labor, 
and ascends, enlarges the circle of ideas, loves the 
pursuit of knowledge, and inquires into the 
reason of things, without ever suspecting that a 
task has been put upon him." 

Conversation brings into play a great variety 
of faculties, which without it are quite apt to 
rust from disuse; but in order to exercise its 
best influence, it must be spontaneous and un- 
restrained, except by a due regard to the amen- 
ities of social intercourse. It then becomes the 
genuine inspirer of wit, fancy, and sentiment, 
which find their best and truest exercise in the 
gladsome communion of congenial minds. But 
to have this effect, it must be an interchange, not 
a one-sided harangue ; nor must it be permitted 
to degenerate into dogmatism or debate. The 
true art of conversation, apart from its intellect- 
ual requirements, corresponds with the art of 
politeness, the basic principle of which is, to try 
to please others by making them pleased with 
themselves. Hence, however much we may differ 
in opinion with others, we should still treat their 
opinions with respect ; and if we are obliged to 
controvert them, we should do it rather by sug- 
gesting views and considerations in opposition, 
than by anything bordering on dogmatism or de- 
nunciation. Candor, charity, and courtesy alike 
suggest this course, and will be much more apt 
to produce conviction than positive assertion or 
heated debate. Conversation has been compared 
to " a ball, which is thrown from player to player 
without being allowed to drop, and thus keeps 
each one in play." Carried on in this way, and 
upon this principle, it constitutes an educational 
instrumentality of peculiar value and impor- 
tance. 

CONVERSATIONAL METHOD. This 
refers to the mode of giving instruction, in which 
the lessons, instead of being formal recitations, 
exercises, explanations, or lectures, consist of a 
familiar discourse by the teacher, interspersed 
with questions or remarks by the pupils ; that is 
to say, in which the lessons partake of the char- 
acter of conversations, both as to the manner of 
presenting the subject and the style of language 
employed. This mode of teaching is especially 
adapted to young children, because it affords the 
teacher a constant opportunity to appeal to their 
intelligence and experience, and to employ the 
simplest colloquial expressions. Besides, the 
utmost freedom being given to the pupils, they 
are enabled to show by their questions and re- 
marks to what extent and in what respect they 
need special instruction and information. In 
order to arouse and sustain the pupils' interest, 
their attention is called to such facts in connec- 
tion with the subject as, although quite obvious 
when shown or explained, are usuaUy overlooked 
by children, who are generally but superficial 
observers before being trained to close attention 



and careful investigation. In object teaching, 
the lessons should always be conversational, the 
teacher saying only enough to lead the pupils to 
observe, and to talk freely about what they 
notice. As examples of the conversational 
method we may refer to the beautiful colloquial 
lessons contained in some of the works of Dr. 
Aiken and Mrs. Barbauld. (See Evenings at 
Home, edited by Cecil Hartley.) That on The 
Leguminous Plants is an excellent example ; 
although the style is by no means so simple as 
that which would be used in an actual oral 
lesson. The lesson is given by the tutor to 
two pupils, George and Harry, and commences 
with an exclamation of the former, who has ap- 
proached a bean-field, and proceeds as follows: — 

G. What a delightful scent ! 

H. Charming ! It is sweeter than Mr. Essence's 
shop. 

T. Do you know whence it comes? 

G. — it is from the bean-field on the other side 
of the hedge, I suppose. 

T. It is. This is the month in which beans are 
in blossom. See — the stalks are full of their black and 
white flowers. 

H. I see peas in blossom, too, on the other side 
of the field. 

G. You told us some time ago of grass and corn 
[wheat] flowers ; but they make a poor figure com- 
pared with these. 

T. They do. The glory of a corn-field is when it 
is ripe ; but peas and beaus look very shabbily at 
that time. 

The blossoms of the bean and pea are then 
brought, and compared by the pupils ; and the 
lesson proceeds. 

T. Do you think these flowers much alike ? 

H. O no — very little. 

G. Yes — a good deal. 

T. A little and a good deal ! How can that be ? 
Come, let us see. In the first place, they do not much 
resemble each other in size or color. 

G. No — but I think they do in shape. 

T. True. They are both irregular flowers, and 
have the. same distribution of parts. They are of the 
kind called papilionaceous ; from papiiio, the Latin 
word for butterfly, which insect they are thought to 
resemble, etc.. etc. 

All the characteristics are thus successively 
unfolded in this familiar manner, the explana- 
tions of the teacher being interspersed with the 
remarks of the pupils. Hooker's diild's Book 
of Nature presents another excellent illustration 
of the conversational mode of instruction, to 
which may be added many others. It is diffi- 
cult, however, fully to show this method in a 
book ; since its characteristics are freedom and 
spontaneity, the pupil talking in a child-like 
manner, and the teacher adapting his words and 
modes of illustration to the condition of the 
pupil's mind, as shown during the lesson. This 
method of instruction, in the elementary stages, 
is far more effective than that which is given by 
means of text-books, much of the language of 
which usually needs to be translated into such 
as is suitable to the child's comprehension. 

COOPER INSTITUTE, or Cooper Union. 
See Coopee, Peter. 

COOPER, Peter, an American philanthro- 
pist and the founder of the "Union for the Ad- 
vancement of Science and Art," a large and im- 



COOPER 



181 



portant institution of learning in the city of New 
York, commonly called after its founder "Cooper 
Institute," was born in New York, Febr. 12., 
1791. He was apprenticed at the age of seven- 
teen to the trade of coach-making, and soon rose 
to a conspicuous position among the manufact- 
urers of the United States. The development 
of American industry, has continued, throughout 
his long life, to be an object of his patriotic 
aspirations ; and, in his later years, there has 
been hardly a question relating to the industrial 
interests of the country, in the discussion of 
which he has not taken a prominent part. But 
the one great subject which, more than any 
other, engrossed the attention of his riper years. 
was the education of the industrial classes. The 
value of a good education he prized all the more 
highly, because during his youth his own edu- 
cation had been sadly neglected, Only for a 
single year had he been sent to school; all the 
varied knowledge acquired by him since, was the 
fruit of laborious self-education. As an earnest 
friend of education, lje took an active part in 
the development of the public-school system of 
the city of New York. I le was a trustee and 
vice-president of the Public School Society, and 
after this society had been merged in the Board 
of Education, became a school commissioner. 
His effort to improve the deficient education of 
Ins youth, and the high opinion which he lull 
of the value of education, early inspired him 
with the wish to found a grand institution for 
the gratuitous instruction, chiefly of the indus- 
trial classes of his native city. " I determined," 
he says himself, " if ever 1 could acquire the 
means, I would build such an institution, as 
would open its doors at night with a full course 
of instruction, calculated to enable mechanics 
to understand both the theory and . the most 
skillful practice of their several trades ; so that 
they could not only apply their labor to the best 
possible advantage, but enjoy the happiness of 
acquiring useful knowledge — the purest and 
most innocent of all sources of enjoyment. By 
this means, I hoped to contribute to the elevation 
and the happiness of the industrial classes to 
which I belonged. Finally, my plan also pro- 
vided for a school of art suited to the wants of 
females, during the day, with a reading room 
and library open to both sexes, from eight o'clock 
in the morning until ten o'clock at night." This 
design was carried out by the establishment of 
the •' Cooper Union for the advancement of 
Science and Art." after the erection of a mag- 
nificent building occupying an entire block be- 
tween Third and Fourth avenues and Seventh 
and Eighth streets. The deed of trust devotes 
the institution, with all its rents, issues, and 
profits, to the instruction and elevation of the 
working classes of the city of New York. The 
original cost of the building when conveyed to 
the trustees was $630,000. The aggregate re- 
ceipts, from the opening of the institution in 
1859, to Jan. 1., 1875, amounted to $572,291.27, 
of which $502,720.69 were from rents, $31,934.74 
from donations, and $37,635.84 from sundry 



other sources. The expenditures for carrying on 
the several departments from 1859 to 1875, 

i were $583,840.27, and the total expenditures 
on building and education to Jan. 1.. 1875, 

1 $1,213,840.85. 

The course of instruction, as indicated above 
in the words of the founder, has been gradually 
and steadily developed ; and the Cooper Union, 
at present, takes a high position among the in- 
dustrial schools of the country. A thorough and 
practical course of mathematical and scientific 
studies in connection with all branches of practi- 
cal engineering and chemistry, forms a cur- 
riculum of five years, which entitles the student 
to the diploma ami the medal of the Cooper 
Union. This course is pursued in classes of free 
instruction given ever)' evening of the week, ex- 
cept Sunday and Saturday. The course is open 
to both sexes. It is entirely free, as is all the in- 
struction given in every department of this in- 
stitution. The classes of the scientific depart- 
ment, ale held in the evenings, when the young 
people who attend can get freedom from the 

daily occupations in which most of them are en- 
gaged. In all blanches of study, however, both 
in the scientific and in tin art departments, a cer- 
tificate of proficiency is given to any pupil who 

has made a certain degree of progress in any 

special branch of study, independently of the 

diploma given for proper attainments made in 
the whole course ot studies that belong to the 
curriculum. The free classes in art are held both 
in the day-time and in the evening. '1 he day 
classes are exclusively for women, and the young 
men attend only the evening classes. In these, 
may be Studied, under careful and thorough in- 
struction, all those methods of construction and 
design that he at the basis of most of the useful 
arts: — Perspective, mechanical, and architectural 
drawing, drawing from cast and life, ami model- 
ing in clay. The practical application of these 
elementary arts of design, is not left entirely to 
the student; but classes ale organized also for 
drawing and engraving on wood, and in the vari- 
ous departments of photography, such as pen- and- 
ink drawings from which negatives are taken, 
the retouching of negatives, and painting or 
crayon drawing on positives. It is contemplated 
to introduce other applications as soon as practi- 
cable, so as to bring every department of element- 
ary instruction close to the practical life and re- 

! munerative employment of each student, while 

! he or she remains at school, or immediately on 
leaving it. The corps of instructors, in 1875, 
numbered 20, of whom 3 were ladies, and the 
number of pupils was 2,878, a greater number 
than in any previous year. The trades and occu- 
pations most largely represented among the 
pupils of tl«' Union were the clerks and book- 
keepers (369), machinists and iron-workers (306), 

; carvers and turners (293), engravers and lithog- 
raphers (261), teachers and students (14(1). The 

I free reading room was visited during the year 
1*74 — 1875 by 581,798 persons, a daily average 
of nearly 2,000. In the library there are about 
16,000 volumes, and the books drawn by the 



182 



COOTE 



COPYING 



readers numbered 1 29,655. The board of trust- 
ees have also established a department of consul- 
tation to assist the inventors and manufacturers 
of new processes; and, during the year 1874 to 
1875, more than 350 persons applied for advice. 
As the popular lecture is now recognized in 
America as a standing institution, the trustees 
have provided that two courses of lectures, from 
six to twelve each, shall be annually given in the 
large hall of the Cooper Union, during the course 
of each six months, on subjects connected with 
social or physical science. Men of a high class 
are selected as lecturers, who being distinguished j 
in their several departments and well-known, 
draw large audiences, fully taxing the capacity 
of the hall, though it accommodates more than 
2,000 people. Besides, there are several smaller 
halls in the building of the Cooper Union, in 
which free lectures are given by the several pro- 
fessors on chemistry, natural philosophy, English 
literature, elocution and rhetoric, art, and artistic 
economy. 

COOTE, Edward, a noted English teacher, 
and the author of the English School- Master, one 
of the most famous of school-books, first pub- 
lished in London, in 1627. A good idea of the 
character and contents of this quaint old book 
may be obtained from the title-page, of which 
the following is a copy : 

The 

ENGLISH 

School-Mastek. 

Teaching all bis Scholars, of what age so ever, 

the most easy, short, and perfect order of 

distinct Reading, and true Writing 

our English-tongue, that hath 

ever yet been known or 

published by any. 

And further also teacheth a direct course, how many 

unskilful persons may easily both understand any 

hard English words, which they shall in Scriptures, 

Sermons, or else-where hear or read; and also be made 

able to use the same aptly themselves : and generally 

whatsoever is necessary to be known for the English 

speech ; so that he which hath this bool; only needeth 

to buy no other to make him fit from his Letters to 

the Grammar-School, for an Apprentice, or 

any other private use, so far as concerneth 

English : And therefore it is made 

not only for Children, though the 

first book be meer childish 

for them, but also for other; 

especially for those that 

are ignorant in the 

Latin Tongue. 

In the next page, the School-Master hangeth forth his 

Table to the view of all beholders, setting forth some 

of the chief Commodities of his profession. 
Devised for thy sake that wantest any part of this 
skill ; by Edward Ooote, Master of the Eree-School 

in Saint EdmunrVs-Bury. 

Perused and approved by publick Authority; and 

now the 40 time Imprinted : with certain Copies 

to wrile by, at the end of this Booh, added. 

Printed by A. M. and R. R. for the company of Stationers 

1080. 

The following verses, extracted from this book, 

give a picturesque idea of Coote's mode of school 

management and discipline : 

The School-master to his Scholars. 
" My child and scholar take good heed 
unto the words that here are 3et, 
Arid see thou do accordingly, 

or else be sure thou shalt be beat. 



First, I command thee God to serve, 

then, to thy parents, duty yield ; 

Unto all men be courteous, 

and mannerly, in town and field. 

Your cloaths unbuttoned do not use, 
let not your hose ungartered be ; 

Have handkerchief in readiness, 

wash hands and face, or see not me. 

Lose not your books, ink-horns, or pens, 
nor girdle, garters, hat or band, 

Let shoes be tyed, pin shirt-band close, 
keep well your hands at any hand. 

If broken-hosed or shoe'd you go, 

or slovenly in your array, 
Without a girdle, or untrust, 

then you and I must have a fray. 

If that thou cry, or talk aloud, 

or books do read, or strike with knife ; 
Or laugh, or play unlawfully, 

then you and I must be at strife. 

If that you curse, miscall, or swear, 

if that you pick, filch, steal, or lye ; 

If you forget a scholar's part, 

then must you sure your points untye. 

If that to school you do not go, 

when time doth call you to the same ; 

Or, if you loiter in the streets, 

when we do meet, then look for blame. 

Wherefore, my child, behave thyself, 

so decently, in all assays, 
That thou may'st purchase parents' love, 

and eke obtain thy master's praise." 

See Barnard, Educational Biography, s. v. 
Ezekiel Cheever. 

COPY-BOOKS. See Penmanship. 

COPYING, in school education, has several 
applications : (1) Writing or drawing by imita- 
tion from an original, which constitutes an es- 
sential part of primary instruction, since the eye 
must be trained to the observation of forms, as 
well as the hand to execute them. Hence, the 
first lessons in writing largely consist in practic- 
ing the pupil in copying (1) the elements of let- 
ters, — straight lines, curves, etc.; (2) letters; 
(3) words; and (4) sentences. In connection with 
this copying, much incidental instruction is 
required, all of which, however, is addressed to 
the faculty of imitation. (See Penmanship.) 
Rudimentary instruction in drawing must be of 
a similar character, beginning with lines in 
various positions and relations to each other, 
then passing to simple figures, and thence to 
more complex forms ; but, in all these, it is the 
eye that must be trained through the faculty of 
imitation, simultaneously with the gradual ac- 
quisition of manual skill by means of constant 
practice. (See Drawing.) 

(II) The copying, from books, of selected pas- 
sages in prose and poetry is a very useful exer- 
cise, if properly and systematically performed. 
Of course, this belongs to a later stage of ele- 
mentary instruction, that is, after the pupil has 
learned to write with some degree of facility ; 
and. when the utmost accuracy is insisted upon, 
it will be found an effective means of imparting 
habits of correct spelling, punctuation, and the 
use of capital letters ; and will also have a very 
beneficial effect upon the pupil's style, impressing 
upon his memory a great variety of words and 
phrases, and thus aiding him to acquire fluency 
and accuracy of expression. It was on this 
principle that Demosthenes copied the history of 



CORDERIUS 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



183 



'Thucydides so many times : since he desired to 
catch the style of composition peculiar to that 
great writer. What is particularly necessary in 
the use of language, both oral and written, is 
practice ; and, without superseding exercises in 
dictation and composition, both of which are in- 
dispensable, copying, as here described, should 
be treated as an essential part of the school 
work. 

(Ill) The term copying is also applied to the 
reprehensible practice, often found to exist in 
classes and schools that are imperfectly disci- 
plined, of one pupil's transcribing by stealth 
what has been written by another. Weak or 
idle pupils will, if they are permitted, in this 
way avail themselves of the work of their neigh- 
bors, thus failing to receive the benefits of the 
instruction given to the class, and, at the same 
time, deceiving the teacher. The effects of this 
practice are, therefore, bad intellectually ami 
morally, and all necessary vigilance should be 
exercised by the teacher to prevent or suppress it. 

CORDERIUS, Mathurin (Fr. Cordies-), 
& celebrated Protestant school-teacher, born in 
France, in 1479. and died in 15(14. One of his 
most distinguished pupils was Calvin, who ded- 
icated to him one of his works. He published 
several text-books for schools, among which the 
best known is GoUoquin Scholaslioi [Scholastic 
i olloquies), published in 1564. This work was 
long and extensively used in giving instruction 
in the Latin language : and. indeed, is one of the 
most noted school 1 ks ever published. 

CORNELL COLLEGE, at Mould Vernon, 
Iowa, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, was founded in 1857 for the edu- 
cation of both sexes. The institution has three 
spacious buildings. The college campus, em? 
bracing about twenty acres, is beautifully de- 
signed by nature, and commands one of the 
finest prospects in the country. The college pos- 
sesses one of the largest and best collections of 
minerals and fossils in the West, a chemical 
laboratory, and a library of over 4,000 volumes. 
The college property is valued at $65,000, ami 
the productive funds amount to 840,0110. Free 
tuition is given in the preparatory and collegiate 
departments to disabled soldiers and orphans of 
soldiers. Five scholarships, endowed with $500 
each, have been founded for the purpose of edu- 
cating destitute young men preparing for the 
ministry. The beneficiaries are exempt from all 
charges of tuition and incidental fees. There 
are a preparatory department, with classical ami 
scientific courses, and a collegiate department, 
with a classical course, leading to the degree of 
Bachelor of Arts: a scientific course, leading to 
the degree of Bachelor of Science; and a civil 
engineering course, leading to the degree of 
Bachelor of Civil Engineering. The young men 
are required to practice military drill under an 
officer of the army detailed by the secretary of 
war as professor of mditary science and tactics ; 
a system of light gymnastics has been provided 
for the young women. In 1873 — 4, there were 
25 instructors, aud 405 preparatory and 54 col- 



legiate students. The Rev. Wm. F. King,D. D., 

is (187(i) the president. 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY, at Ithaca, 
N. Y.. was chartered in 1865, and opened in 
1868. It wits named in honor of Ezra Cornell, 
of Ithaca, who gave for its establishment $500,000 
ami over 200 acres of land, to be used as a farm 
and as a site for the university buildings. He- 
has since made other donations amounting to 
several hundred thousand dollars. The state trans- 
ferred to the university its agricultural land-scrip, 
granted by Congress, representing 990.000 acres, 
the proceeds to form an endowment for general 
and industrial science and art. The grounds lie 
a short distance east of the village, nearly 400 
feet above ( 'ayuga Lake, and command a splen- 
did view. The principal buildings are the South 
Building, North Budding, MeOraw Building, 
Sibley College, Laboratory Budding, Cascadilla 
Place, University Chapel, ami Sage College for 
women (the gift of Henry AV. Sage, of Brook- 
lyn), who by the action of the trustees, in 1872, 
are admitted to the university on the same terms 
and conditions as men. The value of the build- 
ings, grounds, and apparatus is $700,000 : the 

, amount of productive funds. $1,153,999. The 
yearly income is §107,500. State students to 
the number of 128 (one from each assembly dis- 
trict of New York) may lie admitted each year. 
'I hese state students arc selected, by yearly com- 
petitive examinations, from the various public 
sclicmls and academics maintained by the people 
of New York. For state students, for students 
in agriculture, and fur all resident graduates pur- 
suing post-graduate courses, there is no charge 
for tuition or for the use of the library and col- 
lections; but for all others the tuition fee is $20 

! a term, or $60 a year. Some of the students sup- 

i port themselves wholly, or in part, while pursuing 
their studies, by laboring on the farm, in the 
machine shops, or in the printing establishment. 
for which they receive from the university the 
usual rate of wages. Skilled labor is mostly in 
demand. 

The points in which this university differs from 

' most of the other institutions of learning in the 
United States may be summed up, in brief, as 
follows: (1) The addition to the ordinary govern- 
ing faculty of non-resident professors and lec- 
turers, some of whom deliver each year courses 
of lectures upon subjects in the investigation of 
which they have acquired a high reputation ; 
(2) Liberty in the choice of studies; (3) The 
prominence given to studies which are practically 
useful; II) The absence of a marking system 
determining the relative rank of each student in 
his class; (5) The non-sectarian character of the 
institution. 

The instruction is comprised in four great 
divisions: general courses, optional courses, spe- 
cial courses, and post-graduate courses. The 
general courses are four in number, namely : in 
arts, in literature, in science, in philosophy. The 
course in arts, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
of Arts, extends through four years. It includes 
the Creek and latin languages, and is similar to 



184 



CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



the usual academic course in the other colleges 
and universities of the United States. During the 
first year, no option is allowed in the choice of 
studies. In the second year, everything is op- 
tional, except Greek, Latin, and the exercises in 
elocution and rhetoric. During the third and 
fourth years, everything is optional, except the 
studies in the departments of philosophy and 
letters. During the first and second years, Latin 
and Greek are required four times a week each ; 
and after that they may be pursued through the 
two remaining years so as to occupy twelve out 
of the fifteen hours of recitation per week. The 
course in literature, leading to the degree of 
Bachelor of Literature, extends through four 
years. It differs from the course in arts in re- 
quiring no Greek, and is characterized by a lar- 
ger amount of attention to the modern languages 
and English literature. The course in science, 
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science, ex- 
tends through four years, and includes five hours 
a week, during the last year, devoted to some one 
science as a specialty. Its peculiar features are 
the study of mathematics, of the French and 
German languages, and of the historical, phys- 
ical, moral, and political sciences. The course in 
philosophy, also of four years, is designed to be a 
scientific course of a higher grade than the pre- 
ceding. Latin is required for admission, as in 
the courses in arts and literature. It leads to 
the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy. Optional 
courses are those which the student may select 
for himself. In no course is it necessary, for 
the attainment of a degree, that the studies 
should be followed exactly in the prescribed or- 
der; and, in the general courses, equivalents are 
accepted, in some cases, for the studies indi- 
cated, provided they are of the same general 
character. The special courses differ from the 
general courses, not only in the studies which 
they include, but also in the important fact, that 
while the general courses have chiefly in view 
the culture of the mind, the special courses aim 
rather to fit students more immediately for some 
one of the departments of productive industry. 
There are eleven special courses; namely, (1) 
agriculture, with a full course of four years, 
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture; 

(2) architecture, with a full course of four years, 
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Architecture; 

(3) chemistry and physics ; (4) civil engineer- 
ing, with a full course of four years, leading to 
the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering; 
(5) history and political science ; (6) languages, 
comprising three schools — of .the ancient lan- 
guages, of living Asiatic and Oriental languages, 
and of modern languages ; (7) mathematics and 
astronomy ; (8) mechanic arts, with a full course 
of four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
of Mechanical Engineering; (9) military science ; 
(10) natural history, comprising the school of 
botany, the school of geology and palaeontology, 
and the school of zoology; (11) philosophy and 
letters, with a school of philosophy and a school 
of letters, the latter having a department of 
Anglo-Saxon and English literature, and a de- 



partment of rhetoric and general literature. No 
regular post-graduate courses have been arranged. 
The degree of Bachelor of Veterinary Science is 
conferred on students who pursue a four years' 
course in that study in the agricultural depart- 
ment. The advanced degrees of Master of Arts, 
Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Civil 
Engineer, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, and 
Architect, are conferred on holders of correspond- 
ing graduate degrees upon fulfilling certain pre- 
scribed conditions, and passing an examination. 
The general faculty is divided into 13 special 
faculties. The special faculties are those of (I) 
agriculture, (2) architecture, (3) chemistry and 
physics. (4) civil engineering, (5) history and po- 
litical science, (6) ancient and Asiatic languages, 
(7) North European languages, (8) South Euro- 
pean languages, (9) mathematics, (10) the me- 
chanic arts, (11) military science, (12) philosophy 
and letters, (13) natural history. There are 
professorships of history; South European lan- 
guages; moral and intellectual philosophy; North 
European languages; agricultural chemistry; com- 
parative anatomy and zoology; English litera- 
ture (non-resident) ; English history (non-resi- 
dent) ; veterinary medicine and surgery; constitu- 
tional law (non-resident) ; general, economic, and 
agricultural geology ; botany, horticulture, and 
arboriculture ; mechanical engineering and ma- 
chine construction ; mechanics applied to agri- 
culture (non-resident); analytical chemistry and 
mineralogy; German literature (non-resident); 
organic chemistry and chemistry applied to man- 
ufactures (non-resident) ; Latin language and 
literature ; Greek language and literature ; rhet- 
oric and general literature ; architecture ; Amer- 
ican history (non-resident) ; Anglo-Saxon and 
English literature ; physics and experimental 
mechanics ; military science and tactics ; Span- 
ish and Italian ; mathematics ; civil engineer- 
ing ; living Asiatic languages ; agriculture ; and 
Hebrew and Oriental literature and history (non- 
resident). In 1875 — 6, there were 23 resident 
and 8 non-resident professors, 1 2 assistant profes- 
sors, and 10 instructors. The following is a. 
summary of the students for that year : In 
science 194, literature 45, philosophy 17, arts 43, 
agriculture 17, architecture 32, chemistry 16, en- 
gineering 82, mechanic arts 56. natural history 
17, resident graduates 12. In the fourth year, 
or senior studies, there were 81, in junior studies 
110, in sophomore studies 135, in freshman 
studies 154. Total, deducting repetitions, 531. 
At the commencement in 1874, 72 degrees were 
conferred, namely: B. A., 4 ; B. Lit., 4 ; B. Ph., 
3: B. S., 30; B. Agr., 2; B. Arch., 6 ; B. C. E., 
15 ; B. M. E., 1 ; M. S., 2; C. E., 4; Ph. D., 1; 
in 1875 the number of graduates was 52. The- 
whole number of alumni at the latter date was 
352. The university library contains 47,000 
volumes. The museums comprise valuable col- 
lections in the departments of agriculture, archi- 
tecture, botany, geology and mineralogy, mili- 
tary science, zoology and physiology, and in the 
fine arts. Male candidates for admission must 
be at least sixteen, females seventeen years of 



CORPORAL PUXISIIMKNT 



185 



age, and must pass a thoroughly satisfactory ex- 
amination in the following subjects : (1) geogra- 
phy, (2) English grammar, including orthogra- 
phy and syntax, (3) arithmetic, and (4) algebra 
through quadratic equations. This general ex- 
amination will admit them to the university as 
optional students, or as students in the special 
courses of agriculture, chemistry, and physics. 
For other courses there are some additional re- 
quirements. Andrew D. AVhite, LL.I)., has been 
the president of the university since its opening. 

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, or the in- 
fliction of physical pain as a means of discipline 
in the education of children, has the sanction of 
high authority and time-honored example ; but 
in recent times has fallen considerably into dis- 
repute aud disuse. Its necessity and propriety 
have been much discussed ; and there arc, prob- 
ably, but few subjects in connection with prac- 
tical education upon which more diverse opinions 
are entertained ; some contending that a resort 
to corporal punishment, in families and schools, 
is legitimate and necessary, others, that it is a 
"relic of barbarism," and should never be em- 
ployed, but that children can be. and always 
should be, governed by the use of "moral sua- 
sion," — an appeal to their reason, their sensibil- 
ities, and their .sense of right. Anciently, the 
propriety of this mode of educational coercion 
seems to have been scarcely questioned. Sol- 
omon is emphatic in his approval of it, in proof 
of which the following citations from the Book 
of Proverbs are often used : 

"He that spareth his red hated his son; but he 
that loveth him, chasteneth him h -times." — nn, 24. 

" Foolishness is bounil in the heart of a child ; but 
the rod of correction shall drive it far from him." — 
xxn, 15. 

" Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou 
beatest him with a rod, he shall net die. Thou shalt 
beat him with a rod, and shalt deliver his soul from 
hell."— xxm, 13, It 

"Correct thy son and he shall give thee rest, yea, 
he shall give delight unto thy soul." — xxix, 17. 

"Whom the Lord loveth he correcteth; even as a 
father the sun in whom he dclighteth." — in, 12. 

" Chasten thy sou while there is hope, and let not 
thy soul spare for his crying." — xix, 18. 

"The rod and reproof give wisdom; but a child left 
to himself bringeth his mother to shame." — xxix, 15. 

Whether the practice enjoined in these scrip- 
tural texts is to be considered as sanctioned 
thereby or not, its existence, if not its usefulness 
and necessity, has been recognized at all times 
and in all countries. Horace refers to it when 
he says, "Memini [cannula] quae plagosum mihi 
parvo Orbilium cuctare" (1 remember the verses 
which Orbilius, my flogging (or feruling) school- 
master, used to dictate to me, when a boy). 
Juvenal speaks of this school discipline as a 
matter of course: El nos ergo murium ferulce 
subduximus; or, as translated by Badliam. 
"And we ourselves once shatch'd the hand away 
From prone descending rod, as weU as they." 

St. Paul speaks in a similar manner of the use 
of the rod as a means of family discipline : 
" Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and 
scourgeth every son whom he receiveth :" and 
again, " God dealeth with you as with sons ; for 



what son is he whom the father chasteneth not V 
(Hebrews, xn, 6, 1.) St. Augustine says, in his. 
Confessions," Discipline is needful to. overcome 
our puerile sloth, and this also is a part of thy 
government over thy creatures, God, for the 
purpose of restraining our sinful impetuosity. 
From the ferules of masters to the trials of mar- 
tyrs, thy wholesome severities may be traced." 
Melanchthon confessed that his teacher made him 
learn by using the rod. [IfihU patiebatur me 
ontilterc ; ijiioliea errnbiiin ilubut ]>/<tf/ns mil/i.) 
And he remarks. " Thus he made me a gramma- 
rian, lie was the best of men ; he loved me like 
a son, and I loved him like a father, anil I hope 
we shall both meet in heaven." Dr. Johnson 
uniformly testified in favor of corporal punish 
ment in schools. To Langton he said on one oc- 
casion," My master whipped me very well ; with- 
out that, sir, 1 should have' done nothing." (iold- 
smith said, " It is very probable that parents are 
told of some masters who never use the rod. and 
are, consequently, tin night the properest instruct- 
ors for their children ; hut. though tenderness is 
a requisite quality in an instructor, yet there is 
often the truest tenderness in well-timed correc- 
tion." < 'oleri ige says, " I had one just flogging;" 
the cause being that he told his preceptor, that 
he hated the thought of being a clergyman," be- 
cause he was an infidel. " For this." says he, 
"Bowyer flogged me. — wisely, as I think, — 
soundly, as I know. Any whining and sermon- 
izing would have gratified my vanity, and con- 
firmed me in my absurdity." (Sec OoLEMDGE's 
Table Talk.) Locke, who was very much averse 
tei the use of the rod, both in families and schools, 
says, " There is one, and but one, fault for which 
I think children should be beaten ; and that is 
obstinacy or rebellion. And in this. too. I would 
have it ordered so, if it can be, that the shame of 
the whipping, and not the pain, should be the 
greatest part of the punishment." 

Nothing, however, has been so grievously and 
shockingly abused by parents ami teachers as 
corporal punishment, in all its various and loath- 
some forms, — flogging, flagellation, caning, whip- 
ping, scourging, beating with birch twigs, thongs, 
the ferule (a flat piece of wood, generally with a 
hole in the broad part), etc., etc. When the vile 
and unnecessary cruelties perpetrated upon chil- 
dren by these various instruments are considered, 
it is no wonder that corporal punishment ap- 
peal's to many persons altogether revolting, — a 
thing to be banished forever. Montaigne says, 
" Do but come in when the youths are about 
their lesson, and you shall hear nothing but the 
outcries of boys under execution, and the thun- 
dering of pedagogues drunk with fury ;" and 
again, " How much more decent would it be to 
see their classes strewed with leaves and flowers, 
than with bloody stumps of birch !" It is a sad 
fact that, in whatever countries the rod has been 
used, it has degenerated into an instrument of 
cruelty and torture. Says Cooper, in The His- 
tory if the Rml, " It is recorded of a Suabian 
school-master that, during his fifty-one years' 
superintendence of a large school, he had given 



186 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 



911,500 callings, 121,000 floggings, 209,000 cus- 
todes, 136,000 tips with the ruler, and 10,200 
boxes on the ear. It was further calculated that 
he had made 700 boys stand barefooted on peas, 
6,000 kneel on a sharp edge of wood, 5,000 wear 
the fool's-cap, and 1,700 hold the rod." Girls as 
well as boys, and even young women, in schools 
of high repute and attended by the children of 
people of rank and fashion, it was once the 
custom to subject to the most disgraceful and 
indecent flagellation. In a poem entitled The 
Terrors of the Hod, published in 1815, the whole 
scene is depicted. 

" The governess now takes her stand, 
The birchen scepter in her hand: 
With lofty air, inspiring awe, 
And upraised arm to inforce the law, 
She shakes the whistling twigs, and then, 
Whip — whip— whip — whip — inflicts the pain : 
Now pauses — while miss roars aloud 
Sad warnings to the little crowd — 
Crying, ' Oh! dear ma'am, pray give o'er, 
I never will do so no more.' " 

On such occasions, it seems to have been in- 
sisted that the other children should be witnesses 
of the pain and disgrace of their fellow-pupil. 
Thus Shenstone in Tli.e Schoolmistress, describ- 
ing such a scene, says, 

" Brandishing the rod, she doth begin 

To loose the brogues, the stripling's late delight ! 
And down they drop, appears his dainty skin, 
Fair as the furry coat of whitest ermilin." 
But the most touching incident of the affair is 
the presence of the offender's sister. 

" O ruthful scene! when from a nook obscure, 
His little sister doth his peril see." 
And as the punishment proceeds, the sym- 
pathies of the little girl are painfully excited. 
"No longer can she now her shrieks command, 
And hardly she forbears, through awful fear, 
To rushen forth, and, with presumptuous hand, 
To stay harsh justice in its mid career." 

The " horsing," as it was called, that is, the 
mounting of the boy to be punished on the back 
of another boy, was a practice that must have 
debased and hardened all concerned. In the 
Spectator (No. 168), the master of Eton School 
at that time is described as a brutal tyrant. 
" Many a white and tender hand," says the 
writer, "which the fond mother had passionately 
kissed a thousand and a thousand times, have I 
seen whipped until it was covered with blood ; 
perhaps for smiling, or for going a yard and a 
half out of a gate, or for writing an o for an a, 
or an a for an o." Dr. Johnson, although an 
advocate of judicious corporal punishment, had 
been the victim of its abuse. " The master," he 
said, "was severe, and wrong-headedly severe. He 
used to beat us unmercifully ; and he did not 
distinguish between ignorance and negligence ; 
for he would beat a boy equally for not knowing 
a thing as for neglecting to learn it. For in- 
stance, he would call a boy up, and ask him the 
Latin for candlestick, winch the boy could not 
expect to be asked. Now, sir, if a boy could 
answer every question, there would be no need 
of a master to teach him." So necessary was 
the rod deemed, that it was made an instrument 
of vicarious punishment in the case of princes ; 
for whose offenses other lads, called whipping- 



boys, were made to suffer. Of this numerous 
instances are sometimes cited. Plutarch gives 
one in speaking of his tutor Ammonius. '■' Our 
master," says he, " having one day observed that 
we had indulged ourselves too luxuriously at 
dinner, at his afternoon lecture, ordered his f reed- 
man to give his own son the discipline of the 
whip in our presence ; signifying, at the same 
time, that he suffered this punishment because 
he could not eat his victuals without sauce. The 
philosopher all the while had his eye upon us, 
and we knew well for whom this example of 
punishment was intended." Langhorne, in the 
Life of Plutarch, commenting upon this in- 
cident, remarks, " Tins mode of punishment in 
our public schools, is one of the worst remains of 
barbarism that prevails among us." 

Dr. Cotton Mather, in his elegy on " Master 
Ezekiel Cheever " (see Cheever), refers thus to 
the severities of teachers in his time : 

"Tutors, Be strict ; But yet be Gentle too : 
Don't by fierce Cruelties fair Hopes undoe. 
Dream not, that they who are to Learning slow, 
Will mend by Arguments in Ferio. 
Who keeps the Golden Fleece, Oh, let him not 
A Dragon be, tho' he three Tongues have got. 
Why can you not to Learning find the way, 
But thro' the Province of Severia? 
'Twas Moderatus, who taught Origen ; 
A Youth which prov'd one of the best of men. 
The Lads with Honour first, and Reason Rule ; 
Blowes are but for the Refractory Fool." 

The abuses referred to, and especially the 
strong tendency to cruelty and excess in the in,- 
fliction of corporal punishment, have led to the, 
most earnest and emphatic denunciation of it in 
every form, and the advocacy of its total aboli- 
tion. In some places, all resort to this kind of 
discipline is strictly prohibited, and expulsion 
substituted in its place. The opinions of educa- 
tors in regard to the expediency of this measure 
are very diverse. Lyman Cobb, an extreme and 
enthusiastic advocate of exclusive moral suasion, 
expresses the sentiment of probably the entire 
class of thinkers to which he belonged. " I con- 
scientiously believe that corporal punishment, as, 
a means of moral discipline, is adverse to the 
proper, full, and happy development of the social, 
moral, religious, and intellectual character of 
those who are flogged ; and because, also, I be- 
lieve it has a degrading and hardening influence 
on those who receive it, and on those who inflict 
it." Here, it will be perceived, the argument is 
twofold, (1) Corporal punishment is hurtful and 
degrading to those who receive it ; (2) It de- 
grades and hardens the sensibilities of those who 
inflict it. The first proposition cannot be main- 
tained as generally true ; since there are in- 
numerable examples to prove that those who 
have been habitually subjected to the severest 
discipline of this kind in their youth, have grown 
up to be men of the highest character for talent, 
benevolence, and worth. (See Busby.) The 
cases of Johnson, Coleridge, etc., already referred 
to, are instances of this. The second point of 
the argument would seem to be pretty well 
established by the "history of the rod;" since 
we see persons who have been accustomed to in- 
flict pain upon others in this way become harsh, 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 



187 



tyrannical, and unfeeling. At any rate, if this 
is not the invariable result, it appears to be quite 
generally the effect of an habitual administration 
of this kind of discipline. George 15. Emerson 
says, " The great objection to corporal punish- 
ment is the fact that it excites angry passions, 
not only in the child, but in the master, and 
more in the latter than in the former. My own 
experience teaches me that the effect is almost 
necessarily bad on the individual who inflicts the 
pain. It excites a horrible feeling in him — a 
feeling which we might conceive to belong to 
evil spirits.'' It must be borne in mind, how- 
ever, that school-masters, in the past, were en- 
trusted with an almost unlimited authority and 
power over their pupils ; and few persons are so 
•constituted as to be able to excercise any such 
power for a long period, without greatly abusing 
it. At the present time, no such authority ex- 
ists ; and neither public opinion nor the law 
would permit teachers to commit with impunity 
the barbarities charged upon them in former 
times. Very many, perhaps nearly all, of the 
arguments against corporal punishment may be 
shown to be objections to its abuse rather than 
to its legitimate use. Thus, it is stated that the 
punishment is often inflicted in anger, that it is 
frequently excessive, sometimes administered 
without proper care and discrimination, or in an 
improper manner, or with unsuitable instru- 
ments. All this is true ; and. perhaps, it may 
be truthfully alleged, that where corporal punish- 
ment is permitted at all. these abuses are. to 
some extent, unavoidable. The only questions, 
however, to be discussed are. Is corporal punish- 
ment ever necessary as a means of discipline ; 
and. if necessary, in what cases, and under what 
restrictions, should it be permitted'' The first 
■qu 'stion being decided in the negative, the sec- 
ond would, of course, be disposed of ; since noth- 
ing but necessity can justify the infliction of 
physical pain upon others. Nor does the show- 
ing that corporal punishment is useful as a 
prompt and expeditious mode of punishing the 
offenses of children prove its necessity ; all will 
admit that its concomitants and tendencies are, 
in many respects, so much to be avoided, that 
any other effectual mode of discipline is to be 
preferred. In judging of its necessity, we are to 
consider (1) the nature of the child to be gov- 
erned, (2) the circumstances under which school 
or family discipline is to be carried on, and (3) 
the agents by whom the child is to be instructed 
and controlled. All sentimeutalism is. of course, 
to be eliminated, and the facts of experience 
alone are to be appealed to. We must take 
human nature as it is, and not as we would wish 
it to be. We must consider the selfishness, will- 
fulness, idleness, and spirit of mischief that must 
be controlled or exorcised before instruction can 
accomplish its purpose ; and before concluding 
that corporal punishment is never necessary, we 
must be prepared to say. that, under all circum- ' 
stances, and with all available instrumentalities, 
this control can be effected without any appeal 
to physical coercion. Are there not children so j 



self-willed, so bent upon mischief, so determin- 
edly wayward, and at the same time so devoid 
of sensibility or moral sense, that there is no 
way of controlling them except through the fear 
of bodily pain? Most educators say, from their 
own experience, that there arc. The average 
nature of children is of this character, though 
varying in degree. They are ruled by their pro- 
pensities, while the elements of moral restraint 
are undeveloped, and hence inoperative. Says 
Dr. Dwight, "The parents' will is the only law 
to the child ; yet, being steadily regulated by 
parental affection, is probably more moderate, 
equitable, and pleasing to him, than any other 
human government, to any other subject. It re- 
sembles the divine government more than any 
other. Correction which is sometimes considered 
the whole of government, is usually the least 
part of it. a part indispensable indeed, and some- 
times efficacious, when all others have failed." 
John Locke, an enemy to corporal punishment, 
admits that sometimes children are so obstinate, 
that they can be subdued by no other means. 
Mrs. AVillard, for many years principal of the 
Troy Female Seminary, said in 1S47, " I believe 
that corporal punishment should always be re- 
sorted to as soon as other modes of discipline 
fail, and I have known some young persons 
whose consciences were so weak, and who had 
so much of the animal in them, that the rod 
would be for them the most beneficial mode of 
punishment." D. 1'. Page, an educator of long 
experience, great moral force, and singular kind- 
liness of nature, fully admitted the necessity of 
j corporal punishment as a last resort. " I do not 
hesitate," he says, •• to teach that corporal inflic- 
tion is one of the justifiable means of establish- 
ing authority in the school-room. To this con- 
clusion 1 have conic after a careful consideration 
of the subject, modified by the varied experience 
I of nearly twenty years, and by a somewhat at- 
tentive observation of the workings of all the 
plans which have been devised to avoid its use 
or to supply its place." Horace Mann, one of 
the most enthusiastic advocates of moral suasion. 
yet recognized the necessity of corporal punish- 
ment in some cases. " Punishment," he says, 
"should never be inflicted except in cases of the 
extremest necessity ; while the experiment of 
sympathy, confidence, persuasion, encourage- 
ment, should be repeated forever and ever." An 
English teacher says, " It is necessary for a child 
to learn that the violation of law, whether of 
school, society, or God, brings inevitable suffer- 
ing. The sense of right is so imperfectly devel- 
oped in children, that one of the ways of im- 
pressing upon a child that right is right, and 
wrong is wrong, is by showing that suffering fol- 
lows from one, enjoyment and a sense of satis- 
faction from the other." (The Educational Re- 
porter (London, July 1„ lyT4.) Corporal pun- 
ishment is sanctioned by Roseukranz in Peda- 
gogics as a System. " This kind of punishment," 
he says," provided always that it is not too often 
administered, or with undue severity, is the 
proper way of dealing with willful defiance, 



188 



CORPORAL- PUNISHMENT 



with obstinate carelessness, or with a really per- 
verted will, so long or so often as the higher per- 
ception is closed against appeal." Under pecu- 
liarly favorable circumstances, — a condition of 
things which may be considered ideal, that is, 
where the home training of the pupils of a school 
has been judicious and correct, where all have 
been taught, from their earliest years, to obey 
their elders and superiors ; and this not by vio- 
lence and severity, but with gentleness and firm- 
ness ; and moreover, where the teacher or teach- 
ers of the school are gifted with the same talents 
for discipline, — under such circumstances, most 
educators would agree that a resort to corporal 
punishment would scarcely ever, if at all, be 
necessary. But such are not the circumstances 
under which children are instructed in school. 
This point is ably presented by Horace Mann. 
" The children who attend school," says he. " en- 
ter it from that vast variety of homes which 
exist in the state. From different households, 
where the widest diversity of parental and 
domestic influences prevails, the children enter 
the school-room, where there must be compara- 
tive uniformity. At home some of these chil- 
dren have been indidged in every wish, flattered 
and smiled upon for the energies of their low 
propensities, and even their freaks and whims 
enacted into household laws. Some have been 
so rigorously debarred from every innocent 
amusement and indulgence, that they have 
opened for themselves a way to gratification, 
through artifice, and treachery, and falsehood. 
Others, from vicious parental example, and the 
corrupting influences of vile associates, have 
been trained to bad habits, and contaminated 
with vicious principles, ever since they were 
born ; — some being taught that honor consists in 
whipping a boy larger than themselves ; others, 
that the chief end of man is to own a box that 
cannot be opened, and to get money enough to 
fill it ; and others, again, have been taught, upon 
their fathers' knees, to shape their young lips to 
the utterance of oaths and blasphemy. All 
these," as he says, " must be made to obey the 
same general regulations, to pursue the same 
studies, and to aim at the same results." More- 
over, the teachers who are to control these diverse 
characters and dispositions, are persons of im- 
mature age and experience, with little, if any, 
special preparation, and often morally and 
temperamentally unfitted for the work ; and, 
therefore, as he further says, " He who denies 
the necessity of resorting to punishment in our 
schools, virtually affirms two things : (1) That 
this great number of children, scraped up from 
all places, taken at all ages and in all conditions, 
can be deterred from the wrong and attracted to 
the right without punishment ; and (2) That the 
teachers employed to keep their respective 
schools, are, in the present condition of things, 
able to accomplish so glorious a work. Neither 
of these propositions am I at present prepared 
to admit." He also prudently remarks, that " it 
is useless, or worse than useless, to say, that such 
or such a thing can be done, and done imme- 



diately, without pointing out the agents by whom 
it can be done." 

These considerations assume, that every avail- 
able agency has been employed before corporal 
punishment is resorted to ; for all educators are 
agreed upon the point, that this kind of dis- 
cipline is only, if ever, justifiable as a dernier 
ressort; that is, after every possible substitute 
for corporal punishment has been used. There 
is then one, and only one, alternative, as far 
as school discipline is concerned, and that is 
expulsion. To this it is objected that to 
expel a pupil, and particularly from a public 
school, is to acknowledge the inadequacy of the 
means to restrain him. " The vicious and ig- 
norant scholar," says D. P. Page, " is the very 
one who most needs the reforming influence of a 
good education. Sent away from the fomitains 
of knowledge and virtue at this, the very time 
of need ! And what may we expect for him but 
utter nun ?" In the city of New York, corporal 
punishment has been prohibited in the public 
schools since 1870, expulsion being substituted 
for it. In the superintendent's report for 1873, the 
following statement is made : " There is a large 
class of boys whom our schools do not and can- 
not restrain, and whom, therefore, they cannot 
benefit, but must send adrift, to find their way 
inevitably to the reformatories and prisons, after 
having committed those injuries to the com- 
munity which our school system was designed to 
prevent." It is further stated, " There are pupils, 
the sons of widowed mothers, who cannot be 
restrained at all at home ; and when these are 
turned from the school they are lost indeed. To 
these children the city owes an education, and 
in order to be able to bestow it, it is bound by 
every obligation of right and duty to govern 
them; and if its chosen officers expel them, they 
evade a most solemn responsibility." On the 
other hand, in Chicago, in which corporal punish- 
ment, though not prohibited by positive law, has 
been abandoned for several years, the superin- 
tendent states (Annual Report for 1874 — 5), 
" Suspensions for misconduct, the great bugbear 
in the sight of apologists for the use of the rod,, 
have been far less frequent than in the years 
when corporal punishment was in vogue. The 
most favorable year under the old regime gave 
us one suspension for each 22,000 pupils in daily 
attendance. The past year shows but one suspen- 
sion for each 48,888 pupils in daily attendance." 
He also states that " a greater good has been 
secured at less cost than by the old methods. 
The chief element of cost has been time spent in 
discipline;" and added to this, is " loss of school 
time by enforced absence." The superinten- 
dent of St. Louis (Annual Report for 1869 — 70) 
says " Corporal punishment is still inflicted in 
the schools of our city, but I am glad to say in 
fewer cases every succeeding year. . . . Ex- 
perienced teachers affirm that they think it im- 
possible to do without it." The Report of the 
same superintendent for 1873 — 4 says, " We 
have had but very few cases of corporal punish- 
ment, when compared with former years, but 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 



189 



still the number is quite large when brought 
together. . . .Our general average is now about 
1,000 cases per quarter for 25,000 pupils. Six- 
teen years ago, there was one hundred times this 
amount pro rata." The superintendent of Haiti- 
more (Annual Report for 1 875) says, " The rules 
of the Board allow the infliction of corporal 
punishment by the principals in cases of necessity; 
but, it must be said to their credit, that they 
have used the power but seldom. .. .It is to In- 
hoped that theday is not distant when corporal 
punishment will be with us a thing of the past." 

This kind of punishment still survives in most 
American and Knglish schools : but the frequen- 
cy and severity with which it was formerly in- 
flicted would not be tolerated at the present 
time. The opinions of practical teachers are 
generally in its favor; but the tendency of public 
opinion is towards its abolition, notwithstanding 
all that may be said in its support as being, un- 
der proper regulations, a wholesome and neces- 
sary means of discipline. In Germany, corporal 
punishment is permitted in the public schools, 
for certain offenses, as resistance to the teachers 
authority, obscenity, irreverence, etc.; but its in- 
fliction is limited by strict regulations. In the 
school law of Prussia, adopted in 1845, it is pro- 
vided that no punishment shall be- administered 
exceeding " the bounds of moderate parental dis- 
cipline," and that the teacher may be- prosecuted 
for inflicting any excessive punishment. Another 
local ordinance provides that " corporal punish- 
ment may be inflicted, but only after the lessons 
are over, with parental moderation and a due re- 
gard to the physical condition of the child." 
Blows with the fist, or on the head, are strictly 
prohibited. Similar laws prevail in the cantons 
of Switzerland. In France, the law of 1850, 
which is still in force, prohibited all corporal 
punishment in the primary schools : and the sub- 
stitutes for it are such punishments as bad 
marks, confinement, the imposition of tasks, 
placing the names of delinquents on a roll of 
dishonor, etc. In Russia, corporal punishment 
was prohibited in the primary schools at a very 
early date : but. in 1820, was restored under cer- 
tain restrictions. In 1862, a statute was pro- 
posed for the government of the schools without 
corporal punishment : and this statute was sub- 
mitted to German educators for their criticism and j 
suggestions. Of the twenty -one who presented 
opinions, eleven opposed the abolition of corporal 
punishment, and two favored it, while eight ex- 
pressed no opinion on that part of the statute. 
The statute was finally so modified as to leave 
the decision of the question to the local boards. 

The school codes of the United States are gen- 
erally silent in regard to the right of teachers to 
inflict corporal punishment ; but there are nu- 
merous judicial decisions in favor of this right. 
By English and American law, a parent may 
correct his child in a reasonable maimer, and the 
teacher is in loco parentis (see 2 Kent, 205 ; 
1 Blackstone, 453 ; !) Wendell's Reports, 355 ; 
27 Maine, 280 ; 32 Vermont, 123 ; 2 Devereux 
and Battle, 365 ; 4 Gray, 37.) In the last deci- 



sion mentioned, the Supreme Court of Massa- 
chusetts held that a ferule is a proper instru- 
ment of school punishment. There are numerous 
decisions which support this authority even while 
the pupils are going to or returning from school. 
In a case reported in 32 Vermont, 114, the judges 
of the Supreme Court unanimously held that 
"the supervision and control of the master over 
the scholar extends from the time he leaves home 
to go to school till he returns home from school." 
'I he decisions of many of the state superintend- 
ents have also sanctioned this doctrine. Pupils 
of all ages are equally amenable to such punish- 
ment. (See 27 Maine. 266.) 

As to the offenses for which corporal punish- 
ment should lie inflicted, and the proper mode 
of inflicting it. the following suggestions (of a 
practical teacher) would probably meet with 
universal approval from those who claim that 
this mode of discipline is. in certain cases, indis- 
pensable: (1) It should be reserved for the 
baser faults. A child should never be struck for 
inadvertencies, for faults of forgetfulness. for ir- 
ritability and carelessness, or for petty irregular- 
ities. It is a coarse remedy, and should be cm- 
ployed upon the coarse sins of our animal nat- 
ure. (2) When employed at all.it should be ad- 
ministered in strong doses. The whole system 
of slaps, pinches, strappings, and irritating blows, 
is to be condemned. These petty disciplines 
tend to stir up auger, and rather encourage c\ il 
in the child than subdue it. (:i) In administer- 
ing physical punishment to a child, the head 
should be left sa civil from all violence. Pulling the 

hair or the tars, rapping the head with a thimble 
or with the knuckles, boxing the ears, slapping 
the cheeks or the mouth, are all brutal expedients. 
These irritating and annoying practices are far 
more likely to arouse malignant passions, than 
to alleviate them. (4) The temper with which 
you administer punishment will, generally, excite 
in the child a corresponding feeling. If you 
bring anger, anger will be excited ; if you bring 
affection and sorrow, you will find the child 
responding in sorrowful feelings; if you bring 
moral feelings, the child's conscience will be 
excited. Anger and Severity destroy all the 
benefit of punishment ; love and firmness will, 
if anything can, work penitence and a change 
of conduct. — See II. Mann. Lectures ami An- 
nual II' i "'ils an Education, new edition I Boston, 
1872) ; Remarks mi the Seventh Annual Report 
of the Hon. Horace Mann, by the Association of 
Masters of the Boston Public schools (Boston, 
1844) ; Reply to the sunn-, by Horace Mann (Bos- 
ton, 1844); Penitential Tears (Boston, 1845); 
Lyman Cobb, Tlie Mail Tendency of Corporal 
Punishment (N. Y., 1847) ; Cooper, A History 
of the Rod (London); Karl Rosenkranz, Ped- 
agogics as a System, trans, by Anna C. Brackett 
(St. Louis, 1872); Hecker, Scientific Basis of 
Education (N. Y., 1868); Currie, Principles 
and Practice of Common-School Education 
(Edinburgh) ; Pillans, Rationale of Discip 
(Edinburgh, 1852). (See also Aphorisms, Edu- 
cational ; Authority ; and Discipline.) 



190 



CORVALLIS COLLEGE 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION 



CORVALLIS COLLEGE (State Agri- 
cultural), at Corvallis, Benton county, Oregon, 
was founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
in 18(!8, and is still under its control. The state 
aoricultural college was made a department of it 
in 1872. The value of the college property is 
$10,000; the endowment consists of 90,000 
acres of agricultural college land granted by 
Congress. The sum of $5,000 is annually re- 
ceived from the state. The institution embraces 
a primary department, a preparatory depart- 
ment, and a collegiate department. The last 
comprises the following schools : (1) School of 
Physics ; (2) School of Mathematics ; (3) School 
of Moral Science ; (4) School of Language ; (5) 
School of History and Literature ; (6) School of 
Engineering; (7) Special studies of Agriculture. 
In chemistry and mathematics there are three 
classes (junior, intermediate, and senior), and in 
Greek and Latin two (junior and senior). There 
are four degrees conferred in this institution : 
(1) The degree of A. M., conferred on all who 
complete the coiirse in the study of physics, 
mathematics, moral philosophy, history, and 
literature and language ; (2) The degree of A. 
B., on such as complete the course in the schools 
of physics, moral philosophy, mathematics, and 
ancient languages; (3) The degree of B. S., on such 
as complete the course in the schools of physics, 
mathematics, moral philosophy, engineering, and 
the special department of agriculture ; (4) The 
degree of Graduate of a School, on such as com- 
plete the course in any school. The title Pro- 
ficient is granted to any candidate for degrees 
who passes two successful examinations, one of 
which must be final. Both sexes are entitled to 
the privileges of the college. The tuition varies 
from $6 to $15 (gold) per term, the college year 
being divided into three terms. An extra fee 
of $5 is charged for each modern language. The 
law provides for the free tuition of sixty young 
men, over sixteen years old, who are known 
as state students. In 1873 — 4, there were 6 in- 
structors and 134 students, of whom 32 were in 
the agricultural department. The number grad- 
uating was 4 (B. S.); the whole number of 
alumni, 18. B. L. Arnold, A. M., is (1876) the 
president. 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, or Course 
of Study, is a series of subjects of instruction 
or study, arranged in the order in which they 
should be pursued, and grouped or divided into 
grades, each to be completed in a certain time. 
Such an arrangement of studies is sometimes 
called a graded course, and, especially in superior 
instruction, a curriculum. When these various 
subjects are arranged in the form of a daily or- 
der of exercises, showing the time, or the number 
of lessons, to be given to each subject, it consti- 
tutes the school programme. 

In order that the objects of intellectual edu- 
cation may be fully attained, it is of the greatest 
importance that the course of instruction should 
be judicious in respect to several points : (1) The 
selection of subjects ; (2) Their order or arrange- 
ment ; (3) The number prescribed for simultane- 



ous study ; (4) The division of the course into- 
grades, with a definite time assigned for the com- 
pletion of each. The first of these considerations 
is of paramount importance ; since the subjects 
of study constitute not only the basis of intel- 
lectual culture, but the source of necessary in- 
formation. Two points, consequently, are to be 
considered in this selection : (1) The value of 
the subjects as means of culture; (2) Their 
importance as sources of information. In the 
early stages of education, the first of these con- 
siderations should, without doubt, • have the 
preference ; but, as education advances, the 
second claims an increasing degree of attention, 
until, in the sphere of technical and professional 
education, it becomes almost the exclusive aim. 
We cannot, therefore, decide upon a course of 
instruction without considering the natiu-e of the 
mind to be educated as well as the objects for 
which it is to be educated. In elementary or 
primary education, the necessary subjects of in- 
struction may be grouped into the following : 

(1) Language, including reading and elocution, 
spelling, the analysis and definition of words, 
grammar, and composition ; (2) Rudimentary 
Mathematics, including arithmetic, mental and 
written, algebra, and geometry ; (3) Elementary 
Science, or a knowledge of ih ings, graded from 
the simple perceptive facts of object instruction 
up to the rudiments of geography, natural histo- 
ry, physiology, physics, astronomy, etc. ; (4) 
History ; (5) Graphics, — writing, drawing, etc.; 
(fi) Athletics, — gymnastics or calisthenics. To 
these may be added music, vocal or instrumental, 
which constitutes a part of esthetics. In addition 
to these branches of study, in some cases, the rudi- 
ments of a foreign language are also taught. The 
distinction between primary and secondary in- 
struction not being definitely fixed as to subjects, 
some of those mentioned above may be deemed 
exclusively appropriate to the higher grade. 
For proper mental discipline, there must, how- 
ever, be instruction in things as well as words, — 
the perceptive and conceptive faculties must be 
trained as well as the expressive faculties, so 
that the mind may be stored with ideas and 
their representatives in language. A proper 
discrimination between primary and secondary 
instruction depends upon (1) the kind of in- 
struction, and (2) the subjects of instruction. 
Science taught in the high school is a very differ- 
ent thing from science in the primary school ; 
in the one case we address to a much greater 
extent the higher faculties, — abstraction, general- 
ization, reasoning, etc. ; in the other, chiefly the 
perceptive and conceptive faculties. The sub- 
jects of elementary instruction have been classi- 
fied by an eminent educator as follows: "(1) 
Reading and Writing — the mastery of letters ; 

(2) Arithmetic — the mastery of numbers; (3) 
Geography — the mastery over place ; (4) Gram- 
mar — the mastery over the word ; (5) History — 
the mastery over time." 

In schools of secondary instruction (high 
schools, academies, etc.), the course includes also 
language — the vernacular, and one or more 



COURSE OP INSTRUCTION 



11)1 



modern languages, and also the rudiments of 
I.atin and Ureek, particularly in preparatory 
schools: mathematics, including algebra, geom- 
etry, trigonometry, mensuration, etc. ; science 
(taught as such), including physics and chemistry, 
astronomy (descriptive, at least), physiology, etc.; 
to which are usually added English literature, 
rhetoric, the elements of mental and moral phi- 
losophy, etc. What properly belongs to a high 
school or academic course is, however, far from 
being settled : indeed, to fix the line of demarca- 
tion between primary and secondary instruction j 
has scarcely been attempted ; hence, what should 
constitute the course of study in schools of this 
grade is an open question, winch is usually de- j 
termined by the circumstances and special aim 
of the school. Thus, the course for a business 
college, for example, is very different from that 
of a collegiate or preparatory school. The theo- 
ry of the common-school system in the United 
States requires that the pupil should enter the 
high school with a good knowledge of the studies 
already mentioned ; — at least, reading, writing, 
arithmetic, geography, English grammar, and 
the history of the United States ; but it is a 
great error to suppose that these subjects can be 
fully mastered by an immature mind. " Until 
all education," says a thoughtful teacher, " shall 
agree as to the precise culture power of each 
study, as well as to the exact value of its impart- 
ed information, and shall determine, to the satis- 
faction of all. what particular faculties each calls 
into activity, and just how the calling into action 
of these faculties educates a man, it will be im- | 
possible to establish a course of study which all 
shall acknowledge as absolutely the best." 

In institutions for superior instruction (col- 
leges and universities), the courses of study ave 
also various, but they all include the departments 
of classics, mathematics, scientific studies, litera- 
ture, philosophy, and modern languages. In the 
American colleges, elective courses have, within 
a few years, become quite general. (See Boston 
University, and Colleges.) The courses of 
study prescribed in the different cities of the 
United States for the elementary public schools, 
differ considerably as to subjects, number of 
grades, and time assigned for the completion of 
the course. The states do not prescribe any uni- 
form course ; in regard to which fact Mr. Francis 
Adams, in The. Free School System of (lie United 
States 187o), says, " It is worthy of remark that 
American educationists do not appear to recog- 
nize that the absence of uniformity in study and 
examination weakens their system. The nearest 
approach to a uniform course of study which has 
ever been attempted by any state, is to prescribe 
the text-books which shall be used, and when 
this has been done, it has been sometimes re- 
sented, and the cry of centralization has been 
raised. It is obvious that it would be a great 
advantage to statesmen and statisticians, and to 
the nation at large, if there were some test by 
which the progress of scholars in each state could 
be definitely ascertained." The diverse circum- 
stances, however, of schools in the rural districts, 



of the larger " union schools." and of schools in 
cities, appear to preclude the possibility of a 
state course of instruction, except within certain 
limits. On the other hand, it may be said that 
the prescribing of a course of instruction — at least 
to the extent of defining the subjects to be taught, 
would go far towards settling the principles of 
common-school education, and preventing the 
abuses of which complaint is sometimes made. 
Thus, I leputy State Superintendent Danforth of 
New York, in addressing the State Teachers' 
Association, at the convention of August, 
1873, said, " Our courses of study, in too many 
instances, indicate a disposition for the display 
of ostentatious learning rather than useful cul- 
ture. The desire for showy acquirements, treat- 
ing the mind as a receptacle for the storing of 
facts, irrespective of their use in giving mental 
nourishment and cultivating power, is a perni- 
cious evil." The complaint that the courses of 
study prescribed for the common schools. particu- 
larly in many of the cities of the Northern 
States, are burdensome in their requirements, 
has frequently been made. In this connection, 
Mr. Francis Adams remarks. ''Our [the English] 
elementary course is generally longer than the 
American ; and yet ours is nothing like so ambi- 
t ious a course. There is another difference between 
the two courses. In England, our attention is 
pretty much confined to the 'three It's ; in Amer- 
ica, what we call ' special subjects' are taught all 
along the line. A foreign language is often 
commenced in the lowest grade of the primary 
school." In prescribing a course of instruction for 
elementary schools, the special province of such 
schools should be kept steadily in view, — to give 
to their pupils the keys of knowledge, reading, 
writing, etc., and, at the same time, to discipline 
their minds so that they will be able to acquire 
and use knowledge in discharging the duties of 
their after lives. 

The eUvision of the Course of Instruction into 
grades is sometimes made by topics, ami some- 
times by textbooks .- ami each method hits its 
advocates. The former, it is claimed, gives more 
freedom to the teacher — more scope for the ex- 
ercise of intelligent discrimination and original 
treatment ; the instruction proceeds to a greater 
extent from the living teacher, since there is less 
inducement to confine it to a mere hearing of 
recitations. The subject is the paramount con- 
sideration; the text-book, secondary. The teacher, 
and the pupil also as far as possible, is required 
to consult various books, to compare their state- 
ments, to correct their errors ; and thus, while 
perhaps a particular text-book is used as a basis 
for the instruction, a more general knowledge of 
the subject is imparted than is contained in any 
single work. Thus, if the study is the history of 
the United States, to one grade is assigned the 
Colonial History ; to another, the period of the 
Revolution and the Establishment of {he Federal 
Government, etc.; while, if the division were by 
book, it would be necessary that all the schools 
should use the same, and a certain number of 
pages would be assigned to each grade. For ab- 



192 



COUSIN 



CRAMMING 



solute uniformity, of course, the second plan is 
preferable ; but some educators claim that uni- 
formity may be carried too far, constituting a 
Procrustean standard, and tending to deprive 
the instruction of one of -its most essential qual- 
ities, — its adaptability to different minds. Evi- 
dently the topical system makes more demands 
upon the teacher ; and this, it is claimed, con- 
stitutes its great advantage, since it necessitates 
better information, higher cidture, and more real 
teaching ability. What kind of development, it 
is asked, can result from the mere hearing of rec- 
itations? And what kind of influence can be 
exerted by a teacher that never goes beyond the 
narrow scope of the school text-book? Not that 
the legitimate use of text-books is to be discour- 
aged, but only a servile dependence upon them ; 
and it is claimed that the prescribing of topics 
rather than books, tends to prevent this. Says 
D. P. Page, in Theory and Practice of Teach- 
ing, " A teacher who is perfectly familiar with 
what is taught, has ten times the vivacity of one 
who is obliged to follow the very letter of the 
book." For the courses of instruction of com- 
mon schools in the different cities, see the titles 
of the same ; the courses in the higher institu- 
tions of learning are given each under its re- 
spective title. No attempt has been made here 
to show what in regard to moral and religious 
training properly belongs to a course of instruc- 
tion for public or private schools. The various 
considerations appertaining to these topics will 
be found under the titles Moral Education, and 
Religious Education. — See How to Teach 
(N. Y., 1874)-; Wells, A Graded Course of In- 
struction for Public Schools (N. T., 1862); 
Francis Adams, The Free School System of the 
United Slates (London, 187 5); Thomas Hill, The 
True Order of Studies (N.T., 1876). 

COUSIN, Victor, a French philosopher, and 
the founder of systematic eclecticism in philos- 
ophy, was born Nov. 28, 1792, and died Jan. 15, 
1867. He distinguished himself as a student at 
the Li/ce'e Charlemagne, and in 1812, was made 
assistaut Greek professor at the Ecole Normale. 
His early studies were rather in the direction of 
belles-lettres, but he soon turned his attention 
to philosophy. Roger Collard had already re- 
volted against the sensationalism of Locke as 
depraved by Condillac, and had introduced the 
Scotch philosophy into France. For a while, 
Cousin was an ardent disciple of Reid ; and, in 
1815, he became an assistant professor of philos- 
ophy with Roger Collard, and lectured both at 
the Ecole Normale and at the Sorbonne. Inl817, 
he visited Germany, and became acquainted with 
the Kantian philosophy, which had a great influ- 
ence upon his later teachings. In 1821, his lec- 
tures were suspected of a bad pobtical tendency, 
and were indefinitely suspended. In 1S24, he 
went to Germany again, and was arrested in 
Dresden on the charge of belonging to the Car- 
bonari, and sent to Berlin, where he was im- 
prisoned for six months. During this stay in 
Germany, he became acquainted with Hegel, 
Schleiermacher, and Schelling. In 1826, he re- 



turned to Paris ; and, in 1827, he was appointed 
professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne. During 
this period of enforced silence, he published an 
edition of Proclus and Descartes, and also part 
of a translation of Plato, which was completed 
in 1840. After the revolution of 1830, he be- 
came a member of the Council of Public In- 
struction, and later a director of the Ecole Nor- 
male. In 1840, he became minister of public 
instruction, which position he held for only a 
few months, owing to the unsettled condition of 
politics. He was friendly to the revolution of 
184S, but never had any political importance 
under the empire. His eclecticism was based on 
the doctrine that philosophy has always been 
either sensualism, idealism, scepticism, or mysti- 
cism. His constant oscillation of opinion is due 
to the fact that each of these systems has some 
truth in it ; and the true philosophical method, 
doubtless, is to take from each of them the true, 
and reject the false. Without some standard of 
selection, the product must be a mere philosoph- 
ical medley ; and such was the residt in this 
case. Still Cousin's eloquence and his exalted 
moral views combined to make his lectures very 
popular. The crowds at the Sorbonne recalled 
the days when William and Abelard had dis- 
puted there. He reorganized the system of 
primary instruction in France, and arranged the 
course of studies for the normal school. He also 
published several very full and valuable reports 
upon public instruction in Prussia and Holland. 
These have been translated into English. Cousin 
was an ardent believer in religious education. 
Purely secidar instruction he thought more likely 
to do mischief than good. A complete edition 
of his works is published in French ; and trans- 
lations of his more important works have ap- 
peared in English. — See Ripley, Philosophical 
Miscellanies (Boston, 1838) ; 0. W. Wight, 
Translation of Cousin's Course of Modei-n Phi- 
losophy (N. T., 1855), and his Lectures on the 
True, the Beautiful, and the Good(N. T., 1857); 
Cousin's Report on the State of Education in 
Holland, translated by Horner (London, 1838); 
and Report on the State of Public Instruction in 
Prussia; with Plans of School-Houses, trans- 
lated by Austin (London, 1834). 

CRAMMING, a term used in regard to edu- 
cation, to denote the fault of filling the mind 
with facts, without allowing it sufficient time to 
arrange and generalize them, to compare them 
with its previous acquisitions, or to determine 
their real significance, as related to general prin- 
ciples. It is thus a kind of mental stuffing, and, 
consequently, is opposed to the true object of 
education, which, as the word etymologically 
considered implies, is not to pour something 
into the mind, but to bring out, by appropriate 
exercise, its latent faculties. In college phrase, 
students are said to cram for an examination, 
when they make preparation with undue haste, 
impressing upon their memory, by repetition, a 
mass of things about which they expect to be 
questioned, but which, when the examination is 
over, they immediately forget. Such a process 



CRECHE 



CRIME AND EDUCATION 



193 



is exceedingly injurious to the mind, since it is a 
misdirection of its powers, wasting them at a 

time when they should be all steadily employed 
in the formation of those habits of acquisition 
and thought, which constitute the basis of a 
sound intellectual character. 

In elementary education, cramming is. there- 
fore, especially pernicious : and it is at this stage. 
that it is the most likely to occur. It may as- 
sume various forms, but chiefly the following : 
( 1) Crowding the, memory with verbal/ormwte, 
— definitions, rules, statements of facts, names in 
geography, dates in history, etc. ; (2) Overtask- 
ing the powers of the mind with a multiplicity 
of studies, or with such as arc not adapted to its 
immature condition, and. therefore, cannot be 
comprehended : (3) Undue haste in instruction, 
so that the pupils are compelled to commit to 
memory what they have had no time properly 
to digest in their minds. Cramming may be the 
result either of the ignorance of the teacher, or 
of circumstances which compel him to violate 
the correct principles of education for some 
special end. as the preparation of pupils for a 
public exhibition in which they may make an 
imposing display of their superficial acquire- 
ments. (See Exhibition.) Stub a sad perver- 
sion of the teacher's work as this implies is of 
too frequent occurrence : for parents and patrons 
are too fond of witnessing such displays, and 
there are teachers whose eagerness for praise or 
patronage is sufficient to overcome their sense of 
the true object of their vocation. They seem to 
work more for their own petty ambition or 
pecuniary gain than for the true welfare of their 
pupils. The evil of this is not alone with the 
pupil, but is shared by the teacher himself ; for 
by merely cramming the minds which it is his 
duty to educate, he fails to realize in himself 
the. best results of giving instruction ; since, 
while "he may have the exquisite pleasure of see- 
ing the growth of his pupils' minds, he may also 
have the higher satisfaction of feeling the growth 
of his own." — See Blackie, On Self-Culture 
(Edinburgh, 1875). 

CRECHE, a French word signifying a crih 
or manger, but used in France, Belgium, and 
some other countries in Europe to designate a 
kind of infant asylum (in remembrance of the 
manger of Bethlehem). These institutions are 
supported and managed by either private per- 
sons or corporations. One of the most noted, 
and a model of its class, is the famous Creche 
Marie-Henrieite, at Antwerp, named after the 
queen of Belgium. This asylum originated in 
circumstances caused by the cholera, in 1866. 
The ravages of the epidemic were very great in 
Belgium, but especially in the city of Antwerp, 
causing extreme suffering, and distress among 
the poorer classes of the population. Many 
children were deprived of one or both of theft- 
parents, and thus left helpless and destitute. 
Others suffered abnost as much in consequence 
of the sudden destitution of their parents. In 
order to afford relief to these unfortunates, the 
creche was opened in January, 1867, through 



the efforts of a number of philanthropic ladies 
and gentlemen: and since that time has con- 
tinued to afford an asylum to hundreds of poor 
children, both boys and girls. When the parents 
are living, a small charge is made for tie sup- 
port of the child according to the amount of 
their earnings. The institution is not a hospital. 
sick and diseased children not being received. 
Every child aged 15 days, or at most 3 years. 
whose parents reside in the city. can be admitted 
to the creche. The utmost care is taken of the 
inmate's, both as to their nurture and discipline. 
Xo corporal punishment is permitted : and ten- 
der treatment is enforced by minute regulations, 
both sanitary and educational. Perhaps, the 
most important function of the creche is the 
care taken of young children during the day. 
while their parent or parents are engaged in 
their work. Thus, mothers may leave their in- 
fants in the morning, and take them away in the 
evening.at a charge of 5 centimes (about 1 cent) 
per day, or 25 centimes per week in case of pre- 
payment. This feature of the creche distin- 
guishes it particularly from other classes of infant 
and orphan asylums. 

CRIME AND EDUCATION. The rela- 
tion between crime and education has. of late, 
engaged the attention of philanthropists, educa- 
tors, and statisticians. The progress of statistical 
research, in modern times, seems to have estab- 
lished the fact that there is a much larger per- 
centage of illiterates among the criminal classes 
of society than in the total population of any 
country. Thus the criminal statistics of France, 
in 1870, showed that the educated criminals as 
compared with the entile educated population, 
were in the proportion of 1 to 9,291 : while the 
illiterate criminals were as 1 to 41, compared 
with the whole number of illiterate persons; 
thus proving the proportion of criminals in the 
uneducated classes to be 226 tunes as great as 
that of the educated classes. The facts thus far 
published on this subject are, however, still very 
incomplete; but they invariably tend to prove 
that the uneducated constitute the class of so- 
ciety most prone to crime. It, therefore, fol- 
lows, that every advance made toward the re- 
moval of illiteracy must have a tendency to re- 
duce also the number of crimes. It is also evi- 
dent that the more complete the statistical in- 
formation which can be obtained of the criminal 
classes of all the countries of the world, the bet- 
ter will statesmen ami educators lie enabled to 
establish with certainty the true relation exist- 
ing between crime and education. There are 
still, unfortunately, countries in which it is 
thought that the government has discharged its 
duty with regard to the criminal classes, when it 
has enacted criminal laws for the punishment of 
crime, and erected prisons and penitentiaries. 
The criminal is treated more as an offender 
against society who deserves to be punished and 
restrained from doing any more harm, than as an 
unfortunate member of society who should be re- 
formed. Great progress, however, is of late no- 
ticeable in the legislation of almost every civil- 



194 



CRIME AND EDUCATION 



ized country. The intellectual and moral con- 
dition of criminals is more thoroughly studied 
than before ; the causes which lead to crimes are 
more earnestly investigated, and the agencies 
which are calculated to reform criminals are 
more eagerly employed. The improvement 
which has already been achieved is, to a great 
extent, due to the prison congresses held in the 
United States, as well as in Europe. The first 
congress of this kind was proposed by the in- 
spector general of prisons in Belgium, Ducpe- 
tiaux, and was held in Frankfort on the Main, 
in 1845. The most important was the Inter- 
national Prison Congress, chiefly arranged by 
Dr. Wines of New York, and held in London, 
in 1872. A second international congress is to 
be held in Europe in 1877. A permanent com- 
mission for the promotion of penitentiary reform, 
organized by the congress of London, met in 
1874, at Brussels, and in 1875, at Bruchsal, in 
the grand-duchy of Baden, Germany. In the 
United States, national prison congresses were 
held in 1870 at Cincinnati, in 1872 in Balti- 
more, and in 1874 in St. Louis. The labors of 
these congresses, while being chiefly devoted to 
the improvement of prisons and of prison life, 
have also shed a flood of light on the causes that 
produce crimes. Beltrani Scalia, one of the 
foremost prison-reformers of Italy of the present 
century, estimates the illiterates among the con- 
victs of Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands. 
Italy, Saxony, and Sweden at about one half of 
the entire prison population of those countries. 
Recent official returns show that the percentage 
of those who could not read on entering prison, 
was 56 in Austria, 49 in Belgium, 87 in France, 
4 in Baden, 12 in Bavaria, 17 in Prussia, 60 to 
92 in the different provinces of Italy, about 40 
in the Netherlands, and 30 in Switzerland. In 
Ireland, 22 per cent of males, and 63 per cent of 
females were illiterate. In England, 34 per cent 
of the persons committed to county or borough 
prisons, were totally ignorant. In regard to the 
United States, Mr. J. B. Sauborne of Massachu- 
setts, in a report prepared for the International 
Prison Congress of London, says that the gen- 
eral condition of American prisoners in point of 
education is low, yet they are not so extremely 
illiterate as criminals are in many countries, if 
we except the colored criminals of the South. 
In Massachusetts, for a period of eight years 
past, the statistics show very nearly one third of 
all prisoners to be wholly illiterate ; yet, in the 
highest prison at Charlestown, the proportion of 
illiterate convicts, since the beginning of 1864, 
has been scarcely more than 1 in 10. Partial re- 
ports from seventeen states, including only three 
from the middle and western states, show that 
of an aggregate of 110,538 prisoners, 82,812 
could read and write. 5,931 could read only, and 
21,650 had no education. The totally ignorant 
were thus about 22 per cent of the criminal 
population ; inclusive of those who could read 
only, they would amount to 25 per cent. A 
large number of those who could read and write, 
were also found to be very deficient, and the ag- 



gregate number of those " very deficient in edu- 
cation" was estimated at about 50 per cent of 
the criminal population. There was a great 
diversity in regard to illiteracy among criminals, 
of different groups of states. In New York and 
Pennsylvania, the totally ignorant, or those un- 
able to read and write, were 19 per cent; but 
those veiy deficient, at least 60 per cent. In 
five north-western states, the totally ignorant 
were 40 per cent, the very deficient, 75 per cent; 
in four states between the Mississippi and the 
Pacific, the totally ignorant were 21 per cent, the 
very deficient, 50 per cent ; in five far southern 
states, the totally ignorant were 60 per cent, the 
very deficient, 85 per cent. According to the 
census of 1870, the number of illiterates above 10 
years of age was, in New York and Pennsylvania, 
4 per cent of the population; in the central states,. 
35 per cent ; in the western and Pacific states, 3 
per cent ; and in the South, 22 per cent. A com- 
parison of these figures which give the total num- 
ber of illiterates, with the number of illiterate- 
criminals, shows that the illiterate classes of the 
population furnish a disproportionately large con- 
tingent to the number of criminals. The causes of 
this fact are plain. Ignorance unfits a man, to a 
considerable extent, for earning his daily bread, 
and, in most cases, dooms him to abject poverty : 
the want of intellectual culture is, moreover, gen- 
erally coupled with a lack of the feeling of self- 
respect and moral responsibility, thus leaving the 
poor victim an easy prey to the many tempta- 
tions which society offers. That education is a 
force restraining vice and crime, appears to be 
clearly established by two very important facts : 
(1) Wherever education is diffused among the 
people, the ratio of the number of criminals to- 
the whole population diminishes ; and (2) In all 
countries, the criminal class is mainly fed by the- 
ignorant class. The conviction that the absence 
of education tends to increase crime, has induced 
educators and statesmen to strive to prevent tins 
evil by the introduction of compulsory education 
laws. (See Compulsory Education.) The friends 
of this policy charge such states as fail to require 
that all children should be educated, with pro- 
ducing the very crime for which the criminal is 
punished. Opinions differ, however, as to the 
effect of compulsory education in diminishing 
crime, and as to the responsibility of the state 
government for uneducated criminals. Alison, 
in the History of Europe, boldly asserts the 
whole doctrine to be a fallacy, and presents sta- 
tistics to prove that crimes are more numerous 
where education, that is, what is usually con- 
sidered education, is diffused. " Experience," he 
says, " has now abundantly verified the melan- 
choly truth, that intellectual cultivation has no 
effect in arresting the sources of evil in the 
human heart ; that it alters the direction of 
crime, but does not alter its amount." Herbert 
Spencer asserts, in Social Statics, that "we 
have no evidence that education, as commonly 
understood, is a preventive of crime." Fletcher, 
in Summary of the Moral Statistics of England 
and Wales, says, that the comparison of the- 



CRIME AND EDUCATION 



CRUELTY 



195 



criminal and educational returns of England and 
other countries of Europe, " has afforded no 
sound statistical evidence in favor of, and as little 
against, the moral effects associated with instruc- 
tion, as actually disseminated among the people." 
These are. undoubtedly . extreme views, and can- 
not be accepted in the light of more recent sta- 
tistical information. They present, however, a 
strong argument in favor of improving the qual- 
ity as well as the quantity of education diffused 
among the people, and especially of the impor- 
tance of moral training as well as intellectual in- 
struction. (See Moral Education, National 
Education, and Pibmc Schools.) 

While every one must hope that the steadily 
increasing diffusion of education will be found a 
powerful aid in reducing the number of crimes, 
all prison-reformers of tin- present day agree in 
expecting a reformatory influence upon convicted 
criminals through the means provided fur their 
instruction. The provisions made in this respect 
in the United States are still inadequate; but 
great progress has been made of late years. Li- 
braries are common, 33 prisons in 1873 reporting 
50,663 volumes, being an average of 1,535 to 
each. In some prisons, the convicts have the 
benefit of schools, individual instruction in their 
cells, and lectures. Secular instruction is reg- 
ularly afforded in the prisons of California, Illi- 
nois, Indiana, Kansas. Kentucky, Massachusetts, 
New York, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. In some 
of these states, a school is held once a week ; in 
others, two or five evenings a week. The prisons 
of most European countries are also generally 
provided with a school and a library. In the 
so-called houses of correction, which are intern led 
for the treatment of those convicted of higher 
offenses, the educational element naturally occu- 
pies a more conspicuous place than in the state 
prisons. Still more is this the case in the institu- 
tions for the treatment of juvenile offenders. 
(See Reform Schools.) 

An important discovery recently made by sta- 
tistical science, has sometimes been quoted against 
those who hope that, as education increases, 
crime will decrease. It has been found that in 
the number of crimes committed in a country, 
the annual reports exhibit the same regularity. 
as in finances, commerce, and other departments 
of civilized life ; and the inference has been 
drawn from this fact, that, however valuable 
education may be. no notable influence there- 
from on the amount of crime need be expected ; 
since that is unalterably fixed. This steadiness in 
the amount of crime was observed by Madame 
de Stael, and is made much of by Buckle, in his 
History of Civilization. Statistically it was 
proved by the great Belgian statistician Quetelet, 
who adduces an array of figures, which appear 
to render his position impregnable. Some have 
regarded this as a law of fatality : but Quetelet 
himself states, that this apparently invariable 
proportion depends upon the moral condition of 
society, and, that if this be changed, the appa- 
rently uniform proportion of crime will change in 



the same degree. — See Annual Reports of (he 
V. S. Commissioner of Education for 1872, -3, 
-4: Alison, History of Europe, from 1815 to 
L851, vol. i., and Miscellaneous Essays, s. v. Tlie 
Future; Buckle, History of Civilization in 
England (London, 1857 — 61) ; Porter, Tlie 
Progress of the Nation (Loud., lo3f! — 13) ; 
Spencer, Social Statics (London. 1850) ; Qcete- 
let. La Statistique Morale, in vol. xxi. of Mem. 
tie I' Acad , ile Belgique (Brussels, 1848). 

CRUELTY (to Animals) is a prevailing trait 
in the characters of children who have not been 
specially trained to habits of kind, considerate, 
and humane feeling and conduct. The activity 
of a chiM's nature, its love of sport, and its un- 
developed sympathies predispose it to acts of in- 
considerate cruelty. Thus, Locke remarks. "Some 
children when they have possession of any poor 
creature, are apt to use it ill : they often torment 
and treat very roughly, young birds, butterflies, 
and such other poor animals as fall into their 
hands, and that with a seeming kind of pleasure. 
This should be watched in them, and if they in- 
cline to any such cruelty, they should be taught 
the contrary usage, for the custom of tormenting 
and killing beasts will by degrees harden their 
minds even towards men ; and they who delight 
in the suffering and destruction of inferior crea- 
tures, will not be apt to be very complacent or 
benign to those of their own kind." The neces- 
sity of cultivating in children the spirit of 
humanity, is inculcated by all who have written 
on the subject of moral training. Says one. " I 
am far from thinking that the early delight which 
children discover in tormenting flies, etc.. is a 
mark of an innate cruelty of temper; because 
this turn may lie accounted for upon other prin- 
ciples. But most certainly, by being unrestrained 
in sports of this kind, they may acquire by 
habit what they never would have learned by 
nature, and grow up in a confirmed inattention 
to every kind of suffering but their own. Ac- 
cordingly, the supreme court of judicature at 
Athena thought an instance of this sort not be- 
low its cognizance, and punished a boy for put- 
ting out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhap- 
pily fallen into his hands." Hogarth in the 
series of paintings entitled Tlie Progress of 
t 'rui'/fi/. illustrates this vice in its several stages 
of formation, the first picture showing children 
engaged in various barbarous diversions. The 
effect is heightened by the contrast of a youth 
who intercedes to prevent cruel outrage to a 
poor dog, offering a book to the inhuman young 
tyrant. " To this "picture the following lines are 
annexed : — 

What various scenes of cruel sport 
Tlie infant race employ; 

What future baseness, must import 
The tyrant in the boy! 

Behold a youth of gentler look ; 

To save the creature's pain, 
"O take I" he cries, " here take my boob ;" 

But tears and boob are vain. 

Learn from this fair example, you 

Wliom savage sports delight. 
How cruelty disgusts the view. 

While pity charms the sight. 



196 



CULTURE 



All children are not equally addicted to such 
cruel sports ; but perhaps, if we exclude certain 
extreme and abnormal cases, it may be said, that 
this inclination is found to exist in youths whose 
fearless courage, resolution, and activity, if prop- 
erly trained, would make them exceedingly use- 
ful, if not illustrious, in after life. The germs 
of glory or of infamy exist in the mind of the 
young child ; and, doubtless, in many cases, are 
precisely the same, expanding into one or the 
other according to the circumstances by which 
they are fostered. " It would be curious," says 
a celebrated writer, " to trace the human mind 
either to the perfection of greatness or to the 
completion of crime ; to trace the hero from his 
play at prisoner's base, where he domineered over 
Ms schoolmates, to the battle by which he gains 
or loses an empire — the murderer from spinning 
a cock-chafer, or taking a bird's nest, to the mo- 
ment when his hand is dyed in the blood of the 
heart he has stabbed, or the throat he has cut." 

The need of specially educating the sympa- 
thetic affections in order to counteract, this strong 
tendency in youthful minds, is thus clearly shown , 
and many methods of accomplishing this result 
are suggested by educators. Habitual training, 
not mere precepts, can alone effect this. Locke 
points out a number of ways of instilling such 
habits ; such as accustoming children to be gentle 
and considerate to their pets, to be kind to each 
other, and to treat servants and dependents with 
civility and consideration. "Children," says he, 
" should be accustomed from their cradles to be 
tender to all sensible creatures, and to spoil and 
waste nothing." Especially should they be cor- 
rected in cruelly treating those animals whose ex- 
ternal appearance is repugnant. " Children,'" 
says Maria Edgeworth, " should not be taught to 
confine their benevolence to those animals which 
are thought beautiful ; the fear and disgust 
which we express at the sight of certain unfort- 
unate animals, whom we are pleased to call ugly 
and shocking, are observed by children, and 
these associations lead to cruelty." Another 
writer, in this connection, remarks, " It might be 
of service in order to awaken, as early as possible, 
in children an extensive sense of humanity, to 
give them a view of several sorts of insects, as 
they may be magnified by the assistance of 
glasses, and to show them that the same evident 
marks of wisdom and goodness prevail in the 
formation of the minutest insect, as in that of 
the most enormous leviathan." In the same 
spirit are the strong lines of Cowper : — 

Ye, therefore, who lore mercy, teach your sons 
To love it too. The spring-time of our years 
Is soon dishonored and denied in most 
By buddiug ills, that ask a prudent hand 
To check them. But, alas ! none sooner shoots, 
If unrestrained, into luxuriant growth. 
Than Cruelty, most dev'lish of them all. 

(See Moral Education.) 

CULTURE, a term used to denote the im- 
provement of the human character by means of 
discipline, training, or self-exertion. It is used 
in both an active and a passive sense ; in the 
former, implying the use of all necessary means 
and agencies to cultivate the human faculties, 



and in the latter, the result of their operation. 
( 'ulture comprehends both development and re- 
finement; that is. not simply bringing into 
active exercise the latent powers of the mind op 
body, but adding thereto a nice and careful dis- 
crimination as to their proper or improper ex- 
ercise, with a due regard to the circumstances 
which require their employment. Thus a man 
of culture not only is able to express his thoughts 
in suitable and impressive language, but knows 
how to adapt his language to the persons, the 
place, and the occasions which call for this ex- 
pression ; nor does he give utterance to his 
thoughts except when it is proper to do so. 
Hence, culture, in its mature stage, not only im- 
plies power, but restraint, both belonging to the 
inner nature of the individual. There are as 
many kinds of culture as there are departments 
of human nature, or special faculties, to be cul- 
tivated and improved. Thus, culture may be 
physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and esthetic, 
according as its scope is the improvement of 
the powers and susceptibilities of the body, the 
intellect, the moral sentiments, the sold, or the 
taste. General culture implies that everything 
constituting the character of the individual has 
been brought to as high a degree of improvement 
as is possible. Special culture has reference to 
a particular department of human nature, or to 
the development of power in a certain direction. 
Thus, the culture of the poet, the painter, the 
orator, the teacher, the lawyer, or the clergyman 
is special, developing faculties needed in the par- 
ticular vocation of each. Special culture, how- 
ever, does not exclude general culture ; for no 
man need be merely a practitioner, or worker in 
any narrow sphere of effort. The object of 
higher education is to give this general cidture 
as a basis for that which is necessarily special, or 
technical. 

The real instrumentality, in a certain sense 
the only one, by which cidture can be effected, is 
self -exertion. None of the faculties, whether of 
the spirit, mind, or body, can be cultivated ex- 
cept by exercise. Thus a person can never learn 
to compose by studying grammar and rhetoric, 
nor to think and reason by committing to mem- 
ory the rules of logic. If he would learn to 
write, or to think and reason, he must write and 
think and reason, on the same principle and in- f 
the same w&y as a "person learns to swim, or a 
child to walk. This exercise is the individual's own J 
work ; but the exercise may be unsuitable and 
injurious, and, therefore, needs, at first, the care- 
ful guidance of experience. Hence, the need of 
an educator, until the individual has acquired 
sufficient knowledge and experience to direct the 
exercise himself. This shows the relation of 
education and culture, the one being the handmaid 
of the other. The instruments of cidture vary 
with its special scope. For those of physical 
cidture, we must learn what a knowledge of 
physiology and experience in gymnastics dictate; 
those of intellectual culture can be judiciously 
selected only by studying the laws which regulate 
the operations of the mind. But we are par- 



CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY 



CURTIS 



197 



ticularly to be on our guard in supposing that 
intellectual culture can spring from the mere 
study of other persons' ideas. True culture of 
this kind can alone come from (1) a patient, 
laborious, and diligent acquisition of ideas of our 
own. by observation and reflection ; and (2) the 
study of the experience of other luinds. and its 
verification, as far as possible, by that of our 
own. '• The original and proper sources of 
knowledge." says Professor Blackie, "are not 
books, but life, experience, personal thinking, 
feeling, and acting." And again, "All knowl- 
edge which conies from books comes indirectly. 
by reflection, and by echo; true knowledge 
gr< iws from a living root in the thinking soul : 
and whatever it may appropriate from without, 
it takes by living assimilation into a living or- 
ganism, not by mere lion-owing." (See Self- 
Culture, Edinburgh, 1875.) This is simply an 
emphatic and illustrative expansion of the gen- 
eral principle above stated ; namely, that to cul- 
tivate our faculties, we must properly exercise 
them. No moral culture can be secured by the 
study of ethics : legitimate objects for the exer- 
cise of the moral feelings must be sought for and 
discovered; and, more especially, the will must 
be trained so that it will obey the voice of rea- 
son and conscience, even amid the mightiest 
tempest of passion and desire. Related to this, 
is the culture of the soul — a culture which is 
paramount to all. and to which every other spe- 
cies of culture is subservient; and just as one 
can learn to walk only by walking, to think only 
by thinking, and to live nobly only by acting 
nobly on every occasion, so one can onlyadvance 
in spiritual culture by communing, by prayer 
and contemplation, with the Great Spirit, the 
father of mankind, and the Creator of the uni- 
verse. True Christian culture comprehends the 
development of a capacity to do right, and to be 
right, in every relation which we bear to each 
other, and to our Maker, simply by applying the 
general principle herein enunciated, of active 
beneficence, based upon the simplest principles 
of moral and religious truth. (See Education.) 
CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY, at Leb- 
anon, Tenn.. was founded by the ( Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church in 1K42. The value of its 
buildings ami grounds is $20,000. The institution 
comprises a business college and telegraph insti- 
tute (at Nashville) : a preparatory school ; a col- 
legiate department, with a classical course of 
four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
Arts, and a scientific course of three years, lead- 
ing to the degree of Bachelor of Science : a 
school of civil engineering with a two years' course, 
leading to the degree of Civil Engineer: a law 
school; and a theological school. The degrees of 
Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy are 
conferred upon graduates who pursue prescribed 
post-graduate courses of study. A plan has been 
adopted, by which non-resident students, through 
a system of correspondence and examinations, 
may receive the benefits of the college courses. 
In 1K74 — 5, there were 13 instructors and 391 
students (deducting repetitions) ; namely, com- 



mercial, 127 ; telegraphic. 38 ; preparatory. G6 ; 
collegiate. 85; law. 70; theological, 'is. The 
university library contains about 7 .mill volumes. 
The presidents have been as follows : P, R. ( 'os- 
sitt. D. D.. 1842 — 1; J. C. Anderson. 1). D., 
1S44— 1866; B. W. McDonald, D. D„ LL. D., 
1867—1872; Nathan Green. A. M., L. B. 
(chancellor), the present incumbent, appointed 
in 1872. 

CURIOSITY, or the desire to know, is a 
very important element of the mind, in its rela- 
tion to education. The basis of the success of 
the teacher is the attention of the pupil; and 
while many instructors may appeal to the sense 
of fear to compel attention, he only can make a 
beneficial and tasting impression upon the learn- 
er's mind, who arouses his attention by awaken- 
ing a genuine interest in the thing to be learned; 
that is. by stimulating his curiosity to know that 
of which he has become sensible that he is ig- 
norant. This feeling is natural to children, as 
being the active principle of their minds. Nature 
has implanted it for many and wise reasons; 
and. therefore, it should not be repressed, but, 
on the contrary, should be stimulated and en- 
couraged. This is strongly enjoined by Locke, 
in Thoughts on Education. "As children." he 
says, "should never be heard when they speak for 
any particular thing they would have, unless it. 
tiist be proposed to them, so they should always 
lie heard, and fairly and kindly answered, when 
they ask about anything they would know and 
desire to be informed about. Curiosity should 
he as carefully cherished in children, as other 
appetites suppressed." .Many educators, both 
parents and teachers, often err in frowning upon 
children for asking questions, and thus, especially 
in the case of those who are timid and diffident, 
seriously impair a mental activity which could 
have been made an important means of edu- 
cation. Of course, curiosity should not be allowed 
to degenerate into inquisitiveness or forward- 
ness : but should be kept within its natural and 
proper limits : that is. as Locke says. " whenever 
reason would speak, it should be hearkened to.'' 

CURRICULUM. See Course of Instruc- 
tion. 

CURTIS, Joseph, a distinguished friend of 
education in the city of New York, was born in 
Newtown, Ct., in 1782, and died in New 
York, April 12., 1856. He became a resident 
of that city at the age of" 1 (:>, and early mani- 
fested a disposition for active beneficence. He 
served for several years as the secretary of the 
Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, and 
was active in all the public charities of the day. 
As a member of the Manumission Society, he 
ardently cooperated with Peter A. Jay, I 'adwal- 
lader ( 'olden. Isaac M. Ely, and others in secur- 
ing the state act of manumission, which was 
passed in 1817: and he was afterward one of 
the leading spirits in establishing the New York 
House of Refuge, of which he took charge for 
about a year, thus initiating the then novel en- 
terprise of attempting to reform juvenile delin- 
quents (182;)). Previous to this, in 1820, he 



198 



CURTIUS 



DAKOTA 



was instrumental in opening, at Flatbush, L. L, 
the first Sunday-school for free blacks. Mr. 
Curtis was also one of the founders of the Pub- 
lic .School Society of the city of New York, of 
which he continued to be an active and devoted 
member until its dissolution in 1853, when he 
was chosen one of the fifteen members of that 
society who, for a time, were to represent it in 
the Board of Education. He had been a diligent 
and sagacious business man, and always eminently 
practical; but he suffered great losses through the 
effects of the war of 1812 — L5. Few lives have 
been marked so deeply and constantly with deeds 
of genuine philanthropy and self-sacrificing 
benevolence, as was that of Joseph Curtis, not 
only in his public fife, but in the inner circle of 
domestic privacy. — See W. 0. Bourne, History 
of the Public School Society (N. Y., 1870); 
B. K. Peiece, A Half Century with Juvenile 
Delinquents (N. Y., 1869); Barnard's Journal 
of Education, vol. I.; C. M. Sedgwick, Memoir 
of Joseph Curtis, a Model Man (N. Y., 1858). 

CURTIUS, George, a German philologist 
and author of school books, was born at Liibeck, 
in 1820, and studied philology at the universities 
of Berlin and Bonn. In 1842, he was appointed 
teacher at Blochmann's Institute (see Bloch- 
mann) at Dresden ; in 1845, he became lecturer 
at the university of Berlin; in 1849, extraordi- 



nary, and in 1851, ordinary professor at the uni- 
versity of Prague ; in 1854, professor in Kiel; and 
in 1862, professor in Leipsic, where he also' be- 
came one of the directors of the philological 
seminary. Curtius endeavored to use the results 
of comparative linguistics to a larger extent than 
had previously been done in the study of Latin 
and Greek, and was the first who wrote a gram- 
mar of the Greek language for schools from this 
stand-point. This work [Griechische Schulgram- 
matilc. Prague, 1852; 11th edit,, 1875), is re- 
garded as one of the best text-books in the prov- 
ince of the classical languages, and has not only 
been extensively introduced into the German 
gymnasiums, but has been translated into many 
foreign languages. The principles which are 
carried out in this book, are elucidated in a spe- 
cial work, called Erlciuterungen zu meiner grie- 
chischen Schulgrammatik (2d ed., Prague,1870), 
and in many essays of his Studien zur lateini- 
schen und griechischen Grammatik (8 vols., 
Leips., 1868 — 75). In another work, Grundziige 
der griechischen Elyinologie (2 vols., 4th ed., 
Leips.., 1873), he undertook to find a strictly 
scientific basis for Greek lexicography. He also 
wrote Zur Chronologie der indogermanischen 
Sprachforschung (2ded., Leips., 1873), and Das 
Verbum der griechischen Sprache (1st vol., 
Leips., 1873). 



DACIER, Andre, a noted French scholar, 
born at Castres in 1651, died in Paris, in 1722. 
He published translations of several classic 
author's, among them, Plutarch's Dives, Aris- 
totle's Poetics, the QSdipus and Electra of 
Sophocles, the works of Horace, and some of 
Plato's dialogues. He was one of the 39 schol- 
ars selected to edit the celebrated series of the 
classics in usum delphini, prepared by order of 
Louis XIV., for the instruction of the dauphin. 
To this series he contributed an edition of Pom- 
ponius Festus and of Valerius Flaccus. He was 
appointed keeper of the library of the Louvre ; 
and, in 1713, became perpetual secretary of the 
French Academy. 

DACIER, Anne, wife of Andre Dacier, and 
illustrious for her extraordinary attainments in 
classical (especially Greek) scholarship, was born 
in 1654, and died in 1720. Her father was the 
eminent scholar Tanneguy-Lefevre,by whom she 
was educated. Her marriage, in 1683, to Andre 
Dacier, who had been her fellow-pupil under her 
father's instruction, was humorously styled the 
" marriage of Greek and Latin." She, with her 
husband, assisted in preparing classics for the use 
of the dauphin, contributing editions of Florus, 
Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, and some others. She 
published also translations of some of the plays 
of Plautus and Terence, Homer, Aristophanes, 
etc. In profound and accurate scholarship, and 
acuteness of mind, she is generally thought to 
have excelled her learned husband. 



DACTYLOLOGY (Gr. 8&ktvIoc, a finger), 
a method of communicating ideas by means of 
signs made with the fingers, composing what is 
called the manual or finger alphabet, and em- 
ployed by the deaf and dumb. There are two 
alphabets of this kind: (1) the single-hand al- 
phabet, the origin of which dates back to Bonet 
(q. v.) , and which is used every-where except in 
Great Britain, and is gaining ground there ; and 
(2) the two-hand alphabet, which was originally 
invented by Dalgarno (q. v.). The former of 
these alphabets was brought to a high degree of 
perfection by the abbe de l'Epee and the abbe 
Sicard (q. v.). (See Deap-Mutes, and Peet, 
Harvey P.) 

DAKOTA was organized as a territory 
March 2., 1861, being formed from the terri- 
tories of Minnesota and Nebraska. In 1868, a 
portion of the extensive territory of Dakota was 
taken to form the territory of Wyoming. All 
this region originally formed a part of Louisiana, 
purchased from France in 1803. According to 
the census of 1870, the area of Dakota comprises 
150,932 square miles; and its population, at 
that time, was 14,181. The first permanent 
white settlements were made in 1859, in what 
are now the counties of Yankton, Clay, and 
Union ; but there was but little immigration 
into the territory until 1866. 

Educational History. — The first legislature 
met in March, 1862 ; but no school law was en- 
acted until 1867, when an act was passed by the 



DAKOTA 



199 



territorial assembly, providing for the appoint- 
ment of a superintendent of public instruction, 
county superintendents, district directors, and 
boards of school trustees. This law was ap- 
proved Jan. 3.. 1868. In 1869, another law was 
passed, whict directed the election of a territo- 
rial superintendent, who should report annually 
to the legislature, and county superintendents, 
who were to report, annually by the 10th of 
November. The immediate government of the 
school-district was intrusted to a district board, 
composed of a director, a clerk, and a treasurer. 
Annual school meetings were to be held in each 
district on the last Saturday in March. The 
district clerk made the annual enumeration of 
children; and no district that had not maintained 
a school three months during the year, was en- 
titled to any portion of the school fund. Politics 
and sectarianism were excluded from the schools. 
In INTO, a general improvement in the schools, 
and an increase in attendance, were remarked ; 
the number of children receiving instruction be- 
ing 1,144, out of a population of 14,181. and the 
salaries of teachers ranging from $25 to $100 per 
month. Much trouble, however, was caused b} r 
the want of uniformity in text-books. In 1H71, 
the school law was repealed, and a new one en- 
acted. In 1 S73, this was amended, the number of 
schools in the territory at that time being, by an 
approximate estimate, 10(1, and the number of 
children of school age being 5,31 2, of whom 2,006 
were reported as enrolled in the schools. About 
§22.000 were raised that year for school pur- 
poses. The territorial superintendents have been. 
James S. Foster, 18UU — 71; J. M. Turner, 1871 
—3; E. W. Miller, 1873—5; and J. J. Mcln- 
tyre, elected in 1875, and still iu office (li-wO). 

School System. — The principal school officer 
under the present law is the superintendent of 
public instruction, who is elected biennially. He 
is permitted to choose a deputy who must reside 
in that portion of the territory north of the 40th 
parallel of latitude. His duties are to exercise 
a general supervision over the schools, and to 
hold, in connection with the count}' superin- 
tendents, annual teachers' institutes, attendance 
upon which is expected from all teachers ap- 
plying for certificates. To defray partially the 
expenses of these institutes, the sum of SI 00 is 
appropriated from the treasury. The territorial 
superintendent, also, grants teachers' certificates, 
fixes the grades of county certificates, prescribes 
the text-books to be used in the schools, and 
makes an annual report to the governor. Comity 
superintendents are elected by the people bien- 
nially. They divide their counties into school- 
districts, examine teachers, grant certificates valid 
for 3 months or a year, apportion the school 
moneys, and report annually to the territorial 
superintendent. District-school boards, com- 
posed of three officers, a director, a clerk, and a 
treasurer, are elected annually. Deriving their au- 
thority directly from the people of the district by 
vote at the annual meetings, their power, within 
the law, is supreme in every thing that relates to 
the building, purchasing, or renting of school- 



houses, the supply of furniture or apparatus, the 
employment of teachers, or the direct govern- 
ment of the schools of their districts. They are 
authorized to send scholars from their own dis- 
tricts to the graded or high schools of other dis- 
tricts within a reasonable distance, the tuition fee 
for which may be paid from the teachers' fund. 
The voters at the annual meeting, or at a special 
meeting called for the purpose, prescribe the 
length of time the schools shall be kept open each 
year, and specify whether their portion of the 
school fund shall be applied to the support of 
summer or winter schools. No district is entitled 
to any portion of the public fund unless it shall 
have forwarded to the county superintendent its 
annual report, within 40 days of the time speci- 
fied for holding the annual meeting, nor unless 
it. shall have kept open a school for 3 months 
during the previous year. Each district may 
raise annually by tax on taxable property a sum 
forschool purposes, not to exceed one per cent, of 
the valuation. County or town assessors are 
directed to tax every voter SI annually for the 
support of the schools, to which is added an ad- 
ditional tax of 2 nulls on the dollar. The schools 
are free to all children between the ages of 5 and 
21 years, and the number of such children in 
each district is made the basis for the apportion- 
ment of the school fund. 

Educational Condition. — The number of or- 
ganized school districts, in 1875, was 296; the 
number of schools, 172. The school revenue was 
as follows : 

From county tax. si::, 13s. 41 

" district tax 15,512.49 

" other sources 3.!>52.23 

Total $32,003.1:! 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' ivaj"! j]s,04j>6 

" buildings, repairs, rent, etc. 9,985JD1 
" incidentals ami furniture. . . 4,572. '26 

Total $32,603.1 3 

The following are the principal items of school 
statistics for 1875: 
Number of children of school age (."> to 21 years) 8,343 

" " " enrolled in the schools 4,42s 

Number of teachers, both sexes 208 

Normal Instruction. — Xo school has yet been 
established for the training of teachers, the 
^parseness of the population not permitting 
it. An annual teachers' institute, however. 
is held, the legal session of which is 10 days. 
Four such institutes have, thus far, been con- 
vened, with a general attendance, on the part of 
the teachers of the territory. 

The provisions made in Dakota for any thing 
further than elementary instruction arc. of course, 
very limited, the smallnessof the population rem 1- 
ering all attempts in this direction, up to the 
present time, premature. Writing in 1870, the 
territorial superintendent says : "We have no 
regularly formed school associations, except in 
some of the older counties, which are beginning 
to organize county teachers' associations." The 
only school of a higher grade than elementary, 
is an academy at Yankton. 



/ 



200 



DALGARNO 



DAIiGARSTO, George, an ingenious Brit- 
ish scholar, teacher, and writer, chiefly noted for 
his publications on the art of teaching deaf- 
mutes. He was born at Aberdeen about 1627, 
and died at Oxford in 1687. He was educated 
at the university of Aberdeen, and subsequently 
taught a school at Oxford for about 30 years. 
His two celebrated publications are Ars Signo- 
■rum, vulgo Character Universalis et Lingua 
Philosophica (London, 1661), and Didascalo- 
cophus,ox The Deaf-Mules Tutor (Oxford, 1681). 
The former of these was an ingenious attempt to 
construct a system for representing ideas by ar- 
bitrary signs, and presents a very full and quite 
accurate exposition of the principles of deaf- 
mute instruction ; the latter work was designed 
" to bring the way of teaching a deaf man to 
read and write, as near as possible to that of 
teaching young ones to speak and understand 
their mother-tongue." Dalgarno also invented a 
two-hand alphabet, from which the one subse- 
quently adopted in England appears to have 
been derived. His collected works were re- 
printed in 1 vol. 4to, in Edinburgh (1834). — 
bee Chambers, Biographical Dictionary of 
Eminent Scotsmen; Edinburgh Review (July, 
1835); Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, vol. ix., 
in which Didascalocophus is reprinted. 

DAME SCHOOLS, the name given in Eng- 
land to small elementary private schools kept by 
women, and attended by young children, both 
boys and girls. Schools of this kind formerly 
abounded, every village and hamlet having its 
dame school. Shenstone in the School-mistress 
gives a probably correct, although satirical de- 
scription of such a school and of the dame that 
presided over it. 

"In every village marked with little spire. 

Embowered in trees, and hardly known to fame, 
There dwells, in lowly shed, and mean attire, 

A matron old, whom we school-mistress name; 
Who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame: 

They grieven sore, in piteous durance pent, 
Awed by the power of this relentless dame; 

And oftentimes, on vagaries idly bent, 
For unkempt hair, or task unconned, are sorely shent." 

Although, owing to the present ample provi- 
sion, in England, for better instruction through 
the national schools, the need of dame schools no 
longer exists, yet they still linger in large num- 
bers, and obstruct the proper working of the 
Education Act. In the School Board Chronicle, 
of Feb. 6., 1875, there is the following suggestive 
complaint : " It is within the power of a few il- 
literate old people to set the elementary educa- 
tion act at nought, by giving the. name of schools 
to the miserable places in which it is their mis- 
fortune to dwell, and professing to impart in- 
struction to children whose parents are desirous 
of evading the school board's by-laws." This 
woidd seem to confirm the descriptions of these 
schools given by Dickens in some of his novels, 
of which the following is a specimen : " The pu- 
pils ate apples, and put straws down one an- 
other's backs, until Mr. Wopsle's great-aunt [the 
school-mistress, or dame] collected her energies, 
and made an indiscriminate totter at them with 
a birch rod. After receiving the charge with 



DAME SCHOOLS 

every form of derision, the pupils formed in line, 
and buzzingly passed a ragged book from hand 
to hand. The book had an alphabet in it, some 
figures and tables, and a little spelling ; that is 
to say — it had once." This description gives an 
idea of the interior of one of these schools, and 
the following, from Good Words, is intended to 
represent the exterior : 

" The less pretentious kind of Dame's School chiefly 
differs from the brass-plate kind in that it is less pre- 
tentions, otherwise they are pretty equal in their in- 
efficiency. The mistress of the humbler school is not 
called a governess, but "the missis," or "the old lady." 
The missis not unfreqnently keeps a shop as well as a 
school ; the scrawl announcing that a school is "kept 
here," appearing in the window in conjunction with a 
pair of crossed " church-warden pipes," a couple of 
bottles of sweets, half a dozen high-dried herrings, 
and a box of such sundries as thread, tape, and stay- 
laces, and her school is supported on the same ground 
as her shop — because it is " close handy." Their 
"handiness" is the strong point of these schools; if 
they ceased to be handy they might as well takedown 
their banner, and close their doors. Hence it comes 
that one or more of them is to be found in almost every 
street, of quarters inhabited by the industrious poor. 
The mothers in such quarters will tell you that they 
are glad to be rid of their children for a few hours iu 
the day, and thankful to have a place to send them to, 
where they will be out of danger and out of mischief. 
So they "pack them off" to the old lady's." 

The existence of dame schools in England has 
recently been much complained of, inasmuch as 
parents can comply with the compulsory attend- 
ance law, or evade its penalties, by sending their 
children irregularly to these schools ; and large 
numbers of them (sometimes called private ad- 
venture schools) have sprung up, within the last 
two or three years, for that express purpose. The 
evil is difficult to control without more stringent 
penal legislation than public opinion in England 
is, as yet, fully prepared for. 

In the United States, the country district 
schools are generally taught by young women ; 
but the law requires that they should be regu- 
larly certificated teachers. To one such the 
beautiful lines of Longfellow probably refer, 
which may, with interest, be contrasted with 
Shenstone's quaint description of the school 
dame of his time. 

' ' She dwells by great Kanhawa's side, 

In valleys green and cool, 
And all her hope and all her pride 

Are in her village school. 

Her soul, like the transparent air 

That robes the hills above, 
Though not of earth, encircles there 

All things with arms of love. 

And thus she walks amid her gi^ls, 
With praise and mild rebukes; 

Subduing e'en rude village churls, 
By her angelic looks." 

Some of the private or " select" schools of the 
cities answer, to a certain extent, to the English 
dame schools, but are of much higher grade of 
efficiency. There is no doubt that, as education 
becomes more diffused among all classes of so- 
ciety in England, the possibility of " illiterate old 
people" keeping a school with the chance of ob- 
taining any patronage whatever, will become en- 
tirely a thing of the past. 



DANCING 



201 



DANCING, and Dancing Schools. Dan- 
cing, as a means of expressing by movements 
and gestures of the body the emotions of the 
mind, is found among all the nations of the 
earth. In the Old Testament, the dame is spoken 
of universally as symbolical of rejoicing, and is 
often coupled, for the sake of contrast, with 
mourning. Sacred dances were performed on 
the solemn anniversaries of the Jews, the per- 
formers usually being a band of females who 
volunteered their services, although there are 
not wanting instances also of men's joining in the 
dance on these seasons of religious festivity. King 
] (avid danced on the auspicious occasion of the 
ark's being brought up to Jerusalem, and his 
example was imitated by the later .lews, who in- 
corporated the dance with their favorite usages, 
as an appropriate close of the joyous occasion of 
the feast of the Tabernacles. The members of 
the Sanhedrim, the rulers of the synagogues. 
doctors of schools, and all who were eminent for 
rank or piety, accompanied the sacred music 
with their voices, and leaped and danced with 
torches in their hands for a great part of the 
night, while the women and common people 
looked on. The Jewish-dance was performed by 
the sexes separately. There is no evidence that 
the diversion was promiscuously enjoyed, except 
perhaps at the erection of a deified calf, when, 
in imitation of the Egyptian festival of Apis, all 
classes of the Hebrews intermingled in the frantic 
revelry. Among the Egyptians, dancing formed 
a part of the religious ceremonies, and was also 
common in private entertainments. In Greece, 
the gods themselves were represented as pas- 
sionately fond of the diversion ; and in the 
Roman empire, it was a favorite pastime, resorted 
to. not only to enliven feasts, but in the celebra- 
tion of domestic joy. It was, however, con- 
sidered beneath the dignity of persons of rank 
and character to practice it. Under the patron- 
age of the Roman emperors, the art was carried 
to the utmost perfection ; the favorite mode be- 
ing that of pantomime, which, like that of the 
modern abnehs, or Arab dancing women.was often 
of the most licentious description. In the early 
( 'hristian church, the dance was introduced on 
the festival days of martyrs and other saints, as 
well as on occasions of great ecclesiastical solem- 
nities. Subsequently, dances connected with 
masquerades became a universal habit in the 
Roman Catholic world at Sbrove-tide. on the 
day of St. Vitus (hence the name of St. Vitus's 
dance), and on that of Corpus Christ/' ; and the 
" Jumping Procession " at Rchternach, in the 
grand-duchy of Luxemburg, which was instituted 
in honor of the cessation of the St. Vitus's dance, 
and which consists in all the participants' jumping 
two steps forward and one step backward, is still 
celebrated with great solemnities, and attended 
by large crowds of devout people. In all the 
''hristian churches of Germany, there was, in 
early times, an elevated portion which was sepa- 
rated from the other parts of the churches and 
called clwr (from the Greek xopds, dance or dan- 
cing place, Knglish, choir). Upon this, the priests 



danced every Sunday and festive day. Every 
church festival had its own peculiar dances : and, 
on the vigils, the most zealous and virtuous 
Christians assembled, during the night, before 
the doors of the churches, for singing and dan- 
cing. Thus, like other arts, dancing was long an 
art chiefly in the service of religion. This character 
it has now lost almost entirely ; but a few small 
sects in the United States, like the Shakers and 
Rappites, still observe it as pail of their religious 
worship. 

In proportion as dancing became disconnected 
from the church and religion, it assumed greater 
prominence as a social enjoyment, both in the 
family life and at great popular festivals. At 
court celebrations. spring anil fall festivals, harvest 
homes, and especially wedding-feasts, dancing 
came to be looked upon as an indispensable part 
of social enjoyment : and peculiar kinds of dances, 
as the ballet, were introduced into the theaters. 
Every country, and almost every province, pro- 
duced its own national dance, reflecting and 
representing the character of the people. In all 
these dances, two elements may be observed, the 
social and the artistic-. The latter has attracted 
the interest of many educational writers who have 
viewed dancing as a gymnastic exercise especially 
suited for promoting graceful manners and devel- 
oping the sense of the beautiful. (See Calis- 
thenics.) It is. however, chiefly the element of 
sensuous enjoyment which has given to dancing 
the prominent position which it holds, at present, 
among popular amusements. The characteristic 
feature to which it owes this prominence, and 
which, more than anything else, distinguishes it 
from the dancing of the ancient world, is the 
participation in its performance of persons of 
both sexes. Among all classes of society, the 
dance has thus become the means of afford- 
ing an occasion to the sexes of forming an 
acquaintance with each other : and. hence, except 
when properly restricted, has been viewed as a 
prolific source of moral danger and excess. Re- 
ligious writers of all denominations have accord- 
ingly vied with each other in warning young 
persons against the dangers of the ball : still there 
has been considerable difference in the position 
taken by different churches in regard to dancing 
in general. Many of the Protestant churches 
•absolutely prohibit their members from dancing; 
while the Roman Catholic Church has been less 
strict in its denunciations, raising its warning 
voice more against the abuses than against the 
practice itself. 

The prevalence of dancing as a social amuse- 
ment and the esteem in which it is held as a part 
of the necessary preparation for polite society, 
nattu-ally prompt all parents who have no 
religious or moral objection to the practice to 
have their children, especially their daughters, in- 
structed in dancing. No provision has anywhere 
been made for it in any public-school system ; 
but, in private schools and boarding-schools, it 
is quite common to find that the prospectus in- 
cludes dancing among the f.rtras in which in- 
struction may be received. This is less frequently 



'J02 



DANA 



DARTMOUTH COLLEGE 



the case in Protestant than in Catholic semi- 
naries, and in American than in European 
schools. The large majority of pupils, however, 
who are instructed in dancing, receive their in- 
struction in special dancing schools or academies, 
the number of which is immense. It is a matter 
of course that, as a general rule, this latter class 
of schools cannot offer so good a supervision of 
its pupils as the former. See Czekwinski, Ge- 
schicme der. Tanzkwnst (Leipsic, 1862). 

DANA, James D wight, an eminent Amer- 
ican scientist, teacher, and author, born at Utica, 
N. Y., in 1813. He was educated at Yale Col- 
lege, where he afterward served as an assistant 
to Professor Silliman, and subsequently (1855) 
succeeded him as professor of chemistry. He 
published several works of importance in the de- 
partments of natural history, geology, and min- 
eralogy. His school text-books have been ex- 
tensively used ; among which may be particular- 
ly mentioned his System of Mineralogy, 5th ed. 
(1858), and Manual of Geology (1863). Since 
1846, he has been one of the editors of the 
American Journal of Science and Arts, founded 
in 1819, by the elder Silliman. 

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, at Hanover, 
New Hampshire, was chartered in 1769. The 
first class graduated in 1771. It originated in a 
school for Indian youth established at Lebanon, 
Connecticut, by the Rev. Dr. Wheeloek, the first 
president, and was named after Lord Dartmouth, 
who subscribed to a fund for the school. The 
college is not by its charter under the control of 
any religious denomination, but a large majority 
of the trustees have usually been Orthodox Con- 
gregationalists. The buildings front on a fine 
campus on an upland plain near the Connecticut 
river. The institution has extensive philosophical 
apparatus ; and an astronomical and meteorolog- 
ical observatory, with a telescope, made by Clark, 
of 9.4 inches aperture and 12 feet focal length ; 
■a museum of geology and natural history ; a 
chemical laboratory ; and a gymnasium. The 
libraries contain 53,900 volumes. It is supported 
by tuition fees and the income of its endow- 
ments, which, in all the departments, amount to 
about $525,000. The college comprises an aca- 
demic department, the Chandler scientific de- 
partment, the New Hampshire college of Agri- 
culture and the Mechanic Arts, the Thayer 
school of Civil Engineering, and a medical de- 
partment. Funds have recently been given to 
establish a law department. While the college 
adheres, in general, to the idea of a settled and 
well-balanced curriculum, it admits, to a certain 
extent, the elective principle. (1) There is a 
choice, as students enter, between the three un- 
der-graduate departments, — academic, scien- 
tific, and agricultural. (2) In each of these 
departments, a partial course may be taken, em- 
bracing two, at least, of the prescribed studies, 
and securing an appropriate testimonial. (3) In 
the scientific department, there is a choice in the 
last year, and in the agricultural department in 
the last two years, between different courses. 
(4) There are, also, a number of options between 



particular studies. The course in the academic 
department is one of four years, and leads to the 
degree of Bachelor of Arts. The cost of tuition 
is $90 a year. Aid is afforded to indigent stu- 
dents chiefly in the form of scholarships, usually 
yielding $70 per annum, but in some cases $100. 
Of these there are (1876) more than 120. 77ie 
Chandler Scientific Department was established 
by a resolution of the trustees, in 1852, in accep- 
tance of the sum of $50,000, bequeathed to them 
in trust by Abiel Chandler for the establishment 
and support of a permanent department or school 
of instruction in the practical and useful arts of 
life, comprised chiefly in the branches of mechan- 
ics and civil engineering, architecture and draw- 
ing, the modern languages and English literature, 
together with book-keeping, &c. The course is 
of four years, and leads to the degree of Bache- 
lor of Science. In the last year, there are two 
courses, — the general course and the civil en- 
gineering course. The cost of tuition is $60 a 
year. At the session of the legislature of New 
Hampshire in 1866, an act was passed establish- 
ing the New Hampshire College of Agriculture 
and the Mechanic Arts, on the basis of the con- 
gressional land grant, and authorizing its location 
at Hanover, and its connection with Dartmouth 
College. 

The course of instruction embraces three 
years. During the first year, all the students 
pursue the same studies. At the beginning of 
the second year, they are required to select either 
the special course of agriculture or the course of 
mechanic arts. The degree of Bachelor of Sci- 
ence is conferred upon those who have completed 
the entire course of agriculture or mechanic arts 
and have passed the final examination. The cost 
of tuition is $30 a year. There are twelve free 
scholarships, covering the charge for tuition, 
one for each senatorial district, established in 
connection with the congressional grant. Several 
scholarships have also been established by the 
Hon. John Conant, one for each town in Cheshire 
County. There are other scholarships available to 
worthy applicants from any part of the state. 
There is an experimental farm of 165 acres in 
the immediate vicinity of the college buildings, 
which furnishes opportunity to the students for 
remunerative labor. The college has also re- 
cently purchased 200 acres of woodland adjoin- 
ing the farm. The Thayer School of Civil En- 
gineering was established in 1870, in pursuance 
of a donation of $70,000 from the late Oen. Syl- 
vanus Thayer, for the establishment of a special 
course of instruction in civil engineering. It is 
essentially, though not formally, post-graduate. 
The course of study is of two years. The degree 
of Civil Engineer is conferred on those whose pro- 
ficiency is such as to secure a recommendation 
from the board of overseers. The cost of tuition 
is $60 a year. The medical department was 
founded in 1797, and was formerly known as the 
New Hampshire Medical College. It has mu- 
seums of anatomy, materia medica, and pathol- 
ogy. The degree of Doctor of Medicine is con- 
ferred after examination. Every candidate must 



DAVIDSON COLLEGE 



DEAF-MUTES 



203 



be twenty-one years of age. have attended two 
full courses of lectures at some regularly author- 
ized medical school, one of which must have 
been at this institution, aud must give satisfac- 
tory evidence that he has devoted three full 
years to his professional studies, under the direc- 
tion of some regular practitioner, the time spent 
at lectures being included. There is a lecture 
term as well as a recitation term. The fee for 
lectures is $77, and for recitations $40. The 
statistics for 1875 — 6 are as follows : 



Departments. 

Academic 

Scientific 

Agricultural 

Engineering 

Medical 



Number of Number of 

instructors. students 

17 2S4 

17 70 

14 2!) 

3 6 

9 84 

47!) 



Total (deducting repetitions) 35 

According to the triennial catalogue of 1873, 
the whole number of alumni was 3,1)07. of whom 
2,077 were bving. The following is the list of 
presidents : Eleazar Wheelock, D. 1).. 1769 — 79; 
John Wheelock, LL. D., 1779—1815; Francis 
Brown, D.D., 1815—20; Daniel Dana, D. D., 
1820—21; Bennet Tyler, D. D., 1822— 28 ; Na- 
than Lord, D.D., LL. D., 1828—03; and Asa 
D. Smith, D. D., LL. D., the present incumbent, 
appointed in 1863. 

In 1H1G, the state legislature vested the prop- 
erty of the college in a new corporation, and 
changed its title to Dartmouth University. This 
act led to the famous I Dartmouth College case, 
in which Daniel Webster made his celebrated 
argument before the Supreme Court of the 
United States. That tribunal, in 1819, declared 
the action of the legislature void, as being in 
contravention of that clause of the constitution 
which prohibits any state from passing laws im- 
pairing the obligation of contracts. 

DAVIDSON COLLEGE is situated in 
Mecklenburg Co., N. O, on the line of the 
Atlantic, Tennessee, and Ohio Railroad, twenty- 
three miles north of Charlotte. The name 
of the post-office is Davidson College. It was 
chartered in 1K38, and is under the control 
of the Presbyterians. Its buildings contain spa- 
cious chapels, society-halls, and lecture-rooms, to- 
gether with pleasant dormitories sufficient for a 
large number of students. Its libraries, cabinets, 
and apparatus are well provided for, and arc 
constantly receiving accessions, The site of the 
college and of the adjacent village is remarkably 
healthy, being free from malaria and other local 
causes of sickness. The value of its grounds, 
buildings, and apparatus is §150,00(1 : the amount 
of its productive funds, $85,000; of scholarship 
funds, 810,000. The college year is divided into 
two terms, and the cost of tuition is $30 for the 
first term, and $40 for the second. ( 'andidates for 
the ministry are not required to pay for tuition 
while under the care of some Presbytery. The 
college has a classical course of four years, lead- 
ing to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a 
-scientific course of three years, leading to the de- 
gree of Bachelor of Science. Students not wish- 



ing to take a regular course, but to acquire a 
knowledge of particular branches are permitted 
to do so at the discretion of the faculty. In 
1873 — 4, there were six professors, one adjunct 
professor, 117 students (classical. 98 : scientific, 
15; eclectic, 4), 9,000 volumes in the libraries, 
and 351 alumni. The presidents have been 
as follows: the Rev. R. H. Morrison, D. D., 
4 years; the Rev. Saml. Williamson, 1>. D.. 13 
years ; the Rev. Drury Lacy, D. D., 6 years ; the 
Rev. J. L. Kirkpatrick, D. D., G years ; the Rev. 
( i. W. McPhail, D. D., LL. I)., 5 years. There 
is now (187G) no president, Prof. John R. Blake, 
M. A., having been chairman of the faculty 
since 1871. 

DAVIES, Charles, a noted American 
mathematician and teacher, born at Washing- 
ton, Ct:, in 1798 ; died at Fishkill, N. Y., in 
187G. He graduated, in 1815, at the West Point 
Academy, and subsequently filled, in the same, 
the positions of tutor, assistant professor, and 
professor of mathematics, the latter from 1823 
to 1837. He afterward occupied a similar position 
in Trinity College, Hartford, and subsequently 
in the University of the city of New York, and 
in Columbia College, of the latter of which he 
was made emeritus professor. Prof. Davies is 
chiefly known by his series of school and 
college text-books in the various departments 
of mathematical study, which have had a 
wide circulation. He has also published, 
Logic of Mathematics, and, in connection 
with Prof. G. W. Peck, a Mathematical Dic- 
tionary and Cyclopaedia of Mathematical Sci- 
ence (X. Y., L855). 

DAY, Jeremiah, a noted American edu- 
cator and author, and the president of Vale Col- 
lege from 1817 to 1846. lie was born in New 
Preston. ( 't.. Aug. 3., 1873, and died in New 
Haven Aug. 22.. 1867. His chief publications 
Were An Introduction to Algebra (1814), Men- 
suration of Superficies and Solids (1*14). Plmif 
Trigonometry (1815), and Navigation and Sur- 
veying (1817); also An Inquiry on the Self-De- 
termining Power nf the Will, or Contingent 
Volition (1838), and An Examination of Presi- 
dent Edwards's Inquiry as to ike Freedom of 
the Will (1841). President Day was a close and 
j vigorous thinker, and as a teacher was distin- 
J guished for the clearness and simplicity of his 
methods of illustration. His kindness of heart 
\ and urbanity of demeanor secured the respect of 
all who knew him, both friends and pupils. An 
address commemorative of his life and services, 
was delivered in 1867. by president Woolsey, his 
\ successor in Vale College. 

DEAF-MUTES, or Deaf and Dumb, a 
j class of persons, scattered throughout every na- 
tion in a greater or less proportion, who cannot 
hear the sound of the human voice, and, conse- 
quently, lose that sympathetic association which 
exists between the organs of hearing and speech, 
so that the latter are rendered inactive. The 
decennial enumerations of the United States and 
Great Britain, and the censuses of most of the 
countries of continental Europe, have supplied 



204 



DEAF-MUTES 



statistical information as to the number of deaf- 
mutes. The proportion to the population is 
quite diverse, varying in Europe from 1 in 1,000 
to 1 in 2,000. In the United States, the average 
proportion is 1 in 2380; while in England it is 
about 1 in 2,000. Hence, it is obvious that the 
actual number of the deaf and dumb is quite 
large. According to the census of 1870, the total 
number in the United States was 10,205, of 
whom 8,916 were males; and 7,289, females. The 
number between the ages of 5 and 20 was re- 
ported as 7,648. In many cases, they are deaf 
from birth; in others, the loss of hearing is 
caused by accident or disease at an early age. or 
in some cases, later in life ; but deafness is 
almost always followed by a loss of speech, from 
disuse of the organs and a want of ability to 
modulate the voice. In the first few months of 
life, little difference can be perceived between the 
child who has its hearing perfect, and the one 
born deaf. The effect of sound is not often 
thought of by the parents and friends, in some 
instances, till the child is two years of age ; and, 
even when deafness is suspected, the means em- 
ployed to ascertain the fact are often such as to 
confound the nervous condition of the whole body 
with that of the portion solely connected with 
the ear. In former times, the little one was con- 
sidered as a doomed being, and sorrow took the 
place of joy in the breast of the parents. Among 
some nations, deaf persons were regarded as be- 
ing under the curse of Heaven. Among some 
barbarous nations, they were called monsters, and 
put to death when three years old, or as soon 
as their deafness was satisfactorily ascertained. 
They were considered by the Romans and some 
contemporary nations, if not as positive idiots, yet 
as deficient in intellect, and, consequently, were 
abridged of their civil rights ; as we find in 
the code of Justinian. Condillac, at a compara- 
tively recent period, denied them the faculty of 
memory and the power of reasoning. Many 
parents, even at the present time, consider them- 
selves disgraced by having a deaf and dumb 
child, and studiously conceal the fact from the 
world. Such children have been, in almost 
every age, regarded as beings between man 
and the brute creation with respect to mental 
capacity and endowment ; but, if we reflect but 
a moment, we shall find that the result of being 
deaf and dumb, is to be ignorant, not to be weak, 
— ignorant of science, ignorant of history, of 
morality, and, above all, ignorant of religion, 
and thus virtually "without God in the world." 
The limited circle of purely intellectual ideas 
which these unfortunates possess, is a natural 
consequence of their limited intercourse with 
those around them. They are shut out from 
communion with the world in things which in- 
terest others, from a knowledge of literature and 
history, and, in many cases, from all means of 
amusement. In some cases, it has happened 
that they have become idiots, consequent upon 
the non-employment of the natural powers of 
the mind. In other cases, they have become de- 
ranged by the indulgence of headstrong, impet- 



uous passion, in the absence of a control of judg- 
ment ; by fretful impatience at the dim percep- 
tion of unknown or unattainable excellence seen 
in others ; by a total unfitness for nearly all the 
occupations of their fellow beings ; by an entire 
exclusion from the vast stores of knowledge dis- 
played to their view in books ; or by an igno- 
rance of the truths of religion. All these causes 
operating upon a sensitive nature, may easily un- 
settle the reason. 

Such was, and is. the sad condition of the un- 
educated deaf and dumb, and by many it was- 
asserted to be irremediable. St. Augustine de- 
clared it was beyond the resources of art, and 
even the limits of possibility, to instruct the- 
deaf and dumb; and. in proof of it, he quoted, 
Romans, x, 17, "Faith cometh by hearing, and 
hearing by the. word of God." The poet Lucre- 
tius exja-essed in the following lines the opinion 
prevalent in his time : 

To instruct the deaf, no art can reach; 

No care improve them, and no wisdom teach. 

Pliny, however, mentions that Quintus Pedius. 
a relative of Augustus, though a congenital deaf- 
mute, became a distinguished artist. 

But a brighter prospect at last dawned upon 
these unfortunates. Research, observation, and 
philanthropy have overturned the opinions held 
by the ancients. Deaf-mutes are now acknowl- 
edged to possess intellectual faculties in common 
with other persons ; and, although deprived of 
the sense of hearing and the faculty of speech, 
they are found to be capable of attention, of re- 
flection, of memory, of imagination, and of judg- 
ment, as well as of the ability to communicate 
their thoughts, their desires, and their wants, to 
their more favored fellows. 

According to the Venerable Bede, St. John of 
Beverley, bishop of Hagulstadt, taught a dumb 
man to speak. Bede also described a manual 
alphabet in his Be Logneln per Geslirm Digi- 
torum. This book was first printed in 1532, and 
its plates showing the finger alphabet are prob- 
ably the earliest illustrations of dactylology in 
existence. Efforts were made in the early part of 
the 1 6th century, to impart instruction to the deaf 
and dumb, but to only a limited number. The 
first systematic attempt to educate deaf-mutes 
was that of Pedro Ponce de Leon, at Ona, in 
Spain, about 1550, who taught two or three to 
read, write, and articulate. Later, Juan Pablo 
Bonet, also in Spain, taught a few, and published, 
in 1620, a treatise on the subject, with a manual 
alphabet, the same which is now used in Europe 
and America. (See Bonet.) Some learned men 
in Italy also taught single persons; as Cardan, 
who instructed the prince of Oarignan, and 
Pietro di Castro, who instructed the Prince of 
Savoy. A number of works on the instruction 
of the deaf and dumb were published in Spain, 
Italy, and Holland, before 1650. In 1653, Dr. 
John Wallis instructed two deaf-mutes, and was 
the first practical instructor of the deaf and 
dumb in England. In 1667, Van Helmont, a 
native of Holland, published a tract, entitled 
Alpluxbetum Naturae, in winch he explained the 



DEAF-MUTES 



205 



process of reading from the lips. The two-hand 
alphabet, now used in England, was invented 
by Dalgarno, in 1680. (See Dalgarno.) In 
174!), Rodriguez Pereira exhibited some pupils 
before the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, who 
could read and converse audibly; but he kept his 
method secret, and it perished with him. In 
1754, Samuel lleinicke taught one pupil suc- 
cessfully ; and, in 1 774, lie opined a school at 
Leipsic, which was the first of the kind establish© 1 
by any civil government. This school still exists, 
and its success in teaching articulation led to the 
adoption of that system in most of the German in- 
stitutions. In 1 755, the abbe 1 le l'fipee, I hrough a 
fortuitous circumstance, commenced his labors 
among the indigent deaf and dumb, in France, 
and founded a school in Paris, which, after a few 
years, became the Royal Institution of France. 
He used the natural language of signs as the in- 
strument of instruction. He was succeeded by 



the abbe Sicard, one of whose pupils. Laurent 
I !lerc, accompanied Rev. Thomas 11. Gallaudet to 

the United States, and aided him in establishing 
the American Asylum at Hartford. Ct.. under 
the patronage of the New England states; 
and from that, institutions have sprung up in 
many of the United States. From these insti- 
tutions, many deaf-mutes have gone forth into 
the world, and have become eminent in various 
walks of life. In our own country, we may 
name Le Clerc, as a teacher: Levi S. Backus, 
as an editor; U. W. Loring and W. Whiton, as 
teacher's and writers; J. Xack, as a poet; E. J. 
Maun, J. K. Burnet, and A. Newsam, as writers ; 
J. Carlin, as an artist; Alice Cogswell, as a 
writer ; and .Mary T. Feet, as a poetess. 

The following table gives the name, location, etc. 
of all the institutions in the United States for the 
teaching of deaf-mutes, according to the Report 
of the I'. S. Commissioner of Educationfor ly74. 



Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb in the United States. 



NAME 



American Asylum 

New York Institution 

Pennsylvania Institution 

Kentucky Institution 

Ohio Institution 

Illinois Institution 

Virginia institution 

Indiana Institution 

Tennessee School 

North Carolina Institution 

Georgia Institution 

South Carolina Institution 

Missouri Asylum 

Michigan Institution 

Wisconsin Institution 

.St. Mary's Institution 

Louisiana Institution 

towa Institution 

Mississippi Institution 

Texas Institution 

Columbia Institution 

Alabama Institution 

California Institution 

St. Bridget's Institution 

Minnesota Institution 

National Deaf-Mute College 

Kansas Asylum 

Inst, for Improved Instruction 

Clarke Institution 

Maryland Institution 

Arkansas Institution 

Nebraska Institution 

Pittsburgh Day School 

Boston Day School 

Whipple's Home School 

St. Joseph's Inst, for Mutes, 

West Virginia Institution 

Oregon Institution 

Inst, for Colored Blind & Deaf-Mutes.. 

School of Articulation 

Colorado Institute 



LOCATION 



Hartford, Ct 

New York City 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Danville, Ky 

Columbus, 

Jacksonville, 111 

St;ill!ltnu, Ya 

Indianapolis, Iud 

Knoxville, Tenn 

Raleigh, N. C 

Cave Spring, Ga 

Cedar Springs, S. C. . 

Fulton, Mo 

Flint, Mich 

Delavan, Wise 

Buffalo, N. Y 

Baton Rouge, La 

Council Bluffs, Iowa.. . . 

Jackson, Miss 

Austin, Tex 

Washington, D. C 

Talladega, Ala 

Oakland, Cal 

St. Louis, Mo 

Fairbault, Minn 

Washington, D. C 

Olathe, Kan 

New York City 

Northampton, Mass. . . . 

Frederick, Md 

Little Rock, Ark 

Omaha, Neb 

Pittsburgh, Pa 

Boston, Mass 

Mystic River, Ct 

Fordham, N. Y 

Romney, W. Va 

Salem, Oreg 

Baltimore, Md 

Aurora, N. Y 

Colorado Springs, Col. 



e 



181 

181 

1821 

1823 

182' 

1>:: 

l-.l:i 

ls44 

1844 

1st. 

Is). 

1849 

1851 

1851 

\<>2 

is;, I 

1 865 

18.-i.= 

1851 

1856 

is;, 

I860 

I860 

1860 

1862 

1864 

1866 

186' 

186 

186' 

1868 

181 

1869 

1 

1869 

1869 

Into 

1870 

1872 

1871 

1874 



CONTROL £- 
I SB i 



Directors. . . . 
( lorporation . , 

Directors 

State 

State 

State 

State 

State 

Trustees 

State 

Trustees 

State 

Slate 

Trustees 

Trustees 

Trustees 

Trustees 

State 

Trustees 

Trustees 

National 

State 

State 

R. Cath 

State 

National 

Trustees 

Association.. . 

Private 

State 

Directors 
State 

Municipal 
School Board. 

Private 

Private 

Regents 

State 

Trustees 

Private 

State 



27 
684 
271 
lo:; 
468 
430 
nt; 

334 
136 
138 

52 

•Jot 

19 

176 
so 
51 

157 
51 
44 

113 
(is 
66 

lot 

80 
•12 
70 
104 
84 
:w, 
43 
65 
12 
40 
52 
30 
12 
6 
12 



C ai-r; 

"SE. 



|ol. (inn 
50,000 
17,000 

si, oon 
72,000 

40. 

70,000 

28,000 

40,000 
14,500 

33,000 
62,000 
35,000 
8,500 
22,000 
31,000 
15,000 

10,00(1 

88,000 
18,000 

36,000 

26,000 
16,500 



30.000 

33,000 

16,000 

2,000 

6,000 

525 

25,000 

10,000 

5,000 



° a so 
J = = 

.3 



250,000 
543,000 
325,000 
126,000 
800,000 

S40, 

160,000 
685,000 
150,000 

ell. Illlll 

40,000 

1.50,000 
375,000 
110.000 

40,000 
200,000 
170,000 

50,000 

50,000 
500,000 

75,000 
300,000 

12.5,000 

33,000 



175,000 
5e,000 
18,000 
45,000 



35,000 
00,000 

20,000 

17,000 

7,000 



* $175 per pupil from the New England States. 



206 



DEAF-MUTES 



DEBATING 



The first institution for the education of deaf- 
mutes in the United States was opened, as stated 
before, in Hartford, Ot.. April 15., 1817, under 
the auspices of the Rev. Th. H. Gallaudet. (See 
Gallaudet.) Associated with him was Laurent 
Clerc.one of the most talented of Sicard's pupils, 
who had accompanied Mr. Gallaudet on lus 
return to the United States after a visit to 
Europe, which he had made to acquire a knowl- 
edge of the methods of deaf mute instruction. 
At first, the Connecticut institution had only 
7 pupils, but accessions during the year made 
the number 33. Congress, soon afterward, do- 
nated to it a township of wild land, the proceeds 
of which now form a fund of $339,000. This 
gift led to its assuming the name of American 
Asylum. The New York Asylum was opened 
in 1818. The fundamental principles on which 
nearly all the American institutions are con- 
ducted, are those first introduced by De L'Epee, 
modified as shown to be necessary in order to 
facilitate the acquirement of language and an ad- 
vancement in knowledge. There are now about 
250 schools for deaf-mutes in the world. In 1850, 
there were 227 in Europe, and 23 in America. 
The greater number in Europe teach articulation 
alone ; while, in America, more dependence is 
placed upon acquiring the ability to use written 
language. The first regular school for deaf-mutes 
in Great Britain was that established near Edin- 
burgh by Thomas Braidwood, and from this 
have descended the present public institutions 
for deaf-mute instruction in Great Britain. (See 
I-iitAiDwooD, and Peet, H. P.) 

Systems of Instruction. — Two methods or 
systems of teaching are in use (with some modi- 
fications) in nearly all the institutions in the 
world. One is that of articulation and lip- 
reading (sometimes called the German method, 
because used in most of the German schools), 
the other that of writing, or the sign lan- 
guage. Both have their special advocates ; and 
each it is claimed, possesses superior facilities for 
educating the deaf and dumb. In teaching ar- 
ticulation, the pupil is placed before the teacher, 
who begins with the vowels, and requires the 
pupil to watch the motions he makes with his 
mouth, lips, and throat ; he places the pupil's 
hand upon his own throat, so as to feel the dif- 
ferent movements, and then imitate them him- 
self. When he has succeeded in some degree, 
the consonants are introduced and practiced for 
a longer or shorter time, according to the ability 
or aptitude of the pupil. Simple words are then 
introduced, and their meaning illustrated by 
pointing out the object, action, etc.; and as prog- 
ress is made in this, qualities and actions are 
introduced. This course must be continued, and 
the lessons repeated, till the pupil can read the 
lips of the teacher, and communicate his own 
thoughts, in questions and answers. Reading 
must then be taught ; and the knowledge of lan- 
guage already acquired aids the pupil in under- 
standing what he reads. It will be apparent 
that this is a work requiring much time and 
patience on the part of the teacher as well as of 



the pupil, merely to acquire the meaning of the 
words and their proper pronunciation. Most of 
the Institutions in the United States give more 
or less instruction in articulation, generally in 
special departments. The Clarke Institution, the 
Boston Day School, the N. Y. Institution for 
Improved Instruction, and Whipple's Home 
School make articulation a specialty. This mode 
of teaching is especially adapted to the condition 
of semi-mutes, who still retain some remnant of 
the ability to use spoken language. Experience 
has shown that children deprived of the sense 
of hearing can learn by means of sight and feel- 
ing, to distinguish the various elements of speech, 
to read them from the speaker's lips, and to 
imitate them in articulation. 

The other method, writing and sign-making, is 
substantially taught in the following manner : 
An object is shown to the pupil, as for example, 
a cat. and the natural sign made for it, an out- 
line is then drawn on the slate, and c-a-t is writ- 
ten in the outline ; the same sign is applied to 
the name as was applied to the object and the 
outline ; and the pupil thus learns the word. 
The object is removed and the outline rubbed 
out; the same sign is used for the word alone, 
and the pupil soon associates it with the object. 
Other objects are presented, and the same proc- 
ess repeated. The color of the cat is then taught; 
as, if black, that is joined to the name, and black 
cat is learned ; then action is represented, as 
black cat eats ; and then the object follows, black 
cat eats meat. The phrases are lengthened as 
the pupil proceeds, and short stories are related 
by signs, and written down by the pupil, the 
proper distinctions being made at the time, so 
that the pupil, in a short time, is enabled to use 
language properly. An important feature of 
this method is, that the pupil begins at once to 
learn words which convey meaning, without the 
slow process of learning the alphabet, the single 
letters of which convey no ideas ; and in this 
manner the mind is quickened, and incited to 
redoubled activity by the knowledge gained. As 
this proceeds, the pupil becomes familiar with 
the printed as well as the written characters, and 
soon understands short simple phrases; and then 
only a few months are required to enable the 
pupil to understand clearly what is related to 
him. — See John Waixis, Letter to Thomas 
Beverley in the Philosophical Transactions 
(Oct., 1698); Joseph Watson, Instruction of the 
Deaf and Dumb (London, 1809); De 1'Efee, 
La veritable maniere etc. (Paris, 1784), English 
translation (London, 1801) ; American Annals 
of the Deaf and Dumb ; Syle, A Summary 
of the Researches etc. of H. P. Peet (Wash., 
1873); Report of the Institution for the Improved 
Instruction of Deaf-Mutes (N. Y., 1874); in the 
Appendix to which will be found a statement 
of the method of teaching- articulation and lip- 
reading; Annual Reports of the U. S. Commis- 
sioner of Education for 1 871, -2, -3, -4. 

DEBATING is often employed as an ex- 
ercise in schools for young men (and sometimes 
in those for the other sex), in order to afford a 



DECIMAL NOTATION 



DEFINITIONS 



20 T 



means for practice in extemporaneous speaking, 
and an incentive to the study and investigation 
of subjects of scholastic or genera) interest. 
When so used, it should be carefully regulated, 
both as to the questions selected for discussion and 
the manner in which the debates are conducted. 
The usual rules of debate should be strictly en- 
forced, and the participants confined to the ex- 
act subject considered, and required to use lan- 
guage of undoubted propriety. The rules of 
parliamentary debate may be made a subject of 
formal study auxiliary to the practice of debat- 
ing, and, in this way. the students partly pre- 
pared for public, life. The ib'haliinj societies con- 
nected with colleges have usually been considered 
a veiy important source of practical culture; 
"They are." says McKlligott. "capable of splendid 
service in the course of education; and not only 
splendid, but peculiar; a service, in fact, for 
which it is impossible to find any sufficient sub- 
stitute. Their appropriate sphere, morever, 
seems to be in connection with collegiate institu- 
tions. There, at all events, we have a right to 
expect from them the best possible results; for 
there they may have the benefit of wise and 
constant supervision." — See McKi.uGorr, The 
American Debater (N. Y., 1855); and Debating, 
a Means of Educational Discipline, in Bar- 
nard's Journal of Education, vol. III. 

DECIMAL NOTATION, the ordinary 
method of expressing numbers on a scale of ten, 
ten units of any order being equal to one unit 
of the next higher order. The first lessons in 
arithmetic should give the pupil a clear idea 
of the principle of this notation. This can be 
done by means of the numeral frame (q.v.). 

DECLAMATION, or the formal delivery 
of set speeches or of memorized pieces of ora- 
tory, is a school exercise of considerable im- 
portance, when conducted in a proper manner 
and with a due regard to its special uses and 
limitations. The objects chiefly to be gained by 
exercises of this kind are the following : (1) The 
training and culture of the voice ; (2) Practice 
in elocution ; (3) The habit of speaking in pub- 
lic with confidence, ease, and grace ; (4) The 
cultivation of a taste for public speaking; (5) An 
improvement of the pupils' style of composition. 
In the education of boys and young men partic- 
ularly, these are all points of great importance, 
inasmuch as the ability to speak effectively in 
public is of great value in all civilized commu- 
nities. The practice of declamation may, how- 
ever, be carried too far, and may thus engender 
an artificial style, and a taste for mere verbal 
and elocutionary display, without sufficient re- 
gard to the sentiment expressed or to the occasion 
of their utterance. Indeed, it has been held by 
some that those who have excelled as declaimers 
in school, have rarely become effective speakers 
in after life ; but, if this is the case, it has re- 
sulted rather from the abuse of the exercise than 
from its legitimate use. There can be no doubt 
that long practice in declaiming exclusively 
memorized pieces may produce a habit that is 
calculated to interfere with the acquisition of 



the power of extemporaneous speaking ; and, 
consequently, in the advanced stages of instruc- 
tion there is need of resorting to exercises in off- 
hand speaking in order to correct this tendency. 
In declamation, as in composition, the young and 
uncultured mind is prone to extravagance, par- 
ticularly in the use of ornament. Those forms 
of expression and modes of delivery that are ap- 
propriated to the higher regions of thought and 
emotion are very apt to be brought in on occasions 
when their inaptness makes them ridiculous. As 
in composition, the pupil should be trained to 
express his thoughts in the simplest and most 
direct manner ; so in declamation, he should be 
kept from the higher flights, except in special 
subjects, and be trained to moderation ami self- 
restraint both in voice and action. 

The following points should be carefully at- 
tended to in giving elementary instruction in 
declamation: (1) The piece to be declaimed 
should be well studied, not only in its language, 
but in regard to the thoughts, emotions, reason- 
ing, etc. which it may involve, and the circum- 
stances under which it was originally spoken, as 
well as the character of the speaker; (2) Minute 
rudimentary criticism should be rendered unnec- 
essary by sufficient preliminary training in 
enunciation and other departments of elocution, 
as well as in the use of gesticulation ; (.'!) The 
various kinds of gestures having been taught, the 
pupil should be allowed great freedom in respect 
to their use : (4) The spirit, and not simply the 
form, should be the object aimed at in the in- 
struction : and no piece should lie assigned to a 
pupil to speak which is beyond his capacity to 
understand and appreciate. The pupils of the 
common schools are generally not sufficiently ad- 
vanced to receive theoretical instruction in rhe- 
torical delivery ; but this should find a place in 
the course of instruction of colleges, academies, 
and schools of a higher grade in general. Even 
the pupils of elementary schools, however, may 
be benefited by appropriate exercises in recita- 
tion and declamation : thus, the speaking of 
easy and interesting dialogues by two or more 
children will be found one of the best methods 
to impart to young pupils a practical knowledge 
of the elementary rules of declamation, besides 
cultivating a natural style of speaking. 

DEFINITIONS, a branch of elementary 
education, generally used to designate instruction 
in the meaning of words. The operations of a 
child's mind naturally lead to a knowledge of 
words as representatives of ideas ; and. at quite 
an early age. a child acquires a very extensive 
vocabulary of terms and the ability to apply 
them properly, since they are learned not by 
formal statement or definition, but by hearing 
them used, and by subsequent practice in using 
them in connection with the actual objects or 
conceptions which they represent. In this way, 
the words which young children learn make but 
little impression upon their minds as words; but 
they are so intimately associated with the objects, 
actions, and qualities which they represent, that 
they convey to the mind the same ideas as the 



208 



DEFINITIONS 



DEGREES 



objects, act-ions, etc. themselves. The school ex- 
ercises or lessons designed to increase the child's 
vocabulary, or to teach the meaning of words 
found in books, often disregard this natural 
method of acquisition, and attempt to teach the 
meaning of individual words by means of their 
approximate synonyms, without any regard to 
their application, or use in phrases and sentences. 
Without an embodiment of words in actual 
speech, the recitation of formal definitions is of 
no use. After sufficient illustration of this kind, 
the pupil should be required to tell, in his own 
language, the meaning of the word in question, 
which the teacher can then correct. No exercise 
in synonyms is of any value, but on the con- 
trary, rather injurious, until the meaning of 
words has been thus explained. In oral lessons 
in definitions to classes, one pupil may be re- 
quired to use the given word in a phrase or sen- 
tence, another to explain its meaning, and an- 
other to give a brief definition by a synonymous 
phrase or word. Very simple words, the meaning 
of which is already known to the child, should 
not be given for formal definition; since properly 
to define such words, requires a nice discrimina- 
tion in the use of language, and a minuteness of 
analysis beyond the capacity of a young child. 
A full exercise of this kind should comprise the 
following: (1) To pronounce it ; (2) To use it in 
the construction of a phrase or a sentence; (3) To 
define it ; (4) To write a sentence illustrating its 
meaning and use. [A written exercise for the 
whole class, each pupil writing a different sen- 
tence.] Instruction in the derivation of words 
and the meaning of the common prefixes and 
suffixes should be commenced at an early stage. 
(See Etymology.)' 

Every subject of instruction has its definitions, 
or precise statements of elementary truths, con- 
stituting the basis of the science ; and it is an 
important consideration as to the proper time 
and method of teaching them. The teacher is 
very apt to err in requiring them to be com- 
mitted to memory before the mind has been suf- 
ficiently impressed with the elementary ideas 
which they involve. In How to Teach (N. Y., 
1873), we find this quite fully and emphatically 
expressed : " One of the most serious abuses to 
which the employment of elementary text-books 
is liable, is the practice of requiring the pupil to 
commit to memory, verbatim, all the definitions 
of a subject before teaching the subject itself, so 
as to enable the pupils to understand the nature 
of the things defined. It is, of course, most 
logical in the scientific treatment of a subject to 
place the definitions first, and the reasoning based 
upon them afterward ; but this is not the order 
of investigation. The definitions are the results 
of an induction based upon the facts obtained 
by observation ; they are generalizations of those 
facts, and are unintelligible to those entirely un- 
acquainted with the facts themselves. Thus the 
order of investigation is inductive; the treatment 
is deductive, and in elementary teaching the 
method should conform rather to the former 
than to the latter. Give the pupil accurate and 



vivid conceptions of the facts, encourage him to 
observe the phenomena — to collect an experience 
of his own ; tell him, or let him learn from the 
book, what has been discovered by the experience 
of others ; and when the facts thus obtained 
form a sufficient groundwork, lead his mind to 
the proper induction, after which the definition, 
principle, or rule, based upon it, comes naturally, 
and will be thoroughly understood, The defini- 
tions thus taught should be brief and accurate in 
language, and, as a general thing, should be com- 
mitted to memory verbatim; for great skill is 
required to construct a good definition, and it is 
of the greatest value to the scholar and thinker 
to have his mind well stored with these land- 
marks and guide-posts of knowledge." The 
distinction between the description and the de- 
finition of a thing should be kept in view by the 
teacher. The former may include a statement 
of all the qualities and properties of the object 
described ; the latter should include what, being 
peculiar to the object, distinguishes ij from all 
other objects of the same kind. , At first, chil- 
dren should be taught rather by descriptions 
than definitions ; for the latter, while forming 
necessary standards of judgment for the mind, 
generally do not give, of themselves, complete 
ideas of the things defined. 

DEGERANDO. See Gerando. 

DEGREES are titles of rank conferred upon 
students in colleges and universities, as evidence 
of their proficiency in the arts and sciences, 
or upon learned men as a testimony of their 
literary merits. At first, the terms master 
and doctor were appbed indifferently to any 
person engaged in teaching in the university. In. 
process of time, the term master was restricted 
to teachers of the liberal arts, and the term 
doctor to divinity, law, and medicine. When 
regulations were established to prevent unquali- 
fied persons from teaching, and an initiatory 
stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms 
became significant of a certain rank, and of the 
possession of certain powers, and were called 
gradus, — steps or degrees. The passing of the 
initiatory stage, said to have been first instituted 
by Pope Gregory IX. (1227 — 1241), conferred 
in any of the four faculties the title of bachelor 
(baccalaureus), and an additional course of dis- 
cipline and examination was necessary in order 
to obtain that of master or doctor. A degree 
intermediate between bachelor and doctor was 
that of licentiate. This is no longer in use in 
England, except in Cambridge, as a degree of 
medicine. In Germany the degree of Licenliat 
now exists only in the theological faculty. The 
title of Master of Arts originally implied the 
right, and even the duty, of publicly teaching- 
some of the branches included in the faculty 
of arts ; but this custom has now fallen into 
general disuse. The title of doctor seems to 
have been conferred, for the first time, in the 
12th century, at the university of Bologna; and 
the ceremonial of investiture was drawn up 
by the learned Irnerius. The university of 
Paris almost immediately followed in the foot 



DEGREES 



209 



steps of Bologna, the first reception of doctors 
having taken place in the year 1145, in favor 
of Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Porree, 
the greatest theologians of the day. At a later 
period, the emperors were accustomed to confer 
upon the universities the right of appointing 
doctors of law by their authority and in their 
name. The example of the emperors was 
speedily followed by the popes, who conferred 
the same right in reference to the canon law. 
In England, the degree of doctor was not given 
until the time of King John (1207). In the 
middle ages, the title of Doctor of Laws con- 
ferred, in some countries, great privileges ; and 
the possession of the title was requisite for some 
of the higher officers in church and state. In 
most civilized countries, the acquisition of the 
title of Doctor of Medicine is still required pre- 
vious to an authorization, by the state govern- 
ment, of medical practice. The titles Doctor of 
Theology and Doctor of Law, or of Laws, have 
still to be acquired by professors of these branches 
of learning in universities and colleges ; but they 
are also conferred honoris causa upon distin- 
guished theologians, jurists, and statesmen. In 
the United States, the conferring of degrees is 
carried to an extent which was formerly unknown. 
While in Germany there are only about twenty 
universities which have the right to confer de- 
grees, and in England a still smaller number, there 
are in the United States more than 300 chartered 
colleges which are entitled to this right; and 
they generally make a very liberal use of it at 
the annual commencement. All the graduates of 
American colleges and universities receive the 
degree of Bachelor of Arts, and after three years 
standing have the title of Master of Arts con- 
ferred upon them. The former is made con- 
tingent in the United States as well as in 
England, upon the result of a previous ex- 
amination ; but the latter is conferred, in due 
course of time, without any further require- 
ments. In Germany, the title Master of Arts 
has fallen into disuse, and the philosophical 
faculty, which corresponds to the faculty of 
arts in the United States, confers, instead of 
it, the title of Doctor of Philosophy. In the 
nineteenth century, and especially in the United 
States, a number of new degrees have been cre- 
ated. The diploma of Doctor of Music is given 
in England, the United States, and Germany. 
Women have been, until very recently, the re- 
cipients of academic degrees in only very excep- 
tional cases ; but, with the progress of the supe- 
rior education of females, and the admission of 
women to some of the highest institutions of learn- 
ing, all the degrees which have so long been the 
monopoly of the one sex, begin to be accessible 
to both. (See Co-education of the Sexes.) 
The annual reports of the U. S. Commissioner 
of Education afford complete statistics of all the 
degrees conferred each year by American col- 
leges, universities, and schools. Below is given 
a list of the various degrees which were conferred 
in 1874, with the usual abbreviations employed 
to designate them. 



Tne colleges for females confer, in the place of 
the title Bachelor (of Letters, of Arts, of Liberal 
Arts), the title Graduate, though they retain the 
abbreviations L. B., A. B., and B. L. A. 

A. B., Bachelor of Arts. 

A. L., Laureate of Arts. 

A. M., Master of Arts. 

A. S., Sister of Arts. 

B. A., Bachelor of Agriculture. 

B. Anli., Bachelor of Architecture. 
B. C. E.. Bachelor of Civil Engineering. 
B. L. A., Bachelor of Liberal Arts. 

B. M. E. , Bachelor of Mining Engineering. 

C. E., Civil Engineer. 

C. & M. E., Civil and Mining Engineer. 

D. B., Bachelor of Divinity. 

D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Laws. 

D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 

D. D. M., Doctor of Dental Medicine. 

D. E., Dynamic Engineer. 

D. Sc., Doctor of Science. 

L. B., Bachelor of Letters. 

JjL. B., Bachelor of Laws. 

LL. D., Doctor of Laws. 

L. Sc. Laureate of Science. 

M. B., Bachelor of Medicine. 

M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 

M. E., Mining Engineer. 

M. E. L., Mistress of English Literature. 

M. L. A., Mistress of Liberal Arts. 

M. L. L., Mistress of Liberal Learning. 

M. Sc, Mistress of Science. 

Mis. Mus., Mistress of Music. 

Mus. B., Bachelor of Music. 

Mus. D., Doctor of Music. 

Ph. B., Bachelor of Philosophy. 

Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy. 

Sc. B., Bachelor of Science. 

Sc. M., Master oi Science. 

S. T. ])., Sacrae Theologiae Doctor. 
As the title Doctor of Medicine, when con- 
ferred by a medical faculty, alone entitles its 
holder in some countries to practice, attempts 
have, in many cases, been made by incompetent- 
persons to purchase it, and by dishonest persons 
to make money by selling it. The greatest noto- 
riety, in this respect, has been gained by a so- 
called faculty of medicine in Pennsylvania, which 
carried on the sale of the title of Doctor of 
Medicine for a considerable time, not only in the 
United States, but all over Europe, until the 
legislature of Pennsylvania put a stop to this 
nefarious business. In Germany, an article by 
the historian Theodor Mommsen (in Preussische 
Jdhrbucher xxxvu. 1.) severely censured several 
of the universities of the minor states for pro- 
moting absent candidates who hail merely sent 
in a written dissertation, and prostituting the 
honor of German science for mercenary purposes. 
The article produced a profound impression, and, 
early in 187b', induced all the incriminated uni- 
versities to abolish the promoHcmes in absentia. 
Many writers, in modern times, have main- 
tained, that "degrees have always been. and must 
continue to be, utterly worthless." Among those 
who severely censured the way in which degrees 
formerly were and, in general, still are conferred, 
was Dr. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Na- 
tions. The same writer more fully develops his 
views in a letter on Dr. Cullen, which is given in 
Dr. McCulloch's edition of that work. He con- 
tends that the value of a degree must always de- 
pend on the disinterested character of the parties 



210 



DELAWABE 



who confer it, and that, therefore, the system 
hitherto pursued in universities of having aca- 
demical distinctions awarded by the parties en- 
gaged in preparing the candidates to receive 
them, must be regarded as a wholly inadequate 
test of literary or scientific merit. A change in 
this system was inaugurated on the establish- 
ment of the London University (q. v.), in which 
the right of conferring degrees is vested in a board 
from which the professors are excluded. In Ger- 
many, a different reform has been proposed by 
Prof. Mommsen of Berlin, who, after severely 
denouncing the abuses existing in some of the 
German universities, urges in another essay 
(Preussische Jahrbiicher, April 1876) the estab- 
lishment of strict uniformity in the conferring 
of academical degrees. The universities favor- 
able to reform are called upon to unite, and to 
request the governments either to recognize ex- 
clusively the degrees conferred by universities 
belonging to the union, or to abolish entirely the 
institution of academic degrees. In France, the 
right of conferring degrees was one of the most 
hotly contested points of the new law on superior 
education, adopted by the national assembly in 
1875. This law abolishes the monopoly of the 
state faculties in conferring degrees, and gives the 
right possessed by state faculties also to special 
juries consisting of professors partly of the state 
faculties, and partly of the free faculties author- 
ized by the new law. 

DELAWARE, one of the thirteen original 
states of the American Union, having an area 
of 2,120 sq. m., and a population, in 1870, of 
125,015, of whom 102,221 were whites, and 
22,794, colored persons. 

Educational History. — The original constitu- 
tion of the state contained a geneial provision 
for the encouragement of education ; but, through 
want of specific enactments on the part of the 
legislature, it was for a long time of little prac- 
tical value. In 1813, the secretary of state, 
Willard Hall, suggested to the legislature a. sys- 
tem of popular education ; but no immediate 
action was taken. In 1829, a bill providing for 
the establishment of free schools was passed, 
embodying substantially the views suggested by 
the secretary of state, who has always been re- 
garded as the founder of the present system. 
The law then enacted has remained, in all essen- 
tial respects, the school law of the state to the 
present day, slight modifications only having 
been made from time to time. The constitution 
of the state, framed in 1831, declares it to be the 
duty of the legislature to provide for " establish- 
ing schools, and promoting arts and sciences." 
In 1837, the school fund of the state, established 
in 1796, was increased by the addition of the 
income of the United States surplus revenue 
fund. Up to 1852, the counties were divided 
into school-districts, to each of which Ml power 
was granted to establish a school or not, accord- 
ing to its pleasure. In 1852, the school law 
was revised by the legislature, but was not 
materially changed. Educational interests were 
left to the voters in each school-district, their 



action consisting in holding an annual meeting,, 
at which any number of voters constituted a 
quorum. Their business was to elect a school 
committee, consisting of a clerk and two com- 
missioners, and to decide, by a majority vote, 
what sum should be raised for a school-house, or 
a free school. The same year, an act was passed 
by the legislature for the benefit of the public 
schools in Wilmington, which, by this act, be- 
came permanently separated from the public 
school system of the state. In 1855, the prop- 
erty of colored people in Wilmington was ex- 
empted from taxation for school purposes. In 
1861, a free-school act was passed, which author- 
ized the levy of a yearly tax in each district of 
the state. JBy an act passed March 25., 1875, 
the school system was remodeled, and, in its gen- 
eral features, assimilated to that existing in 
most of the other states. The first state super- 
intendent appointed was James H. Groves, in 
1875. 

School System. — The state board of education 
consists of the secretary of state, the auditor, the 
president of Delaware College, and the state 
superintendent of free schools. It holds an an- 
nual meeting at which the president of Delaware 
College acts as chairman, and the auditor, as 
secretary. It designates what text-books shall 
be used in the schools, settles all controversies 
between the state superintendent and the school 
commissioners on the one hand, and subordinate 
officers on the other, and issues uniform blanks 
for the use of teachers. The state superintendent 
is appointed annually by the governor. He 
visits each school once a year, examines and 
licenses .teachers, keeps a full and accurate 
record of the schools, their condition, the num- 
ber of pupils attending them, the qualifications 
of the teachers, methods of instruction, discipline,, 
and all other matters necessary to the making of 
an annual report to the governor. County 
superintendents, one for each county, are ap- 
pointed annually by the governor, their duties 
being, to correspond with school committees and 
teachers, "to aid them with advice, to supply 
proper forms, to collect information, and to re- 
port to the general assembly the state of the 
districts, and such matters as they shall deem 
proper." Three school committeemen are elected 
in each of the districts, one each year, the term 
of office being three years. Their duties are, 
to assess and levy the annual school tax, to 
select the sites for school buildings, to build 
school-houses, to supply furniture and fuel, to 
employ teachers, and to see that the schools are 
kept open as long as the funds will permit. The 
school committee levies in each district of New- 
castle Co. $100 for the support of the schools; 
of Kent Co. $50 ; and of Sussex Co. $30, the 
maximum additional amount in each being, ac- 
cording to the law of 1861, $400 for general school 
purposes, and $500 for the building and repair 
of school-houses. The schools are open to all white 
children over five years of age. In 1875, provi- 
sion was made for the education of colored chil- 
dren, by the taxation of colored citizens, and the 



DELAWARE 



211 



establishment of separate schools, from the pro- 
ceeds of such taxation, by the Delaware Asso- 
eiation for the Education of Colored People. The 
permanent school fund, which consists of the 
share of the state in the surplus revenue distrib- 
uted by the general government among the sev- 
eral states, the proceeds arising from marriage 
and tavern licenses, and from various other 
sources, has yielded for several years an annual 
income of about i30,0U0. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
schools reported by the superintendent in 1875, 
was 369. The school revenue was as follows: 

Prom local taxation $159,733.68 

" permanent fund 33,001.37 

Total $192,73.5.05 

The expenditure per capita of average attend- 
ance was $9. 64. The school statistics show the 
following : 

Number of pupils enrolled 19,881 

" " teachers employed 430 

Average monthly salary of teachers. ... $28. 28 

Normal Instruction. — Special training is given 
to teachers in the Wilmington Normal School, 
and at Delaware College, Newark, in which a 
course has been organized for the purpose. The 
graduates of the former find employment prin- 
cipally in the schools of the city. It employs 
3 teachers, and holds its sessions in the evening, 
and on Saturdays. The course provided for the 
training of teachers in Delaware College, by act 
of the legislature, in 1873, is open, free of charge, 
to 10 students from each county, who shall bind 
themselves to teach, after graduation, not less 
than one year in the public schools of the state. 
The time required for the completion of this 
course is 3 years. The branches pursued are those 
included in the literary course of the college, ex- 
cept Latin and modern languages, with special 
instruction in methods of teaching. Candidates 
for admission to this course are appointed by the 
members of the legislature. They must be not 
less than 1 6 years of age, of good moral character, 
and of average proficiency in English studies. 
Diplomas are granted at the end of the 3 years' 
course ; while, for one year or more, but less 
than 3 years, certificates are given indicative of 
the proficiency acquired. The Delaware State 
Normal University, at Wilmington, was incorpo- 
rated in 1867, for the purpose of supplying an 
advanced course to teachers. It was authorized 
to confer all degrees customary with universities. 
and to grant diplomas. The special degree of 
Bachelor of School Teaching was conferrahle 
upon such students in the normal department as, 
upon examination, were found qualified, and I 
the degree of Master of School Teaching upon 
such as had been actually engaged in teaching 
for 3 years after graduation. In 1871, however, 
the charter of the university was repealed, but 
the students held a meeting shortly after, at [ 
which it was resolved to continue the institution 
without state aid. It is divided into 4 depart- 
ments : a primary school, a select school, a me- j 
ehanical and commercial school, and a high and \ 



normal school. — Teachers' Institutes have been 
almost exclusively confined to the city of Wil- 
mington. The new law, however, requires the 
state superintendent to hold one annually in each 
county for three days, all the teachers of the 
county being required to attend. The Delaware 
State Teachers' Association was organized in 
Wilmington, in December, 1875. 

/Secondary Instruction. — Graded schools exist 
in nearly all of the large towns of the state ; and, 
in the city of Wilmington all of the schools are 
of this character. The course of study in the 
latter requires 3 years. The branches taught are 
those usually pursued in high schools, Latin and 
German having been added to the studies of the 
course, in 1873. though the study of them is op- 
tional. Graded schools, also, are in existence in 
Dover, Smyrna. Frederica, Milford, Georgetown, 
and Milton. Between 35 and 40 private, paro- 
chial, and charity schools and academies are 
known to exist in the state, many of which af- 
ford instruction usually classed as secondary. 

Superior Instruction. — The only institution 
which affords opportunities to males for a higher 
education is the Delaware College (q. v.). at 
Newark. The Wesleyan Female College, at 
Wilmington, was organized in 1839. It has two 
regular courses of study, of 4 years each, a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate, besides partial courses 
for special purposes. It has a library of 3,6(10 
volumes, and, in 1873, reported 8 professors and 
instructors, and 137 students. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
agricultural department of Delaware College 
furnishes instruction to such students as intend 
to devote themselves to the business of agricult- 
ure, while they, at the same, time attend to the 
studies that constitute a liberal education. The 
grant of 90,000 acres, made by Congress t<> the 
state for the founding of an agricultural college, 
has been given to this institution. It provides ;\ 
scientific and an agricultural course, admission 
to which is granted to students of good moral 
character who are 14 years of age, and who suc- 
cessfully pass an examination in geography, arith- 
metic, the elements of algebra, English grammar, 
history of the United States, and "such branches 
as form the basis of a complete English educa- 
tion.'' The time required for the completion of 
each course is 3 years, the instruction in the agri- 
cultural department being supplemented by 
practical exercise in farming, gardening, and the 
work of the nursery. The degree of Bachelor of 
Philosophy is conferred by the scientific depart- 
ment; that of Graduate in Agriculture, by the 
agricultural department. In 1872, the admission 
of females to the college classes was authorized, 
the conditions of admission being the same as in 
the case of males. The result is said to have 
beep very satisfactory. No special provision is 
made by the state for the instruction of the deaf 
and dumb, the blind or the imbecile; each county 
caring for its own. or the state bearing the ex- 
pense of their care in the institutions specially 
provided for the purpose by the neighboring 
state. Pennsylvania. 



212 



DELAWARE COLLEGE 

( 



DELAWARE COLLEGE, at Newark, 
Del., was chartered in 1867 and opened in 
1870. It includes the state agricultural college, 
established by the congressional land grant. The 
value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is 
$50,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
$83,000 ; the number of volumes in its libraries, 
6,000. The farm of the professor of agriculture, 
embracing about 70 acres of well-improved land 
adjoining Newark, is used as an experimental 
farm. Agricultural students have the oppor- 
tunity of defraying a part of their expenses by 
labor. The cost of tuition in the institution is 
$24 for the first term of the year, $18 for the 
second, and $28 for the third. Each county in 
the state is entitled, by a law passed in 1869, to 
have ten students educated at the college free of 
charge for tuition. The members of the legisla- 
ture are vested with authority to make these 
appointments, each member having the right to 
make one nomination. 

Li 1872, the trustees authorized the admission 
of females to the college classes upon the same 
conditions as male students. There are four 
courses : the classical, of four years, leading to the 
degree of Bachelor of Arts ; the scientific, includ- 
ing agriculture, of three years, leading to the de- 
gree of Bachelor of Philosophy ; the literary, 
of three years, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
of Literature ; and the normal, of three years. 
Those not desiring to take any one of the regular 
courses may pursue selected studies. The lit- 
erary course is similar to the classical, but omits 
the higher mathematics, and substitutes one of 
the modern languages for Greek. It is specially 
designed for female students, but may be pursued 
by all such as prefer it to any one of the other 
courses. The course of study in the normal de- 
partment embraces all those branches of learn- 
ing which are included in the literary course, 
with the exception of Latin and the modern 
languages, for which is substituted instruction in 
the higher essentials of a thorough English educa- 
tion, and in the best and most approved methods 
of teaching. Students who obligate themselves to 
teach in the free schools of the state for not less 
than one year receive tuition free. Li 1874 — 5, 
there were 8 instructors and 54 students in Dela- 
ware College. At the commencement in 1875, 12 
degrees were conferred ; namely, A. B., 3 ; Ph. 
B., 4 ; B. L., 5. William H. Purnell, LL. D., is 
(1876) the president. 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, an edition of the 
Latin classics prepared for the use of the dauphin 
(in usum Delphini) by order of Louis XLV., 
under the editorship of Bossuet and Huet, tu- 
tors to the dauphin. The compilers, 39 in num- 
ber, were selected by Huet from the best scholars 
of the time. The plan of the work comprises 
a continuous gloss in the margin, and copious 
foot-notes, explaining the text. The different 
works are edited with very unequal merit ; and, 
as a whole, the series has ceased to have any 
special value in comparison with more recent 
and more accurate editions. — See Hallam, 
Literature of Europe, vol. n. 



DENMARK 

DENISON UNIVERSITY, at Granville, 

Ohio, under the control of the Baptists, was 
founded in 1831. The buildings, three in num- 
ber, are situated on a hill, north of the town, less 
than 600 yards from the public square, the site 
containing 24 acres, nearly half of which is oc- 
cupied by a grove of old forest trees. The uni- 
versity and society libraries contain about 11,000 
volumes. The cabinet contains a good collection 
of shells, and of specimens in geology, mineral- 
ogy, zoology, and archaeology. The value of its 
grounds, buildings, and apparatus is $90,000; the 
amount of its productive funds, $190,000. The 
university comprises a preparatory department 
and a collegiate department, the latter having a 
classical course of four years, leading to the de- 
gree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific course 
of three years, leading to the degree of Bachelor 
of Science. The cost of tuition in the college is 
$13 for the fall term, and $10.50 each for the 
winter and spring terms ; in the preparatory de- 
partment, it is $10 and $7 respectively. Students 
for the ministry may be received as beneficiaries 
of the Ohio Baptist Educational Society, which 
supplies them with from $80 to $150 per annum 
besides free tuition. In 1875 — 6, there were 9 in- 
structor's, and 71 collegiate and 80 preparatory 
students. The number graduating in 1875 
was 9. The Rev. E. Benjamin Andrews, A. M., 
is (1876) the president. 

DENMARK, a kingdom of Europe, has an 
area of 14,753 sq. m., and, in 1874, had a popula- 
tion of 1,874,000. Almost the entire population 
(over 99 per cent) belongs to the established 
Lutheran Church; and all public religious in- 
struction is, accordingly, based on the original 
Augsburg confession. — Few countries have un- 
dergone so many vicissitudes of fortune as Den- 
mark. During the middle ages, it was one of the 
most powerful empires of northern Europe. 
Jutland and the Danish isles became the early 
home of a warlike Gothic tribe, the piratical 
Danes or Normans. King Gorm the Old sub- 
jected all the chieftains to his sovereignty in the 
beginning of the 10th century. Canute the Great, 
after 1024, extended the Danish rule over Nor- 
way, southern Sweden, and, for a short period, 
even over England. Under the two Walde- 
rnars, in the 12th and 13th century, Mecklenburg, 
Holstein, Pomerania, and the present Baltic prov- 
inces of Russia were added to the empire. 
During the civil wars following their reigns, 
many of these conquests were lost. The so-called 
Calmar Union of 1397, by which Queen Margaret 
united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, was of 
short duration. Under Christian III., in 1537, 
the Reformation was introduced. In 1660, south- 
ern Sweden, and in 1814 all Norway was ceded 
to Sweden ; and by the unfortunate war of 
1864, against Austria and Prussia, after which 
the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauen- 
burg were re-united with Germany, the area of 
the kingdom was reduced to its above-stated ex- 
tent (exclusive of Iceland, the Faroe isles, and 
the colonies). Owing to the new liberal con- 
stitution of 1849 (revised in 1865), the industry, 



DENMARK 



213 



commerce, and finances, as well as the literary 

;m<l educational institutions of the country arc 
at present in a flourishing condition. 

History <>f Public Instruction. — With the in- 
troduction of Christianity, in 965, convent and 
cathedral schools were opened ; and, since the 
twelfth century, while Latin was the only written 
language of the time. " Latin schools" for clerics 
and laymen of the higher classes and trades, were 
established in Yiborg, Ribe, Odense, ( Copenhagen 
(1640), and other towns. These institutions 
were greatly improved by the church-reformers, 
after 1537. who instituted two grades of Latin 
schools, both under the supervision of the clergy, 
those of the lower grade being also thrown open 
to the children from the country. A. third grade of 
schools forpoor boys and girls, the so-called "writ- 
ing-schools" [scholos mdffares), excluding instruc- 
tion in latin, were supported and controlled by 
the municipal authorities. In the rural districts, 
the only instruction imparted to youth con- 
sisted in teaching the catechism, in weekly IfiS- 
SOns, given in one of the largest residences. 
either by pupils of the lushest class of the 
nearest Lathi school, on Saturdays, for a remu- 
neration of free lodging anil board, or by the 
sextons, or by students of theology. The 1 8th 
century is marked by a quick succession of im- 
portant steps toward the perfection and extension 
of the system of instruction. Bishop Thestrup of 
Aalborg caused six parish schools to be established 
in Copenhagen. Kin u' Frederick I V.| Kit)'.)— 1730) 
had 240 substantial school-houses built on the 
royal domains, each containing a school room and 
a dwelling for the teacher. A royal decree of 
1721 regulated the organization of these schools, 
fixing the salary of the teachers, making religion 
and reading obligatory, writing and arithmetic 
optional studies, and requiring the children to 
attend school, from their 5th to their 8th year. 
every day for 5 or 6 hours, and after this period, 
only half a day. The royal example was followed 
by many noblemen and landed proprietors, who 
established similar schools on their estates for the 
benefit of the children of their 'tenants. The 
supervision of all these schools was assigned to 
the clergy ; but a general system of public in- 
struction was not introduced until 1 ".'ill, by a de- 
cree of Christian VI. (1730 — 174(i). ordaining 
the establishment of common or parish schools 
in every larger village, where religion, reading, 
writing, ami arithmetic were to be taught by 
school-masters qualified before the clergyman. 
The schools were to be supported by a revenue 
fund, collections, fines, and a school tax. About 
30 Latin schools, in the smaller towns, were abol- 
ished, and their funds appropriated for the com- 
mon-school fund. The general introduction of 
this new system was, however, thwarted by the 
opposition of many landed proprietors, who 
maintained their territorial autonomy in school 
matters. A new and liberal era was inaugurated 
under Frederick VI., by the school law of duly 
29., 1814, the principal features of which are still 
in force. It ordained the establishment of ele- 
mentary schools, each of two classes, in the coun- 



try in every neighborhood capable of supporting a 
school, and of two schools in all the larger villages: 
of an elementary burgher school, and, if feasible, 
also of higher schools and evening classes for 
adults in every town. Attendance was made 
obligatory. Four new seminaries for the edu- 
cation of qualified teachers were erected at 
Skaarup, Lyngbye, Jelling, and Ranum. in ad- 
dition to that i if Joenstrup. wliich was founded in 
1791. In 1828, gymnastics were introduced 
into all the schools of the country. A decree of 
1838 created higher burgher schools in all the 
towns. In 185U, the gymnasia of Nyborg, 
Slagelse, Xakskow. Vorsingborg, and Elsinore 
wer" transformed into higher real-schools. The 
laws of 1850, 1 S()t. ami 1k(>9 regulated the exam- 
inations for admission to the university of I 'open- 
hageii. wliich received its fundamental statute as 
early as 1 788. 

Primary Instruction. — The general super- 
vision of the primary schools is in the hands of 
the ministry of instruction and ecclesiastical af- 
fairs, while each one of the seven bishops super- 
intends the schools in his diocese They appoint 
all teachers in the rural districts, while the 
school board of the Ami (a subdivision of a dio- 
cese) appoints the teachers in the cities. The 
ministry of instruction and ecclesiastical affairs 
consists of two departments, one for ecclesias- 
tical affairs, the primary schools, the normal 
schools, and the asylums for the blind and deaf- 
mutes; and the other tor the institutions for 
secondary, superior, and special instruction, tin: 
libraries, the scientific and art collections, the 
academy of fine arts, the royal theater, and the 
general administration of the ministry. A third 
department was organized temporarily, in 1855, 
for the elementary schools, but was abandoned 
again in 1866. 'I he immediate supervision of 
each school in the country is in the hands of the 
district school board, composed of the clergy- 
man and representatives elected from the parish. 
Above this is the school board of the Amt, com- 
posed of the Amtmand (bailiff) and the clerical 
superintendent. In the cities, the immediate 
supervision is in the hands of a board consisting 
of the clergyman, the mayor, and a number of 
citizens elected to that position. The duties of this 
board coincide with those of the district school 
board in the rural district, while the other au- 
thorities are common to both city and country. 
Education is compulsory according to the laws of 
May 2., 1855, and Sept. 30.. 18C4. Every child 
must attend school from the seventh year of age, 
and the parents are forced by fines to comply 
with this law : hut no child is admitted under 
six years of age. After the thirteenth year, a 
child may be dismissed upon the wish of its 
parents, if. in the opinion of the school board, 
it has received a sufficient amount of education ; 
and, after the fifteenth year.it must be dismissed 
upon the demand of its parents. The school 
hours are, in summer, from eight to eleven in the 
morning, anil from one to four in the afternoon; 
and in winter, from nine to twelve in the morn- 
ing, and from one to four in the afternoon ; but 



214. 



DENMARK 



few rules are laid down for the management of 
schools, and only very few schools have printed 
rules. For disrespect and disobedience, teach- 
ers may resort to corporal punishment, while 
laziness and truancy must be reported to the 
rector or principal of the school, who inflicts a 
proper punishment in such cases. School dia- 
ries have been introduced in all the classes ex- 
cept the highest. For every recitation the 
scholar receives a mark expressed by a number, 
6 being the highest, and the lowest. At the 
end of every month, the marks are added up, 
and the standing for each ensuing month is thus 
determined. In the highest class, the daily 
marks are discontinued, and a monthly report is 
given instead. While the length of the school 
term is generally left to the separate school 
boards, the royal decree of Jan. 27., 1860, fixed 
240 days in the year as the minimum for every 
school. A general model course of studies for 
the kingdom does not exist. Every teacher pre- 
pares his own course of studies, which must be 
approved by the school board. An equal free- 
dom prevails in regard to the choice of text- 
books, and in the methods of teaching used. In 
1819, the monitorial or Lancasterian system was 
introduced into the military school in Copen- 
hagen, by a young officer who had observed it in 
France. The king took great interest in the ex- 
periment, and in 1822 the system was recom- 
mended for introduction into all elementary 
schools. It was, however, severely attacked by 
Diesterweg (see Diesterwbg), and gradually fell 
into disuse, being greatly modified in those 
schools in which it still exists. Almost every 
town has, besides the elementary schools, at 
least one higher primary school, or burgher real 
school, in which a small fee is charged. The 
course of instruction in these schools embraces 
the following subjects: Danish language, religion, 
arithmetic, penmanship, book-keeping, the rudi- 
ments of algebra, geometry, natural history, 
natural philosophy, Danish and general history, 
geography, either German, French, or English, 
and geometrical drawing, singing, and gymnas- 
tics. The number of primary schools in the 
country, in 1867, was 2,781, the number of male 
teachers 2,929, female teachers 59, the number of 
children of school age 200,761, the number of 
children attending public schools 194,198, and 
the number of children attending private schools 
13,994, making the total number of children un- 
der instruction 208,192. The cities had, in 1867, 
113 primary schools, with 422 male and 54 fe- 
male teachers, and 23,352 scholars, of whom 
6,161 attended the burgher real schools. The 
salaries of the teachers in the cities differ con- 
siderably from those paid in the country; but 
both in city and country, they compare very 
favorably with the salaries paid in other parts of 
Europe. In the country, the remuneration con- 
sists of a fixed salary, paid partly in money and 
partly in grain, which is changed into money ac- 
cording to the average price of grain for the past 
ten years, which price is determined annually. 
Teachers also receive, for their services as sextons, 



the sum of three marks (1 rix-dollar @, 6 marks 
= $0.55.3), payable by every child; and there is 
an increase of salary, according to age, of from 
twenty-five to fifty rix-dollars. Every teacher has 
a house free, which must be kept in repair by 
the parish, and a certain amount of school land, 
and he receives fuel, and such provisions as eggs, 
milk, etc. Every ten years, the ministry deter- 
mines for each position the money value of all 
receipts, based on the average prices for the pre- 
ceding ten years. In 1867, the total amount 
thus determined was 1,370,914 rix-dollars, which, 
for 2,566 teachers, gave an average salary of 
534 rix-dollars. According to the law of 1856, 
one half of the teachers in every city receive, be- 
sides free lodging, not less than 300 rix-dollars 
and 50 tons of barley, while the other half re- 
ceive not less than 150 rix-dollars and 50 tons 
of barley, so that no teacher receives less than 
300 rix-dollars, taking everything into account. 
The average salary of the teachers in the 
cities, in 1867, was 690 rix-dollars. Teachers 
throughout the kingdom are exempt from mili- 
tary duty. Denmark has five seminaries for 
teachers, — in Joenstrup, with 51 pupils ; in 
Skaarup, with 75 pupils ; in Lyngbye, with 31 
pupils ; in Ranum, with 31 pupils ; and in Jel- 
ling, with 45 pupils ; making 233 pupils. Every 
seminary has three classes, the course of each 
class comprising one year. No pupil is admitted 
to the lowest class under 17 years of age. The 
course of studies is as follows for all three classes: 
religion ; reading and the Danish language and 
literature ; arithmetic and other branches of 
mathematics ; penmanship ; history and geog- 
raphy ; natural history; lessons on education 
and instruction ; music ; gymnastics; drawing ; 
catechisation. For some years past, there have 
been established, in various parts of the coun- 
try, Peasants' High Schools, which are attended 
by young farmers who come together at their 
own expense during the winter months. In 
these schools, lectures are delivered on the history 
and institutions of the kingdom, and the sciences 
relating to agriculture. The plan of instruction 
depends chiefly on the wishes of the pupils and 
the capacity of the teachers, who are generally 
graduates of the university. Of these schools, 
there were, in 1874, 49, with 2,132 male and 
1,003 female pupils. — In Copenhagen, the pri- 
mary schools have three classes, the two sexes are 
instructed separately, and the course of studies is 
a little more extended than that in other cities. 
According to the law of 1844, modified by that 
of 1857, the schools are governed by a board of 
school directors, composed of the chief magistrate 
of the city, the burgomaster who has charge of 
school affairs, and a clergyman of the city ap- 
pointed by the minister of instruction. The im- 
mediate supervision is in the hands of a super- 
intendent, who has a seat but not a vote in the 
board of directors. Every ward of the city and 
suburbs has, furthermore, its own school com- 
mittee of three members. The schools are partly 
free and partly pay schools. They are of two 
kinds, — those consisting of day classes in which 



DENMARK 



DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 215 



the school time is six hours per day, and half-day 
classes which are taught only four hours per day. 
( to May 1., 1S74, the aggregate number of pupils 
in the schools of Copenhagen was 22,747, while 
the number of children of school age was 27,275. 
Of the 4,428 children who attended no school, 
4,286 received private instruction. At the close 
of 1S73, there were 149 private schools, with 
11.729 pupils. Of these schools, thirteen re- 
ceived aid from the state. School libraries have 
been introduced in all the schools. They are 
supported partly by the pupils, and partly by 
state aid. and are under the control of the teachers. 
Secondary Instruction. — By the church act of 
1537, Latin schools, of from three to four classes, 
were founded in all the citiesof Denmark. Owing 
to the different wars and from other causes, the 
condition of these schools was not very favorable, 
until, in 1739, Christian VI. considerably dimin- 
ishei 1 their number, and thus obtained the neces- 
sary means to improve the financial standing of 
those remaining. At the same time, the course 
of instruction was extended, and the Danish lan- 
guage introduced as a study, and in some cases 
as the vehicle of instruction, while, up to that 
time, instruction had been given in the Latin 
language only. Under Christian VII., the 
course of studies was more definitely regulated, 
and instruction in the Danish language was 
introduced into all the schools. The schools 
then made steady improvement, until, in L850, 
they received their present form. The institu- 
tions for secondary instruction now comprise 
gymnasia, fashioned after the Herman model. 
some of which also have real classes ; burgher 
schools, corresponding to the German real 
schools; and private schools. The course of in- 
struction embraces a period of nine years. Pu- 
pils upon entering must be at least ten years of 
age, and must pass a satisfactory examina- 
tion in various branches. The course of study 
in the gymnasia comprises, besides a continua- 
tion of the studies of the elementary schools, 
Latin and Greek, one or more modern lan- 
guages, natural history, and natural philosophy. 
The course of study in the burgher schools, com- 
prises Danish, French, German, English, history, 
geography, arithmetic, geometry, natural history, 
penmanship, and drawing. The total number of 
secondary schools at present is 26. of which 15 are 
gymnasia, 5 burgher schools, and 6 private schools. 
The number of teachers, in 1873, was 163 in the 
gymnasia, 6 in the burgher schools, and 145 in 
the private schools, making a total of 314. The 
number of pupils, in the same year, was 1 629 in 
the gymnasia, 410 in the burgher schools, and 1437 
in the private schools, making a total of 3,476. 
The amount paid for salaries of teachers, in 1871, 
was 249,151 rix-dollars. Among the oldest and 
wealthiest secondary schools of the kingdom, are 
those of Soroe and Herlufsholm. The school at 
Soroe was founded in 1580. In 1749, it was 
changed into the Knights' Academy. After- 
wards, a classical school was added ; and, in 
1849, the academy was discontinued, so that only 
the classical school remained, which, in 1870, had 



160 scholars. The school at Herlufsholm was 
founded in 1565, and, in 1870. had 95 scholars. 

Superior Instruction. — The University of 
Copenhagen was founded in 147s — ;» ; and at 
present comprises four faculties, — theology, law. 
medicine, and philosophy. It has a well equipped 
laboratory, a botanical and zoological garden, a 
museum of natural history, an astronomical ob- 
servatory, and a library of 25(1,000 volumes. In 
1873, it had 51 professors and about 1200 students. 
Special Instruction. — The schools for special 
instruction are as follows : A royal veterinary 
and agricultural school, with 16 professors ; a 
polytechnic school, with 13 professors; two 
acai lemies of fine arts ; a technical school ; and 
Sunday improvement schools. Besides these in- 
stitutions, all of which are situated at or near 
the city of Copenhagen, there are eight schools 
of navigation at various places. 

Iceland, a dependency of Denmark, was first 
settled about 870; it became subject to Norway 
in the beginning of the twelfth century, and to 

i Denmark in 1380. The first formal school was 

I established upon the introduction of the Christian 
religion, near the end of the 10th century (981). 

| At present, the instruction is altogether domestic; 
hut as the clergymen are forbidden to solemnize 
the marriage of any female who is unable to read, 
very few natives of Iceland are found who can- 
not read or write. The only public school in 
Iceland is the college at Beikiavik, which has 
six teachers and a library. Latin, French, and 
German are taught in the college; and it also 
has a theological course. — See Sohmid, Encyelo- 
padie, vol. x.; Barnard, National Education, 
vol. n. 

DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS are 
schools either under the control of a particular 
religious denomination, or that give religious in- 
struction according to the dogmatic tenets of 
some particular church or sect. Denominational 
schools that are under the direction and super- 
vision of the church authorities of a parish, are 
called parochial schools (q.v.). The question 
whether the schools supported by the state should 
have a denominational character or not, is one 
of the most important educational controversies 
of the present age, in the United States as well 
as in almost every country of Europe. The 
public-school system has been developed in close 

1 connection with both church and state ; and, in 
Europe, until a recent period, it has been the 
general rule to give to the public school a de- 
nominational character. The course of instruc- 
tion of these schools includes instruction in the 
creed of a particular religious denomination, to 
which, moreover, all the teachers of the school 
must belong. The Catholic Church, especially, 
insists that every school, from the lowest primary 
up to the university, should bear a distinctively 
denominational character, and should provide 
for religious instruction as a part of the regular 
course. The orthodox and conservative Prot- 
estants in Germany and in other countries of 
the European continent, generally take the 
same view, but more in regard to the common 



216 



DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 



schools than to secondary schools and univer- 
sities. Among the Liberal party, on the other 
hand, there is a growing demand for the ex- 
clusion of all instruction in the tenets of a partic- 
ular religion from the state schools, and for the 
abolition of every religious distinction in the ap- 
pointment of teachers. They demand, in the 
place of the denominational schools (in Germany 
called Ganfessiansschulen)," communal" or "na- 
tional "schools ; but they differ among them- 
selves as to whether religious instruction is wholly 
to be excluded. Some desire that there should be 
instruction in the general principles of religion 
and morality, instead of instruction in a denomi- 
national creed, while others prefer the total exclu- 
sion of religious teaching. (See Diesterweg.) 

The Catholic cyclopaedia of education by 
Rolfus and Pfister (Beal-Enci/chpddie des Er- 
ziehungs-und UnterricJitsweseiis, art. Communal- 
sdhulen) adduces, among others, the following 
arguments in behalf of denominational schools. 
The public school is intended not merely to im- 
part instruction, but to take part in the work of 
education. Its educational function is not of a 
preparatory or continuing character, but it is to 
aid and to accompany home education. The 
latter is based on religion, without which a good 
education is impossible. A school which does 
not provide for religious instruction and educa- 
tion, subjects a child to influences directly in 
conflict with the education received at home. — 
Religious instruction is, more than any other 
branch, suited to initiate a child into an under- 
standing of abstract ideas. It offers the most 
interesting material for exercises in reading and 
writing, and for the development of the intel- 
lectual as well as the emotional faculties of the 
child. It is unquestionably better suited than 
mere exercises in reading, writing, and arith- 
metic, to establish a bond of affection between 
teacher and pupil. In the eyes of the im- 
mense majority of people, instruction in their 
own religion is the most important and the most 
desirable that can be given to their children ; 
and, hence, the authority of a teacher who is not 
permitted to give religious instruction, must be 
lowered in their estimation. The public school 
is supported by those who have the right to 
demand that the subject to which they attach 
the greatest importance should not be excluded 
from the course of instruction. The strong con- 
victions of a teacher manifest themselves chiefly 
in his religious belief. Schools, therefore, which 
compel the teacher to repress everything that re- 
flects his religious convictions, may be expected 
to have as teachers few persons of firm prin- 
ciples. Where state and church are allied in the 
supervision of denominational schools, the state 
government fully knows what ideas of good and 
bad, of virtue, or of conscience are taught ; but 
where teachers are appointed without regard to 
their religious views, and where the church is 
excluded from superintending the instruction, it 
will be impossible to keep out of the schools the 
most destructive views of religion and morality, 
which teachers without religious principles will 



find it easy to inculcate indirectly on many oc- 
casions. When undenominational schools are 
the rule in a community, very many parents are 
dissatisfied, and private institutions, combining 
religious with other instruction, flourish. But it 
is not for the interest of the state that a large 
portion of the population should, in a demon- 
strative manner, express its want of confidence in 
state institutions, and patronize schools which 
have been organized for the express purpose of 
neutralizing the effect aimed at by the legislation 
of the state. 

The Protestant cyclopaedias of education 
edited by K. A. Schmid (Enci/clopddie des Er- 
zieJ/ungswesens etc., and Pddagogisches Hand- 
bitch, art. Confessions- und Communalschu- 
len), take the same view. The Pddagogische 
Handbuch says: " Religious school instruction 
is specially a want of the evangelical child. The 
church of the Word builds itself up by the un- 
derstanding and recognition of the Word ; there- 
fore her children must be supplied with religious 

[ knowledge ; Bible history, the most beautiful 
sentences of the Bible, and the fundamental 
doctrines of the Gospel must be inculcated for 

| belief and practice in life ; the treasure of the 
songs of the church must be opened to them for 
edification ; and they must learn to join in the 
chorus of the congregation. The Catholic 
Church, with a form of worship which captivates 
the senses, with its religious ceremonies, into 
which even small children are introduced, and 
which are constantly practiced by its members, 
produces naturally a certain religious habit, 
which interweaves itself with the ideas and emo- 
tional tendencies, and thus proves a strong bond 
of union for the church. With us, the mind is 
chiefly addressed to impress religious convic- 
tions; and, hence, to exclude religious instruction 
from our schools must fatally injure the relig- 
ious, moral, and ideal life of our Protestant 
congregations." 

The advocates of denominational schools also 
point to the fact that the results thus far 
obtained by the undenominational school have 
failed to satisfy even the most zealous among its 
defenders. One of the leaders of the Liberal 
party of Prussia, Mique'l, in a speech made in 
the Prussian house of deputies, March 12., 1875, 
said : " The system of undenominational schools 
in the Netherlands, which prohibits teachers 
from giving religious instruction, but provides 
that time and permission be given to the pupils 
to receive religious instruction from the clergy- 
men of the several denominations to which they 
belong, was introduced under the liberal ministry 
of Thorbecke. This great statesman subsequently 
saw and acknowledged to me, that the system, in- 
stead of promoting friendly relations between 
different religious denominations, had widened 
the breach. The pupils of the public schools 
either received no religious instruction at all, or 
being instructed by clergymen, became more at- 
tached to denominational differences, than would 
have been the case, if the religious instruction, 
had been given by the school-teacher." 



DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 



211 



But although the fruits of the undenomina- 
tional school system in Holland and else where 
have failed to satisfy its friends, public opinion 
in Europe appeals to be abandoning more and 
more the old system of denominational schools. 
The new school law of Austria, of the year 1868, 
recognizes the principle of national or communal 
schools, though it authorizes the churches to 
establish their own denominational schools. In 
Bavaria, the new law of 1873 gives to town coun- 
cils the power to consolidate the existing denomi- 
national schooLs, and thus to form undenomina- 
tional communal schools; and many towns have 
made haste to avail themselves of the privilege. 
The leaders in the great conflict of the state gov- 
ernmentsof Europe with the ( 'atholic Church con- 
cerning the public school, all favor, more or less, 
the undenominational school. In England, where 
the traditional distrust of the government in mat- 
ters relating to the school is still very apparent in 
the actual condition of school matters, an immense 
majority of all the schools deriving suppi at fn im 
the government, bear a strictly denominational 
character. The advocates of secularism in state 
education are, however, becoming more numen (US 
and more powerful ; and even those who favor 
denominationaUsm are beginning to endorse the 
underlying principle of undenominational state 
education. Says Dr. Higg. in National Educa- 
tion, " It must be admitted that, if the state is to 
interfere at all directly in the matter of popular 
education, its own function and responsibility 
shoidd certainly be limited to that which is un- 
sectarian, and, if it were possible, would most 
conveniently be limited to that which is secular, 
in instruction and results. Here I find myself, 
in principle, pretty well agreed with the secular- 
ists. It is where they would forbid the co-ope- 
ration of Christian organizations and of Chris- 
tian teaching, otherwise provided, with the func- 
tions and work of the state in popular education, 
that, in common with most others, I am obliged 
to differ." 

In the United States, the undenominational 
character of the public school has always been 
its most distinctive feature. The teaching of the 
doctrinal tenets of particular denominations is 
every-where excluded from the course of instruc- 
tion. In many states, as in Arkansas, Illinois, 
Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, Ne- 
braska, New Jersey, New York, Ohio. South 
Carolina, and Wisconsin, the constitution of the 
state expressly forbids sectarian instruction and 
control. But even where the constitution of the 
state has not sanctioned the principle by a spe- 
cial provision, the practice is universally the 
same. The growth of the undenominational 
school was the natural fruit of the voluntary 
system which pervades all American institutions, 
and which, in particular, excluded the influence 
of the state' from all religious matters. Although 
in the United States there is no state church, 
as in the states of Europe, a larger number of 
religious denominations than are found any- 
where else, live together in the possession of 
equal rights. The co-existence of various de- 



nominations in almost every one of the numer- 
ous small townships which do not need more 
than one school, would have made the estab- 
lishment of a number of schools a practical im- 
possibility. Moreover, the separation between 
church and state has caused Americans generaDy 
to look upon religion as upon something belong- 
ing exclusively to the family and to the church. 
The proper places to provide for religious in- 
struction appeared, therefore, to them to be the 
family and, especially, the Sunday-school. The 
only religious element which a Aery large portion 
of American educators desire to retain in the 
common schools, is the reading of a passage of 
the Bible, and the opening of the school by 
prayer. Among the Protestants of the United 
States, this view has still decidedly the ascend- 
ency : and several state constitutions expressly 
provide that the Bible shall not be excluded 
from the public schools. (See Bible.) 

The most earnest and united opposition to the 
undenominational American school is made by 
the Roman Catholic Church. It disapproves 
the practice of having the Bible without note or 
comment, read by or to the pupils ; it complains 
of the reading of a Protestant version of the 
Bible to ('atholic children as an injustice; but it 
still more objects to any system of instruction 
which excludes the teaching of religion from its 
regular course. It has. therefore, put forth the 
claim for a division of the school funds of the 
state among all religious denominations in a fair 
proportion, hi order that it may be used by them 
for the support of denominational schools. This 
claim of the Roman Catholics has led to a pro- 
tracted and interesting controversy, which is not 
yet ended. The fundamental principle on which 
the claim is based, that, from an educational point 
of view, it is desirable to include religious teach- 
ing in the regular course of instruction, has been 
conceded by not a few of their opponents; and 
cases have not been wanting in which Protestant 
congregations have asked for the support of their 
denominational schools out of the public funds. 
Some eminent statesmen also, like Win. II. Sew- 
ard, were disposed to recognize the Catholic de- 
mand as being, in the main, fair, and to concede it. 
Public opinion, however, in the progress of the 
controversy, has taken a very determined stand 
in opposition to the Catholic view and in favor 
of the undenominational school. The majority 
of the American people, at the present time, un- 
doubtedly hold that religion is a matter entirely 
voluntary and individual, which every person 
shoidd regulate according to the dictates of his 
own conscience, and in which the public author- 
ities should in no way interfere ; that churches, 
in the eyes of the state, are only voluntary asso- 
ciations of families holding the same religious 
views; and that the rearing of children in any 
religious tenets whatever, should, therefore, be 
left wholly and exclusively to the families and 
the churches ; that the families have it in their 
power to supply, in Sunday-schools, all the re- 
ligious instruction they desire their children to 
receive ; that the state has no right to tax people 



218 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 



DETROIT 



for ecclesiastical objects ; and that the exclusive 
aim of schools supported by the public funds 
should be to tit their pupils for the discharge of 
their civil obligations. To the most interesting 
episodes of this conflict belongs the religious con- 
troversy in the city of New York from 1840 to 
1842. During the absence of bishop Hughes in 
Europe, the Catholics of the city of New York, 
in 1839, organized an opposition to the public- 
school system. On his return, bishop Hughes, in 
1840, himself took the lead, and drew up a peti- 
tion to the common council, praying that seven 
parochial schools should be designated as "en- 
titled to participate in the common-school fund, 
upon complying with the requirements of the 
law." His demand being rejected by the common 
council, the matter was brought before the legis- 
lature; and when he was baffled in his suit there 
also, he recommended the Catholics to nominate 
independent candidates in the ensuing elections, 
thus commencing a movement which developed 
into considerable strength. The controversy was 
finally settled by the passage of the act of April 
11., 1842, which provided that " no school shall 
be entitled to, or receive, any portion of the school 
moneys, in which the religious doctrines or tenets 
of any particular Christian or other religious 
sect shall be taught, inculcated, or practiced, or 
in which any book or books containing compo- 
sitions favorable or prejudicial to the particular 
doctrines or tenets of any sect shall be used." 
The Catholic bishops have since taken the same 
ground as bishop Hughes ; and, in many cases, 
have adopted very decisive measures against the 
public schools. In some places, as in Pough- 
keepsie, N. Y., a compromise has been effected 
between the common council and the represen- 
tatives of the Catholic congregations, by means 
of which the parochial schools have been placed 
under the supervision of the city superintendent, 
and thus enabled to participate in the school 
fund of the city ; but on the whole, public op- 
pinion appears to pronounce itself in favor of 
fully carrying out the principle of the undenomi- 
national school, without the slightest compromise. 
When the subject was agitated in Ohio, in the 
electoral campaign of 1874, the state conventions 
of both Republicans and Democrats formally de- 
clared in favor of the principle of the unsectarian 
school. The legislature of New York, in April 
1876, almost unanimously declared itself in favor 
of the same principle. President Grant, in his 
message of Dec. 7, 1875, thought it proper to 
bring this matter to the attention of Congress, 
and most earnestly recommended that a constitu- 
tional amendment should be submitted to the 
legislatures of the several states for ratification, 
making it the duty of each of the states to 
•establish and forever maintain free schools ade- 
quate to afford an elementary education to all 
the children within its limits, irrespective of sex, 
color, birthplace, or religion, forbidding the teach- 
ing, in said schools, of religious, atheistic, or pagan 
tenets, and prohibiting the granting of any school 
funds, or school taxes, or any part thereof, either 
by legislative, municipal, or other authority, for 



the benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of any 
religious sect or denomination. — See S. S. Ran- 
dall, History of Common Schools of New York 
(N. Y., 1 871) ; Bokse, History of the School System 
of the City of New York (N. Y., 1869); Has- 
sard, Life of Archbishop Hughes (N. Y., 1866); 
Potter, Religion in Public Schools ; The pro- 
posed substitution of sectarian for public free 
schools (New Haven, 1848); Rigg, National 
Education in its Social Conditions and Asp>ects 
(London, 1873); Mayo, T)ie Bible in the Public 
Schools (N. Y., 1870); Bourne, History of the 
Public School Society (N. Y., 1870); Wimmer, 
Die Kirche und Schule in Nordamerika (Leips., 
1853); Dulon, Ueber Schule, deutsche Schule, 
amerikanische Schule und deutsch-amerikanische 
Schule (Leips., 1866); Rolfus, Wide?- die Com- 
munalschulen (Mayence, 1863); Sickinger, Die 
Communalschulen (Mayence, 1871); Becker, Der 
Streil zwischen Materialismus und Clvristen- 
thum in der Schule(3d edit., Heidelberg, 1871). 

DENTISTRY, Schools of. See Medical 
Schools. 

DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM, or Sub- 
ject System, a method of school organization 
in which each department of instruction or sub- 
ject of study is assigned to a particular teacher, 
instead of requiring each teacher to give instruc- 
tion to a particular class in all the branches of 
study pursued. This system is rarely employed 
in schools for primary instruction ; but, in those 
of a higher grade, is nearly universal. In regard 
to its advantages and disadvantages, as compared 
with the class system, many considerations are 
urged ; and the experience of instructors seems 
to be quite diverse as to its success. The chief 
argument in its favor is, that it would narrow 
the range of subjects required to be mastered by 
a single teacher, and, in this way, improve the 
character of the instruction imparted. For other 
considerations in regard to this question, see 
Class. 

DEPRAVITY. See Moral Education. 

DES MOINES, University of, at Des 
Moines, Iowa, was chartered in 1865. It is under 
the control of the Baptists, and admits both sexes. 
It occupies a fine park of five acres, and a four- 
story brick building on an eminence command- 
ing a fine view of the city and vicinity. The 
library contains 2,000 volumes. The value of 
its building, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000 ; 
the amount of its productive funds $40,000. In 
1875 — 6, there were 6 instructors and 139 pre- 
paratory and 18 collegiate students. The Hon. 
Frederick Mott is (1876) president. 

DETROIT, the principal city of Michigan, 
situated on the N. W. side of the Detroit river, 
about 18 miles from Lake Erie. The river is 
only about a half a mile wide at this point ; 
hence the name of the city (Fr. Detroit, narrow). 
The population of this city, according to the 
census of 1870, was 79,597, of whom 35,381 were 
of foreign birth, and of these nearly 13,000 were 
natives of Germany. The number of colored 
persons was 2,325. The first permanent settle- 
ment on the site of this city was made by the 



DETROIT 



219 



French in 1701. In 1763, it passed under the 
government of the English. 

Educational History. — The earliest school hav- 
ing any authentic record is that of the Rev. 
David Bacon, established in 1802. Two years 
afterward, mention is made of two other 
schools, but particulars in regard to them have 
not been preserved. A theological school was 
opened at this time also; but the fire of L805 
caused it to be discontinued. About this time, 
the first free school in the city was opened, un- 
der Catholic control, near St. Ann's Church, on 
Larned street. It was a girls' school; and an in- 
teresting fact in regard to it is, that three dozen 
spinning-wheels were kept in the school, on which 
the pupils were taught to spin. Information iu 
regard to schools from the time of the great fire 
of 1805 to 1816, is exceedingly meager. A so- 
called common school was opened on the 10th of 
June, 1816, by a Mr. Danforth of New England; 
and, in July following, he had 40 pupils. In 
1H17, the governor and judges passed an act to 
establish the "Catholepistemiad, or University of 
Michigania". The energies of the projectors of 
this formidable institution, however, appear to 
have been spent in the production of its name, 
and the passage of the act authorizing its estab- 
lishment, as no record of its existence can be 
found, though the result of the act, known as 
the Catholepistemiad Act, was an increase of 
the public taxes by 15 per cent, the establishment 
of a primary school, and the designation of read- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, and English grammar 
as the studies to be pursued in it. Instruction 
in the classical department of this primary school, 
was begun in 1818. The same year, a Lancas- 
terian school was established, which in 1823, 
-was committed to the care of John Farmer, 
who had been specially designated for the work 
by the trustees of the University of Michigan, a 
branch of which had been established in Detroit. 
In 1 834. on the site now occupied by the city-hall 
was erected a building for a female seminary, 
which was continued till 1842. In 1836, W. 
A. Bacon opened a select school on the site 
of the present cathedral, which he conducted 
for 38 years. In 1838, a public school was 
opened iu the second ward; and, in 1841, the 
first separate colored school was opened, with 88 
pupils. The unsatisfactory operation of the school 
law, however, led to the appointment, in 1 841 , of a 
special committee of inspection, which reported 
that there were 27 schools in the city, furnishing 
instruction to 714 pupils, at a cost of $12,000; 
while there were 1,850 children without instruc- 
tion. The result of this examination was a rec- 
ommendation that the legislature be petitioned 
for an amendment of the city charter permitting 
the creation, by annual popular vote, of a board 
of education, and direct taxation for the support 
of the schools. The opponents of this proposition 
were numerous; but the measure was sustained 
by the people at an election ordered for the pur- 
pose, and was embodied in a law Feb. 18., 1842. 
Under this law, with a few amendments, the 
schools were administered till 1868, when the 



present law was passed. The first board of edu- 
cation met March 15.. 1^42, consisting of twelve 
members, including the mayor and recorder of 
the city, ex officio, the former as president. Two 
years afterward, the Bible question was intro- 
duced, and led to an exciting discussion which 
lasted a year, ending in a compromise which pro- 
vided that any school might be opened by read- 
ing a portion of the Bible without comment, such 
reading to be optional with the teacher, and at- 
tended with the penalty of removal in case of 
comment. In 1847, the number of children be- 
tween the ages of 5 and 17. was 2,239. The first 
graded school, known as the Old Capitol School, 
was opened in 1848. In 1852, the question of a 
sectarian division of the school fund was agitated; 
but the resulting election, in 1853, expressed the 
will of a large majority of the people in opposi- 
tion to such division, and the question has not 
been revived. The first high school was estab- 
lished in 1858. The supervision of the schools 
was originally confined to the inspectors, and so 
continued till 1863, when J. M. B. Sill was ap- 
pointed to the office of superintendent. His suc- 
cessor, in 1 865, was Duane Doty, who held the 
office until 1875,wdien Mr. Sill was re-appointed. 
and again appointed in 1876, for 3 years. 

Scliool Si/stem. — The care of the schools is in- 
trusted to a board of education, consisting of two 
inspectors from each ward, elected by the people 
biennially, one half going out of office each year. 
The mayor and recorder are members, ex officio, 
but without vote. The board appoints annually 
a superintendent, whose duties are those usually 
discharged by such officers. The schools are sup- 
ported by an annual city tax of not more than 5 
mills on every dollar of real and personal prop- 
erty. The school year comprises a period of not 
less than 3 months. The school age is from 5 
to 20 years. Connected with the system is a 
public library, the building for which was only 
recently begun. The schools are divided into 
three "classes : primary, grammar, and high 
schools. The total number of schools, in 1875, 
was 28, including 2 evening schools. The chief 
items of school statistics for the year are : 

Number of children of school age (5—20) 34,593 

enrolled 13,739 

Average enrollment (number belonging) 9,294 

daily attendance 8,7G0 

Number of teachers, males 9 

" " " females 212 

Total 221 

Receipts (1R75) $211,690.23 

Expenditures (1875) $169,603.09 

Total valuation of school property $735,192.00 

Besides the public schools, there are several 
( 'atholie schools, a German Lutheran school, a 
German- American seminary, and several public 
libraries containing about 40,000 volumes. For 
information in regard to institutions for higher, 
professional, and special instruction see Michigan. 
For details in relation to the early educational 
history of Detroit, see W. D. Wilkins, Reminis- 
cences and Traditions of the Detroit Schools, 
published in the Twenty-eighth Annual Report of 
the Board of Education (Detroit, 1871). 



220 



DEVELOPING METHOD 



DEVELOPING METHOD is a term in- 
troduced into the science and practice of peda- 
gogy through the philosophy of Herbart, and 
popularized among European teachers through 
its greatest followers, Beneke and Diesterweg. It 
means an education, of the natural endowments 
of the individual according to the psychologic 
laws of human development, and to the exclusion 
of all purposes foreign to such development. The 
term, in some respects, is a misnomer, as it im- 
plies far more than it expresses. It means a 
system, realized in, or applicable to, a variety of 
educational methods, and based on the fundamen- 
tal principle, that human nature alone, as devel- 
oped and shown in its best products through a 
long historical period, should be the guiding star 
in all educational efforts. Herbart. who was the 
first among the German philosophers, in oppo- 
sition to the prevailing speculative philosophy, 
to apply the method of induction to philosophy, 
and who based his system on inductive psy- 
chology, and treated the latter mathematically, 
wrote as early as 1806 a work on pedagogy, en- 
titled Die allgemeine Pcedagogik, abgeleitet aus 
dem Zweck der Erziehung, in which the new 
drift of educational ideas inaugurated by Rous- 
seau and Pestalozzi, was reduced to logical prin- 
ciples. He was the first in history to render in- 
telligible the processes in the human soid which 
lead to memory, comparison, the distinction of im- 
pressions and their growth into mental images, 
notions, judgment and reason, disposition and 
will ; and, in so doing, he reasoned from the 
established facts of consciousness, and developed 
a long series of mathematical formulae as evi- 
dences of his correctness in interpreting the facts. 
Beneke, more straightforward than Herbart, gave, 
in his Lehrb uch der Psi/chologie als Naturwissen- 
schaft (1833), and Erziehwigs- und Unterrichts- 
lehre (1835), a very lucid and common-sense ex- 
position of this new system of psychology, in its 
application to pedagogy, which, through Diester- 
weg's practical treatises and school books, grew 
almost universally popular among the German 
teachers. What the evolution theory is in modern 
natural science — an explanation of natural effects 
from natural causes according to general laws 
that can be verified by the evidences of the senses 
and logical reasoning, that is the developing 
method with regard to mental facts and laws, in 
matters of education. The founders of this 
system did not go so far as to reach all the legiti- 
mate conclusions which may ultimately be drawn 
from its principle, and which were drawn by the 
succeeding generation of teachers. The system, 
as now taught and practiced by men like Dittes 
and some of Froebel's followers, has undergone a 
series of gradual improvements, and seems capable 
of many more ; since human nature itself is a 
subject that receives, through the constant im- 
provement of all the natural sciences, a daily 
increasing illustration. Nor is there, as yet, 
a tolerably full agreement among the foremost 
pedagogical writers upon what may be consid- 
ered the genuine development of human nature ; 
but the principle itself, that the spontaneous 



growth of all the faculties of the mind into 
the greatest possible harmony should be facil- 
itated according to the laws of normal devel- 
opment, not counteracted ; guided, but not 
curbed ; and all this in the order which is in- 
dicated by nature herself — this principle seems 
to be so well established, that, henceforth, only 
its interpretation can be doubtful. 

This new psychology sails clear of all the rocks 
of preconcerted systems and of the maelstrom 
of party strife ; it deals with none but demon- 
strable facts. Such facts are. that there is no 
beginning of mental action in the newborn child 
except by impressions from without ; that the 
latter, called traces, cannot grow into distinct 
images without a grouping of the traces in an 
order corresponding to the outward objects ; 
that we can verify by actual experiment, both 
with animals and men, the laws^ according to 
which equal traces strengthen each other, similar 
ones aggregate and form opposites to dissimilar 
groups of traces ; that fugitive impressions have 
obscure traces, lasting or often repeated impres- 
sions, clear traces; that one trace or set of traces 
is for a time obscured by new ones, and that the 
consciousness of an image is the effect of either 
pleasure or pain of the mind in consequence of 
the impressions, etc.. etc. The theory goes on to 
show that all the higher mental processes are re- 
petitions of the photographic action of the first 
traces, in a higher order, and follow with mathe- 
matical exactness their laws. A normal pedagogy 
is, therefore, possible, independent of philosoph- 
ical systems. Disputed questions of physiology 
and psychology concern only unimportant topics, 
and, therefore, may be ignored and left to the 
future development of science ; but it is all-im- 
portant, in pedagogy, to demonstrate clearly all 
the conditions without which no mind can grow, 
whatever the nature of mind itself may be con- 
sidered to be. 

It is, therefore, of the first importance to cul- 
tivate the action of the senses, the gates to all 
mental development, in such a way as to render 
them self-active by their appropriate combina- 
tion with pleasure and pain; next, to offer to their 
self-activity a succession of outward impressions 
which will leave distinct and, by repetition, 
lasting traces and the most complete images of 
objects, accompanied by sensations and impulses. 
The first consciousness being thus awakened, it 
follows that a comparison and. distinction of the 
representations once produced must lead to both 
clear notions of their single features and clear 
consciousness of the mind, without which the 
origin of self-consciousness woidd be retarded, 
and its growth stunted. The latter taking its 
start from the first efforts in speaking, language 
becomes the chief means of education, and its 
proper use on the part of the educator, in con- 
nection with the objects designated, the way to 
the subsequent normal development. The gap 
in this system left between this stage and the 
first school age was not filled until Froebel, 
starting from a somewhat different stand-point, 
invented his kindergarten plays. 



DEVELOPING METHOD 



221 



Great stressis, in this system, laid on the gradual 
progress of education, which, after all. is little 
more than instruction, a somewhat one-sided 
culture of the intellect, the imagination, and the 
memory. The teacher is to proceed from the 
simple to the compound, from the concrete to 
the abstract, from perception to reflection in the 
pupil, from examples to rules, horo.facts to laws. 
He is to be more a guide than a teacher; he is 
not to tell his pupils any thing which they can be 
led to find out themselves. He is to present 
them just mental food enough. and no more. ;it a 
time, than can be fully digested ; and that food 
ought to be adapted to the age and degree of 
development. Every kind of mental food ought 
to be so fully digested as to contribute to the in- 
crease of every mental faculty. The pupil is to 
be rendered his own teacher: his self-activity is 
to be fostered first, last, and at all times. 

The cultivation of the memory at the expense of 
observation and reflection, which, in all routine 
teaching, plays so prominent a part, is made un- 
necessary by stimulating the mental appetite and 
digestive powerof the pupil : whatever is fully un- 
derstood will forever remain mental property. All 
mechanical drill, and all moral preaching, is more 
hurtful than useful, because skill in the learner is 
to grow out of repeated self-appropriation con- 
nected with that pleasure which accompanies 
the satisfaction of every mental appetite ; and 
because an appropriate mental food is conducive 
to moral power. Development means self-devel- 
opment, guided by well-developed educators. 

It is evident that this new system exacts a far 
higher standard of abilities and attainments in 
the educator than ever before had been deemed 
necessaiy. This necessity led to a considerable 
improvement in the course of training of pupil- 
teachers in the German and other normal schools. 
" The teacher is the school," was the maxim in- 
culcated there. If he be the proper person 
destined by natural gifts and prepared for his 
calling by a careful study of mental phenomena 
and a long theoretic and practical training, he 
will make up for the short-comings of text-books, 
apparatus, and previous education. If he be full 
of enthusiasm for his sacred task of forming 
minds, and patient in all his laborious methods, 
he will mould his pupils' minds and morals by 
means of their self-development. The rational 
sobriety of this system was greatly aided by the 
marvelous spirit of self-devotion and educational 
enthusiasm which had been engendered in the 
teaching fraternity by Pestalozzi ; and it may 
be called a fact, that hardly ever, or anywhere, 
was there done such intelligent and faithful 
work in thousands of schools, and for so scanty a 
remuneration, as in the develnping- j metkod schools 
up to the period of the ." School Regulations " 
(Schulreg illative). 

Among the reforms in special methods that 
followed in the wake of this system, must first 
be mentioned the introduction of phonic or 
phonetic reading. Spelling was altogether super- 
seded, and orthographical writing exercises sub- 
stituted, based on a few rules which the pupils 



had to deduce for themselves from a comparison 
, of examples. Graser and Vogel improved this 
method, which is liable to be too mechanically 
applied, by combining it with the writing^read- 
iuij and the synthetico-analytic methods. The 
former begins with analyzing the single sounds 
of which the words consist and teaching the 
written signs for them, and continues with 
writing these and other words: printed words, 
1 or rather sentences, are introduced when the 
pupils can read all written letters, and there- 
after all that has been read must be faultlessly 
copied. The latter begins with sentences that 
must be analyzed into their component words, 
and the words into their component sounds ; 
the correspond] i.g signs (letters) are then given, 
cither in written, or in printed form (or in both — 
Douais method exemplified in his Rational 
Readers) and then synthesis-reading begins, ac- 
companied with constant copying exercises, 
which must be faithfully controlled. Another 
improvement has been effected by connecting 
penmanship exercises with the first writing exer- 
cises by means of time-beating ( Taktschreiben). 
The object is to prevent the formation of careless 
habits instead of weeding them out when formed, 
which is still further aimed at by reading in 
emir,,-/, alternately with individual reading. 
In arithmetic, the beginning was made with 
mental exercises in the analytic method; but 
there is a great variety in the methods of con- 
necting analysis with ciphering, and in the extent 
to which it is carried. Great importance, how- 
ever, is universally attributed to a full understand- 
ing of the value of numbers, both single and in 
their decimal orders. Some methods, progressing 
through concentric circles of 1 — 111. It) — Kill. 
100 — 1000, etc., involve within each circle, all 
the four ground rules: some, only addition and 
subtraction together, and. later, multiplication 
anil division together; some, only one at a time, 
with larger concentric circles, etc. Some intro- 
duce the elements of fractions at a very early 
epoch, dividing them also into concentric circles ; 
some introduce decimal fractions even before 
common fractions. Object lessons in special 
branches according to the older (Pestalozzian) 
process were to some extent crowded out when 
all teaching became object teaching; yet spe- 
cial object lessons in zoology and botany, geom- 
etry and geography, remained favorite branches 
in most plans of teaching. The method of teach- 
ing the mother-tongue is also very variable : but. 
through all that variety, a tendency is conspic- 
uous to make the most of the pupil's self-activity 
by guiding him to form sentences orally and in 
writing, whether for orthographical, grammat- 
ical, rhetorical, or elocutionary purposes. Gram- 
matical analysis with parsing fills far less time 
than synthesis. It is a strange fact that the 
study of Latin and Greek has. only very recently 
and to a very limited extent, been subjected to 
the same method; but the modern languages 
were treated in the analytico-synthetic way (this 
way ought not to be confounded with the Aim 
or Olleudorf method, from which it is distin- 



222 DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES 



DICKINSON COLLEGE 



guished by scientific, pedagogic spirit, and a far 
greater efficiency). This method may be called 
Mager's method. There is an endless variety of 
special methods in all branches of primary and 
secondary instruction, which it is not necessary 
here to explain. 

It is useless to discuss the merits and short- 
comings of special methods, since any one of them 
that has passed the ordeal of a practical applica- 
tion in the school room may be called good, be- 
cause adapted to the genius both of the teacher 
and his particular class of pupils. No single prac- 
tical method can claim universal applicability ; 
every one will have to be modified to be adapted, 
not only to every other teacher's peculiar de- 
velopment, but also to that of every other 
class or pupil. He is a bad follower of the 
developing method who treats, year in and year 
out, every new class of pupils according to a 
stereotyped manner for each branch of instruc- 
tion, instead of accommodating himself to the 
wants of the class. The developing method 
means nothing more nor less than that there 
shall be method, in all the teacher's doings, — a 
well-concerted plan, calculated to develop every 
gift of each pupil by educating him to self- 
activity in every branch of the curriculum, and 
to produce a certain degree of uniform general 
development without neglecting either the for- 
ward, or the backward portion of his class. And 
high as this standard of abilities in the true edu- 
cation may be, experience proves that it will be 
almost universally realized, if the position of the 
teacher be sufficiently remunerative, independent, 
and honored, to attract to the profession all 
persons born to be teachers. This realization has, 
moreover, been considerably facilitated by the 
preparation for the primary classes, which may 
be obtained from Proebel's kindergarten. 

DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES. See Re- 
ligious Education. 

DIARY, School, a daily record of the les- 
sons, recitations, deportment, etc., of pupils, kept 
in a small book which is taken home each day, 
or each week, to be exhibited to the parents, 
whose inspection is attested by their signature 
previous to the diary's being returned to the 
teacher. Thus, a constant correspondence is kept 
up between parent and teacher, the former being 
continuously informed of the child's progress, 
merit or demerit, and behavior ; and thus enabled 
intelligently to co-operate in his school education. 
Instead of the diary, some teachers prefer the 
monthly report. (See School Records.) 

DICKINSON COLLEGE, at Carlisle, Pa., 
was founded in 1783. Since 1833, it has been 
under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, prior to which date it was under Pres- 
byterian control. Prominent among its founders 
were John Dickinson, first governor of Penn- 
sylvania, and Dr. Benjamin Rush of Philadel- 
phia. Before the late war, its patronage was 
largely from the South ; since that event, it has 
depended for patronage chiefly on the Middle 
States. The value of grounds, buildings, and ap- 
paratus is $150,000; the amount of productive 



funds, $175,000. The cost of tuition is merely 
nominal, being by scholarships, the whole expense 
of which is $25 for the four years' course. The 
board of trustees have recently established the 
following departments of study, and propose 
to carry out the university principle of elective 
courses, as far as the means at their command will 
permit: (1) moral science; (2) ancient languages 
and literature ; (3) pure mathematics ; (4) phi- 
losophy and English literature, including history 
and Constitutional law ; (5) physics and mixed 
mathematics, and the application of calculus to 
natural philosophy, astronomy, and mechanics; 
(6) chemistry, and its application to agriculture 
and the arts; (7) physical geography, natural 
history, mineralogy and geology ; (8) modern 
languages ; (9) civil and mining engineering, 
and metallurgy. The scheme embraces much 
more than can be accomplished in four years. 
Those students who wish to obtain the collegiate 
degrees are required to devote the earlier part 
of their course, as heretofore, mainly to the 
elements of classical learning and the pure 
mathematics; but, for the latter part, certain 
studies are made optional, and those who go 
through any of the prescribed special courses, 
obtain the degree of Bachelor of Arts equally 
with those who complete the classical course. 
These special courses are the Scientific Course, 
in winch such students as desire are allowed to 
substitute practical chemistry for the Latin and 
Greek of the junior and senior years, and the 
Biblical Course, hi which students preparing for 
the Christian ministry are allowed to take He- 
brew and New Testament Greek in their junior 
and senior years, in place of equivalent studies, 
chiefly mathematical. A partial course, of about 
two years, and embracing such studies from 
the regular curriculum as bear directly upon 
any special vocation, can be pursued by stu- 
dents not intending to graduate. The college 
has a museum containing specimens in mineral- 
ogy, geology, and natural history, and a cabinet 
of ancient coins ; valuable philosophical and 
chemical apparatus; and an astronomical ob- 
servatory, provided with an achromatic tele- 
scope. The college library contains about 8,000 
volumes; those of the Belles-Lettres Society 
and the Union Philosophical Society about 
10,000 each. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 pro- 
fessors and 88 students. There is a law depart- 
ment under the charge of the professor of law. 
The presidents of the college have been as fol- 
lows : Charles Nisbet, D.D., 1784—1804 ; Rob- 
ert Davidson, D. D. (pro tern.), 1804 — 9; Jere- 
miah Atwater, D. D., 1809—15; John McKnight, 
D. D. (pro tern), 1815—16 ; John Mitchell Ma- 
son, D. D., 1821—4 ; William Neffl, D. D., 1824 
—9; Samuel B. How, D.D., 1830— 2; John Price 
Durbin, D.D., 1833—45 ; Robert Emory, D.D., 
1845—8; Jesse Truesdale Peck, D.D.. 1848— 
52 ; Charles Collins, D. D., 1852—60 ; Herman 
Merrills Johnson, D. D., 1860—7 ; Robert L. 
Dashiell, D. D., 1868 — 72; and James A. 
McCauley, D. D., the present incumbent, ap- 
pointed in 1872. 



DICTATION 



DICTIONARY 



223 



DICTATION, a school exercise in which the 
teacher reads or speaks (dictates) to the pupils 
what is to be written by the latter for practice 
in writing, spelling, etc. .Such exercises are very- 
useful, not oidy to give accuracy and expertness 
in writing words and sentences, but to train the 
ear to the ready apprehension of spoken language. 
In this respect, it supplements copying, which 
exclusively disciplines the eye. 

DICTIONARY, a book containing a list of 
all the words of a language, alphabetically ar- 
ranged, with information in regard to their 
derivation, meaning, and use. The Greek word 
lexicon is frequently used to designate a diction- 
ary of the words of a foreign language ; the 
term glossary, to denote a collection of technical, 
obsolete, or other words requiring special de- 
finition or explanation. A dictionary of facts 
is entitled an encyclopaedia, if it embraces the 
consideration of the full circle of sciences, and 
a cyclopaedia, if it treats of a special depart- 
ment of knowledge. These two terms are not, 
however, always used with this discrimination, 
but are often applied indifferently to any com- 
plete collection of facts, general or special, ar- 
ranged under alphabetical headings. To such 
collections the terms thesaurus and gazetteer are 
also applied, the latter exclusively to a geo- 
graphical dictionary. 

The first attempt at a complete collection of 
the words of the English language was the Uni- 
versal Etymological English Dictionary (Lou- 
don, 172G), by Nathan Bailey, which subsequent- 
ly formed, in part, the basis upon which Dr. 
Johnson compiled his great work. Johnson's 
Dictionary appeared in 1755, after seven years 
of constant labor, and justly entitled its author 
to be considered the founder of English lexicog- 
raphy. It was greatly eidarged by Todd in the 
editions of 1814 and 1827. The most important 
dictionaries published iu England since the time 
of Johnson are Walker's (1791), Enfield's (1807), 
Booth's (1835), Smart's (183G), and Richardson's 
(1837). The catalogue of works of this kind is, 
however, very extensive; but the most important 
is the elaborate work of Dr. Richardson, entitled 
a New Dictionary of the English Language 
(2 vols., 4to, London, 1835 — 7). Special atten- 
tion is given, in this work, to the etymology of 
words and their illustration by copious citations 
from standard writers ; and the arrangement is 
in the alphabetical order of the primitives, be- 
neath each of which its derivatives are grouped. 
Of tins work. Dean Trench remarks, " It is the 
only English dictionary in which etymology as- 
sumes the dignity of a science." 

The first dictionary of any importance published 
in the United States was the first edition of 
Webster's American Dictionary qfthe English 
Language (2 vols., 4to, N. Y., 1828). Of this 
work, revised and enlarged editions were published 
in 1841) and 1843, during the life of the author; 
but in 1848, a new edition, revised and enlarged 
by Prof. Goodrich, was issued at Springfield, 
Mass., and in 1864, a still larger edition was 
published in Springfield, with revised etymologies 



and much additional information of great value. 
This work is a large quarto, of 184(1 pages, and 
contains about 114,000 words. The elaborate 
illustrated dictionary of Dr. Worcester, published 
in I860, is also a work of nearly the same size as 
Webster's, and contains about 104.000 words. 
This work is more conservative in its orthography 
and pronunciation than that of Dr. Webster, and 
is generally followed iu the New England states. 
The authority of 1 1 1 ibster's Dictionary is. however, 
undisputed in most parts of the United States. 

A dictionary is strictly a work of reference, 
and is to be employed exclusively as such ; hence, 
its use as a school book is limited. It was for- 
merly, in some schools, the custom to require 
pupils to learn by rote the spelling and definition 
of words from abridged dictionaries and exposi- 
tors, the alphabetical arrangement of words be- 
ing followed in the assignment of lessons ; but 
this absurd practice is now, probably, entirely 
obsolete. After a certain degree of advancement 
in learning to read, it is, without doubt, of im- 
portance that the pupils should be supplied with 
simple dictionaries, and encouraged to refer to 
them for information in regard to the meaning 
of the difficult words which they meet with iu 
their reading books. This will serve to inculcate 
the habit of frequently consulting the dictionary 
in their subsequent studies, and will, in this way, 
lead to a more accurate knowledge of their lan- 
guage, more especially its orthoepy, in which 
most persons, even those of considerable culture 
otherwise, are apt to be quite faulty. In pur- 
suing this method, the following course of pro- 
cedure will be found beneficial : (1) The teacher 
assigns a certain portion of reading matter, or a 
certain number of selected words, which the 
pupil is to study critically by the use of the dic- 
tionary, as far as may be necessary; (2) The 
pupil learns, from the dictionary, the meaning 
or definition of those which he does not under- 
stand, and next studies how to illustrate their 
application by using them in sentences, or by 
citations from standard authors ; (3) In an ad- 
vanced stage, the student gives mure critical at- 
tention to the precise shades of meaning of the 
words usually deemed to be synonymous, ami 
learns how to make a proper discrimination in 
the use of such words. For this purpose, such 
works as Roget's Thesaurus and Crabbe's Syn- 
onyms will be found important auxiliaries to 
the unabridged dictionary of either Webster to 
Worcester. 

To the teacher, no acquisition is more impor- 
tant than a critical knowledge of the orthography, 
pronunciation, meaning, and proper use of words 
in his own language ; and, hence, a good dic- 
tionary should always be at hand for the deter- 
mination of those doubtful points which, with 
even the best scholar and the most experienced 
teacher, will sometimes arise. A dictionary is, 
therefore, a part of the school apparatus, which 
cannot be dispensed with. 

In the study of a foreign language, the diction- 
ary is needed at a much earlier stage than in the 
study of the vernacular ; although modern edu- 



224 



DICTIONARY 



eators strongly advocate that the process of ac- 
quiring a foreign language should be made, as 
much as possible, to conform to the manner in 
which the child learns to speak his native tongue. 
The number of words of the foreign language 
which can be learned in this way must, however, 
be always quite limited, and hence the constant 
need of consulting the dictionary. It is a note 
worthy fact in this connection, that the science 
of lexicography has been developed by the need 
of dictionaries to facilitate the study of foreign 
languages, not the native tongue. Though the 
Greeks and Romans, and even some of the 
oriental nations before them, had vocabularies of 
the words of their languages, arranged more or 
less in alphabetical order, the origin of complete 
dictionaries is no earlier than the time when the 
study of the classics was revived in Italy. The 
most famous, though not the first among these 
was Calepi.no (Latin Lexicon, Reggio, 1502), from 
whose name is derived the French word calepin 
(a commonplace-book). But the path in which 
modern lexicographers have gained so much dis- 
tinction was first opened in 1532 by Robert 
Stephens (Pr. Etienne or Estienne) by the pub- 
lication of the Thesaurus Idiiguce Latinos and 
Henry Stephens's Thesaurus Lingvo? Qraecce, 
published in 1572, in 5 volumes, but abridged 
by Scapula, who issued in 1579 Lexicon Grceco- 
Latinum novum. (See Stephens.) These works 
were the first notable attempts to develop the 
various meanings of every word, and to make 
scientific arrangement no less an essential feature 
than completeness of vocabulary. Among the 
most prominent of the succeeding lexicogra- 
phers, are Forcellini, Scheller, Freund, and 
Georges for the Latin, and Passow for the Greek. 
Forcellini was chiefly distinguished for illus- 
trating the meaning of every word by examples 
from classical authors ; and the Germans just 
named developed this feature to a high degree 
of perfection. The first Latin-English dic- 
tionary was edited by Sir Thomas Elyot (Lon- 
don, 1538); the most famous was that of Ains- 
worth (q. v.). The work of Forcellini was the 
basis of the Latin-English dictionary of Leverett 
(Boston, 1836), and that of Freund, of the 
Latin-English dictionary of E. A. Andrews 
(New York, 1856). The Greek lexicon of Pas- 
sow is the basis of the Greek-English lexicon of 
Liddell & Scott (Oxford, 1845) and its Ameri- 
can revision by Drisler (New York, 1848). It is 
a noteworthy fact in the history of English and 
American education, that until the present cen- 
tury the Greek language was studied through 
the medium of the Latin, and there were no 
Greek-English, but only Greek-Latin lexicons. 
The Germans, for a considerable time previously, 
had published lexicons in their own language, 
and the French had followed their example. The 
first Greek-English lexicon announced (in 1814) 
was that of John Pickering, which was based on 
the Greek-Latin dictionary of Schrevelius. But 
before it was published (Boston, 1826), a similar 
work, the Greek and English Lexicon of John 
Jones (London, 1823), appeared in England. The 



Lexicon of Donnegan (London, 1827) was pro- 
fessedly, in substance, a translation of Passow's 
work; and Dunbar's Greek and English Lexi- 
con (Edinburgh, 1843) was chiefly a reprint of 
the second edition (1829) of Pickering's work. 
Great improvements in the adaptation of the 
classical dictionary to school purposes were in- 
troduced by Ingerslev's Latin-German Lexicon 
(1st edit, 1852 ; 4th, 1876). Before him, it 
had been the aim of lexicographers in general 
to attain the greatest possible completeness 
of words and their different meanings ; and 
the works of smaller compass were condensed 
abridgements. Ingerslev conceived the idea of 
a school dictionary in the strictest sense of the 
term. It was to be limited to those writers 
whose works are usually read in classical schools, 
and was designed to explain sufficiently every 
difficult passage occurring in any of this class of 
authors. By referring in succession to all the 
synonyms of a word, and onty defining the dis- 
tinctive meaning of the word itself, the syno- 
nymic element of the language, as far as it is of 
value for the pupil of a Latin school, is explained 
in the smallest possible compass. The poetic, later, 
and ante-classic use or meaning of every word is 
pointed out by appropriate abbreviations ; the 
remainder is classic. This plan has met with 
universal approval among German scholars; and 
a number of other works have since been pub- 
lished, the most important of which are those 
by Georges (1st edit., 1864 ; 3d edit., 1874), and 
Heinichen (Leips., 1864), for the Latin; and 
by Benseler (4th edit., 1872), and Schenkl (3d 
edit., 1867) for the Greek. The lexicon of In- 
gerslev is the basis of the Latin-English lexicon 
of Crooks and Schem (Philadelphia, 1857). A 
large number of special dictionaries to classic 
authors, especially those read by beginners, have 
been prepared, but many educators disapprove 
of the use of books of this class. On the other 
hand, the compilation of an elementary diction- 
ary specially suited for the study of the Latin 
writers read by beginners has been recommended, 
and a good work of the kind has been edited by 
Georges (Laleiniscli-deutsclies Schulworterbuch, 
Leipsic, 1876). 

The dictionaries of modern languages are 
either unilingual, intended for the natives of a 
country, or bilingual, intended for the study of a 
language other than the vernacular. The former 
more or less resemble in their history and scope the 
English works referred to above. Many works of 
the former class owe their origin to learned socie- 
ties. Among them is the celebrated Italian diction- 
ary della Crusca ( Vocabulario degli accademici 
delta Crusca, first published in 1612). The fame of 
this work is, however, greater than its real merit, 
for it is, in fact, only a dictionary of the Tuscan 
dialect, and while regarding the 14th century as 
the Augustan age of Italian literature, it slighted 
the distinguished writers of the 16th century. It 
was subsequently enlarged and improved (Flor- 
ence, 1729 — 1738), and in this augmented form 
is still the standard authority for the Italian lan- 
guage. — Spain also owes its largest dictionary to 



DICTIONARY 



DIDACTICS 



225 



the Spanish Academy (6 vols., Madrid, 1726 — 
1739), which became the absolute standard of 
Spanish orthography; it was, in the present cent- 
ury, revised and greatly enlarged by Salva who 
added more than -211,0110 words (1st edit., 1846). 
— France is indebted for the first noteworthy 
dictionary of its language to Robert Stephens, 
who published a French-Latin dictionary in 1539. 
The dictionary of the French Academy was first 
published in 1(194, and soon became the standard 
lexical authority of the French. It has been 
from time to time revised; and a seventh edition, 
under the editorship of Patin, was to be com- 
pleted in 1876. The dictionary of the Academy 
was followed by a considerable number of other 
works, the most important of which, that of 
Littre (3 vols., Paris, 1863 — 1873), is regarded 
as being, in many respects, even superior to the 
dictionary of the Academy, and entitled to a 
place among the very best products of lexical 
science. — The history of German lexicography 
is traced to the 7th century. The first work of 
lasting value was the German-Latin dictionary 
of Frisch (Berlin, 1741). Adelnng's dictionary 
(Leips., 1774 — 1781) was, for a time, a classical 
work; but the standard work of German litera- 
ture is the dictionary of the brothers Jacob and 
Wilhelin Grimm, begun in 1852, on a plan more 
extensive than any other dictionary of any mod- 
ern language. It is to include every word used in 
German works from Luther to Goethe. It was 
•continued after the death of the authors by Moritz 
Heyne, Rudolf Hildebrand, and Karl Weigand : 
and it is expected that the whole will be ready 
about 1890. Of other German dictionaries 
those of Sanders are highly valued and have 
found a large circulation ( W&rterbitch der deut- 
schen Sprache, 2 vols., Leips., 1859 — 1867 ; and 
HamdwSrterbuch der deitfschen Sprache, Leips., 
L869). — The standard dictionary of the Russian 
language has been prepared by the Russian Acad- 
emy (4 vols., St. Petersburg, 1847). Most of 
the smaller nationalities of Europe have like- 
wise their national dictionaries, which, though 
inferior to the works of Grimm and Littre, are, 
in many cases, store-houses of profound learning 
and indispensable for the philosophical study 
of the several languages. In the schools of all 
the countries referred to, the use of this class 
of dictionaries in the study of the native lan- 
guage is less frequent than in England. The 
bilingual dictionaries belong to the same class as 
the Creek and Latin lexicons, but there are some 
marked points of difference. The Greek or the 
Latin lexicon is chiefly, or almost exclusively, 
used for acquiring the ability to read the classic 
authors ; a speaking and writing knowledge of 
either of these languages has been the object of 
study in only few cases, and, at present, even 
more rarely than formerly '; therefore, the great 
majority of students use only the classic-modern 
dictionary, and but very few the modern-classic 
dictionary ; indeed, many distinguished educa- 
tors regard the latter as entirely superfluous. In 
the study of modern languages, on the contrary, 
the object of study is to speak and write as well 



as to read ; and, hence, the native-foreign part of 
the dictionary is as much needed as the foreign- 
native, and almost wholly supersedes the latter 
as soon as a good knowledge of reading has been 
acquired. As modern languages are living and 
growing, while the classic languages are dead and 
fixed, the dictionaries of the former require more 
frequent revisions and larger additions than 
the classic lexicons, — a distinction which is of 
practical importance. The classic languages are 
studied for educational and scientific purposes 
only; the modern languages, in most cases, be- 
cause a knowledge of them is believed to be of 
practical advantage. As a general rule, a greater 
degree of scholarship may, therefore, be looked 
for in the classic lexicon, and a more practical 
arrangement in the modern dictionary. At- 
tempts to compile dictionaries containing the 
words of more than two languages, have not 
been wanting, but have met with but little 
favor. The alphabetical arrangement is the 
universal rule in all dictionaries ; all attempts 
to substitute any other having always failed. 
In classical dictionaries, however, for begin- 
ners the partial combination of the etymolog- 
ical with the alphabetical arrangement is re- 
garded by some educators as useful and con- 
venient. The dictionaries of oriental languages 
are, to a higher degree than either classical or 
modern dictionaries, written for the special use 
of scholars. 

The great progress of linguistics, and, espe- 
cially, of comparative linguistics, has made it 
possible for modern lexici igraphers to < levelop t he 
etymological department of the dictionary in 
such a maimer 8 i to render works of an earlier 
date almost useless. There is, however, a great 
want of agreement as to the extent to which it is 
desirable to introduce this feature into school 
dictionaries. In the classical dictionary, it is 
the general rule, to give at least as much of ety- 
mological explanation as is of immediate prac- 
tical value to the pupil. ( >f the dictionaries of 
modern languages, some give etymological ex- 
planations, and some wholly omit them. As a 
very valuable fruit of the science of comparative 
linguistics may be mentioned the etymological 
dictionaries of whole families of languages. One 
of the best representatives of this class of works 
is the Etyrnologische WSrte/rbnch der romani- 

i schen Spraehen by Diez. 

As in the study of languages, whether classical 
or modern, as well as in the native language, the 

! dictionary is an important school book, the 
teacher should not omit to familiarize his pupils 
with the proper way of using it ; and it is there- 
fore, desirable, as a matter of convenience, that 

j the pupils of a school should be all supplied 
with the same dictionary. For information re- 
garding the literature of dictionaries, see Vatek, 
LdteratW der Grammaliken, Lexiea untl War- 
tersammlungen idler Spraehen der Erde (2d 

| edit., revised by Julg, Berlin, 1847). 

DIDACTICS, the theory of instruction, as 
distinguished from that of education in its nar- 
rower sense, implying simply moral education. 



226 



DIDACTICS 



DIESTERWEG 



It is commonly treated under two heads : gen- 
eral didactics, which exhibits the philosophical 
principles of teaching, and the conditions of its 
success ; and special didactics, or methodics, 
which applies the general truths to the several 
branches of instruction, the different ages to be 
instructed, and the various individual characters 
and their treatment. The distinction between 
didactics and pedagogy in the narrower sense is 
made only for the sake of separate scientific 
treatment, as it is universally conceded that all 
instruction can be rendered a means of moral 
education, and that no instruction deserves the 
name, or can be truly successful, without a cor- 
responding development of moral power. In any 
branch of instruction, the very first beginning- 
presupposes attention on the part of the pupil, 
while the progress made will depend on his self- 
activity, and his ultimate mastership on his full 
appropriation of all the moral power inherent in 
the branch of art or science concerned. On the 
part of the teacher, moral power, engendered by 
such mastership, must be presupposed, if he is to 
impart to his pupil attention, self-activity, and 
love for the subject. In regard to the age of 
the pupil, instruction and moral education bear 
to each other a changing proportion. During 
the first age, — from earliest infancy up to the 
eighth or tenth year, the so-called formal pur- 
pose of education prevails in importance ; the 
several functions of the youthful mind must be 
made self-active, and the material purpose of 
didactics, — the acquisition of knowledge or posi- 
tive learning, must be made a mere means to the 
former, so that no more of each concentric circle 
of facts be given to appropriate than can be di- 
gested for the benefit of each function. The 
second age, which extends to the beginning of 
sexual maturity, is the one during which instruc- 
tion and education should be, as it were, in equi- 
poise; while, in the period after sexual maturity, 
the material purpose, that of the acquisition of 
knowledge and skill, may preponderate. In re- 
gard to the branches of instruction, general di- 
dactics shows which of these are adapted to the 
several stages of the mental and moral develop- 
ment of the three ages, and which concentric 
circle of facts and truths of every science and art 
may be introduced at the time when it can serve 
as wholesome mental and moral food. A most 
important distinction is made between the peda- 
gogical and the scientific treatment of every sub- 
ject of instruction, the latter being of necessity 
systematic and synthetic, while the former should 
be methodic and analytic first, synthetic last ; 
that is to say, should introduce every object of 
learning at such a time, and in such a manner, 
that it may be mentally and morally appropriated. 
Special didactics, commonly designated as me- 
thodics, treats of the pedagogical means proper 
in each branch of instruction, at each age and 
stage of development. An explanation of the 
more important methods of didactics will be 
found under the titles of the various branches. In 
general, however, we may state that all promi- 
nent educators concur in holding that the teacher 



is every -where the best method, as he is in fact 
the school itself, if he be a true teacher. It 
would, however, be a dangerous error to sup- 
pose, on that account, that every teacher should 
be left free to invent his own methods, or could, 
be expected to be successful without an acquain- 
tance with the best methods in use. Tins error- 
will be avoided by those who, on the one hand, 
are so deeply imbued with the great responsi- 
bility of their calling, as to feel that the wisdom 
of the preceding generations ctf great teachers 
cannot be neglected, and, therefore, that the- 
methods devised and practiced by them should, 
be made a subject of faithful and conscientious 
study ; but who, on the other hand, realize the 
principle that the most approved methods can- 
not benefit a teacher who has not mentally so 
appropriated them as to reproduce them accord- 
ing to his own individuality, and to be able to 
adapt them to the peculiar wants of his pupils, 
as well as to all other circumstances in which he 
is placed. All teaching should be methodical in 
every aspect; it should be based on the thorough 
appropriation of a proper system of pedagogy; 
and it should be a natural outgrowth of the 
teacher's personality, if it is to perform its proper 
office in the work of real education. 

DIESTERWEG, Friedrich. Adolf "Wil- 
helm, one of the most distinguished educational 
writers of Germany, in the present century, was 
born at Siegen, Oct. 29., 1790, and died at Berlin, 
July 7., I860. After studying, at the universities 
of Herborn and Tubingen, theology, philosophy, 
mathematics, and natural science, he became, in 
1810, a private tutor at Mannheim ; in 1811, 
teacher at the secondary school of AVorms, which 
at that time was French ; in 1813, teacher at 
the model school of Frankfort ; in 1818, second, 
rector of the Latin school of Elberfeld; and, in 
1820, first teacher and acting president of the 
seminary at Meurs. While in the latter position, 
he gained a reputation both as a teacher and 
as an educational writer, which spread through- 
out Germany. He not only compiled a large num- 
ber of school books, many of which are still in 
extensive use, but also took an active part in 
all the educational controversies of the day. In 
1827, he founded the Rheinische Blatter fur 
Unterricht und Erzieliung, a quarterly journal 
devoted to instruction and education, with special 
regard to elementary instruction. In 1832, he 
accepted a call as director of the teachers' semi- 
nary at Berlin, where, as an advocate of sweeping 
and radical reforms, he had to contend with many 
difficulties. In 1830, the Prussian government 
sent Diesterweg to Denmark, to observe and re- 
port on the monitorial system which prevailed in 
the schools of that country. Diesterweg's report, 
published under the title of Bemerkungen und' 
Ansichten auf einer pddagogischen Reise nach 
den ddnischen Staaten im Sommer 1836 (Berlin, 
1836), was adverse to the Danish system, and 
called forth replies from Zerrenner and others. 
In 1846, Diesterweg took an influential part in 
the celebration, by the German teachers, of the 
centennial birthday of Pestalozzi, and in found- 



DIESTERWEG 



227 



ing au institution for orphans, as an appropriate 
monument to the great regenerator of modern 
popular education. 

Diesterweg was very obnoxious to the political 
conservatists and the orthodox Protestants, but 
maintained himself, amidst constant conflicts, 
until 1847, when the minister of educational and 
ecclesiastical affairs, Eichhorn, suspended him 
from office. Three years later, in 1850, he was 
definitely removed, but his entire salary was 
left to him. Henceforth, he devoted his time 
partly to literary labors, and partly to the advo- 
cacy of his views in the town council of Berlin 
and the Prussian parliament, to both of which 
bodies the city of Berlin elected him a member. 
In the Prussian parliament, Diesterweg was the 
leader of the opposition to the principles winch 
the Prussian government, at that time, endeav- 
ored to carry into effect, in the state school system, 
and especially to the famous " three school regu- 
lations" (Schulregiilalive), which aimed at sub- 
stituting for the principles of Pestalozzi the most 
intimate connection between church and school. 
Diesterweg was generally regarded by the teachers 
of Protestant Germany as the leader of the 
party which demanded an entire disconnection 
of the school from the church ; and, by his own 
party, he was looked upon with sentiments of 
profound love and admiration. When he cele- 
brated, Oct. 2!)., 1865, his seventy-fifth birthday, 
a number of his pupils from all parts of Germany 
presented him with a silver laurel wreath. 

The views of Diesterweg concerning the rela- 
tion between religion and education necessarily 
provoked the determined opposition of those 
who did not share them, but even his opponents 
concede the excellence of many of his school 
books. Among these books, may be mentioned 
the following : Lehrbuch der mathemalischen 
Oeographie und populCiren Himmelskunde (8th 
edit., Berlin, 1874); Leitfaden fiir den Unter- 
richt in der Formen- und GrSssenlekre (3d edit., 
Elberfeld, 1836); Pra&tiscker Lehrgang f&r den 
Unterricht in der deutscken Spraclie (Part 1., 
6th edit., Gutersloh, 1836; Part 2. and 3.. 5th 
edit., 1836); Praktisches Rechenbuch fur Ele- 
mental-- und hShere Biirgerschulen, in connec- 
tion with Heuser (part 1., 21st edit., Gutersloh, 
1865; part 2., 11th edit., 1861; part 3., 4th edit., 
1860); Methodisches Handbuch fiir den Ge- 
sammlunterricht im Rechnen, also in connection 
with Heuser (2 vols., 6th edit, Gutersloh, 1864); 
and the E/einentar-Geometrie (4th edit., Frank- 
fort, 1874). As an organ for the dissemination 
of his views, he established, in 1851, in addition 
to the Rheinische Blatter, his Pddagogisches 
Jahrbuch, of which one annual volume appeared 
regularly until his death. This theory of in- 
struction and education is fully developed in the 
Wegweiser zur Bildung fiir deutsche Lehrer, 
which he published in union with Bormann, 
Luben, Mager, and other teachers (5th edit., 
Essen, 1875). He treats in this work of the prin- 
ciples according to which man should be in- 
structed and educated in general, and of the 
method which should be observed in teaching 



the different branches of instruction in particular. 
The literature on every subject is given with 
critical remarks. As the aim of all education he 
regards the principle of "self-activity in the ser- 
vice of the true, the beautiful, and the good." 
Christianity he regarded as the most perfect sys- 
tem of religion, and the divisions of Christianity 
as resulting from the different degrees of culture 
in the individuals who embraced it. His opposi- 
tion to the doctrines of the Church gradually 
assumed a tone of great bitterness, provoked to a 
great extent by his personal conflicts with the 
Prussian government. He was outspoken in ad- 
vocating that the denominational character of the 
public school should be abolished, and that unsec- 
tarian "communal" or "national schools" should 
be established in their place. He did not wish, 
however, to have religious instruction excluded 
from the schools, but favored an instruction in 
the general tenets of religion by the teacher. 

Although Diesterweg devoted his attention 
chiefly to the elementary schools, he also wrote on 
the reform of the secondary schools, and still 
more on that of the universities. In his essay 
Ueber das Perderben auf deutscken Universi- 
tii lt'n. which forms a part of the work Beitrdge 
znr Lebensfrage der Civilisation (Essen, 1836), 
he severely censured the course of instruction 
pursued at the German universities, and con- 
tended that the method of teaching should be 
made to conform to the wants of the age, 
and that the studies, as well as the conduct of 
the students, should no longer remain without 
superintendence by the proper authorities. The 
universities were defended against these charges 
by Prof. Leo, of Halle, in the work Herr Dr. 
Diesterweg und die deutschen Viiirersiliiten 
(Leipsic, 1866). 

Soon after the death of Diesterweg, a number 
of liis friends, pupils, and admirers determined 
to establish, in commemoration of his merits, a 
Dieslerieeg-Stiftung, the object of which was to 
enable a number of competent teachers to devote 
themselves wholly to educational labors in the 
spirit of Diesterweg. The Stiflung embraces with- 
in the scope of these labors educational lectures, 
the publication of educational works, inclusive of 
a continuation of Diesterweg 's Jahrbuch; and 
the establishment of a national German model 
school on the basis of Diesterweg s principles. — 
See Kneoht, Adolf Diesterweg, sein Leben und 
Streben (in Magazin fur Pddagogik, 1869) ; 
Langenberg, ^4. Diesterweg, sein Leben und 
seine Schriften (Frankfort, 1869 ; this biography 
contains a complete list of all the writings of 
Diesterweg). A "Memoir" of Diesterweg has 
appeared in Barnard's Journal of Education, 
in which are also published translations of sev- 
eral essays of Diesterweg ; as, Catechism of 
Methods of Teaching, School Discipline and 
Plans of Instruction, Intuitional and Speaking 
Exercises. A selection from the works of Die- 
sterweg, with a biographical introduction, has 
been published by Langenberg, under the title. 
^4. Diesterweg, Lichtstrahlen aus seinen Schrif- 
ten (Leipsic, 1875). 



228 



DIFFIDENCE 



DILWORTH 



DIFFIDENCE, or an instinctive distrust of 
one's own ability, arising from peculiarities of 
temperament and mental constitution, very often 
characterizes both children and adults ; and, when 
it is excessive, presents a very serious hinderanee, 
in respect to both moral and intellectual educa- 
tion, to the teacher who fails to study sufficiently 
the individual characters of his pupils, or who is 
ignorant of the proper methods of addressing 
their peculiar traits, so as to guide or correct 
their natural tendencies. Every teacher of ex- 
perience is aware that some children are bold, 
forward, confident, or conceited ; while others 
are timorous, shy, bashful, and diffident. The 
former seem to be better subjects of instruction, 
and make a more gratifying return for the 
teacher's efforts, because the}' are ready to make 
an immediate use or display of their acquire- 
ments ; while the others, however much they 
may have learned, fail to meet the ordinary exi- 
gencies of school recitations, examinations, or 
public exhibitions, on account of their excessive 
self-restraint, and their natural shrinking from 
any trial of their ability. They fail because 
they think they will fail, or because they are so 
sensitive to censure or unfavorable criticism, 
that they are paralyzed by the apprehension of 
it. Of this peculiar trait the poet Cowper was 
a singular example ; and all are familiar with 
the sufferings which he underwent in anticipa- 
tion of the performance of his public duties as 
clerk to the house of lords, almost unseating his 
reason, and compelling liim at last to resign the 
honorable and lucrative position which his 
friends had obtained for him. 

This peculiar trait of character, according to 
Spurzheim, is the '-effect of circumspection, 
combined with secretiveness and intellect ;" to 
which may be added deficient self-esteem, and a 
sensitive, impressible temperament. When the 
feeling of secretiveness, or shyness is predomi- 
nant, diffidence assumes the form of bashfulness; 
when caution is the leading trait, it is the sense 
of danger that restrains; and when self-esteem 
is deficient, it is humility, modesty, or an extrav- 
agant impression of inability. All these phases 
should be subjected by the teacher to a close and 
discriminating scrutiny, and proper means should 
be adopted to give tone and balance to the char- 
acter, as one of the most important results of a 
judicious education. Some of the best minds 
have been characterized by diffidence ; but gen- 
erally they possessed other qualities which coun- 
teracted its effects, or compensated for the in- 
firmity. Washington was noted for his modesty, 
arising, without doubt, from natural diffidence 
mixed and tempered with firmness and an un- 
usually strong sense of moral rectitude ; but he 
was also distinguished for his fearlessness in the 
presence of extreme peril, showing that diffidence 
is by no means inconsistent with'intrepidity. 

In dealing with children who possess this 
trait, the teacher should use every means of en- 
couragement, should be careful not to place the 
pupil in positions in which there is a probability 
of failure and ■ disgrace, and should aim to con- 



trol his will by an appeal to his affections, his 
love of approbation, and his sense of right, rather 
than to his fear or his sense of shame. His self- 
esteem being deficient, everything should be 
done to cultivate it, and he should, therefore, be 
led rather by praise than driven by censure ; but, 
above every thing else, in a chUd who is want- 
ing in self-esteem, should the seeds of moral prin- 
ciple be planted; so that if he is not governed by 
pride or a sense of personal honor, he may listen 
to the dictates of conscience. The principle un- 
' derlying this treatment is, to counteract the bad 
effects of a deficiency in certain mental qualities 
by addressing those which are strong or excessive. 
Hecker, in The Scientific Basis of Education, in 
: this connection remarks, "If the child with whom 
| the teacher is dealing has these restraining facul- 
ties large, the teacher, on that account, has more 
difficulty in guiding him, but has the conditions 
of greater success if he can succeed in doing so. 
On this disposition depends the character of 
self -sustained and self-made men." 

DILIGENCE, the virtue of constancy in 
labor, is an important, though not the sole, means 
of success in any branch of human calling. It 
is a function of the will power, as distinguished 
from intellect and sensation, and is of sponta- 
neous growth, wherever the occupation is akin to 
the inclination and productive of pleasure. It 
can, therefore, artificially be engendered only 
by connecting the occupation with pleasurable 
emotions that are not foreign to the subject. 
Where the latter are missing, only dire necessity 
can keep diligence alive, — either some necessity 
from natural, or from positive law. But then 
diligence has ceased to be a virtue, though it may 
continue as a habit, mechanically as it were. In 
education, diligence is more powerful than nat- 
ural adaptation, as all the experience derived 
from the history of great men shows. It is the 
office of pedagogy to promote diligence in the 
pupils by spontaneous growth, as is done in the 
kindergarten system of education. Where such 
spontaneous growth has not been effected by early 
influences, an artificial growth must be cultivated; 
but the pleasurable emotions to be connected 
with the occupation, should be prompted as 
little as possible by means foreign to the sub- 
ject, such as, for instance, outward punishments, 
rewards, purely mechanical discipline, or the 
stimulus of ambition. Whatever the occupa- 
tion or study in which pupils are required to 
engage, they should, as soon as possible, be in- 
duced to take a lively interest in it for its own 
sake ; because such an interest will arouse into 
active exercise all the best powers of their minds, 
and thus lead to the most effective and salutary 
educational discipline. Besides, the habit of de- 
pending upon external incentives, — the love of 
distinction, of praise, of pleasure, or of gain, 
must necessarily engender selfishness, and thus, 
narrow and debase the mind which a generous, 
earnest zeal in the pursuit of a praiseworthy ob- 
ject would expand and ennoble. 

DILWORTH, Thomas, an English teacher, 
and the author of several very successful and 



DIXTER 



DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 



229 



popular school text-books, among which were a 
Si'ti- Guide to the English Tongue (London, 
174(1), which passed through more than forty 
editions, and a Compendium of Arithmetic (Lon- 
don, 17:V2) ; also r llie Book-keeper's Assistant, 
8vo., and the Schoolmaster's Assistant, 12mo. 
These were among the most noted school books 
of their time. Dihvorth died in 1780. 

DINTER, Dr. Gustav Friedrich, a Ger- 
man educator, was born Febr. 29., 1760, at Borna, 
in Saxony. He received his first education at 
the Furstenschule of Grimma, where, at that 
time, the monitorial system was in use. and the 
best scholars of the upper classes, under the name 
of Obergesellen , aided in the instruction of the 
younger pupils. Dinter greatly distinguished 
himself as ObergeseU, and gave indications of the 
eminence which he subsequently attained as an 
educator. After studying theology at the uni- 
versity of Leipsic, and being for five years tutor 
in a private family, he was appointed, in 1787, 
pastor of a church in Kitzscher, near Borna. Here 
he gratuitously received young men into his house 
in order to educate them as school-teachers, and 
soon attracted the attention of the highest school 
boards of the country by the superior knowledge 
which his pupils showed on entering the normal 
school. He was, therefore, offered, in 1797. the 
position of director of the teachers' seminary at 
Friedrichstadt-Dresden, which he accepted, al- 
though it yielded a smaller income, hoping to 
find there a more extensive field of usefulness. 
In consequence of his able administration, the 
seminary attained a high reputation ; but, as his 
health failed, he resumed, in 1807, the charge 
of a village church. Again he received young 
men into lu's house, and prepared them for 
the gymnasium, employing some of his former 
pupils as assistants. In 181G, the Prussian gov- 
ernment appointed him consistorial and school 
councilor at Konigsberg. He found the schools 
which he had to inspect in a deplorable condition. 
When he made his first tour of inspection, there 
were forty-two rural and two town schools, in 
which not a single child was able to write a let- 
ter. Twelve years later, all the boys who had 
been regular in their studies, in sixty out of 
sixty-seven schools, had acquired this ability. 
One year after settling at Konigsberg, he re- 
ceived, in addition to his office as councilor, an 
appointment as professor at the university. He 
was an indefatigable writer, working, on an 
average, eighty-three hours a week. He died 
May 29., 1831. As a theologian, Dinter belonged 
to the Rationalists' school, though he never at- 
tacked the Evangelical school. His merits as a 
school inspector, teacher, and educational writer 
were so conspicuous, and his life was so pure, that 
even the opponents of his theological views, 
without exception, recognize the prominent posi- 
tion which he occupies in the history of educa- 
tion. He exerted a considerable influence upon 
the educational system of Prussia, by introducing 
into the state school the ideas of Basedow and 
Pestalozzi, which heretofore had been applied oidy 
in private institutions. He was a master of rare 



eminence in the use of the catechetical method 
of instruction, which, through his influence, not 
only came into general use, but was sometimes 
carried to an extreme. He insisted that women 
shoidd receive an education not inferior to that 
of men, since woman bears the most prominent 
part in the education of the rising generation. 
His views on female education are laid down in 
a work, entitled Malvma. Although he did not 
begin his literary activity until he was forty 
years of age, he is entitled to a place among the 
most prolific educational writers in (iermany. 
His complete works edited by Wilhelm (1841 — 
51) are contained in 42 volumes. They are divided 
into four sections; the first containing hisexeget- 
ical writings ( 1 2 vols.) ; the second, the catechet- 
ical (16 vols.), the third, the pedagogical (9 vols.), 
and the fourth the ascetical works (5 vols.). The 
most celebrated of his works, the Schidlehrerbibel, 
has been severely criticised from several points; 
but two of his works, entitled Die roraugliehsten 
Regeln der Pddagogik, Methodik vmd Sehni- 
meisterklugheit (7th edit., 1836) and, Die vorziig- 
Hchsten Regeln der Kateehelik (7th edit.. 1827), 
are regarded as standard works of imperishable 
value. — See Dinter's Leben, von ihm selbst be- 
schrieben. (Plauen, 1860); Schmidt, Gesehic/ite 
der Pddagogik, vol. iv. 

DIPLOMA (<ir. ShrXaua, anything doubled, 
or folded), a term anciently given to a formal 
certificate of authority, because such documents 
were usually written on double or folded waxen 
tablets. In more modem times, the term was 
applied to a royal charter or to any governmental 
testimonial of authority, privilege, or dignity. 
(Hence the science of state documents is called 
diplomatics.) The term is now chiefly confined 
to a certificate given by a university, college, or 
other literary institution, as an evidence that 
the person upon whom it is conferred has at- 
tained a certain degree of scholarship ; or, in the 
case of professional schools, as a license to prac- 
tice a particular art. 

DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or as they 
j prefer to be named, " The Church of Christ," 
a body of Baptists, sometimes called by their 
opponents " Campbellites," after Thomas Camp- 
I bell and his sou Alexander Campbell, who gave 
the immediate origin and distinctive character 
to the denomination. The original purpose of 
Thomas Campbell, who came to the United 
States, in 1808, from Ireland, as the minister of a 
Presbyterian denomination knowD as the Seced- 
ers, was to unite the various denominations of 
Christians on the exclusive basis of the Bible. 
For a time, the congregations organized by the 
two Campbells attached themselves to a Baptist 
association ; but, in 1827, a distinct ecclesiastical 
organization was begun. The disciples believe in 
•• baptism for the remission of sins.'' and practice 
weekly communion. In church government, 
this denomination is congregational. In 1874, 
a committee of conference was appointed to 
confer with the Free Will Baptists on a union of 
the two denominations. The membership in the 
United States, chiefly in the Southern and 



i30 



DISCIPLINE 



Western states, is estimated at about 500,000 ; 
in the British Islands, they numbered, in 1874, 
109 churches ; and congregations have also been 
established in Canada, the West Indies, and 
Australia. They have always taken a deep in- 
terest in education, and have a large number of 
academies and seminaries, as well as several col- 
leges of high standing. The most prominent 
among their literary institutions are Bethany 
College, founded by Alexander Campbell, and 
presided over by him until his death ; Kentucky 
University, at Lexington, Ky.; the Northwes- 
tern Christian University, at Indianapolis, Ind.; 
Abingdon College, at Abingdon, 111.; Eureka 
College, at Eureka, 111. ; and Hiram College, at 
Hiram, Ohio. Female colleges have been estab- 
lished at Columbia, Mo., Versailles and Har- 
rodsburg, Ky., and Bloomington, 111. Theological 
schools are connected with the Kentucky Uni- 
versity and Eureka College. A Bible school for 
colored ministers was established at Louisville, 
Ky., in 1874. The number of Sunday-schools in 
1874 was 2,450, with 253,000 scholars. For 
fuller information on the literary institutions of 
this denomination, see the special articles on the 
colleges above mentioned. 

DISCIPLINE (Lat. disciplina, from discere, 
to learn), a term which, according to its literal 
acceptation, means the condition of a disciple, or 
learner ; that is, subordination requiring strict 
obedience to certain directions or rules, or con- 
formity with a system of instruction, having for 
its object some kind of training. Hence the word 
discipline is sometimes used in an active sense as 
synonymous with training or culture, as in the 
expression "intellectual or moral discipline. Some- 
times it is employed to denote school govern- 
ment ; and, frequently also punishment for the 
commission of offenses. The word, however, 
should, particularly in education, be confined to 
its strict meaning as above defined. In all teach- 
ing, there is need of attention and obedience on 
the part of the pupil ; and as an important aim 
of education is to instill certain habits as a basis 
for the formation of character, the learner must 
be required constantly and punctiliously to con- 
form to certain rules and general precepts ; and 
the discipline of the teacher is good or bad in 
proportion as he succeeds in enforcing obedience 
to these necessary rules. In large schools, the 
system of regulations becomes more complicated, 
and a habitual ready attention to them on the 
part of the pupils produces what is technically 
called order. (See Order.) This kind of dis- 
cipline assimilates to what is required in an 
army, with the special object of so unifying a 
large number of men that they may be moved as 
a single person. In military discipline, the indi- 
vidual is sacrificed to the general object to be 
attained by its enforcement ; indeed, he has no 
claim to consideration, except what is secondary 
and subordinate. The danger, in the manage- 
ment of large schools, is that the same principle 
will be applied, the interests of the pupils as in- 
dividuals being lost sight of in the endeavor to 
enforce mere discipline for the purpose of gen- 



eral management or show. In education, how- 
ever, the interests of the individual should never 
be disregarded. School machinery, — marching 
and countermarching, simultaneous movements, 
the motionless gaze, or the dead silence of multi- 
tudes of children, all perhaps trembling under 
restraint, certainly constitutes a kind of disci- 
pline, but a kind, if not absolutely pernicious, of 
but little educational value. Order is indispen- 
sable to the proper working of a school ; but it has 
been well remarked that " good order involves 
impression rather than repression ; it does not 
consist in a coercion from which result merely 
silence, and a vacant gaze of painful restraint; but 
it proceeds from the steady action of awakened 
and interested intellect, — the kindling of an 
earnest purpose and an ambition to excel." 
Hence, the discipline that is necessary to produce 
order in a school or class, is of secondary im- 
portance, in comparison with that which has for 
its object to train the intellectual and moral nat- 
ure of the pupils as individuals. "By discipline," 
says Currie, "we understand the application of 
the motives which prompt the pupil to diligent 
study and to good conduct ;" that is, such mo- 
tives as the desire of the approbation of teacher 
or parent, emulation, or the desire of distinction, 
the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment. 
To what extent these motives should be resorted 
to, and their comparative efficacy in dealing 
with children of different temperaments and 
traits of character, constitute important subjects 
for careful discussion. (See Government, and 
Bewards.J 

All moral discipline must be directed to the 
training of the will ; and it is in this connection 
that the consideration of motives becomes of 
primary importance. Educators are at con- 
siderable variance as to the proper methods of 
controlling the will of children. Some advocate, 
in all cases, an application of the law of kind- 
ness, and contend that physical force should 
never be brought in to coerce or restrain even 
the most self-willed pupil ; others are of the 
opinion, based on experience, as they claim, that, 
in some cases, physical punishment is indispen- 
sable. (See Corporal Punishment.) The best 
training is, without doubt, that which brings 
into play the pupil's higher nature, and leaves 
him habitually actuated by motives derived from 
it. The child cannot be always restrained by 
fear, — that is, the fear of immediate physical 
pain ; and, hence, the discipline to which he is to 
be subjected, should be such as will implant 
motives and principles of conduct that will be 
effective as a means of permanent self-control. 
The mere subduing of the will of children is not 
sufficient ; indeed, it may be injurious. The 
aim of the teacher should be to bring the will 
into subjection to conscience and a sense of right; 
in the words of a distinguished educator, "to dis- 
courage the child in the proper development of 
its nature has a tendency to crush out the life of 
the child rather than to cultivate that life into 
better methods of thought and action." The 
motives brought to bear in the school-room 



DISPUTATIONS 



DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA 231 



should, as far as possible, be those which will be 
operative in after life. Special school incentives, 
such as merit marks etc., are useful and proper 
within certain limitations ; but the great aim 
should be to dispense with them, and substitute 
natural for artificial motives — motives that will 
cling to the child during his whole after life. 
Unnatural, overstrained discipline, that is. the 
exaction of a precise conformity with the minor 
regulations of a school, not only crushes out the 
individuality of the child for the time, but in its 
reaction engenders a feeling of resistance in his 
mind, which, having no outward demonstration, 
naturally results in a habit of deceit. Notliing 
is so baneful to the nature of a child as an at- 
mosphere of tyranny and arbitrary power ; and 
any system of discipline that is founded exclu- 
sively upon it, must produce the worst effects 
possible. After all. the best discipline, even if 
the outward order should not be so exact, is that 
which is brought to bear upon the pupils through 
the consistent example, and the kindly heart-felt 
sympathies of the living teacher, whose very 
presence is sunshine to his school, and who quells 
waywardness by the very sublimity of his pa- 
tience, firmness, and perfect self-control. (See 
■Conscience, Culture of.) 

DISPUTATIONS, the old form of rhetor- 
ical exercises in which candidates for degrees, in 
the universities, were formerly required to ex- 
hibit their powers. Hence the term wrangler 
as applied in the University of Cambridge, Eng- 
land, to those who have attained first-class 
honors in the public mathematical examinations. 
These disputations occupied a very prominent 
place in the college work when the formal Aris- 
totelian or syllogistic logic (dialectics) was much 
in vogue, as being the most valuable of all ac- 
complishments, and the best test of educational 
progress. They were of two kinds : ordinary, 
or those performed privately in term time for 
practice ; and extraordinary, or those performed 
publicly as the necessary qualifications for a de- 
gree. The exercise finally became absurd and was 
held up to ridicule. The following gives a hu- 
morous description of the method of disputation 
at Oxford, England, in the last century : 

" The persons of this argumentative drama are 
three ; namely, the opponent, the respondent, and the 
moderator. The opponent is the person who always 
begins the attack, and is sure of losing the day, being 
always (as they call it) on the wrong side of the ques- 
tion ; though oftentimes, that side is palpably the 
right side, according to our modern philosophy and 
discoveries. The respondent sits over against the op- 
ponent, and is prepared to deny whatever he affirms, 
and always comes off with tiling colors, which must 
needs make him enter the lists with great fortitude and 
intrepidity. The moderator is the hero, or principal 
character of the drama, and struts about between tin 
two wordy champions during the time of action, to 
see that they do not wander from the question in de- 
bate ; and when he perceives them deviating from it, 
to cut them short, and put them into the right road 
again; for which purpose he is provided with a great 
quantity of subtle terms and phrases of art; such as, 
quoad hoc et quoad Mud, formaliter et materia/iter, 
prcedicamentaliter et transcendentaliter. actualiter et 
potent iatiter, directe et per se, reductive et per ac- 
cidens, entitative et quidditatioe, etc. 



The same author characterizes the exercise, 
which was originally designed as a public proof 
of the student s progress in the art of reasoning, 
as "no more than a formal repetition of a set of 
syllogisms upon some ridiculous question in 
logic, which the students get by rote. or. perhaps, 
only read out of their caps, which lie before 
them with their notes in them." On which abuse 
he thus enlarges : 

"These commodious sets of syllogisms are called 
strings, and descend from undergraduate to under- 
graduate, in a regular succession ; so that, when any 
candidate for a degree is to exercise his talent in ar- 
gumentation, he has nothing else to do but to inquire 
among his friends for a string upon such or such a ques- 
tion, and to get it by heart, or read it over in his cap 
as aforesaid/' 

For a long time the study of dialectics, or the 
art of logical disputation, occupied a prominent 
place in the university curriculum both in Eng- 
land and on the continent; and young men were 
allowed to waste their time and intellectual 
energies upon these useless subtleties. •■ In the 
German universities of the 14th and 15th cent- 
turies," Yon Raumer says. " the lectures were 
accompanied with frequent disputations, in which 
teachers and scholars took part. The regular dis- 
putation day was Saturday. Sophismata and 
gucestiones, after the fashion of theses, furnished 
the basis for the disputing. The purpose of them 
all seems to have been not so much to deal with 
the truth of the matter as with the form : they 
were dialectic fencing with all the tricks of soph- 
istry, exhibitions of skill in arguing for and 
against the same proposition." As scholasticism 
declined, this learned trifling became obsolete ; 
[ and where disputations are now required they 
are merely of a formal character. — See Knox. 
Liberal Education, vol. n. (11th ed.. London, 
1795); Vox Raumer, Geschichte der Padagogik, 
vol. v.. trans, in Barnard's den/aut Universities 
(N. Y., 1859). 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, the federal 
district in which the capital of the United States 
has been located since November. 1800. It orig- 
inally consisted of portions of territory ceded 
to the general government by Maryland and 
Yirginia, and forming a square of 10 miles, and 
hence having an area of 100 sq. m., 64 on the 
Maryland side, and '.iC> on the Virginia side. It 
was organized in pursuance of an act of Congress, 
passed June 28., 1790, which accepted this "dis- 
trict of territory" for the " permanent scat of 
government of the United States." and provided 
that the government should be removed from 
Philadelphia to that place on the first Monday 
in November, 1800. The portion on the Virginia 
side of the Potomac was retroceded in 1846, 
leaving 04 sq: m. as the area of the District. 
Charters were subsequently granted to the cities 
[ of Washington and Georgetown, and the District 
j was under the direct control of < !ongress ; 
the people, however, having no representation 
therein and no voice in the election of the pres- 
ident of the U.S. In 1871, a territorial govern- 
ment was organized, the charters of AYashington 
and Georgetown were repealed, and the adminis- 



232 



DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 



tration of the affairs of the District was com- 
mitted to a governor and legislative assembly. 
By act of Congress, June 20., 1874, the territo- 
rial government was abolished, and the adminis- 
tration was vested in three commissioners to be 
appointed by the President with the consent of 
the senate. 

Educational History. — The charter of the city 
of Washington, amended in 1804, first made 
provision for the "establishment and superintend- 
ence of schools" in the District; and an act of the 
city council, the same year, required the appoint- 
ment of thirteen trustees to carry these provi- 
sions into effect. Six of these trustees were to be 
chosen by those persons who contributed to the 
support of the schools. Among the trustees elected 
by the contributors was Thomas Jefferson, who 
was made president of the first board convened. 
The first action taken by the new board contem- 
plated the establishment of schools, a college, and a 
university — the whole to constitute an institution 
"in which every species of knowledge essential to 
the liberal education af youth may eventually be 
acquired." As the result of this action, two 
schools were established, which, in 1809, it was 
resolved to merge into one. About this time 
(1810), the citizens of Georgetown applied to the 
corporation of their city, to set apart a lot on 
which suitable school buildings might be erected. 
Their application is supposed to have been suc- 
cessful, as eight months afterward the officers of 
the city attended the laying of the corner-stone 
of a new school-house ; and, five months after 
that, a new school, organized upon the Lancas- 
terian plan, was opened. In 1812, the sum of 
$1,000 was appropriated by the council for the 
purpose of building an addition in which the 
female pupils might receive separate instruction. 
The reputation of this school had extended so 
far, that the committee of the Washington school 
board, on receipt of a letter from one of the 
teachers of the Georgetown school, suggesting the 
establishment of a similar school in Washington, 
acted immediately upon the suggestion, and pro- 
cured the passage of an order "that there shall be 
one school in the city of Washington, as near as 
practicable in the center thereof , to be conducted 
on the plan of, and as nearly correspondent as 
may be with the forms observed in, the Lan- 
casterian School." Congress, meantime, by a joint 
resolution, authorized the establishment of a lot- 
tery for raising $10,000 to be used in the organ- 
ization of two Lancasterian schools. These 
schools must have been established, as we find 
the board of trustees, in 1813, electing officers 
and supervisory committees for the Eastern and 
Western schools, and for the Eastern and 
Western Lancasterian schools. In 1833, the 
subject of free schools in the District appears to 
have engaged the attention of Congress, but 
nothing decisive was done ; and, on the 4th of 
May of that year, the city corporation applied 
$200 for the relief of the Georgetown school. 
The authorities of the three cities Washington, 
Georgetown, and Alexandria, in 1837, united in 
an appeal to Congress for an appropriation for 



the endowment of a system of education that 
should embrace the whole District of Columbia, 
by which the children of all might equally enjoy 
the inestimable advantages of a liberal education. 
The effort, however, was of no avail, and the 
schools were provided for by private contributions- 
and annual appropriations from the city treasury 
till 1842, when the corporation of the city or- 
dered that the schools should be "taken under the 
exclusive care of the corporate authority." To- 
this end, a board of guardians of the Georgetown 
school was appointed, with full powers to pro- 
vide for the keeping of said schools, and to man- 
age the same for the public interest. In 1844,, 
the public-school system was re-organized by the 
abolition of the two ward boards, and the creation 
of a new board of twelve trustees with ampler 
power for the complete supervision and control 
of the schools. Ihese were to be open to all 
white children between 6 and 16 years of age, 
on prepayment of a tuition fee of not more than 
50 cents a month, the pupils furnishing their 
own books, except in the case of children of in- 
digent parents, who were taught, and furnished 
with books free of cost. The same act appropriated 
$3,650 for building two school-houses, and for 
renting rooms for school purposes. Between 
1845 and 1848, ten new primary schools were 
established, tuition fees were abolished, and a. 
tax of $1 was ordered to be annually levied on 
every white male citizen for the use of the schools. 
The changes during the next five years (1849 to 
1853) were, the establishment of 13 new pri- 
mary schools, the buying of lots, and building of 
new school - houses, the increase of teachers' 
salaries, and an annual average appropriation of 
about $15,000. In 1857, an attempt was made^ 
to bring the public - school system more into 
conformity with the system which had been 
adopted with such success by some of the Eastern 
states, by creating the office of superintendent- 
of public instruction, and making an assessment, 
of 10 cents on every $100 of taxable property, 
but it was not successful. In 1860, the attempt 
to pass so much of the original act as related to- 
taxation, was renewed, and with success, a tax of 
10 cents on the $100 being ordered. Since that, 
time, the progress of the schools has been marked. 
In 1864, the first school for colored children 
went into operation. The same year, Congress, 
approved an act to organize public schools in 
the county of Washington, exclusive of the- 
cities of Washington and Georgetown. The 
first obstacle encountered in the carrying out of 
this law was a disagreement in the board of com- 
missioners in regard to the division of the school 
fund among the white and colored schools. A 
decision was reached in July; and, the same year, 
two schools were opened, affording instruction to- 
150 pupils. The following year, five schools 
were opened, and the few schools for colored 
children previously existing were incorporated 
into the public-school system. Since the creation 
of the board of guardians in Georgetown, in 
1842, no changes except those incident to the- 
ordinary routine of a successful school system are^ 



DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 



233 



recorded. The act of Congress which, in 1871, 
placed the District under" a territorial form of 
government, led to changes in the form and com- 
position of the board of trustees, and to many in 
the details of the management of the schools; but 
the efficiency of the latter was in no way im- 
paired. In 1874, the school boards of Washing- 
ton, Georgetown, and the county were consoli- 
dated into one board of 19 trustees, of whom 11 
were residents of Washington, 3 of Georgetown, 
and 5 of the county. In 1869, the office of super- 
intendent of public schools of Washington was 
created, Zaltnar Richards being chosen to the 
position. The following year, he was succeded 
by J. 0. Wilson, who has continued to discharge 
its duties to the present time. The present super- 
intendent of colored schools for the cities of 
Washington and Georgetown is G. F.J. Cook. 

School System. — The control of the schools 
throughout the District rests with the board of 
trustees already mentioned, who report directly 
to the triumvirate commission created, in Is ,4. 
for the government of the District. This com- 
mission appoints a superintendent of white schools 
in Washington, Georgetown, and the county, and 
a superintendent of colored schools in Washing- 
ton and Georgetown. No permanent school fund 
exists, the schools being maintained either by 
special appropriations by Congress, or by direct 
taxation and voluntary contributions. The second 
method — that of direct taxation — has been most 
effective, the amount of tax per dollar of assessed 
property for the support of the white schools in 
the District and county having been, during the 
past year, 3.7 J mills for Washington, and 3.7 \ 
mills for Georgetown ; the amount for the 
colored schools was 3.3 mills in the former, and 
4 mills in the latter. Tuition is free, the cost of 
books only being charged to scholars; but. in 
case of poverty, this charge is remitted. The legal 
school age is from 6 to 17 years. 

Educational Condition. — The principal items 
of school statistics, for the year 1874 — 5, are as 
follows: 

Number of educable children, white. . 10,489 
" " " " colored 8,328 

Total 28,817 

Number of children enrolled, white . . 11 ,241 
" " " " colored 5,489 

Total 16,730 

Average daily attendance, white 8,520 

" " " colored.. 3,!>24 

Total 12,144 

Number of schools, white 166 

" " " colored 75 

Total 241 

Average number of teachers, males, white.. . 9 
" " ■' " females " .. . 164 

Total.. 173 

Average number of teachers, males, colored 2 
" females " 86 

Total. . 88 
Estimated enrollment in private and paro- 
chial schools for the year 6,837 



The school revenue for the year was: 
Local taxation for white schools $361,156.99 
All other sources " " 93,749.67 



Total $454,906.66 

Local taxation for colored 

schools $103,003.92 

All other sources for colored 

schools 71,454,12 



Total $174,458.04 

Expenditures $334,547.30 

Normal instruction. — The normal school at 
Washington was organized in 1873, for the pur- 
pose of supplying the public schools of the 
city with teachers. The proportion of female 
teachers in the schools is so large — 95 per cent — • 
that no provision has been made in the normal 
school for the education of males. The number of 
pupils is limited to 20. They must have been, before 
entering, pupils in the female grammar schools, 
of the city, and at least 1 7 years of age. The 
course of study is one year in duration. The 
number of pupils who received certificates last 
year was 20 ; the number who received diplomas. 
11. At the normal department of Howard 
University, 7 students were graduated. 

Secondary Instruction. — Only one high school 
is in existence in Washington ; namely, that for 
colored children, in the north-western section of 
the city. About 120 private and denominational 
schools, and academies are reported in the Dis- 
trict, situated principally in the cities of Wash- 
ington and Georgetown. Of these schools, 110 are 
for white children, and 10 for colored. The Wash- 
ington Business College furnishes instruction to- 
persons of all age and both sexes, who desire to 
enter mercantile life. 

Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
versities are as follows : 



NAME 


Location 


When 
found- 
ed 


Denomi- 
nation 


Columbian University . . . 


Washington 
Georgetown 
Washington 
Washington 


1822 
1789 
1858 
1866 


Baptist 
R. C. 
R. C. 




Non-sec. 



Professional ami Scientific Instruction. — 
Schools of law, medicine, and theology exist in 
connection with colleges and universities; and 
scientific instruction, also, is to a certain extent 
given, but no special institution for the last 
exists. Instruction in theology is given to colored 
students preparing for the ministry by the 
Wayland Institute established by the colored 
Baptists. The National University Law School has 
3 instructors, and 100 students. The National Col- 
lege of Pharmacy was organized in 1872. 

Special Instruction. — The Columbia Institu- 
tion for the Deaf and Dumb was founded by 
Amos Kendall, and was chartered by Congress 
in 1857. Its sources of revenue are tuition fees, 
congressional appropriations, and voluntary con- 
tributions. In addition to the preparatory departs 
ment, it has a collegiate department — the only 
college for deaf-mutes in the world. Its course 
extends over 11 years — 7 in the preparatory de- 
partment, and 4 in the college. 



234 



DISTRICT SCHOOLS 



DIVERSIONS 



DISTRICT SCHOOLS.See Public Schools. 

DITTES, Friedrieh, a German educator, 
was born Sept. 23., 1829, at Irfersgriin near 
Zwickau. After studying at the university of 
Leipsic and obtaining the degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy, he was appointed director of the 
teachers' seminary at Gotha, and at the same 
time " Schulratli " (school-councilor). In 1863, 
he accepted a call as director of the Pcedago- 
gium of Vienna, which had just been established 
by the municipal government of that city. In 
this position, he took a prominent part in the dis- 
cussion of all educational questions in Austria and 
Germany. In 1873, the city of Vienna elected 
him a member of the lower house of the Aus- 
trian Reichsrath, in which he formed, with only 
four other members, the " democratic " (radical) 
party. Dittes is one of the chief representatives 
of the pedagogical views of Beneke (q. v.), which 
be explained and defended in a number of works. 
The most important are the following : Grund- 
riss der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre (4th 
edit., Leips., 1874); Methodik der Volksschule 
{Leips., 1874); Lehrbuch der Psychologie und 
Logik (Vienna, 1874); Geschichte der Erziehung 
und des Unterrichts (4th edit., Leips., 1875); and 
Sclude der Pddagogik (Leips., 1876). These 
five works present a complete view of the sci- 
ence of education and instruction. He has also 
edited the Padaqogische Jahresbericht. 

DIVERSIONS. An important part of the 
education of youth consists in affording them an 
opportunity for natural, unrestrained diversions, 
in which they may have free scope to exercise 
mind and body, particularly the latter, accord- 
ing to their inclinations. During the early 
period of childhood, no tasks can be or need be 
imposed to guide or accelerate the natural devel- 
opment of the mental and physical faculties ; 
the buds of humanity open of themselves, if 
their condition is normal, and their growth is 
not arrested by injudicious interference. At 
first, nature, as a wise educator, trains through 
the pleasurable emotions ; for the impulses 
which she inspires are all to varied activity, and 
activity is delight when nerves and muscles have 
the spring of health and vital energy. A few 
lessons in conscious restraint are all that this 
period requires or admits. They are purely 
negative, checking the violence of natural im- 
pulse, not urging the child's activity in any par- 
ticular direction. This is the education of home 
and parents, when presided over by love and 
good sense, during the first years of the child's 
existence, — a period of continous diversion. " A 
child, before its fifth year," says Isaac Taylor, 
" and even later, if in perfect health, does* not 
know that the day is long ; for the infant mind 
glides down the stream of moments, conscious 
only of the present, and altogether without 
thought of periods, intervals, and measured 
seasons of duration ; the infant mind has no 
weariness nor disquietude connected with the 
slow numbering of hours, days, weeks, months." 
When the age for serious application begins, — 
the season for labor, or occupation under con- 



straint, the educator should strive to make the 
transition as easy and gentle as possible. Fre- 
quent diversions should be intermingled with 
formal exercises ; and much will be gained if 
those exercises be made to partake of the nature 
of diversions, by having the characteristics of 
novelty and variety, and by stimulating the 
child's curiosity. As the age of the child in- 
creases, passing into youth, the times for regular 
occupation and for recreation, or diversions, be- 
come more distinctly separated. The boy or the 
girl is gradually led to feel that there are du- 
ties to be performed, as well as sports to be en- 
joyed ; and that the pleasure received from the 
latter will be greatly increased by the feeling 
that it has been earned by a conscientious de- 
votion to the former. Hence, under no circum- 
stances, should youth be deprived of their op- 
portunities for free and innocent recreations, ex- 
cept as a penalty for misdoing or neglect of 
duty. The office of diversions is twofold, — re- 
creation and exercise. The former is absolutely 
essential after studious employment, to refresh 
the mind ; and the latter is needed to give health 
and vigor to the body. Those sports are the 
best, therefore, which combine cheerful relaxa- 
tion of the one with the due employment of the 
other. " Among the Jesuits," says D'lsraeli, "it 
was a standing rule of the order, that after an 
application to study for two hours, the mind of 
the student should be unbent by some relaxation, 
however trifling." Boys, if left to themselves, 
will take violent exercise, and thus develop their 
physical powers and promote their growth ; and 
girls will select sports of a lighter character, — 
such as are adapted to their different physical 
constitution. It is a serious error on the part of 
parents to keep their boys under painful re- 
straint, and, from solicitude for their safety, to 
debar them the enjoyment of diversions com- 
mon to their age, because attended with some 
degree of danger. Excessive maternal tender- 
ness and care thus exercised must result in ren- 
dering boys effeminate, and unfit to cope with 
the dangers and trials of subsequent life. The 
only need of restraint is to keep boys from 
vicious actions, low company, petulance and a 
contentious spirit in their sports, and from too 
daring and perilous feats of agility and strength. 
Gymnastic exercises may also be made a recrea- 
tion, and, when carried on with some system, they 
constitute an important part of a regular physical 
education. (See Gymnastics.) AVhat may be 
called athletics, — rowing, swimming, riding, ball- 
playing, cricket, etc., are greatly to be encour- 
aged in the maturer periods of youth, not only 
on account of their effect in develojring physical 
vigor, but because they keep those who actively 
engage in them from those vicious indulgences 
which constitute the great peril of that age. 
Cicero well said, Maxime hcec <xtas a libidini- 
bus est arcenda, in labore corporis exercenda. 
Milton strongly recommends these active exer- 
cises in his tractate Of Education, and Locke in 
TJioughts concerning Education especially en- 
joins " exercises of manual arts." As for the 



DOANE COLLEGE 



DRAWING 



235 



more quiet in-door pastimes, they should be en- 
couraged with moderation. Chess and draughts 
may be permitted ; but, in these games, particu- 
larly in the former, there is great danger of ex- 
cess ; and it has never been demonstrated that a 
good chess-player is, on that account, good for 
any thing but to play chess. The game of bil- 
liards gives training to the hand and the eye, and 
involves considerable exercise, moderate but 
healthful ; yet it may be doubted whether youth 
should be encouraged to engage in it, because of 
its fascinating character and its tendency to draw 
their attention from more useful and necessary 
employments, not to mention the i langerous asso- 
ciations of the billiard room. The old-fashioned 
amusements of fencing and boxing had much to 
recommend them, but they belonged to a state 
of society in which they were deemed useful as 
accomplishments, and encouraged the develop- 
ment of a combative spirit. These games and 
diversions involve chiefly the exercise of the 
body ; but there are others which require the 
■exclusive application of the mind. Such were, 
in former times, the Ludi Leibniliani, including 
the Lwlits Fin i urn, the Game of Ends (uses and 
purposes), and the Ludus Remediorum, the 
Game of Remedies (expedients). These are 
briefly described by Knox in Liberal Education 
thus : 

" One asks, what's the use of this or that? ns, for 
instance, what's the use of a hat? the other is to find 
as many ludicrous uses as he can for it. What's the 
use of a hat ? Respondetttr, pileus adldberi potest ad 
hauriendam aquam, ad ventnni excilanduni. adpor- 
iandas nuces, poiiia, etc-: and so of any tiling else. 
Ludus Remediorum, or the (Jaine of Expedients, or 
making shift, is thus played : Difficult situations and 
circumstances are contrived, and the answerer is to 
devise means to extricate himself, or to find suc- 
■cedanea for wants — as, how will you write without 
ink? etc." 

Sports, however, that have for their express 
purpose the combining of recreation with mental 
improvement rarely succeed in their object ; 
-since, as soon as the novelty wears off, they are 
felt as a task, and hence abandoned. — See 1 (Is- 
raeli, Curiosities of Literature, s. v. Amuse- 
ments of the Learned. 

DOANE COLLEGE, at Crete, Saline 
county, Nebraska, was chartered in 1872. The 
first freshman class was formed in 1873. It is un- 
der the control of the General Association of 
Congregational Churches of Nebraska, and is 
designed for the education of both sexes. Its 
permanent buildings are to be erected on a high 
plateau overlooking the city, the Big Blue River, 
and a wide reach of prairie beyond, which to- 
gether present a scene of beauty seldom sur- 
passed. The college is out of debt and has the 
following assets : $18,785 in interest bearing 
notes; SI, 578 in non-interest bearing notes and 
subscriptions ; 200 acres of land in Polk county; 
600 acres adjoining the city of Crete, 320 of 
which are broken ; 58 city lots in Crete ; also 
the academy building and the block on which it 
stands, valued at $8,000. The college year is 
divided into three terms ; the cost of tuition per 
term is $7 in the full classical course, $5 in 



higher English and modern languages, and $3 in 
the common English branches. These charges 
are remitted in favor of the children of home 
and foreign missionaries. Room rent is free. 
The college has been supported mainly by con- 
tributions from the friends of education and 
religion in Nebraska and Massachusetts. It has 
made special efforts to reach those whose igno- 
rance of the English language too often consti- 
tutes a barrier to all Christian activity in their 
behalf. There are (187(i) 3 instructors and 58 
students, nearly all in the preparatory depart- 
ment. The institution has been in charge of D. 
B. Perry from its organization. 

DOCTOR. See Decrees. 

DOEDERLEIN, Ludwig, a noted German 
philologist and teacher, was born at Jena, in 1791, 
and died in 1863. He was a son of the eminent 
German Protestant divine and critic. Johann 
Christoph Doderlein. He studied at several 
German universities, including that of Berlin; 
and in 1815. he was appointed professor of phi- 
lology at the academy of Berne. He afterwards 
filled the position of professor of philology at 
Erlangen. His chief writings are Lateiniscke 
Synonyme and Eiymologieen (0 vols., 1826 — 
38), with a supplement. Die lateiniscke Wort- 
bildung (1838); Bandbuch der laieinisctien Ely- 
mohffie (1841); Homerisches Qlossarium (1850). 
All these works were published at Leipsic. He 
also edited several classical works. 

DONALDSON, John William, an eminent 
English scholar and teacher, was born in Lon- 
don, June 10., 1811, where he died in 1861. He 
was educated at the university of London and at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating as B. A. 
at the latter, in 1834. For some time, he held the 
office of assistant tutor at Trinity College, during 
which period he published The Theatre of the 
Gl-eeks, which is still highly valued as a college 
class book. He, subsequently, held the office of 
head-master of the grammar school of Bury St. 
Edmonds, which he resigned in 1855, and de- 
livered a course of lectures at Cambridge on 
Latin synonyms. In 1839, the first edition of 
the New Oratylus was issued, a work of pro- 
found erudition, embodying the principles of 
comparative philology as established by the re- 
searches of Bopp, the brothers Grimm, and other 
German scholars. This work, as enlarged and 
unproved in the edition of 1859. is still the 
standard English work upon the subject of which 
it treats. In Ywrran.inm.vs (1846), he attempted 
to accomplish for Latin philology what the New 
Oratylus had done for Creek. His other publica- 
tions were editions of some of the classics, and 
several theological works — among the latter, 
Clirislian Orthodoxy (London, 1867). 

DRAWING has been defined as the expres- 
sion of thought by means of lines, or as a visible 
presentation upon a surface of our conception of 
a form. Hence its usefulness in every depart- 
ment of mechanical science or effort ; since each 
of these departments is based upon the concep- 
tion of forms and their realization in material 
products. Drawing is thus supplementary to- 



236 



DRAWING 



ordinary language, the function of which is to 
recall ideas to the mind by their abstract repre- 
sentatives in words ; but words can recall con- 
ceptions of form only to a very limited extent, 
and scarcely at all those of an irregular or com- 
plex character. On the contrary, drawing, by a 
combination of the simple elements of lines, 
of various kinds and in various relations to 
each other, can transfer from one mind to an- 
other the most complicated conception, whether 
it be that of an actual object, or the creation of 
the imagination. Thus, the machinist has be- 
fore him an exact representation of the piece of 
mechanism which he is to construct ; the archi- 
tect delineates the elevations and plans of the 
edifice which the builder is to erect, and the 
industrial draughtsman represents the designs 
which are' to embellish the varied fabrics of the 
loom. In short, the uses and applications of this 
beautiful and expressive form language are in- 
finite, stamping it as one of the most indispen- 
sable accomplishments of civilized man, and, con- 
sequently, one of the most important elements of 
his education. The value of drawing as a de- 
partment of general or popular education, has 
been pretty fully treated in the article on Art- 
Education, to which the reader is referred for 
information on this point. In the present article, 
it is designed to present a brief outline of the 
relation of drawing to the various grades of 
education, with practical suggestions as to the 
methods of teaching it. 

Drawing may be divided into two distinct de- 
partments, instrumental and free-hand, the for- 
mer being principally employed in the mechan- 
ical, engineering, and architectural branches of 
industry ; the latter, by artists, designers, and 
others. The two divisions are sometimes re- 
ferred to as scientific and artistic, because the 
subjects coming under the first group, are based 
on scientific principles, and the results obtained 
are capable of demonstration by geometry ; 
whilst free-hand work, either in imitation or 
original design, employs the perceptive rather 
than the reasoning faculties, and its results have 
to be judged by the standard of taste, in all 
features which do not involve a question of fact. 

Instrumental Drawing. — The group of sub- 
jects which come under this division may be 
classified as elementary or applied; the first 
teaching methods of obtaining accuracy of form, 
and its appearance under given conditions ; the 
second, applying this power of drawing to prac- 
tical purposes, in the arts of planning, construc- 
tion, and design. — The elementary subjects are : 
(1) Plane geometrical drawing ; (2) projection 
of solids, (a) radial or perspective, (6) parallel 
or orthographic; (3) projection of shadows, 
(a) radial or perspective, (b) parallel or ortho- 
graphic and isometric. — The applied subjects 
are : (1) Architectural drawing and building 
construction; (2) machine drawing, construction, 
and design ; civil and military engineering ; 

(3) surveying and topographical drawing ; and 

(4) ship draughting, and marine architecture. — 
The elementary subjects teach the student how 



to draw the forms of lines, planes, or solids, either 
as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they 
actually exist, by orthographic or isometric pro- 
jection. The forms usually employed in teach- 
ing, are regular geometric planes and solids, con- 
veying, by the instruction given, the principles of 
representation by lines, on planes of delineation, 
when the objects are seen in space, or in a de- 
fined position in relation to the eye. The study 
of the elements of instrumental drawing is ne- 
cessary, therefore, because by it we learn how to 
draw, as a science, which is obviously required 
before we can apply it to purposes involving a 
knowledge of the science. The elementary 
branches may thus be considered purely educa- 
tional, whilst the advanced or applied divisions 
may be described as industrial. — In the applied 
subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geom- 
etry prepares the architectural draughtsman to 
make working drawings for the builder, the 
carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics em- 
ployed in the erection and construction of 
buildings ; displaying, by geometrical drawings 
made to a regular scale, the true forms and di- 
mensions of all parts of the fabric ; enabling 
the builder to calculate exactly the quantity of 
materials required in its construction, and each 
artisan to prepare his share of the work, so 
that it shall truly fit its place. The science of 
projection and perspective is the basis of the lan- 
guage by which the architect expresses his de- 
sign for the whole structure, displaying his ar- 
rangement of the plan, his design for the eleva- 
tion, the true form of the building in its several 
aspects, and the appearance of the whole by 
means of a perspective view. — Again, in mechan- 
ical engineering, the designer of a machine must 
be thoroughly acquainted with projection as a 
science, before he can express on paper his de- 
vices for securing the speed and power required 
for his purpose. Working drawings have then 
to be made of the several parts and details, 
to furnish accurate information to the model 
maker, by which he may make each part of the 
machine in wood, to the molder who has to cast 
it in metal, and for the guidance of the fin- 
isher and fitter who complete the work and erect 
the machine. So, also, in surveying and topo- 
graphical drawing, the actual features of a coun- 
try or estate are ascertained through the appli- 
cation of plane and solid geometry, and reduced 
from the natural size to a plan which is, in all 
respects, like the true plan of the original, 
although on a different scale. By the use of 
such scale drawings, railways are planned and 
executed, cities and towns are laid out; and, by 
civil and military engineers, who employ the 
same means of delineating their work, cities are 
drained, supplied with water, or fortified and 
protected, bridges are built to span the river, and 
piers made to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made 
to cut through hills and mountains, and embank- 
ments and viaducts to fill the inequalities of val- 
leys. — The marine engineer or naval constructor 
is equally dependent upon his knowledge of pro- 
jection, in laying out the lines of his ship or boat, 



DRAWING 



237 



in displaying its capacity for freight and model- 
ing its shape for speed. All these features of his 
design are expressed by means of drawings, which 
are the application of plane and solid geometry 
to a special industrial purpose. It will be evi- 
dent, therefore, that the constructive arts, which 
bear so important a relation to modern civiliza- 
tion, and employ so vast a number of persons, 
are all dependent upon drawing for the initiation 
of their schemes. At the foundation of success- 
ful work, in any and all of their departments, 
lies a knowledge of elementary drawing, which, 
regarded as a language, is of such a character, 
that it may be efficiently taught in the common 
schools of America, by the regular teachers em- 
ployed to give instruction in general subjects, as 
soon as this practically useful subject forms a 
part of all normal-school education. Pure ge- 
ometry may be considered the study of all these 
sciences in the abstract, and this is successfully 
pursued in the schools and colleges ; scientific or 
instrumental drawing, under the headings called 
elementary subjects, would be the concrete ap- 
plication of geometry to the needs of practical 
education, to be applied at a future time to 
actual industry. 

Free-Hand Drawing. — As the name implies, 
this kind of drawing is the expression, by the 
unassisted hand, of what the eye perceives, or 
the mind, or imagination, conceives. Its results, 
therefore, are dependent upon the truthfulness of 
observation or power of conception possessed by 
the draughtsman, and, in some measure, upon 
his manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, 
however, the power of drawing, or expression, is 
equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or 
faulty work proceeds generally from a lack of 
clear understanding of the subject rather than 
want of hand skill. — As in instrumental draw- 
ing, free-hand drawing consists of two groups of 
subjects, — elementary and applied, the first being 
educational, and the second, industrial or pro- 
fessional. In the elementary division, are all 
those branches of study or exercises which 
develop the imitative faculties, embracing all 
kinds of copying from flat examples or round 
objects, including also the subjects of geometrical 
drawing and perspective, by which alone the 
truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. 
In applied drawing, the language of form is em- 
ployed to embody new ideas, either as original 
designs for industrial art and manufactures, or 
to express the ideal of fine art, the work of the 
imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that 
both scientific and artistic drawing, by instru- 
ments or by the free hand, have a common 
characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, ' 
and skill in, drawing as a language, before the i 
language can be employed for original purposes. 
To continue the analogy, and regarding drawing ! 
as the language of form, its alphabet consists of 
two letters, the straight line and the curve. 
Simple combinations of these, by elementary 
practice, produce, as it were, words of one syl- 
lable; the grouping of several objects in a drawing, 
may be described as a sentence ; and an original 



design is the same as a composition or essay on 
a given theme. The artist uses the expression 
"out of drawing" in precisely the same sense as a 
scholar employs the term "ungrammatical," and 
(other terms being substituted) the criticism which 
has been made on a poem or a work of fiction, 
might apply exactly to a historical picture or an 
ideal figure, possessing similar characteristics. A 
great change has occurred in the opinion of edu- 
cators, within the past quarter of a century (from 
1850 to 1875) on the question of the possibility 
and advisability of teaching drawing to all chil- 
dren. Before the beginning of that period, it was 
generally believed that the ability to draw was 
a rare endowment rather than a power which 
could be acquired by all intelligent persons ; and 
the sort of picture making, of a nondescript kind, 
which was then called drawing, could only be es- 
timated, as it deserved, as a useless waste of time, 
that might have been wisely employed to better 
purpose. Experiments, in several European coun- 
tries, upon large classes of children, and even 
in whole grades of schools, demonstrated the 
proposition that every one who could learn to 
write could learn to draw. In the schools of 
the Society of Friends in England, drawing had 
long been taught to every child, before the above 
conclusion had been arrived at; and there was 
no more inequality of ability displayed by the 
children in that subject than in any other. In 
England, whose display of industrial art in 1851 
was little less than a national humiliation, the 
government, seeking after a remedy, took coun- 
sel of the teachers in the common Schools, and 
requested some of them to try the experiment 
of teaching elementary drawing, in their classes, 
to pupils consisting entirely of the children of 
working men. After a year's trial, a convention of 
school-masters in London, about the .year 1852, 
recorded as their opinion that all children who 
could learn at all. could be taught to draw, giving 
as the basis of their conviction that. during their 
year of experiment, 'half of the time previously 
given to writing had been given to drawing, 
with the result, that the writing had been better, 
and the power of drawing was a clear gain." 
From this time, aided by strong encouragement 
from the government, the subject came more 
and more into favor amongst educators, until it is 
now general in the schools. Concerning the 
possibility of teaching all persons to draw, an 
art master of long experience says. " There are 
but four classes of human beings whom it is not 
found practicable to instruct in drawing. They 
are the blind, the idiotic, the lunatic, and the 
paralytic. Of the rest of mankind and woman- 
kind, exactly one hundred per cent can be 
taught to draw." (Art Education, Scholastic 
and Industrial; Boston, 1873.) The same opinion 
is held by those teachers who have tried the 
experiment in the public schools of Boston, 
Mass. — Where drawing may have failed as a 
subject of instruction in the common schools, it 
has probably been treated as a special subject, 
taught by special teachers to the older pupils 
only, in the last year or two of school life. When 



238 



DRAWING 



regarded as one of the elementary subjects of 
general education, and taught by the regular 
teachers, it has never failed. To ensure success 
in teaching the subject in the public schools, the 
following conditions are necessary : (1) Only 
those elementary branches should be taught 
which are educational in their influence, and the 
knowledge conveyed by them of general use 
(such as have been described as being at the 
foundation of all constructive industry). (2) In- 
struction iu drawing should begin with school 
life, and end only when school, college, or uni- 
versity education is completed. (3) At the 
basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing, 
which illustrates the facts of regular forms ; and 
perspective, which determines the appearance of 
those facts. (4) Original design, either element- 
ary or applied, should form a part of the reg- 
ular exercises required from pupils, alternating 
with other exercises, such as drawing from 
memory, and dictation, in order to give variety 
to the study. (5) The principles of drawing, and 
of shades and shadows, should first be taught 
from regular forms, and with scientific method 
and accuracy, before the pupils are allowed to 
draw and shade irregular forms, with no guide 
but their own observation. All practice should 
proceed from the simple to the complex, from 
the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its 
appearance. (6) The best preparation for truth 
and beauty of design, is an intimate acquaint- 
ance with the greatest works of the past and pres- 
ent, and a complete mastery of all the methods 
and vehicles of expression ; so that, on the foun- 
dation of knowledge and with unhindered skill, 
the draughtsman and artist, educated by study, 
and made powerful by practice, may impress on 
their works the stamp of originality. To illus- 
trate these propositions, programmes of instruc- 
tion in drawing are here given in outline: 
Primary and Grammar Schools. 

1st year — The names of geometric forms and lines ; 
drawing straight lines and their combinations into 
simple forms; also, the same forms from memory. 
(All work on the slate.) 

2d year — Dictation and memory drawing of geo- 
metric patterns ; simple designs composed of straight 
lines and simple curves. (Slate work.) 

3d year. — Practice on paper of what has been 
previously learned ; also in drawing, with readiness, 
from memory and dictation, forms previously drawn 
from copy. Designing new combinations from copies. 

4(ft year. — Free-hand outline design, geometrical 
drawing, model drawing of both curved forms and ob- 
jects bounded by right lines. 

5th year — Drawing ornaments and objects of his- 
torical character, as Egyptian lotus forms, Greek vases, 
etc.; the same to be drawn also from memory; geo- 
metrical drawing of a more advanced character. 

6th, 7th, and Sth years Free-hand drawing and 

design, geometrical drawing, model drawing (from the 
solid object), and free-hand perspective (developing 
ideas in preparation for advanced work), dictation 
and memory drawing; design with half-tint back 
grounds. Botanical names and forms. Colors and 
the first principles of their harmony. 
High Schools. 

1st year — Linear perspective by the use of instru- 
ments, parallel; botanical lessons, with diagrams in 
color, model drawing, from solids, in light and shade, 
half-tint, cross-hatching and stump. Lessons on archi- 
tectural styles, without drawings. 



2d year Linear perspective, angular ; design in 

harmonious colors, from flowers and foliage ; drawing 
from plants in outline ; object drawing in one color, as 
fruits etc., from flat copies and from casts. 

3d year. — Linear perspective, oblique ; painting 
from flowers and fruits ; study of the human figure, in 
light and shade, from copies ; drawing foliage from 
plaster casts; applied design for manufactures, such 
as carpets, lace, paper-hangings, pottery, glass, fresco- 
ing, metal work, etc. 

4th year. — Lessons in painting landscapes, from nat- 
ure ; drawing the human figure, from casts; lectures 
in architectural styles, and on schools of painting; 
also, on the history and practice of industrial art; and 
on design applied to manufactures. 

The principle on which every course should 
be arranged is, that before attempting to draw 
anything, the pupil should be made to under- 
stand it ; that is, to have as clear a conception 
of it as possible. Hence, in the first year, the 
young pupil is considerably occupied in simply 
learning the names of forms, in order to impress 
them upon his memory. When this principle is 
observed, that the cultivation of the understand- 
ing should precede drawing, the latter will never 
be difficult or uninteresting. 

Industrial-Drawing Classes. 

I. Instrumental Drawing, embracing the following 
elementary branches : (1) plane geometrical drawing; 
(2) projection ; (3) perspective; and the following ad- 
vanced subjects: (1) building, construction, and 
architectural drawing; (2) machine drawing. 

IT. Free-hand Drawing, including the representa- 
tion of objects and ornament from both the flat and 
the round, the study of light and shade, color, and 
original design. 

In each of these departments, some of the 
knowledge and practice found in the other, will 
be beneficial to the student. The following 
course will be proper for each : 

First Year's Course. 

1st Part. — (1) Free-hand outline drawing from 
copies and blackboard, with exercises in elementary 
design; (2) plane geometrical drawing, from copies 
and blackboard. 

2nd Part. — (1) Model and object drawing, from 
copy and solid ; (2) perspective drawing (for free- 
hand students) ; (3) projection (for instrumental 
students). 

Second Year's Course. 

I. Instrumental Drawing. — (1) Building construc- 
tion, including the following subjects: joints used in 
carpentry, door and window framing, construction of 
floors, partitions, roofs, and staircases, bond in brick- 
work, stone-work, arches, fire-proof flooring, designs 
of plans, elevations, working drawings, etc.; (2,) ma- 
chine drawing, including such details, as bolts and 
nuts, plumber-blocks, screws, wheels, etc. 

II. ' Free-hand Drawing.— Q.) The drawing of orna- 
ment in outline, from large copies, of foliage and the 
human figure ; shading the same from copies in pen- 
cil, crayon, and Indian ink or sepia ; designing in half- 
tint, or several tints of one color, drawing from mem- 
ory and dictation, etc.; (2) shading geometrical 
solids, shading from the cast and natural objects, ap- 
plied design for industrial purposes and spec'al sub- 
jects for particular branches of business. 

For a description of the necessary fittings and 
apparatus, see Smith, Art Education, Scholastic 
and Industrial (Boston, 1873). See also Stet- 
son, Technical Education (Boston, 1876);. Mod- 
ern Art Education, translated from the German 
of Langl (Boston, 1875); Buisson, Rapport sur 
I'instruction primaire etc. (Paris, 1875). 



DRILL 



DUPANLOUP 



239 



DRILL, a term used in education, particu- 
larly in school instruction, to denote the strict 
routine of exercises required either to train pu- 
pils to the ready performance of mental or phys- 
ical processes, or to impress upon their memory 
those arbitrary associations of facts or words 
which are required in many subjects of study. 
Thus, a certain amount of drill is required in 
teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms 
and rules of grammar, the spelling of words, and 
those facts of geography that pertain to the 
location of places (memorizing maps). Drill re- 
quires definite exercises and regular practice in 
them, continued a sufficient length of time, in 
order to impart a kind of automatic force to the 
recollection. Both mind and body, by repetition, 
acquire fixed habitudes, by means of which 
thought and muscular action may be accommo- 
dated to the performance of acts which at first 
might have seemed impossible. This is the 
foundation principle of drill. (.See Rote- 
Teaching.) 

DRUEY COLLEGE, at Springfield, Mis- 
souri, under the control of the Congregationalists. 
was organized and chartered in 1873. It derives 
its name from S. F. Drury, of Olivet, Mich., who 
contributed liberally toward its foundation. It 
is under the patronage of the American Col- 
lege Society of Boston. The institution com- 
prises a collegiate department, with five cour- 
ses of four years each (classical, scientific, Greek 
scientific, Latin scientific, and ladies' course); 
a preparatory department, with classical and 
English courses of throe years each ; a normal 
department of two years; a model school of three 
years ; and the Missouri Conservatory of Music, 
chartered in 1875. Both sexes are admitted to 
all the departments and courses on the same 
terms, except that the ladies' course (equivalent 
to that of the best female seminaries) is designed 
for such young ladies as do not desire to pursue 
the severer college courses. The library contains 
2,000 volumes; the beginning of a cabinet of 
mineralogy and geology has been made, and a 
number of specimens of natural history have been 
secured. The college year is divided into three 
terms. The regular charge for tuition per term 
is $15 in the college classes, $12 in the prepara- 
tory classes, •$ 8 in the model school, and S<> in 
the normal department. These charges are re- 
mitted in favor of the children of ministers of 
any denomination who are in active service, 
and some aid is extended to other deserving 
students. In 1875 — t>, there were 11 instructors ; 
the students were distributed as follows : college 
classes, 35 ; normal class, 27 ; classical prepara- 
tory, 75 ; English preparatory, 74 ; music, draw- 
ing, and painting, 23; model school, 31 ; total, 
deducting repetitions, 220. There were 5 grad- 
uates at the commencement of 1875. The Rev. 
Nathan J. Morrison, D. D., has been the presi- 
dent from the commencement of the institution. 

DUBLIN UNIVERSITY. See Ireland. 

DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a class 
of pupils found in every school and class, whose 
perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose 



mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need 
especially the spur of encouragement, and shoidd 
never be subjected to blame or derision on ac- 
count of their slowness. Many teachers often 
greatly err in dealing with this class of pupils, 
applying to them such epithets as blockhead, dolt, 
numbskull, simpleton, dunce, etc. They are, 
moreover, sometimes neglected by the teacher, 
who naturally prefers to give attention to those 
bright, precocious pupils who need but little in- 
struction. The best powers of the teacher, how- 
ever, are displayed in developing the latent ca- 
pacities of these dull scholars ; and very often it 
has been found that those who bore the character 
of dullness in school have risen to great eminence 
in after life. The great English poet and novelist, 
Sir Walter Scott, and the illustrious German 
chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples 
of this fact. 

DUNCE, a term applied to a pupil who is 
dull, or slow in learning. The word is supposed 
to be a corruption of the name of Joannes 
1 >uns Scotus, a very learned man, who lived in 
the latter part of the thirteenth century (died in 
1308). From his keen, analytical intellect and 
acute logic, lie was styled doctor subtilis, the 
subtle doc/or. The name of this great scholar, 
according to some, was applied to a dullard in 
derision, just as we often ironically call a stupid 
fellow a Solomon, or a bully a Hector. Trench, 
however, thinks it became a term of scorn ap- 
plied to the adherents of the old school-men by 
the disciples of the new learning, as the latter 
gained ground during the middle ages. Hence, 
the expression, "You are a Duns," was a reproach, 
as implying an advocate or supporter of obsolete 
and exploded opinions. Butler, in Hudibras 
thus puns on the word : 

" la school-divinity [he was] as able 
As he that bight Irrefragable ; 
A second Thomas, or, at once 
To name them all, another Dunce." 

DUPANLOUP, Felix Antoine Philippe, 

bishop of Orleans and the foremost Catholic 
writer of France, in the nineteenth century, on 
educational subjects, was born at St. Felix, 
Savoy, Jan. 3., 1802. He was ordained priest 
in 1825, attached, for three years, as catechist to 
the parish of Assumption, appointed in 1837 
superior of the diocesan seminary of Paris, and, 
in 1849, bishop of Orleans. His chief attention 
has ever since been devoted to the educational 
interests of the Catholic Church. The petit semi- 
naireoi Orleans entered into a lively competition 
with the state schools ; in his own episcopal 
palace, he opened a new school, and he took an 
active part in all the educational controversies of 
the time. He continued, with great energy, the 
defense of the " liberty of instruction." which the 
Catholics of France demanded in opposition to 
the University, and in which he had zealously 
interested himself even before his appointment 
as bishop. He disapproved of the agitation be- 
gun by Gaurae (see G-aume) and others for ex- 
cluding the pagan classics from Christian schools 
(see Classics, Christian), and was, therefore, 
violently attacked by the Unifiers. The con- 



240 



DURSCH 



DWIGHT 



troversy was, for some time, continued on both 
sides with considerable severity, until, at length, 
the Pope imposed silence upon both parties. He 
was consulted in the framing of the law of March 
15., 1850, concerning the reorganization of public 
instruction ; and, after the promulgation of the 
law, was appointed a member of the Couseil de 
I' instruction publique. He withdrew from this 
position in 1852. In the National Assembly 
which met in 1871, after the proclamation of the 
third republic, he was the recognized leader of 
the opposition against the liberal views of Jules 
Simon, the minister of public instruction. The 
Assembly appointed him president of the com- 
mittee selected to examine and report on the bill 
in favor of compulsory primary instruction, which 
had been drafted by Simon; and he not only 
emphatically declared against the ministerial bill, 
but presented a counter-project in favor of the 
" free, religious, and gratuitous instruction of 
the poor." In 1875, he secured, in the National 
Assembly, the adoption of a bill in favor of the 
" freedom of superior instruction," the chief ob- 
ject of which was the establishment of free Cath- 
olic universities, in the subsequent organization 
of which he was the acknowledged leader of the 
bishops. (See France.) Having been elected, in 
1854, a member of the French Academy, he re- 
peatedly prevented by his influence the election 
of several decided opponents of Catholic doctrines. 
When, in 1871, llttre was admitted to the 
Academy in spite of his opposition, he resigned, 
on the ground that he was unwilling to belong- 
to a society which admitted atheists ; but Guizot 
and other friends prevailed upon him to with- 
draw his resignation. The most important edu- 
cational work of Dupanloup has been published 
under the title .De I'Education (3 vols., 1855 — 7). 
It treats of education in general, of authority 
and respect in education, and of superior in- 
struction, entering very fully into the discussion 
of all the educational controversies of the day. 

DTJRSCH, Martin Georg-, a Roman Cath- 
olic writer on education, was born at Deggingen 
in the kingdom of Wtirtemberg, Nov. 11., 
1800 ; studied philosophy and theology at the 
university of Tubingen, and Oriental languages 
at Paris, became on his return professor at the 
gymnasium of Ehingen, and, in 1850, pastor and 
dean at Rottweil. His work on pedagogics or 
Christian education (Padagogik odcr Wissen- 
schaft der chrisllichen Erzielmng, 1851) is re- 
garded as one of the best on this subject from 
the Catholic point of view. He advocates the 
co-operation of church and state in the manage- 
ment of the public school, and asserts that, with- 
out this co-operation, the aim of the public 
school to improve and purify human society can 
never be attained. 

DTJRTJY, Victor, a French historian, au- 
thor, and educationist, born in 1811. He was 
professor of history at Reims, and afterwards 
at Paris, in the Lycie Napoleon. In 1853, he 
received the degree of Doctor of Letters. He 
successively served as inspector of the Academy 
of Paris, inspector general of secondary instruc- 



tion, and minister of public instruction (1863). 
In the latter position, which he filled till 1869, 
he attempted many innovations which were 
much opposed ; he effected, however, some im- 
portant reforms. His chief historical publica- 
tions are Histoire des Grecs, 2 vols., Histoire des 
Romains, 4 vols., Introduction generate a, I'his- 
toire de France, 1 vol., Cows d histoire, 7 vols., 
and Histoire de France, 3 vols. These works 
have been very popular, and have attained an 
extensive circulation. M. Duruy has also pub- 
lished valuable reports on the progress of litera- 
ture and science as shown in the Exposition Uni- 
versale of 1867. 

DWIGHT, Francis, noted for his efforts in 
behalf of popular education in the state of New 
York, and as the founder and editor of the 
District School Journal of that state, was born 
in Springfield, Mass., March 14., 1808, and died 
in Albany, N. Y., Dec. 15., 1845. For several 
years he acted as county superintendent of 
schools for the city and county of Albany, and 
was successively member of the school board of 
Albany, and of the executive committee for the 
care and government of the normal school in 
that city — the first in the state. The District 
School Journal was commenced in 1840, and 
edited by him till his death. This journal was 
aided by the patronage of the state, and was 
supplied, at the expense of the common-school 
fund, to eveiy school district. Its tone and in- 
fluence were highly commended by the distin- 
guished educators of the time. It survived him, 
however, only a few years. — See Barnard, 
American Teachers and Educators. 

DWIGHT, Timothy, a celebrated Ameri- 
can theologian and scholar, was born in North- 
ampton, Mass., May 14., 1752, and died in New 
Haven, Ct., Jan. 11., 1817. His mother was 
the daughter of Jonathan Edwards. After grad- 
uating at Yale College, in 1769, he taught a 
grammar school in New Haven for two years, 
and, during the next six years, was a tutor in 
Yale College. During a part of the Revolution- 
ary war, he served as chaplain in the army, dis- 
tinguishing himself by the patriotic fervor of his 
addresses, and by the stirring songs which he 
composed. He, subsequently, performed the du- 
ties of pastor of the Congregational church and 
principal of an academy, in Greenfield, Ct. In 
1795, he succeeded Dr. Stiles in the presidency 
of Yale College, which position he held till his 
death. He was a teacher of great ability, an 
impressive pulpit orator, and an excellent divine. 
His presence was commanding, and his manners 
affable and genial. His writings were numerous, 
but confined to the departments of theology and 
general literature. One who had been connected 
with him as a student in Yale College, thus bears 
testimony to his character as a teacher : " After 
the lapse of forty years, and after much oppor- 
tunity of associating with many eminent instruc- 
tors, President Dwight is ever present to my 
mind as the Great Model Teacher." — See Deni- 
son Olmsted, Timothy Dwight, ccs a Teacher, in 
Barnard's Amei-ican Teachers and Educators. 



EAR 



241 



EAR, Cultivation of the. Recent physi- 
ological researches appear to leave but little rea- 
son to doubt that, at birth and for months after- 
ward; the organs of the special senses exist in 
only a rudimentary form, and that they owe 
their gradual development entirely to the ex- 
ternal influences exerted upon them by nature 
and society. It is, therefore, not only probable, 
but experimentally demonstrable, that the edu- 
cation of the senses is more or less efficient ac- 
cording to the time at which it begins after birth. 
In the light of modern experience, it is con- 
sidered by some extremely doubtful whether there 
is really any case of actual congenital blindness 
or deafness. The tendency to these defects. 
doubtless, often exists as an hereditary imper- 
fection, but is scarcely ever of such a nature as 
to be incurable, if discovered and treated properly 
soon after birth. Hence, except when an organic 
malformation exists, it follows that a systematic 
and judicious training of the senses, from the 
earliest infancy, may remedy most, if not all. 
cases of such defects as color-blindness, weakness 
of sight and hearing, etc. Such indeed is the 
conclusion derived from the experience rained 
in infant asylums, kindergartens, and intelligent 
families. This is an important fact, since it 
serves to correct the notion, so generally enter- 
tained, that good speakers and singers must be 
born such, and that there are but few persons 
thus naturally endowed. There is, without doubt, 
considerable diversity in the sensuous endow- 
ments of different individuals ; but. at the same 
time, it is impossible to fix a limit to the im- 
provement of which every organ of sense is sus- 
ceptible by continuous and proper education, and 
particularly by a cultivation carried on through 
several successive generations. As regards the 
the ear, this may be considered as historically 
established ; since, but three centuries ago, there 
were but an exceptional few persons who showed 
an ability to appreciate, ami a still smaller num- 
ber who were able to reproduce, musical melody 
and harmony. Of all the ancient nations, the 
Greeks alone seem to have been able to enjoy the 
diatonic scale (but not the chromatic), and to 
give it expression in their music, other nations 
never having any other than the scale of five 
notes (barbaric scale). The progress of musical 
art among modern civilized nations and partic- 
ularly the diffusion of musical taste among the 
people are striking illustrations of car culture, 
since this progress could not be effected without 
an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. 

The sense of hearing is the earliest to be devel- 
oped in infancy, and, at the approach of death, 
seems to be the last to be extinguished ; it is als< > 
the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to 
be aroused on awakening. In reaching objects 
at a distance, its power is next to that of sight. 
In the earliest stages of intellectual development, 
the sense of hearing performs a most important , 



office, since language, the most efficient means of 
all education, depends upon its exercise. Moral 
education, no doubt, also begins with the genial 
accents of the maternal voice, both in speech and 
song, as heard by the infant : so that even the 
lullabies which soothe it to slumber constitute 
an agency in its development. While, therefore, 
loud and explosive noises may injure the physical 
organization of the ear of the child, harsh and 
angry tones may affect injuriously the develop- 
ment of its affections and sentiments. All disagree- 
able sensuous impressions are deeper and more 
durable than those of an opposite character; and. 
hence, when often repeated, they tend to destroy 
the capacity of the ear for the appreciation of 
beautiful sounds. Otherwise, variety of sound 
is not detrimental to the infant's ear. but on the 
contrary, beneficial, especially when the source of 
each sound is. at the same time, presented to the 
sight, or touch, or both these senses. From the 
time the infant begins to understand simple lan- 
guage, — usually after the fourth month, espe- 
cially if the words are accompanied with mimicry 
1 1] gesticulation, care should be taken to articulate 
distinctly. In families in which there is a negli- 
gence in this respect, it will be found that the 
children either never, or with very great difficul- 
ty, acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great 
error, quite common in some families and com- 
munities, to repress the natural vociferations of 
children, and to insist on the constant use of low- 
tones in speech. Nature dictates a great deal of 
living, shouting, etc.. in order that the Lungs 
and vocal organs may be fully developed : but. 
of course, all excess should be restrained, since 
the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air 
will not only injure the delicate organs of the 
voice, but will have a bad effect upon the moral 
development of the child, besides incapacitating 
him for the perception and appreciation of those 
delicate distinctions of sound upon which musical 
harmony and melody depend. To what an ex- 
tent this nice perception and discrimination of 
sound may be cultivated, appears from the fact 
that, in good kindergartens, a child will learn to 
distinguish blindfolded the voice of any one of a 
hundred comrades, to tell by what means any 
one of a hundred different noises is produced, 
and to estimate with tolerable accuracy the dis- 
tance of the source of any well-known sound. 
Very young children may also, by suitable exer- 
cises, readily acquire the ability to distinguish 
the intervals of musical notes, and their position 
in the scale. By similar kindergarten exercises, 
even cases of constitutional difficulty in hearing 
may be considerably alleviated. Thus such a 
child may be shown how, by closing the mouth 
and nostrils, the air may be forced into the 
Eustachian tubes, until the well-known explosive 
sound of each tympanum follows. After every 
such exertion, the hearing will be found to be- 
come somewhat better, until, by frequent repeti- 



242 



BARLHAM COLLEGE 



ECUADOR 



tion, its improvement will be quite decided ; be- 
cause the fine blood-vessels of the organ, in which 
the circulation had become stagnant, are ren- 
dered active ; provided, of course, there is no mal- 
formation or incurable physical defect in the 
organ itself. (See Senses, Education op.) 

EARLHAM COLLEGE, at Richmond, 
Ind., is controlled by a board of managers ap- 
pointed by the Indiana Yearly Meeting of Friends 
(orthodox). It was chartered in 1857 ; but a 
boarding-school for instruction in the higher 
branches had been in operation in the same 
building for several years previous. The college 
is supported by the income from an endowment 
of $55,000, by tuition, and by the proceeds of a 
farm. There is a classical and a scientific course, 
each of four years. The preparatory school has a 
course of two years. Students may pursue selected 
studies at the discretion of the faculty, but no 
degree is given except on the completion of one 
or the other of the regular courses. The degrees 
are, A. B. for the classical and B. S. for the 
scientific course. Graduates may receive the 
second degree (A. M. or M. S. according to the 
previous course) either on continuing one year 
at the college in the satisfactory prosecution of 
post-graduate studies, or, in regular course, at 
the end of three years on passing a successful 
examination in some selected studies, or on the 
presentation of a satisfactory thesis. The college 
has libraries containing over 4,000 volumes ; an 
observatory supplied with an equatorial telescope, 
a transit instrument, and an astronomical clock ; 
and a museum of zoology, comparative anatomy, 
geology, arehagology, etc. There are from ten to 
twelve instructors, including six professors and a 
principal of the preparatory department. The 
number of students at present (1870) ranges from 
220 to 230 per year, about one-third of whom are 
college students. The number of graduates, in 
1875, was 79. The first president, Prof. Barnabas 
0. Hobbes, was appointed in 1865 ; he held the 
office two years and was succeeded by the present 
incumbent, Joseph Moore, A. M. 

EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY 
and State Industrial College, at Kuoxville, 
Tenn., non-sectarian, was chartered in 1807. It 
received a grant of land from the United States 
through the state legislature, from which about 
$40,000 was derived; and a further endowment 
was obtained from the property of Blount Col- 
lege, which was merged in it on condition of its 
establishment at Knoxville. It was suspended 
during the civil war, and the college property 
was occupied by the United States army, and 
greatly damaged. Exercises were resumed, in 
1866, in the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb. In 
1869, the institution received the Congressional 
land grant to the state for the establishment of 
an agricultural and mechanical college, and the 
State Industrial College was organized. New 
college buildings have been erected, which stand 
on an eminence near the city. The college farm 
of 260 acres is about a mile from the buildings. 
The libraries contain about 4,000 volumes. The 
cabinets of geology, mineralogy, and zoology have 



been recently commenced, and are constantly 
receiving accessions. A chemical laboratory has 
been established. The value of the grounds, build- 
ings, and apparatus is $150,000 ; the amount 
of productive funds, $396,000. It has a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate department. The col- 
legiate studies extend over a period of four aca- 
demic years, of ten months each, and comprise 
three distinct courses, as follows : (1) The agri- 
cultural course, in which prominence is given to 
the sciences pertaining to agriculture ; (2) The 
mechanical course, in which the principal stud- 
ies are those which relate to the mechanic arts ; 
(3) The classical course, in which the Latin and 
Greek languages are taught. Students completing, 
with credit, the classical course, receive the de- 
gree of Bachelor of Arts ; those completing the 
agricultural or mechanical course, that of Bach- 
elor of Science. The students are organized into 
a battalion ; and military drill and inspections, 
under the direction of the professor of military 
i tactics, take place daily. The whole college is. 
under military discipline. All able-bodied stu- 
dents must perform a small amount of labor ; 
but this is principally required of the freshman 
and sophomore classes. Those who wish addi- 
tional labor, are, to a limited extent, furnished 
with work, for which they are remunerated. 
The cost of tuition is $36 a year in the college, 
and $30 in the preparatory department. Free' 
tuition is given to students nominated by mem- 
bers of the state legislature, each senator having 
the right to nominate two, and each represen- 
tative three. Free tuition is also given to young 
men who intend to prepare for the ministry, 
and who bring a certificate to that effect from 
some church organization. In 1874 — 5, there 
were 18 instructors, and 101 collegiate and 214 
preparatory students. The Rev. Thomas William 
Humes, S.T. D.,is (1876) the president. 

EAST TENNESSEE WESLEYAN 
UNIVERSITY, at Athens, Tenn., under the 
control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
was chartered, in the winter of 1866 — 7, as the 
East Tennessee Wesleyan College. The name 
was changed at the next session of the legisla- 
ture. It was opened in September, 1867. The 
main college building is a substantial brick struc- 
ture, 70 by 50 feet, and three stories high. The 
libraries contain about 1,500 volumes. There 
is an academic, a preparatory, and a collegiate 
department, the last having a classical and a scien- 
tific course. There are two terms in the year, and_ 
the cost of tuition varies from $6 to $22 per term, 
according to the department. Deductions are 
made in favor of ministers of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 in- 
structors, 16 collegiate students, 35 preparatory, 
30 academic, and 12 music scholars, making a 
total, deducting repetitions, of 86 ; the number 
of alumni, up to that time, was 27. The Rev. 
John F. Spence, A. M., is (1876) the president. 

ECONOMY, School. See School Economy. 

ECUADOR, a republic of South America, 
having an area of 248,400 sq. m., and a popula- 
tion estimated, in 1875, at 1,850,000. Of these, 



ECUADOR 



EDUCATION 



243 



35 per cent were whites : 42 per cent Indians ; the 
remainder, negroes and half-breeds. The inhabit- 
ants speak the Spanish language and belong to 
the Roman Catholic Church, the form of worship 
of which is the only one tolerated in public. 
After the conquest of the empire of the Incas. the 
kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the 
viceroyalty of Peru. It remained under Spanish 
rule up to 1822, when it became a part of the re- 
public of Colombia; and, in 1831, became an in- 
dependent republic under the name of Ecuador. 
Since then, it has been the scene of numerous 
revolutions and wars with the neighboring re- 
publics. The schools of all grades have been and 
still are under the control of the church, which, in 
this republic, has generally wielded a greater 
power than in any other part of South America. 
It was especially the aim of the conservative pres- 
ident Moreno (died 1875) to place the entire de- 
partment of instruction under the immediate di- 
rection of the church. In 18(14, it was resolved to 
erect a number of new schools, to be conducted by 
the Brothers of Christian Doctrine. The district 
councilors were empowered to raise in advance 
a part of the taxes for the support of these 
schools. At the same time, an agreement was 
entered into between the government and the 
Society of Jesus, according to which the latter 
assumed the direction of a number of colegios. 
How little education is valued, may be seen 
from the fact that the expenditure for public edu- 
cation, according to the annual budget, amounts 
to only about 20,000 pesos (1 peso=:?0.90.5). 

Primary Instruction. — 'Hie schools are at- 
tended almost exclusively by the whites, the half- 
breeds, and the mulattoes; while the Indians, who 
compose the laboring classes in the cities, do not 
enjoy the advantage of any education at all. The 
number of public schools, in 1873, was 244, of 
private schools, 170; and the number of schools 
supported by corporations was 11. making the 
total number of primary schools 431. The num- 
ber of pupils in the public schools was 17,661, the 
number in private schools 3,900, and in schools 
supported by corporations 837, making the total 
number of pupils 22,464. The eourse of instruc- 
tion in the public schools comprises reading, 
writing, arithmetic, and religion. 

Secondary, Superior, and Special Instruction. 
— There were, in 1873, six colleges (colegios no- 
cionales) with 59 professors and 757 students. 
and one female college with 4 professors and 153 
students. The University of Quito comprises 
four colegios, the Colegio de San Gregorio, 
founded in 158(1 by the Society of Jesus, and 
invested with the privileges of Salamanca in 
1021 ; the Colegio de Santo Tama* d<> Aquino, 
belonging to the Dominicans; the Colegio Mayor 
with which a seminary is connected, and the Co- 
legio de San. Fernando. The revenue of the uni- 
versity amounts to from 4,000 to 5,000 pesos, and 
the salaries of the professors to 3,950 pesos. In 
the colegios, the course of study embraces Latin. 
and sometimes Creek, in addition to the branches 
taught in the primary schools. The university 
course comprises the Spanish language and liter- 



ature. Latin, Greek, law. medicine, etc. Special 
instruction is imparted in the following schools : 
schools of art and industry with 22 professors : a 
polytechnic school, with 13 professors and 59 
students; a military academy, with 5 professors 
and 23 cadets : seven seminaries supported by 
the clergy, with 47 professors imd 227 students ; 
an academy of fine arts, with 2 professors ami 22 
students, and a conservatory of music, with 8 
professors and 39 students. In 1872, a pro- 
spectus was issued for a school of obstetrics, and 
also for one of sculpture, to be opened in Quito, 
under the direction of European professors. An 
academy of arts and sciences was also to be 
opened in Quito, and the advantages of the 
Guayaquil Normal School were to be extended 
to Indian children. — See Schked, Encyckpadie, 
vol. ix., art. Swdameriha : W.um'.-fas, Handbuch 
dec Geographie umd Statistik, vol. i : Report of 
U. 8. Commissioner of Education for 1873. 

EDGEWORTH, ' Maria, a gifted English 
authoress, noted for her educational writings, was 
born at Hare Hatch, near loading. England, in 
1707. and died at Edgeworthstown, Ireland, in 
1849. She was the .laughter of Richard Lovell 
Edgeworth, who was quite celebrated both as an 
inventor and an author, and, to some extent, 
also as an educationist. He was the author, 
jointly with his daughter, of Practical Educa- 
tion (1798), and published Essays on Profes- 
sional Education (1809), and a continuation of 
Ear/// Lessons (1815). published originally by 
his daughter in 1810. In 1822, Maria Edgeworth 
published Rosamond, a sequel to Early Lessons, 
which was followed by Harry and Lucy, the 
Parents' Assistant (a series of juvenile tales). 
and Frank ; subsequently also Orlandino, which 
appeareil in Chambers's lAbrary fur Young 
People. It was, however, as a writer of fiction 
that Miss Edgeworth gained her greatest fame. 
Her novels acquired a high degree of popularity, 
which, to a considerable extent, they still retain : 
and they were widely circulated both in Kngland 
and in the United States. They were greatly 
admired by her illustrious contemporaries Scott, 
Macaulay, and Jeffrey. The latter said. " It is 
impossible to read ten pages in any of her writ- 
ings, without feeling, that not only as a whole, 
but that, in every part, they were intended to do 
good.'' " She is the author.'' said Edward Everett, 
'• of works never to be forgotten : of works which 
can never lose their standard value as English 
Classics." In 1820, she completed a Memoir of 
her father (commenced by him), who died in 
1817. There are several editions of her works, 
which still continue to be reprinted. 

EDINBURGH, University of. See Scot- 
land. 

EDUCATION (Lat. educatio), a general and 
comprehensive term, including in its signification 
every thing that pertains to the bringing up of 
children, and the operation of influences and 
agencies designed to stimulate and direct the de- 
velopment of the faculties of youth by training 
and instruction, and thus to control the forma- 
tion of their character. Hence, education has 



244 



EDUCATION 



been divided into several departments, according 
to the class of faculties to the development and 
improvement of which it is directed, including 
(1) Physical Education (q. v.), or the education 
of the bodily powers; (2) Intellectual Education 
(q. v.), that of the mind or intellect ; (3) Moral 
Education (q. v.), — of the propensities, senti- 
ments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic Educa- 
tion, — of the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, 
that is, comprehending the sphere of the imagi- 
nation (see Esthetic Culture); and (5) Religious 
or Spiritual Education, ■ — of the religious 
sentiments, the spiritual instincts ; that is, those 
which concern only the soul as a spiritual and 
immortal essence, and its relations to the Creator, 
the Infinite Spirit. (See Religious Education.) 

Education is also distinguished into home or 
domestic education (q. v.), and public or common- 
school education (see Public Schools), or, con- 
sidered as a means for the general enlightenment 
of the people, popular education; also into pri- 
vate education, that is, supported by private 
funds, and national education, — provided for by 
the state. (See National Education.) 

School education, generally called instruction, 
on account of the more limited character of its 
scope and the sphere of its operations, is distin- 
guished, according to its grade, into (1) primary 
instruction, that is, the instruction given in ele- 
mentary schools (such as the common schools, — 
the primary schools of cities representing only a 
lower subdivision of primary instruction); (2) sec- 
ondary instruction, — as given in academies, 
high schools (middle schools) ; (3) superior in- 
struction, — as given in colleges and universities ; 
(4) special instruction, — as of the blind, the deaf 
and dumb, and the imbecile ; (5) professional 
and technical instruction, — as in art schools, law 
schools, medical schools, military, naval or nau- 
tical schools, theological seminaries, schools of 
architecture, etc., for information in regard to 
which see the respective titles. 

Education is to be carefully distinguished from 
instruction, the latter being only a subordinate 
part of the great scheme of controlling and 
guiding the development of a human being. To 
this department of education the term didactics 
(from the Greek word Si6auKeiv,io teach) is often 
applied. (See Didactics and Instruction.) In- 
struction is addressed to the intellect or under- 
standing; while education comprehends the whole 
nature of man and the vaiious agencies by means 
of which, in its formative state, it may be affected. 
Its primary object is to form the character either 
by stimulating its development in the normal 
direction, or correcting tendencies to morbid 
growth. In respect to the scientific principles by 
which its practical operations should be guided, 
education is a science ; in relation to the proper 
mode of performing those operations so as to ren- 
der them as effective as possible, it is an art. The 
science of education is a very complex one, inas- 
much as its principles must be drawn from many 
different departments of science ; superadded to 
which, as its own peculiar sphere of investigation, 
there is the great body of truths which concern 



the growth and development of mind and body, 
and which especially constitute the tlieory of 
education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. 
This article will embrace only the general con- 
sideration of (I) the history of education, and 
(II) the theory of education, with a reference to 
sub-titles for fuller information in regard to sub- 
ordinate topics. 

I. History of Education. — The history of edu- 
cation is the history of the institutions, prin- 
ciples, and methods by means of which children 
and youth of both sexes have been educated, 
from the earliest period of historic times to the 
present clay. It embraces within its scope an 
account of the peculiar character which edu- 
cation has assumed among the several nations of 
the globe, of the rise and development of the 
different methods of instruction, of the systems 
and labors of prominent educators, of the divi- 
sions and classes of schools, and of the rival and 
frequently conflicting claims of the family, the 
church, and the state to a share in the regulation 
of public instruction. Each of these subjects is 
treated of in this work imder special titles ; 
and the object of this general article can, there- 
fore, only be to present a brief general view, in 
outline, of the subject, so as to show more clearly 
the relation of its several departments and topics. 

The earliest schools which have any claim to a 
place in a history of education are met with in 
Egypt, China, India, and Persia. Tn all these 
countries, it was the aim of the instructor to train 
the young so that they might become homogeneous 
members of the community to which they be- 
longed, the institutions of which were to be pre- 
served and continued by them unchanged. The 
claims of individuality were, at that early period, 
unknown; and the principle of blind and slavish 
submission to the constituted authorities was the 
basis of all education. There are, however, some 
marked points of difference. In China, the dis- 
tinctive features of education characterize it as 
family education, in India as caste education, in 
Persia as state education, and in Egypt as priest- 
ly education. In China, every child is reared in 
absolute obedience to the head of the family, 
and every family submits as a child to the com- 
mon father of all, the Emperor. The excessive 
veneration of ancestry makes the character of 
the people essentially stationary, and education 
assumes pre-eminently the character of mechanical 
training. In India, every child belongs by his 
birth to one particular caste ; and the foremost 
aim of the instruction given is to teach him the 
rights and duties of the caste. The leading prin- 
ciple of Indian education is habit. In Persia, 
every kind of power and authority centers in the 
king ; the children belong more to the state than 
to their parents, and the germs of a strictly na- 
tional education may, therefore, be found in the 
institutions of that country. In Egypt, the 
priest is the chief representative of education 
and the only teacher. (See China, Egypt, India, 
and Persia.) 

The classic nations of the ancient world, 
Greece and Rome, began a new period in the 



EDUCATION 



245 



history of education. While the oriental child 
was taught to become a docile member of the 
family, the caste, the state, or the religion, Greece 
and Home conceived the idea of individual educa- 
tion : man was not merely expected to tit himself 
for the place which the family, the caste, the state. 
or religion assigned to him, but he was to choose 
his own vocation, and by aspiring to the highest 
place of honor in political life, in art, en- in sci- 
ence, to advance beyond his ancestors. Mechan- 
ical training failed to satisfy those who interested 
themselves in the cause of education : the first 
theories of education were developed, and the 
harmonious development of the body and the 
mind was held up to the young as the worthiest 
aim of their youthful ambition. Lycurgus and 
Solon as lawgivers, Pythagoras and Socrates as 
practical educators, and Plato and Aristotle as 
writers on education, propounded ami brought in- 
to circulation a number of new ideas, with which 
not only did the older nations of the ancient 
world have nothing to compare, but which have 
remained among the must potent agencies in the 
progressive education of mankind. A beauti- 
ful individuality was. to the Greek, the aim of 
life, and the ideal of education was expressed by 
the word KahoKaya&ia, the beautiful and tin: 
good. The Spartan system of education con- 
stituted, to a. considerable degree, an exception to 
this general characteristic of Greek education. 
The Roman's attention, from his early childhood, 
was directed to the affairs of a commonwealth 
which was constantly engaged in war. and those 
who reared him naturally designed to make him 
a practical man. Tin 1 development of a practical 
individuality became the aim of Roman educa- 
tion. Less time was found for, and less interest 
felt in, the Study of science and art ; but there 
was a notable progress in the appreciation of 
home education, involving a higher regard for 
marriage and for a more dignified and freer po- 
sition of woman in society. In every family, 
the mother was to begin and the father to con- 
tinue the work of education, which came to be 
looked upon as a part of parental duty. Both 
parents co-operated in nursing, in the minds of 
their children, the feeling of patriotism; and a 
part of the education which the young Roman 
received under the parental roof was the desire 
to become a useful, honest, and illustrious citizen 
of the commonwealth. Under these influences, 
the will was more developed than either the 
emotional nature or the intellect. The only sci- 
ences which interested the Romans were almost 
exclusively those of a strongly utilitarian charac- 
ter, — rhetoric, Roman history, and military sci- 
ence ; since every noble and talented youth 
aspired to become a leading politician or a great 
general. The characteristic virtue of the ancient 
Romans, before the decline of the Republic, was 
stern and inflexible integrity in political life; 
but all their intellectual and moral aspirations 
were circumscribed by the narrow horizon of 
their own nationality, ami a due regard for those 
outside of it appears to have been unknown to 
them. When an acquaintance with the institu- 



tions of conquered Greece revealed to the Ro- 
mans a progress in art. science, and literature, 
which they as yet hail not even conceived, and 
thus awakened a thirst for higher literary culture, 
the political and social system of the republic 
had already entered upon the period of its de- 
cline. Higher instruction, often imparted by 
despised slaves, was an inadequate Compensation 
for the decline of home education ; and scientific 
and literary culture proved utterly unable to ar- 
rest the flood of corruption which finally over- 
whelmed the free institutions of Rome. The 
lines of Horace, so often quoted, have thus an 
i impressive significance : 

Graeciu capta ferum victorem cepit, et artes 

Illtulit agr&6ti Latin. 

Under the empire, the old landmarks of na- 
tional education were entirely swept away. 
Greek tutors, and < rreek high schools, at Athens 
and Constantinople, wen' expected to Supply the 
highest instruction: but the enervated Roman 
was no longer able to grasp the ideal of a uni- 
versal higher education, and the Roman Empire 

of the \n est was destroyed by the barbarians 
without having developed any systems or forms 
of education. As Roman education, from the 
foundation of the city to the downfall of the 
empire, was ;<i a predominantly utilitarian char- 
acter, R e never produced any writers on edu- 
cation like Aristotle and Plato: yet the works 
of Cicero, and especially of Seneca and Quin- 
tilian, contain many suggestions of great prac- 
tical value. 

A peculiar position is occupied by the 
I lebrews, the only theocratic people of antiquity. 

'I heir children were to be educated, not for the 
family or caste, not for the state or for personal 
distinction in art and literature, but to be the 
obedient servants of the God of Israel. As Je- 
hovah was represented to the people as their 
sovereign, so he was their only teacher. Educa- 
tion was a corollary of religion. The head of a 
family was both its teacher and priest, and gave 
to the children a religious instruction: reading 
and writing were learned only by the children of 
the wealthy. The first organized schools were 
the schools of the prophets for training expound- 
ers of the law of Jehovah ; after the exile, the 
rabbis organized a number of schools, to which 
children from their 5th year could be sent. The 
instruction was for a long time entirely oral, 
| and at first also limited to the tenets of the Jew- 
ish religion : but gradually the course of instruc- 
tion was enlarged, and, during the noddle ages. 
many Jewish schools obtained a high reputation 
for the number of scholars whom they educated. 
The advent of Christianity was a great turn- 
ing-point in the history of education, no less 
than in the general history of mankind, bora, 
considerable length of time this was far from 
being recognized. To the educated and wealthy 
Romans, especially to those holding a high rank 
in scholarship and literature, the Christians ap- 
peared as a humble, insignificant, and despised 
sect. The energies of the Christians themselves 
were so greatly absorbed in the effort to live up 



246 



EDUCATION 



to the requirements of their religion, and to 
develop the constitution of their church, that 
but little attention seems to have been devoted 
to the cause of education. They had no literary 
institutions of their own, and, consequently, their 
children were often sent to pagan schools for sec- 
ular instruction. The first Christian schools 
were founded to instruct the catechumens in the 
doctrines of Christianity, and to enable them to 
vindicate their religion from the attacks of 
pagan philosophers. The most famous of these 
schools, that of Alexandria (see Alexandria* 
School), gradually developed into the first school 
of Christian theology. Its great teachers, espe- 
cially Clement and Origen, not only freed Chris- 
tianity from the charge, until then very common, 
of being the faith of the ignorant and illiterate, 
but, by conceiving the idea of demonstrating the 
agreement of Christian doctrines with Platonic 
philosophy, attempted to revive the educational 
ideas of the Greeks, the most advanced in ante- 
Christian times, and to resume the work of edu- 
cational development where the great masters of 
ancient Greece had left off. This attempt, how- 
ever, fail 3d in. consequence of the passionate op- 
position made to it by another school of Chris- 
tian theologians, who saw in the world outside of 
the Christian revelation nothing but darkness 
and sin, and did not bebeve that any good could 
be derived from the study of pagan literature. 
Tertullian rejected any connection between 
Christianity and philosophy with the harsh re- 
mark, "What have Athens and Jerusalem, the 
Academy and the Church, in common ?" Sim- 
ilar views were expressed by Ireua3us, Cyprian, 
and Arnobius, while other writers, especially at 
Rome, endeavored to compromise between the 
Alexandrians and their opponents. When, three 
hundred years after its rise, Christianity sup- 
planted paganism as the official religion of Rome, 
the detestation of pagan learning was sufficiently 
predominant in the Christian Church to cause the 
decline, and, subsequently, in the fifth century, the 
extinction, of the Alexandrian school. With it 
the study of the literature of ancient Greece 
ceased, and the treasures which are contained in 
the educational works of Plato and Aristotle, 
were for a long time hidden. The only schools 
to be met with at that time in the Christian 
world, were several schools of theology, like those 
of Antioch, Edessa, and Nisibis ; and even these 
declined, simultaneously with or soon after the 
closing of the school of Alexandria. The mass 
of the Christian people derived its entire edu- 
cation from the family and the church. Upon 
this field, however, Christianity had produced 
wonderful results of regeneration. AVhile pagan 
society was irresistibly collapsing, from vice and 
corruption, the Christian congregations excited 
the admiration of the world by the strength of 
their faith and the depth of their religious feel- 
ing. The organization of Christian schools 
other than those of a theological character is 
chiefly due to the monastic orders. Both in the 
east and in the west provision was made for 
instructing not only the candidates for monastic 



: life, but also children who were sent there by 

! their parents. In the East, the attention of the 
monks was, however, so completely absorbed 
in subtle metaphysical questions and controver- 

j sies, that little was accomplished deserving a 
mention in the history of education. In the 
west, Benedict and Ms followers gave to monas- 

I tic education a more practical basis, and com- 
bined agricultural and mechanical occupations 
with the study of theology. The importance of 
these convent schools (q.v.) greatly increased when 
the barbaric tribes overpowered western Europe, 
and rudely destroyed the last remnants of Ro- 
man civilization. The convents then became al- 
most the only refuge of learning, and were thus 
enabled to extend their educational labors. Their 
success and the growing demand for instruction 
called into life the cathedral and collegiate 
schools (q. v.), which, in the main, pursued the 
same course of instruction. By far the most 
celebrated among all the convents of Europe 
were those of Ireland and England, which not 
only sent the greatest number of missionaries 
for the conversion of the pagan portions of 

! Europe, but also educated the best teachers. The 
most vigorous impulses given to the progress of 

' education in that period did not, however, pro- 

j ceed from any monk or convent, but from the 
great monarchs in the ninth century, Charle- 
magne (q. v.) and Alfred (q. v.), who by wise 
laws, greatly, increased the number of schools 
and improved the course of studies, which were 
divided into the tririum and qnailrimum. 
Charlemagne was the first who conceived the 
idea of organizing instruction for the whole 
people ; but his efforts in this direction were not 
successful, as, after Iris death, only few men could 
be found who were both willing and able to 
carry on the work of the great emperor. The 
people of the towns and rural districts did not 
appreciate the value of education, and a large 
portion of the clergy looked with disfavor at the 
attempt to cultivate in schools the language of 
the people at the expense of the Latin, the uni- 
versal language of the church. Of the emperors 
and kings of the middle ages, not one resumed 
the educational ideas of Charlemagne ; their 
energies being chiefly used, and to a large extent 
wasted, in their conflicts with the church and 
with the nobility. Since the authority of the 
church as the infallible teacher of rehgious truth 
was recognized in all Christian countries, it was 
to be expected that science and education would 
be, to a large extent, influenced and controlled 
by the church. Theology, actuated by the su- 
preme desire to defend the rule of the church, 
developed into scholasticism (q.v.), which reached 
its greatest prosperity in the twelfth and thir- 
teenth centuries. The methods of instruction 
pursued in the ecclesiastical schools were me- 
chanical, the pupils endeavoring to reproduce, in 
literal recitations, the explanations and lectures 
of their teachers. School discipline was not only 
severe, but often cruel, and corporal punish- 
ment was generally approved, and frequently ap- 
plied. The first departures from the educational 



EDUCATION 



247 



methods of tlio church schools are met with in 
the education of young; nobles, and in the estab- 
lishment of town schools. In neither ease was 
there any formal denial of the authority of the 
church, but very great attention was given to 
certain features of education which not only 
found no place in the church schools, but were 
frequently censured by the representatives of 
those schools as dangerous innovations. Thus, 
the attention given to gymnastic exercises in the 
education of young nobles, and the worshipful 
attention shown to noble women, gave to the 
-aristocracy of the middle ages a training quite 
different from what it would have received in 
the church schools. The establishment of town 
or burgher schools, which assumed large dimen- 
sions after the twelfth century, made the acquisi- 
tion of such knowledge as was most needed by the 
business man and mechanic, especially reading, 
writing, and arithmetic, the leading object of 
instruction. They were sometimes railed writing- 
schools, as they aimed at fitting their pupils for 
writing letters and business compositions. These 
schools not only served to develop the idea 
of secular instruction in the place of merely 
ecclesiastical education, but, when town mag- 
istrates were the patrons of the schools, led to 
the appointment of lay teachers, and, gradually, 
caused teaching to be regarded as a special pro- 
fession. The beginning of this profession was 
sufficiently humble. Kven at the close of the 
i nil Idle ages, special school-houses could be found 
in only a few towns. Instruction was generally 
given in some building used for ecclesiastical or 
municipal purposes, or in hired rooms. When 
magistrates had the control of a school, they en- 
gaged a schoolmaster, generally lor the term of 
one year. The school-master chose his own as- 
sistants, and. if his contract was not renewed, 
master and assistant traveled from town to town, 
until they found a new engagement. They were 
sometimes accompanied by crowds of boys and 
youths (see Bacchants), whose vagrant habits 
were, however, by no means calculated to in- 
crease the reputation of school education. — The 
greatest among the educational achievements of 
the Christian world, during the middle ages, 
was the establishment of the universities, in 
which every department of science was to be 
developed to its highest perfection. The plan 
of these institutions, which were to be the centers 
of the literary labors of the entire Christian 
world, and in which, therefore, the progress 
made in any one science was to benefit all. was 
in itself an immense progress. The development 
of the universities was greatly promoted by the 
revival of classical studies (q. v.), which began 
in Italy in the 14th century, and by the discov- 
ery of the art of printing in the 15th century, 
which greatly facilitated , a general diffusion of 
every kind of knowledge. The foremost rep- 
resentatives of this new period of intellectual 
activity were Erasmus, Reuchlin. and Melanch- 
thon. A striking feature in the educational 
history of ( 'hristian Europe, from the rise of ! 
Christianity to the end of the middle ages, is the i 



controlling influence of a universal church, with 
one visible head, the Cope, and one literary lan- 
guage, the Latin. In ancient Egypt, China, India, 
Persia, Greece, Rome, and among the .lews, 
the aim of education had always a strictly 
national bearing, and the same word was gener- 
ally used to denote the ideas of foreign and 
hostile. Christianity, which became the religion 
of the Roman state at a time when the great 
empire had begun to shake to its very founda- 
tion, soon witnessed its destruction and the rise 
of a number of independent states, and regarded 
it as a divine mission to unite these conflicting 
nations in a common submission to the supreme 
authority of the one true religion. Thus not 
only was secular education made subordinate to 
moral and religious education, but the submission 
of so many nations to one spiritual authority 
tended to develop ideas of universal rather than 
national education. The Eastern Empire had 
no part in the educational progress of western 
Europe, and was in a completely petrified and 
exhausted condition when it was destroyed, in 
the fifteenth century, by the Mohammedan 
Turks. Mohammedanism, at that time, had been 
in existence for about Mill years. It had become 
the predominant religion in a large portion of 
Asia and Africa, and. for several centuries, had 
ruled in Spain. Its influence upon the progress 
of education, at one time, appeared to be even 
more favorable than that of Christianity; and 
the Mohammedan high schools of Spain not only 
attracted a large number of students from Chris- 
tian countries, but in many sciences, as mathe- 
matics, philosophy, ami natural history, became 
the teachers of all Europe. In the twelfth cent- 
ury, these schools began to decline: and. from 
that, time to the present, education in the entire 
Mohammedan world has been in a most depressed 
condition. 

At the close of the fifteenth and the beginning 
of the sixteenth century, a series of remarkable 
events indicated the entrance of mankind into a 
new period of its history. One of special im- 
portance in regard to the progress of education 
was the overthrow of the Catholic Church in a 
large portion of Europe. As Luther. Zwingli. 
Calvin, and other leaders of the religious move- 
ment appealed from the judgment of the Church 
which condemned them, to the Bible, it was their 
natural desire that every I 'hristian family should 
be sufficiently instructed to be able to read the 
Bible. The governments of several Protestant 
states issued laws which were intended, after 
the example of ( Charlemagne, to bring the entire 
population under educational influences. In this 
way. education became more widely diffused 
than it had ever been in the middle ages ; and it 
remained, henceforth, to a higher degree than 
before, the subject of serious study for many 
legislators ; but there was no substantial change 
in the methods of instruction, and the subservi- 
ency of secular to theological education remained 
as complete as before. The desire to preserve 
the Catholic Church from further defection, 
and to recover the ground already lost, led to 



248 



EDUCATION 



the establishment of the order of the Jesuits, 
who tried, for this purpose, to obtain a control 
of the education of the higher classes. The 
schools of the Jesuits (q. v.) attained a great 
celebrity, a large attendance, and the admiration 
of many of the most eminent Protestants. In 
consequence of the- close connection between 
schools of every description and the church, all 
the great religious movements were reflected in 
education. Thus, when the German Pietists 
charged the Protestant Church of their time 
with laying too great stress on a rigid orthodoxy, 
and with undervaluing the emotional element of 
religion, the schools influenced by them were so 
shaped as to aim more at the education of 
practical than orthodox Christians. Germany 
is indebted to these Pietists for one of its greatest 
philanthropists and most practical educators, A. 
IT. Fraucke (q. v.), whose fame in the history of 
education rests more on the excellent institutions 
which were founded by him, than on any new 
theory or literary work on education. 

A radical reform in education had, in the 
meantime, been introduced by Comenius (q.v.), 
a bishop of the Bohemian Brethren and one of 
the greatest educators of all time. Influenced 
by the inductive method of Bacon (q.v.), and 
the works of Ratich (q. v.) on the necessity and 
importance of an independent art of teaching, 
Comenius eouceived the idea of a harmonious 
development of all the faculties of man. and 
proposed a grand system of popular education 
which is still admired by all educators as a work 
of lasting value. The views of Comenius on 
vernacular schools, on the return from dead 
books to the live book of nature, on intuitional 
teaching and the value of analytico - synthetic 
methods met with general approbation anil led 
to immediate reforms. The movement begun 
by Comenius was greatly strengthened by the 
writings of John Locke (q. v.), who applied 
Bacon's inductive method to the study of the 
human mind and became the founder of empir- 
ical psychology. Locke specially exceeded former 
writers in recognizing the importance of physical 
education ; his ideas in regard to this subject 
have exercised a marked influence on modern 
school legislation. The new principles thus devel- 
oped were welcomed by the powerful opposition 
which, in the seventeenth century, arose in the 
literary world against the influence of both 
orthodox Protestantism and the Catholic Church 
upon society, and which had its chief represent- 
atives in the French Free-Thinkers, the English 
Deists, and the German Rationalists. It became 
the general tendency of the age to look upon 
education as one of the most important depart- 
ments of state administration, and, in most of 
the states, ministries of education, school boards, 
and school commissions were appointed. In 
Germany and a number of other countries, com- 
pulsory education was introduced. The chief 
difference among the leading educators concerned 
the question whether instruction should chiefly 
aim at imparting positive and useful knowledge, 
or at exercising and training the mental faculties. 



The advocates of the latter principle, who were- 
called the Humanists, attributed very great 
educational importance to the study of the clas- 
sical languages; while those of the former, called 
Realists, from their utilitarian point of view, 
thought more of natural sciences, modern lan- 
guages, geography, and history. Among the wrhV 
ers on education in the eighteenth century, none 
became so famous as Rousseau, an enthusiastic 
idealist who looked upon the entire civilization 
of his age as an aberration from nature, and pro- 
posed to erect upon its ruins an entirely new 
society. The means by which he desired to effect 
this change was a radical reform in the system of 
public education. Neither he nor any of his ad- 
mirers was able to carry his radical theories into 
practice; but many of his ideas, especially on 
physical education and the cultivation of the in- 
tellect, are now accepted as correct by all edu- 
cators. He is regarded as the father of the an- 
thropological principle in education which insists 
that the educational functions of a teacher should 
begin with his study of the individual nature of 
his pupils. Basedow (q. v.) and other Philan- 
thropists (see Philanthropic;), attempted to 
establish model boarding-schools on the basis 
of the ideas of Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau. 
The great hopes which they raised were never 
realized : but many of their pupils have risen 
to considerable eminence. 

The most famous and influential of modern 
educators was Pestalozzi. The eminent position 
which he occupies in the history of education is 
not so much due to a perfect method of instruc- 
tion, to a superior talent of organization and man- 
! agement, or to the foundation of great educational 
I institutions, for in all these respects Pestalozzi 
has been excelled by other educators ; but he 
has secured the admiration of all time by his 
fervid enthusiasm in the cause of education. He 
gave a greater impulse to the improvement of 
popular education than any of his predecessors ; 
and it was his special merit to have called at- 
tention to the ethical and psychological founda- 
j tion of education. The followers of Pestalozzi 
: called into existence a number of practical re- 
forms, the most important of which is the kin- 
dergarten (q. v.), founded by Froebel (q. v.), a 
system for the education of young children be- 
fore their admission to the primary school. 

Many of the eminent philosophers of the eight- 
eenth and nineteenth centuries have discussed 
j the great problems of pedagogy ; and conflicting 
as their views may be on many important ques- 
tions, the principle that education should be a- 
natural and harmonious development of inde- 
pendent individualities is generally recognized. 
j Of special interest for educators are the systems 
of Herbart, Beneke, and Herbert Spencer. 
Herbart (q. v.) rejected the traditional view of a 
number of different powers constituting the 
human soul, which on the contrary is regarded 
by him as a simple entity and as not subject to 
any change in its quality. Beneke (q. v.) pro- 
posed a system of education wholly based on 
psychology, to which he attributed the character 



EDUCATION 



249 



of a wholly empirical science. Herbert Spencer 
(q. v.) claimed for the development of the soul 
an organic growth subject to the ordinary laws of 
organic development, and made psychology strict- 
ly a natural science. 

The development of educational ideas, as it 
has here been briefly traced, undoubtedly shows, 
that in every department of the subject a won- 
derful progress has been made in the course of 
the last three centuries. This progress is uni- 
versally recognized, and there is not at present a 
civilized state which dues not reflect it in its 
school legislation. (Seethe articles on the several 
countries and states.) Official statistics prove 
that school attendance is becoming more and 
more general, that illiteracy is on the wane, and 
in some countries scarcely known, and that the 
diffusion of education tends to the diminution 
of crime. Still, on many great questions, there 
continues to exist a marked difference of opinion. 
lias the state government a right only to recom- 
mend and promote, or may it compel the educa- 
tion of children? (Sec Cobpulsor's Education.) 
Should instruction in the state schools be gratui- 
tous? (See Public Schools.) Are the two 
to be educated in separate or in mixed schools? 
iSee Co-education op the Sexes.) Is religious 
instruction to be given in or out of the state 
schools? (See Denominational Schools.) All 
these questions are fully treated of, in this work, 
in special articles. 

The outlines of a history of education are con- 
tained in the works on education in general by 
Schwarz, Niemeyer, Grafe, and Rosenkranz. 
(See literature at the end of this article.) Special 
works on the history of education have been 
written by Wbhlfarth [Geschichte des gesamm- 
ten Erziekungs- und Unterrichtswesens, 2 vols., 
1853 & 1855); [Corner i Geschichte der Pfldago- 
r/i/<; 1857; Karl Schmidt [Geschichte der Pada- 
gor/il-, 3d edit., by Lange, 4 vols.. 1872 — 187(i); 
Dittes [Geschichte der Erziehung und des Un- 
ierrichts, 4th ed.. 187"'): Fritz [Esquisse cfun 
systems complet ^instruction et d'e'ducatiom et 
de lew histoire, 3 vols.. Strasburg, 1841 — 1847); 
H. J. Schmidt [History of Education, New 
Tork, 1842); Ilaihnaun [History of Pedagogy, 
Cincinnati, 1874). A history of education from 
the revival of classical studies to the present 
time has been written by Karl Pannier (4 vols., 
1844— 1852). Of this there is an English trans- 
lation in Barnard's American Journal of Edu- 
cation ; the larger portion of the translation of 
the first two volumes has also been published 
separately under the title, Memoirs of Eminent 
Teacher* ami Educators in Germany; and the 
translation of the fourth volume, under the title, 
The German Universities. A history of edu- 
cation before Christ is given in Cramer, Ge- 
schichte der Erziehung mid des Unterrichts 
(2 vols., 1832 and 1838). 

II. Tlieoni if Education. — The word educa- 
tion is derived from the Latin verb educo which 
is properly used to designate the sustenance and 
care bestowed by a nurse on a child ; and it is.no 
doubt, connected etymologically with the I^atin 



I verb educo, to lead out : but it never has this 
literal sense, and it is extremely unlikely that 
the Romans connected the idea of drawing out 

, with fhat of educaiio. In order to get at a true 
idea of education, we must look at the circum- 
stances of the case. We proceed by way of 
analogy. We know in regard to the seed of a 
plant that it contains a peculiar and special 
power within it. Place it in the proper soil, 
with the proper temperature, and it will burst 
forth into active life. It will gather from earth 
and air the means of support and increase. It 
will fashion the elements which it lays hold of 
into a definite shape, and it will pass through 
various stages of progress until it withers away. 
leaving, however, behind it the means of con- 
tinuing the species. Within certain limits, the 
plant has a definite form of its own. and its 
mode of life is also uniform ; and. within these 
limits, there lies a perfect form and a perfect life 
for the plant. It may not be easy to say what is 
(hat perfect form and perfect life, but it is plain 
to every observer, that it. as it were, strives after 
an ideal form and an ideal progress, to which it 
approximates more or less closely. .Man is like 

the plant. The living power within him strives 
to attain a particular form, and to go through a 
particular progress, and it continually strives to 
attain an ideal of these, within certain limits. 
The difference between the plant and the man 
is, that the limits of his condition and progress 
are much wider, and that he can consciously 
form an ideal for himself, and strive after it. 
Now education, in its proper sense, is the delib- 
erate effort on the part of one conscious being 
to clear the way so as to enable another to attain 
i his perfect condition of life and this normal prog- 
ress. It is assumed that the man naturally strives 
after perfection. It is assumed that he must 
move in some direction, whether forward, or zig- 
zag, or backward : and the educator endeavors to 
keep the movement in the right direction. 

The word education is used in a variety of 
senses, connected but not always compatible with 
the true idea. Thus man is viewed as being, in 
his earliest stage, a kind of compressed mass of 
faculties, arid education is the drawing out of 
these faculties. Again, every thing that acts on 
man's nature is sometimes said to be educative, 
whether the result is beneficial or not. Other 
instances could be adduced of the use of the 
word in the vaguest manner ; but by stating the. 
true idea we oppose ourselves to the vague u.-cs 
of the word, it is enough, therefore, to state 
first that man must be viewed, not as passive but 
as active, not as being drawn out. but as striving 
to act, and that no act is truly educative which 
does not help him to strive afteractions that are 
becoming to his nature, or, to express it object- 
ively, to strive after what is good, beautiful. 01 
true. 

But, in thus stating the work of education in 
a general proposition, we have done very little 
towards explaining its true nature. Education 
sets before it an ideal. How are we to form 
anything like an adequate conception of this 



250 



EDUCATION 



ideal ? Only by a minute and careful study of 
human nature ; and, therefore, every educator 
must necessarily devote a great deal of his atten- 
tion to the phenomena of body and mind, and 
to man, the combination of both. The ideal is 
a unity, but it is a composite unity, made up of 
the perfect accomplishment of endless detailed 
actions, and we must, therefore, examine all the 
details before we can attain to a clear notion of 
the whole. 

The subject may be viewed in another light. 
Every portion of man is made or preformed for 
a special function or functions. Thus the eyes 
are made for seeing, the hands for grasping, the 
.skin for touch. For what is the whole body 
jnade ? For what is man, body and soul, made ? 
It is the work of the educator to help him whom 
he educates to discharge the functions for which, 
as man, he has been made or preformed. Ac- 
cordingly, most of the definitions of education 
which have been given, have been based on the 
answer to the question, what is the chief end — 
the summum bonum — the destiny of man? 
This was a question which occupied the atten- 
tion of the ancients much, and Clemens Alexan- 
-drinus has gathered together a large number of 
the answers which ancient philosophers gave to 
the inquiry. These are interesting to the edu- 
cator, because they suggest different points of 
view from which to look at the problem. In 
more modern times, the form which the answer 
has most frequently taken is the statement that 
it is the work of education to produce, as far as 
it can, an equable and harmonious development 
•of all the powers of man. Herbart and his 
school object to this way of expressing the aim 
of education. The term powers is apt to mis- 
lead. There are no separate and special faculties 
in man's mind. All the best psychologists admit 
that these faculties are fictions : and, therefore, 
the aim of education must be defined apart from 
these. Herbart himself defined the aim of edu- 
cation to be morality ; but he used the word in a 
truly philosophical sense, in which it is not un- 
derstood by the masses, and. therefore, he pre- 
ferred to state the object of education to be, to 
produce a well-balanced many-sidedness of in- 
terest. The emphasis laid on interest has been 
productive of much rich fruit in educational in- 
vestigation and experience ; but, practically, 
Herbart's definition comes to the same as the 
other. Man is viewed as destined to a series of 
activities closely connected the one with the 
•other. These activities may be in harmony with 
his nature, or his ideal nature, as we may call it, 
or they may be more or less aberrations from it. 
The business of the educator is to prevent the 
aberrations, and to help those activities which 
are in harmony. Those activities which are in 
harmony find their sphere in nature, in man, in 
Cod. It is important that all these activities 
come into play. Man does not pursue his ideal 
■course, if they do not come into play. He must 
be fully developed. But if his activity comes 
into play on these subjects according to the right 
method, his interest in them is awakened and 



becomes stronger and stronger ; for all pleasure 
is the accompaniment of the vigorous discharge 
of some function, and all pain is the accompani- 
ment of the weak discharge or hindrance of 
some function. If the organ which discharges 
the function is exercised too powerfully, as may 
be the case with our bodily powers and lower 
mental energies, there is first intense pleasure ; 
but the over-tension impairs the healthiness of 
the organ temporarily, or it may be permanent^ 
ly, and then the impaired activity is followed by 
pain. And the pleasure that may arise, may 
arise from the exercise of what we call lower 
functions, when higher are neglected. Thus the 
lazy man desires true pleasure, as far as it goes, 
from the vigorous exercise of his vital or vege- 
tative powers. But, whatever pleasure does exist, 
exists from the efficient discharge of function, 
or in other words from healthy activities of body 
or of mind. This pleasure may not be con- 
sciously before the mind, as in the highest intel- 
lectual operations when the student does not 
feel how intense has been his enjoyment, until 
the enjoyment is over. This accompaniment of 
all our healthy actions is cumulative. It grows in 
degree, in proportion as the actions are repeated 
in a healthy or proper manner. And, hence, our 
interest increases with the healthy repetition of 
the activities on the objects. Herbart's defini- 
tion becomes, therefore, nearly synonymous with 
the other, but directs the attention to the ex- 
ternal side of man's activity, to the objects on 
which the mind works. Both sides must be 
carefully considered by the educator ; for, in the 
activity of man, they are invariably conjoined. 
The distinction between formal and material in 
education has to be made with great caution ; 
and it has always to be remembered that form is 
impossible without matter, and matter impos- 
sible without form, that while there can be no 
right activity, if the mind does not act in a right 
manner, it is equally true that there can be no 
right activity, if that on -which the action takes 
place is not a right object for the mind to act upon. 

After having thus generally discussed the aim 
of education, we should now enter minutely into 
particulars, for the general is of slight use with- 
out the particular ; but this would be to write a 
treatise on the laws cf the activity of the human 
mind, and the modes to be adopted by men to 
direct these activities aright in the young. We 
must, therefore, confine ourselves to hints which 
may suggest to the reader the subjects which de- 
serve his careful and minute examination. 

A child gazes at an apple on a tree. What 
are the operations of the child's mind ? First, 
we have the exercise of the bodily organ. Then 
the apple produces an impression on the child's 
mind. This impression we call a sensation. The 
child feels something. Some change has taken 
place within him. But, if this is not the first 
impression which the apple has made on the 
child, we can observe that the sensation has at- 
tained in its complexity to three phases : First, 
the child has the feeling of pleasure in seeing the 
apple ; second, he sees that there is an object 



EDUCATION 



251 



before him which he calls an apple: and, third, if, i 
on a previous occasion, lie has tasted apples and 
enjoyed them, the recollection of that enjoyment 
comes back, a desire arises within him, anil he is 
under an impulse to make an exertion to obtain 
the apple. In this one instance, we have the 
various phases of man's activities, lie is. first 
of all, a physical being ; then he is capable of 
feeling, — has an emotional nature : then he is 
capable of perceiving, — has an intellectual nat- I 
ure ; and. finally, he is capable of desiring, of 
striving after, and. thus, has a practical and 
moral nature. Though we speak of him thus j 
as if he had four natures, he really possesses but I 
one. All the distinctions, except perhaps the 
first, are distinctions made by the mind, but the j 
facts do not exist separately. The emotional, | 
intellectual, and volitional are blended with each 
other in the actual human mind. The mind 
cannot exist without them. There can be no 
absolute separation of them ; since they stand in 
the closest relation to each other. Yet it is es- 
sential to separate these elements in our discus- 
sion of them; for they may blend with each 
other in different degrees. The one phase may 
predominate to the injury of the others. A man 
may have a clear head, but a hard heart and a 
stubborn will. Another may be too emotional, 
ready to melt before the slightest distress, and 
yet possessing almost no capability or inclination 
to relieve the distress. The true aim of man is 
to bring out all the elements in harmonious pro- 
portion, and the work of the educator is to help 
each child to accomplish this difficult task for 
himself. 

First, then, there is physical education. The 
aim and end of physical education is to produce 
health, not strength in particular organs, but a 
general healthiness of all the organs. This aim 
is accomplished by a careful examination into 
the nature of the human body, an exposition of 
the laws of health which arise from this study, 
and the exhibition of the reasons which ought to 
lead us to give all due care to the body. This 
subject is treated under the head of physical 
education. Secondly, there is intellectual educa- 
tion. This education is based on a careful inves- 
tigation into the laws which regulate the gradual 
progress of the mind from its earliest weak state 
of mere sensation till it reach the power of deal- 
ing with the most abstract ideas. (See Senses, 
Education ok, and Instruction.) Thirdly, we 
have the education of tin' emotional ii'ilm-.*. 
And here we enter upon a more difficult sphere 
— one in which the educator has often to grope 
in darkness; for the emotions are not directly 
under his control, and the movements of the 
mind in regard to them are hid in such secrecy, 
that sometimes an influence which seems to us 
likely to produce one emotion, actually produces 
the opposite ; as, for instance, efforts to beget 
love may have for their result the production of 
dislike. We shall here take a short glance at this 
important subject. 

The first point to which the attention of the 
educator may be directed is a general result at 



which he may aim. The hroadest division which 
can be made of the feelings is into those of pleas- 
ure and those of pain. The mind assumes a 
particular attitude in consequence of its experi- 
ences of these. We shall take a case. A child 
performs a mental act. He does it successfully. 
I lc feels pleasure. He performs another success- 
fully. The recollection of the past pleasure unites 
with the present feeling, and the feeling is 
stronger. Others thus blend until the child has 
a permanent state of feeling; or. as we may call 
it, a mood. He looks forward with hope ; he ex- 
pects to be successful ; but he may fail. A fail- 
ure takes place ; he feels pain. The feeling of 
pain now acts antagonistically to his feeling of 
pleasure ; and. if these painful feelings recur, 
the one set strive for the mastery over the other; 
and the result will be, that the mind will ulti- 
mately be in a bright and cheerful mood, or in 
a dark and gloomy one ; it will either be 
full of hope or be given to despair ; or. at the 
least, have a tendency to go in the one direc- 
tion or the other. There can be no doubt that 
it is the business of the educator to produce the 
bright, cheerful, hopeful mood. This is the nat- 
ural mood, if we use the word natural as ex- 
pressive of the ideal after which nature strives. 
This mood is the result of the successful discharge 
of all the functions : and it is of immense conse- 
quence for the child to have this mood. The 
mind communicates its tone to every thing around 
it; and so the cheerful mind sees good in every 
thing, catches the bright side, and strengthens 
all the powers; for the cheerful mind becomes 
the strong mind. Obstacles, pain, failure are 
sure to come; but the cheerful mind casts them 
all aside, rises superior to them. and. after tem- 
porary depression, sees again with the same clear- 
ness, and hopes with the same steadfastness. The 
methods by which the educator can help to pro- 
duce this state of mind in his charge are various, 
and must all be used. First of all. he must 
himself be of this cheerful and hopeful mind. 
There is no direct teaching on excitation of the 
emotions ; but they are often produced, in the 
proper circumstances, by what we may call in- 
fection. Love begets love ; we catch admiration 
from those who have felt the admiration before 
us; and, no doubt, the sweet, gentle, loving 
smiles of a mother who is uniformly kind to 
her child, have a powerful influence on his whole 
destiny, a more powerfid influence than they are 
generally believed to exert. Secondly, health is a 
mighty agent in the earliest stages of life, before 
it can be expected that the mind should triumph 
over bodily evils ; and, therefore, special care 
should be taken to render the infant healthy. 
And, thirdly, after a certain stage hits been 
reached, some truths reached by the intellect 
can come powerfully to the aid of the emotional 
nature ; such, for instance, as a belief that the 
arrangements of this world are in favor of man, 
that the amount of happiness in the world is 
much greater than we may suppose, that God is 
working all things to wise and noble ends, and 
that man's destiny is for virtue and love. When 



252 



EDUCATION 



we pass from this general consideration to the par- 
ticular feelings, we find ourselves in a labyrinth. 
A feeling is a phase of mind which arises from 
the consciousness of having passed from one 
state into another ; and, accordingly, no mental 
act can take place without a feeling. Hence, we 
have feelings connected with the body, feelings 
connected with the intellectual operations, and 
feelings connected with the practical and moral 
nature. Or we might speak of the felings ac- 
cording to the objects which give rise to them; 
as those that arise in connection with nature, 
with one's own self, with man, with God. We 
select out of these, two classes of feelings that 
especially deserve the attention of the educator. 
The first class deserve attention principally be- 
cause they are in danger of being neglected, ow- 
ing to the character of the present age. The edu- 
cator should awaken and keep alive the feelings 
of admiration and mystery. A child naturally 
wonders and admires, and these feelings must 
not be allowed to die out. Moreover, the sense of 
mystery, closely connected with these, will be a 
source of great blessing to him. The practical 
man is apt to look on all things as definite and 
fully known ; but the fact is, that nothing is 
completely known. We know neither the be- 
ginning nor the end of any thing. The smallest 
object and the largest are equally invisible to us. 
Our knowledge is limited by a boundary that lies 
far within the infinitesimally great and the infin- 
itesimally small; and so all knowledge attained 
points to an infinite region the depths of which 
we have not sounded. A consciousness of this 
is closely connected with a humble spirit, and 
true humility generally allies itself with love. 
The second class of feelings is that which relates 
to the beautiful. The sense of the beautiful is 
the power to feel the loveliness of symmetry, of 
proportion, of harmony. This power is to be 
acquired only by the exercise of it. The sym- 
metry and loveliness exist in nature. They are 
calculated to produce an effect on the sold of 
man, but the soul of man must be brought 
into contact with them, before it can feel them. 
Therefore, in regard to the cultivation of the 
feeling for the beautiful, the one essential condi- 
tion is, that beautiful objects be placed before 
the person in whom the sense is to be awakened 
and strengthened, and that they be placed fre- 
quently and at proper intervals; because the sense 
of the beautiful is awakened only by slow degrees, 
and it expands, passing from the external and 
simple to the harmonies which prevail amidst 
the grandest spheres of thought and intelligent 
existences. But it can be brought before the 
pupil in every form at an early stage, in beauti- 
ful pictures, in beautiful rooms, in beautiful 
landscapes, in order, in gentleness of tone, in 
noble action, and in many other ways, so as to 
induce within himself a love of all that is orderly, 
harmonious, and peaceful. 

Two cautions may be specially urged in con- 
nection with the cultivation of the feelings. The 
first is, that it is possible to render a human be- 
ing too sensitive, to give feeling too great a pre- 



ponderance in the individuality of the person 
educated. Such a person becomes sentimental, 
is easily moved to joy or tears, is sympathetic in 
the highest degree, but the sympathy does not 
lead to action. The educator has to take care 
that every train of feeling be strengthened and 
guided aright by clear and well-reasoned convic- 
tions, and be followed by appropriate action. 
The second danger is, that the feeling of self 
may become so strong as to harden every other. 
Naturally every one bestows a great deal of at- 
tention on himself, and there is a tendency to 
feel only when the circumstances relate to one's 
self. Here, again, what has to be done is, to 
prevent the mind's being occupied too much 
with self, and to interest it in the thoughts and 
circumstances of others. Both these cautions 
point to the next division of the sphere of edu- 
cation — that of the will or of the practical 
powers. The exercise of these is closely con- 
nected with the intellect and the feelings, and 
indeed ordinarily results from them. Man is 
naturally a striving or desiring being. He is 
a force, and by a force we mean something 
that strives to exert itself. Accordingly man's 
first act is an effort. And the powers which he 
at anytime possesses strive for spheres of action. 
But these spheres are in the main determined 
by the results of the action of his intellect and 
the motive power of the feelings. A child does 
something which gives him pleasure. He has 
finished the action. He turns to something else. 
What remains of the previous action ? 'A recol- 
lection of something pleasant; but the recollec- 
tion of something that is pleasant excites the 
desire to enjoy it again. Thus arise desires in 
the mind ; and as these desires arise again and 
again in connection with objects belonging to 
separate classes, groups of desires or inclina- 
tions arise, and we call these groups by general 
names, such as the love of money, the love of 
honor, the love of fame. These desires grow 
in intensity according to the amount of time 
during which they are allowed to continue in the 
mind, and the amount of space they are allowed 
to occupy in it. Add to this fact that we natu- 
rally put a value on the things which we desire, 
and regard some as higher than others, and we 
enter the region of morals. Two or three func- 
tions of mind lie before us which we are able 
to discharge at the time. We weigh these func- 
tions in the balance. We pronounce one of a 
higher nature than the others. This is the one 
which we feel bound to perform. Thus the func- 
tion of the eye is a nobler one than that of the 
the nose or the taste ; and, hence, the educator 
who trains the child to see is performing a nobler 
function than he who indidges a child's taste for 
sweets. All functions may be necessary, but 
each must have its own place in a well-arranged 
and systematic order of gradation. 

The first essential, then, to a good practical 
training is to impress on the pupil the true value 
of all actions and things. He is enabled to at- 
tain to this only by having a clear intellect and 
a right state of feeling, and, therefore, it cannot 



EDUCATION 



253 



be too strongly urged, that a thorough intellectual 
education is an important element in the at- 
tainment of a sound moral character. But, be- 
sides this, we learn to act by acting. There is a 
natural instinct to act, and this instinct must 
not be resisted or blunted. It is by one action 
that we rise to the power of doing a greater. 
Here the same kind of fiction as that which we 
have noticed in the case of the mental faculties 
is apt to mislead. Mau is often spoken of as 
possessing a will; but man has not one will, but 
many wills. The word will is used to denote 
the complicated power which man possesses, 
through his original faculties and the exercise 
of them, to will for the future. But, if this 
be the case, the strength of the power to will 
in any particular case depends upon the pre- 
vious exercise which the mind has had in will- 
ing similar actions: and so a man may have a 
strong will in one direction, and a weak will in 
another. Hence, the educator must take care t" 
bring into activity the willing power of his pupil 
in as many directions as he can, without impair- 
ing his strength of will in the most important di- 
rections. Moreover, in action, we are influenced 
strongly by the action of others, just as in feel- 
ing by the feeling of others. The teacher who 
wishes to lead his pupils to action, must himself 
act first. The influence of example is all-power- 
ful in this matter. And. finally, as willing de- 
pends first upon fixing an appropriate aim. and, 
secondly, on selecting the right means, the pupil 
must be trained, in all cases, to use the right 
means. The clear insight into the true value of 
actions, that is. into the aims which should guide 
us, may be of comparatively little use, if we 
have not the good sense to employ the suitable 
means for our purposes. These are the general 
rules which regulate practical education. It 
would be impossible in an article like this to go 
into the particular phenomena which must he 
investigated before the educator can have a 
proper grasp of the subject. Just as in the case 
of the feelings, desires and inclinations arise in 
connection with all the activities of man, — with 
the physical, the intellectual, the emotional, and 
the practical forms of man's energy; and they 
embrace the same extent of objects. They con- 
nect themselves with nature, with one's own self, 
with other men, with God. But, they have wider 
ramifications, and a more potent influence than 
the feelings, and open up. therefore, a wider field 
for investigation ; and. in this subject, the aber- 
rations demand the closest attention. The edu- 
cator has continually to guard against the forma- 
tion and the strengthening of inclinations which 
are dangerous to the well-being of the individual 
and the race. 

Lastly, there is religious education, embracing 
within it intellectual, emotional, and moral as- 
pects. Religion may be said to arise in a feel- 
ing. We feel our weakness and littleness. We feel 
that we are limited in power, in knowledge, in 
vital energy. We feel surrounded, on every hand. 
by powers that are stronger than we are, and 
hemmed in by irresistible forces. If this, how- 



ever, were the only feeling, despair would lay hold 
of us. But, we come to feel that the irresistible 
forces are not antagonistic to us, that we can 
come into harmonious relations with the super- 
natural, that, to use the Christian mode of 
thought, we can trust in a God of justice and 
love. It is when we gain this feeling of trust that 
we attain to a religion. But, a religion advances 
beyond the mere feeling ; it sets down God or 
gods, as possessing a certain character, and, 
therefore, enjoining a certain kind of worship. 
Especially does the Christian religion present 
definite conceptions as to the character of God, 
and enjoin, as the first condition of worship 
ami as the great law of life, love to Cod ami 
love to man practically exhibited. The Christian 
religion thus brings into play the feelings as the 
foundation of religion, the intellectual powers in 
apprehending its great truths, and the inclina- 
tions and practical powers in carrying them out. 
The discussion of this subject belongs to the 
article on religious education. 

The subject of education is discussed in a 
great variety of treatises. The most satisfactory 
discussion, in our opinion, is contained in the 
works of ilerbart and Beneke. 1 lcrbart's edu- 
cational writings have been Collected and pub- 
lish, id recently in two volumes (LeipBic, L873 
— 1875) under the editorship of Otto Will- 
mann. Beneke's great work on the subject is 
hvmgs- "ml I nterrwhtslehre (2 vols., third 
edition, Berlin. L864). The first volume is de- 
voted to Education, the second to Instruction. 
Of the followers of Ilerbart, Zillcrs works de- 
serve special mention; and of those of Beneke, 
the works of Dittes and Dressier. The educator 
will also derive much good from the study of the 
best works on psychology. Both Ilerbart and 
Beneke have written handbooks of psychology; 
and, in English, special mention may be made of 
the writings of Sir William I laniilton. I >r. Morell, 
Prof. Bain, and Mr. Herbert Spencer, the last 
of whom has a work specially devoted to edu- 
cation (Education: Intellectual, Moral, and, 
Physical). See also NtKMEVKit, Grundsatze der 
Erziehung jwid des Vhierrichts (9th ed., 1845); 
Schwabz, Erziehungslehre (3 vols., 2d ed., 1829), 
and Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Padagogik 
|L' vols , 4th ed.. by t'urtmanu. 1843) ; Ge.efe, 
AUgemeine Padagogik (2 vols., l.S-l .">); Palmer, 
Ernugelische Padagogik (3d ed.. 1864); Rosen- 
kranz. IHe Padagogik als System (1848; En- 
glish translation by Anna C. Brackett, St. Louis, 
187:i); Dittes. Schule der Padagogik (1876). 

The most comprehensive cyclopedia of edu- 
cation is the Eiicyclopadie des gesammten Er- 
ziehungs- und Unlerrichtswesens, by Schmtd 
(10 vols., 18.VJ — ',{)). X second edition, revised 
and enlarged, of the first volume was begun in 
1870. A compendium of this work in '1 vols., 
under the title Pddagogisch.es Handbuck, was 
begun by the same editor in 1875. The Real- 
Eiicyclopadie des Erziehwngs- und Unterrickis- 
wesens, by Rolfus and Pfister (4 vols., 2d ed., 
1771 — 5), has been prepared from the Catholic 
point of view. 



254 



EDUCATION 



EGYPT 



EDUCATION, Female. See Female Edu- 
cation. 

EDUCATION AND CRIME. See Crime 
and Education. 

EGYPT, a dependency of the Turkish em- 
pire, in N.E.Africa; having, with its recent con- 
quests, an area of 869,332 sq. m., and a popula- 
tion, in 1875, of 1 6,922.000. The area of Egypt 
proper is 212.607 sq. m. ; and its population, 
5,252,000. The principal races of people 
represented in Egypt, are Arabs or Bedouins, 
Turks, Armenians, Berbers or Nubians, Jews, 
the Copts, who are the recognized descendants 
of the ancient Egyptians, Europeans of different 
nationalities, and. in the newly conquered prov- 
inces, negroes. The religion of the large ma- 
jority of the inhabitants is Mohammedanism. 
There are, besides. 350,000 Copts or native 
Christians, and 250,000 others who profess Chris- 
tianity. Egypt was, in ancient times, the seat of 
a wonderful civilization, its history reaching 
farther back than that of any other nation. 
After having been ruled by a number of native 
dynasties, and having been part of the Persian 
and Macedonian empires, it became, in 30 B. C, 
a Roman province, and afterwards formed part 
of the Eastern Empire. Christianity was intro- 
duced during the first century; and Egypt, par- 
ticularly Alexandria, became a noted seat of 
theological learning and institutions. In 683, it 
was conquered by the caliph Omar, who intro- 
duced Mohammedanism. In 1517, it came under 
the rule of the Turks, under whom it has, actually 
or nominally, remained ever since. In 180(5, Me- 
hemet Ali was appointed pasha and governor of 
Egypt. He made himself virtually the absolute 
ruler of the country, and was prevented only by 
the European powers from proclaiming his entire 
independence of the Turkish sway. Under his 
successors, who continued to promote the wel- 
fare of the country, and to effect reforms in the 
administration, the country prospered greatly. 
At the present time, its dependence upon Tur- 
key is merely nominal, and the complete sever- 
ance of the tie appears to be only a question of 
time. Immense tracts of land in the south and 
south-west have, of late, been annexed ; so that 
if it were an independent empire, it would now 
(1876) rank as the seventh nation of the world 
in regard to area. 

Educational History. — This will be treated 
under two heads : (I) Ancient Egypt, (II) Mod- 
ern Egypt. 

I. Ancient Egypt- — In respect to education, 
Egypt before the Christian era occupied a pecu- 
liar position. With China, India, and Persia 
(see the articles on these countries), it was one of 
the chief representatives of orientalism. While, 
in common with the other oriental nations, it 
aimed at a national not an individual education, 
it is to be considered as presenting a connecting 
link, in this respect, between the extreme eastern 
institutions and the educational systems of 
Greece and Rome. To a greater extent than in 
any other oriental country, national education 
was under the controlling influence of the priest- 



hood. The priests and the warriors were privi- 
leged classes ; but, in their education, the priests 
enjoyed several prerogatives over the warriors. 
There were schools for priests and warriors at 
Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis. In these 
schools, there were two systems of instruction, — 
an exoteric course, for those who were not pre- 
pared for higher instruction, and an esoteric 
course, to which only those youths were admitted 
who belonged to the priestly caste. The instruc- 
tors in both classes of schools were priests. The 
subjects of instruction were language, mathemat- 
ics, geometry, astronomy, natural history, music, 
and religion. The princes were educated by the 
best instructors, and only with the sons of priests, 
who were twenty years of age, and noted for 
their good manners, so that the royal students 
might not come in contact with any thing im- 
pure. The education of other castes was of a 
very low order, as was that of females ; but com- 
mon institutions of learning were not entirely 
wanting. Plato tells us that the children of the 
Egyptians learned to read, while Diodorus Sicu- 
lus says that they learned a little of reading and 
writing, but adds that all did not enjoy these ad- 
vantages, but chiefly those preparing for a pro- 
fession. The common people, he says, received 
some kind of an education from their parents. 
In writing, the bark of the papyrus and black 
or red ink were used. In writing as well as in 
reading, there seems to have been a separation 
into castes, since of the three modes of writing, 
the demotic, hieratic, and hieroglyphic, the 
latter belonged to the priests only. Arithmetic 
and mathematics were studied throughout the 
country with great attention, and the methods 
employed in teaching these studies were ex- 
cellent. According to Diodorus, gymnastics and 
music were not comprised in the general plan of 
education, because it was believed that the for- 
mer was dangerous to the youths, and that the 
latter was not only useless but hurtful. In 
Chemmis, however, considerable attention was 
given to gymnastics, as well as to music, the lat- 
ter being devoted to religious purposes. The 
Egyptians, even in the most remote ages, seem to 
have had a great regard for the influence of edu- 
cation ; for, according to Diodorus, the father of 
Sesostris had all the boys assembled who were 
born on the same day as his son, and arranged 
that all should receive the same education, in the 
belief that those who were educated together, 
would prove the best friends and comrades in 
war. The physical training of children was 
very severe ; they were obliged to go barefooted 
and almost entirely naked, and were brought up 
with such economy, that the entire education of 
the child cost only a small pittance. The educa- 
tional system of Egypt was entirely remodeled 
when Psammetichus (670 to 616 B. C.) under- 
took a thorough reform by introducing Greek 
and Phoenician elements into the institutions of 
the country, and for that purpose formed alli- 
ances with the Athenians and other Greeks, and 
afforded aid and encouragement to all foreigners 
who came into the country. He entrusted the 



EGYPT 



2bb 



education of Egyptian children to Carians and 
Ionians, by whom they were also instructed in 
the Greek language and fitted for the office of 
interpreters. Otherwise, foreign languages were 
not taught in Egypt ; but the princes who ruled 
over different tribes seem to have understood 
their respective languages. Thus ( Ileopatra is 
said to have spoken Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, 
Syriac, etc. Alexandria became, in course of time, 
the principal emporium of the ancient world, 
and subsequently also the center of learning and 
education. Under the Ptolemies, a strong im- 
pulse was given to the arts and sciences, espe- 
cially to those which had a practical application: 
as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, grammar, 
and history. Indeed, there is scarcely another 
period in the world's history in which science 
was held in greater honor than by the Ptolemies 
in Alexandria. The museum, a royal palace, 
formed the residence and scat of instruction for 
the learned men of Greece, who had emigrated 
to Egypt. This institution was founded in 322 
B. C. and was at the highest point of its celeb- 
rity from 232 to 30 B. 0. After Egypt be- 
came a Roman province (30 B. 0.), this school 
gradually declined. About the end of the sec- 
ond century, Alexandria became the birthplace 
of a new philosophical school, — that of neopla- 
temism, which gave a considerable impulse to 
philosophical and theological studies, without, 
however, exciting a direct influence upon the 
development of education. I See Alexandria^ 
School.) With the introduction of Christian- 
ity as the state religion, the last remnants of the 
old civilization were destroyed. (See Schmidt, 
Geschichte der Padagogik, vol. i.) 

II. Modem Egypt. — Since the establishment 
of Mohammedanism in Egypt, its educational 
history has been substantially the same as that 
of other Mohammedan countries. (See Arabian 
Schools.) Instru tion of every grade was based 
on the Koran, and school and church have never 
been more intimately connected in any country. 
The strict Mohammedan has always believed, 
with the Prophet, that "every thing worth know- 
ing is contained in the Koran," and that " much 
investigation is heresy." The schools were ex- 
clusively intended for boys, and most of them 
were connected with the mosques ; in smaller 
places, private schools were frequently founded 
by fnki/m. or jurists of the lowest rank. These 
schools were generally of the most rudimentary 
character, the only school book used being the 
Koran. Most of the high schools (medrissas), 
which were founded in the first years of the 
caliphate, and at which Mohammedan theology 
and law. philology, philosophy, logic, mathemat- 
ics, medicine and alchemy, astronomy, history, 
geography, and rhetoric were taught, have disap- 
peared in the course of time. At the beginning 
of the present century, Mehemet Ali attempted 
to reform the schools of the country, chiefly with 
the desire to have a better class of public officers. 
He founded about 50 primary schools, which 
were scattered over the country, and contained 
about 5,000 pupils. Secondary schools were 



founded at Cairo and Alexandria, and had. at 
one time, about 2,000 pupils, wdio were both in- 
structed and supported at the expense of the 
government. He also founded a number of spe- 
cial schools, in which it was designed that Egyp- 
tian youth should be educated after European 
methods, and partly by European teachers. Of 
this class of schools were the medical school at 
Abu-Zabel. the cadet school at Gizeh. the marine 
school at Alexandria, the school of engineers at 
Khanke. the medical college of Kasr-el-Ain, the 
artillery school of Turrah, the veterinary school, 
now at Kubbeh. and the musical school in the 
citadel of Cairo. A college for young Egyptians 
was also founded at Paris, but only a few of the 
young men who were educated there at the ex- 
pense of the government, subsequently devoted 
themselves to the cause of education. The most 
distinguished among them is Sheikh Refah, who 
was sent to Paris in L826, ami. after his return, 
endeavored for many years, both as a writer ami 
as an educator, to make his countrymen ac- 
quainted with the intellectual and educational 
condition of Europe. Most of the schools which 
had been founded by Mehemet Ali, were abol- 
ished by his successors, Abbas Pasha (1*4!) — 
1854), and Said Pasha (1854—1863). Under 
the government of Ismail Pasha, the present 
Khedive (1876), very praiseworthy efforts have 
been made to effect a radical reform in educa- 
tion, by the establishment of government schools. 
A council of instruction has been established at 
< 'airo, which has the control of all the schools of 
the country. The course of instruction adopted 
for the new schools is a kind of compromise be- 
tween traditional Mohammedanism and modern 
civilization as developed in the Christian world. 
It has awakened among the friends of educa- 
tional progress great hopes for the future : but. 
as yet, eveiy thing depends on the favorable dis- 
position of the actual ruler. Only the establish- 
ment of a connection between the communes 
and these schools would be able to place the lat- 
ter on a firm basis. The new government 
schools embrace primary, secondary, and special 
instruction. They were first erected in 1868, 
since which time they have made rapid progress 
in the large cities. The number of pupils, in 
1870. was about 4,000 ; in 1873, 8,000. They 
received not only gratuitous instruction, but 
support, inclusive of clothing. Primary in- 
struction embraces the reading anil WTiting of 
Arabic, arithmetic, drawing, and French or 
some other foreign language. From the primary 
classes the pupils pass into the secondary schools, 
which are composed of a preparatory school, em- 
bracing, in a three years' course, the study of 
Arabic, Turkish. English, French, German, 
mathematics, drawing, history, and geography ; 
and the special schools, into which the pupils 
enter after finishing the above course. These 
special schools are the following : (1) The Poly- 
technic School, the pupils of which, after finish- 
ing a course of four years, may choose, as in 
France, between a civil and a military career; m 
the former case, they attend for two years the 



256 



EGYPT 



Sclvool of Administration, and then enter the 
service of the state ; in the latter ease, they en- 
ter the military academy of the Abassieh, at 
Cairo. (The former of these institutions, in 
1871, had 75 pupils; the latter, 750. In 1871, 
the polytechnic school had 80 pupils.) (2) The 
Law School, embracing a course of four years, in 
which, besides the Mohammedan law, the Roman 
law and that of the Christian nations in general 
are taught ; (3) The Philological and Arithmet- 
ical School, giving instruction in philology, 
mathematics, rhetoric, prosody, and drawing; 

(4) The School of Arts and Industry, in Balak, 
established by Mehemet Ali, and greatly im- 
proved under Ismai'1 Pacha (it has a course of 
three years, and had, in 1871, about 100 pupils); 

(5) The Medical School, with 75 pupils, in 1871, 
to which is attached a school of midwifery (the 
only one in the Bast), with 65 pupils. (The 
Khedive, in 1871, offered the people of Syria to 
receive twenty-five students from that province 
into the Medical School, irrespective of race or 
religion. A large number of candidates pre- 
sented themselves, but there was not one Mo- 
hammedan among them, all being Christians.) 

(6) The Naval School, in Alexandria, with 85 
pupils, in 1871. In 1871, the Egyptian govern- 
ment called to Cairo professor Henry Brugsch, 
of the university of Gottiiigen, to establish there 
an academy for archasology, and, in particular, 
for Egyptological studies. The Khedive is also 
endeavoring to eradicate the prejudice existing 
against female education; and, for that purpose, 
has founded a girls' school at Cairo, in which, 
besides receiving an elementary education, the 
pupils are instructed in sewing, washing, and 
dress-making. In 1875, the Egyptian govern- 
ment resolved to establish a teacher's seminary 
after the German model, and applied to the 
Prussian ministry of education for two teachers 
to take charge of the institution. The voluntary 
schools, in opposition to the government schools, 
are annexed to the mosques, and intended for 
elementary instruction. If the statistical reports 
can be relied upon, these contained, in 1870, 
60,000 pupils.and, in 1873, 82,000 pupils, among 
whom were many adults. These figures would 
indicate a rapid progress since the time of Me- 
hemet Ali, when only one in a thousand of the 
entire population received instruction. From an 
official report on the voluntary school at Alex- 
andria, which was opened April 1., 1868, under 
the protectorate of the heir apparent, Mehemet 
Tefvik Pasha, it appears that this school, on the 
opening of the adult classes in April, numbered 
30 pupils ; in .Tune, 70 ; in July, 150 ; in No- 
vember, 240 ; of the latter of whom 59 were 
Egyptians, 52 Italians, 21 Frenchmen, 20 Greeks, 
24 Englishmen, 32 Syrians, etc. The elementary 
schools for children were opened in April 1868 ; 
and, in November, the number of pupils 
amounted to 269. The languages in which the 
instruction is imparted, are Arabic, French, and 
Italian. Most of these schools are supported by 
the mosques, some by the divan of wahufs (re- 
ligious donations) ; some have property of their 



own ; some receive aid from the ministry of 
finance, and some defray their expenses by means 
of subscriptions and by school money. 

The university of Cairo, called El-Ashar (the 
blossom) after the name of the mosque with 
which it is connected, was once a really flourish- 
ing center of Arabic science and scholarship. 
At present, like the other famous mosque high 
schools of the East, at Damascus, Mecca, and 
Bagdad, it teaches little more than Mohammedan 
religion and law, grammar, arithmetic, logic, and 
rhetoric ; but it still preserves its former repu- 
tation throughout the East, and is visited by 
students from Turkey and Asia Minor, from dif- 
ferent parts of Africa, from Arabia, and even 
from India and the Sunda Islands. The number 
of students, in 1871, was reported as 9,668. In 
the preparatory classes, about 2,000 pupils are 
clothed and supported at the expense of the wa- 
hufs; instruction is given by 260 teachers or 
haltabs, of whom 160 are likewise supported 
from the revenue of the wahufs. The students 
in the higher classes are taught by about 40 pro- 
fessors, most of whom, besides, hold some other 
ecclesiastical or legal office. The lectures are 
given gratuitously. At the time of its greatest 
prosperity, the university sometimes numbered 
more than 20,000 pupils. The first school for 
the blind was founded a few years ago by Moham- 
med Effendi Onsy, and is conducted by him at 
his own expense. It is doing a great amount of 
good, as a large number of persons lose the use 
of their eyes by the so-called Egyptian disease 
(a kind of ophthalmia). The annual examinations 
held in arithmetic, reading, and different kinds 
of handiwork, exhibit considerable proficiency on 
the part of the pupils. 

Missionary and Foreign Schools. — The num- 
ber of foreign residents, in 1872, was 79,696, of 
whom 47,316 were inhabitants of Alexandria, 
and 19,120 of Cairo. As they are the wealthiest 
and best-educated class of the population, a 
number of schools have been established for the 
education of their children. The French School 
Brothers and Lazarists have day and boarding 
schools; and female schools are conducted by 
French Sisters of Mercy and other religious 
orders. With one of these institutions at Alex- 
andria, which has from 400 to 500 pupils, an 
orphan house and a foundling institution are 
connected. Instruction in these schools is given 
in the French language. The Greek lyceum in 
Alexandria in 1873, had 70 pupils; and the 
Collegio ltaliano, 120 pupils. There are also 
several Greek, Italian, and German elementary 
schools. Presbyterian missionaries from the 
United States have established a number of 
mission schools, as well as an academy and a 
theological seminary, both at Sioot, the leading 
town in Upper Egypt. — See Stephan, Das lieu- 
iige Aegypten (Leips., 1872); Adams, Tlie Land 
of the Nile (London, 1871); Regny, Statisiique 
de Vfcgypte (fifth annual publication, Cairo, 
1875) ; Luettke, Aegypten's Neue Zeit (2 vols., 
Leips., 1873) ; Dork, L' Instruction Publique en 
Egypte (Paris, 1873). 



ELABORATIVE FACULTY 



EMERSON 



^07 



ELABORATIVE FACULTY, a term 
often used, at the present time, to indicate that 
function of the mind by which it employs the 
materials supplied by sensation, perception, con- 
ception, and consciousness (or the inner sense). 
and builds them up into systems or chains of 
thought and reasoning. The different processes 
that, according to this nomenclature, are elabo- 
rative, are comparison, abstraction, generalization, 
judgment, and reasoning. To these particular 
processes the term thought is now often restricted, 
instead of being applied, as formerly, indifferently 
to every intellectual operation. Dr Hopkins. 
in An Outline Stud// of Man (X. Y., 1876), thus 
describes this faculty and its functions : " The 
processes of the elaborative faculty hold the 
same relation to the materials brought into the 
mind that the processes of building and repair- 
ing hold to the materials which are brought 
into the body. The. building and repairing 
systems take hold of that which is brought into 
the system and elaborate it ; they transform it, 
and make of it another thing. The elaborative 
system does the same thing in the mind. It takes 
the material given by the preventative faculty 
[sensation, perception, etc.], and performs the 
operations of comparison, abstraction, etc." Dr. 
Porter, in The Human Intellect (N. Y., 1869), 
thus defines the office of the elaborative faculty: 
" The thinking power has been treated as two- 
fold, and been subdivided into two : the elabora- 
tive faculty, as performing the processes, and the 
regulative, as furnishing the rules, or more prop- 
erly as prescribing the sphere and possibility of 
thought. These are named also the dia noetic 
and the noetic faculty. By some writers they 
are distinguished as the understanding and rea- 
son, in a usage suggested by Kant, but deviating 
materially from his own. Milton and others 
call them the discursive and instinctive reason." 

(See INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.) 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, etymolog- 
ically, schools in which the elements of instruc- 
tion are taught. The. name is used in Germany 
(Elementarschulen) sometimes as synonymous 
with public schools in general, but more fre- 
quently and correctly to designate the lower or 
primary departments of the public schools. Some 
writers think that the name elementary instruc- 
tion should be only applied to the lowest class of 
a school. In Sweden, a peculiar meaning is given 
to the word, as it denotes institutions of a higher 
grade in opposition to the people's or lower 
schools. In England, according to the " Xew 
Code of Regulations", 1876 (Art. 4), an element- 
ary school is a school, or a department of a 
school, in which elementary instruction is the 
principal part of the instruction given, and does 
not include any school or department in which 
the ordinary payment for tuition, from each 
pupil, exceeds nine pence a week. (See Pri- 
mary Education.) 

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. See Sci- 
ence, Teaching of. 

ELLIS, WILLIAM, an eminent English 
writer and educationist, born in the vicinity of 



London, in 1800. His labors have been specially 
given to the advancement of social science, 
which, through his efforts, was introduced as a 
branch of elementary instruction in the London 
schools. His chief writings are Outlines of So- 
cio! Economy, Progressive Lessons in Social 
I Science, Phenomena of Industrial Life, and 
Education as a Means if Preventing Destitu- 
tion (London, 1851). — See Knioht's English 
Oycloprpdia. 

ELOCUTION, the utterance or expression 
of thought in reading and speaking, is an im- 
portant part of a scholastic education, because of 
the constant need of such vocal utterance in the 
ordinary circumstances of both private and 
public life. The departments into which this 
subject naturally divides itself are the following: 
1 (1) Articulation, or the proper and distinct 
enunciation of the elementary sounds as usually 
combined in words; (2) Pronunciation, as de- 
pendent upon a knowdedge of the various sounds 
■ represented by letters and their diverse combi- 
nations in words, and upon accentuation : (3) 
Emphasis, or the placing of a stress of the voice 
upon a particular word or words of a sentence, 
so as to bring out the meaning fully, and to give 
life and spirit to the delivery ; (4) Voice inflec- 
tions, — upward, downward, or waved, also as a 
means of giving a particular significance to 
words or sentences, and as auxiliary to emphasis : 
(5) Tones, or those variations of the voice in 
pitch, force, and quality, by which it is mod- 
ulated to the expression of particular sentiments 
and emotions. (See Reading, Culture ok. and 

VblCB.) 

ELPHINSTON, James, a noted Scottish 
teacher and grammarian, was born in Edinburgh 
in 1721. and died at Hammersmith, near London, 
in ls09. For many years, he was the principal 
of a school at Kensington, near London, and 
was an intimate associate of Dr. Johnson, by 
whom he was greatly esteemed. During his res- 
idence in Edinburgh, he superintended an edi- 
tion of the Rambler. His efforts to reform the 
orthography of the English language, by the in- 
troduction of phonetic spelling, made him noted, 
but brought upon him considerable ridicule. 
This system he carried out in a translation of 
Martial (1782), which Dr. Beattie called "a 
wdiole quarto of nonsense and gibberish ;" and a 
further explanation of the system was given in 
Propriety Ascertained in her Picture (1786), 
which was followed by English Orthography 
Epitomized (1788), aud Fifty Tears.' Corre- 
spondence, Inijlish, French, and Lattin, in 
Proze and Verse, between Geniusses ov booth 
Sexes ami James Elphinston (1794). He also 
published Education : a Poem (1763), and En- 
glish Grammar reduced to Analogy (1765). — 
See Chambers, Biographical Dictionary of 
Eminent Scotsmen ; Boswell. Life of Johnson. 

EMERSON, George Barrett, a distin- 
guished American educator, born Sept. 12.. 
1797, in what is now Kennebunk. York Co.. Me., 
then a part of the town of Wells. In 1817, he 
graduated at 1 Iarvard College ; but while pass- 



258 



EMINENCE COLLEGE 



EMORY COLLEGE 



ing through his college course, he employed some 
of his winter vacations in teaching district 
schools, in which he gained a great deal of prac- 
tical experience. After his graduation, he took 
charge of an academy in Lancaster, Mass.; and, 
from 1819 to 1821, he was tutor in mathematics 
and natural philosophy in Harvard College. In 
this position he had unusual advantages for cult- 
ure, since he was associated with some of the 
most eminent scientific and literary men of that 
time, among, whom may be mentioned Br. Kirk- 
land, Prof. Parrar, and Edward Everett, then 
Eliot professor of Greek. In 1821, he was se- 
lected to take charge of the English High School 
for hoys, then called the English Classical School, 
which was established that year by the town of 
Boston, for the purpose of affording the means 
of a higher education to those \a h > did not intend 
to pursue a college course. This was the first 
English high school established in the United 
States. Two years afterward, Mr. Emerson 
opened in Boston a private school for girls ; and 
of this he continued to take charge till 1855, 
when he retired from the profession of teaching. 
This school was eminently successful ; and Mr. 
Emerson showed, in the system of instruction 
which he pursued, the highest qualities of an 
earnest, conscientious, and skillful teacher. In 
1830, he took an active part in the establishment 
of the American Institute of Instruction, before 
which he delivered, in 1831, a lecture on Female 
Education ; and, in 1842, one on Moral Educa- 
tion. In 1843, he wrote The Schoolmaster, be- 
ing part second of The School and Schoolmaster, 
the first part being written by the Rev. Dr. Pot- 
ter, afterwards bishop of Pennsylvania. This 
work was composed on the invitation of the 
benevolent James Wadsworth, of Genaseo.N. Y., 
who paid the expense of printing and distribut-' 
ing gratuitously 15,000 copies of the work. 
Through means afforded by Mr. Brimmer, of 
Boston, a copy of this book was placed in each 
of the district schools of Massachusetts. The 
object of the work was to afford information of 
a practical character in regard to the various de- 
partments of elementary education, more partic- 
ularly in respect to the organization, discipline, 
instruction, and management of common schools. 
The style in which it is written, its tone of sen- 
timent, and the wisdom of its suggestions are 
worthy of its distinguished authors. Mr. Emer- 
son served for two years in the School Commit- 
tee of Boston, and, from 1848 to 1855, in the 
Massachusetts Board of Education. He was 
also a prominent member of the Boston Society 
of Natural History, and was appointed by Gov. 
Everett chairman of the commission to whom 
was intrusted the making of a zoological and 
botanical survey of the state of Massachusetts. 
He has published also a Report on the Trees and 
Shrubs growing naturally in the Forests of 
Massachusetts (Boston, 1846), and a Manual of 
Agriculture (1861). — See Barnard, Educational 
Biography (N. Y, 1861). 

EMINENCE COLLEGE, at Eminence, Ky. 
a non-sectarian institution, was founded in 1857 



for the education of both sexes. It is supported' 
by tuition fees. The buildings stand upon an 
elevated site, and the grounds are tastefully laid 
out and ornamented with evergreens and forest- 
trees. The libraries contain about 1,800 vol- 
umes. The institution has philosophical and 
chemical apparatus and the beginning of a min- 
eralogical and geological cabinet. There is a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate course, the latter com- 
prising six departments ; namely, ancient lan- 
guages, mathematics, physics and chemistry, 
mental philosophy, Biblical literature, and mod- 
ern languages. When a student has undergone 
a satisfactory examination in any particular de- 
partment, he or she is entitled to a certificate of 
graduation in that department ; and the posses- 
sion of certificates from the various departments, 
of the curriculum entitles the holder to the de- 
gree of A. B. The degree of B. S. is conferred 
on those students who complete the scientific 
part of the course, and have a certificate to that 
effect. There is also a special course for females, 
similar to that of female seminaries, upon the 
completion of which a diploma is granted. The. 
regular charge for tuition is $25 in the collegiate, 
and $20 in the preparatory course of twenty 
weeks. The daughters of all regular preachers, 
and of widows of limited means, are received at 
a discount of thirty per cent. Young men pre- 
paring for the ministry are admitted free of tui- 
tion. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 instructors, 126- 
matriculates (58 males and 68 females), and 125 
alumni. The whole number of pupils, in 1875 
— 6, was 190. S. G. Muffins was the president- 
from September, 1857, to June, 1858, since 
which time W. S. Giltner has been the president. 
EMORY COLLEGE, at Oxford, Newton 
county, Ga. under the control of the Methodist- 
Episcopal Church, South, was founded in 1837. 
It is supported by tuition fees and an endow- 
ment of f20,000. The value of its grounds,, 
buildings, and apparatus is $70,000. The in- 
stitution has an academic and a collegiate de- 
partment, the latter comprising a classical course 
of four years and a scientific course of three- 
years. The degrees of Bachelor of Science and 
of English Literature, of Bachelor of Arts and 
Master of Arts, are the regular degrees con- 
ferred by this institution. The cost of tuition 
in the college is $25 for the fall term and 
$35 for the spring term ; in the academic de- 
partment, it varies per term from $15 in the 
primary classes to $31 in the academic classes. 
There is a fund of five thousand dollars, the 
interest of which is used in paying the tuition, 
and, in some cases, the board of young men of 
limited resources, who are preparing for the 
Christian ministry in the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, South. The libraries contain about 
7,000 volumes ; the mineral cabinet is one of the 
finest in the South. In 1873 — 4, there were 155 
students, of whom 100 were of the collegiate 
grade, including 11 in the scientific course ; and 
55 were in the academic department ; the number 
of alumni was 544. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 
instructors and 155 students. The presidents of 



EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE 



EMPIRICAL METHODS 



259 



the college have been as follows : Rev. Ignatius 

A. Few, D. D., LL.D., 1837 to 1839 ; Rev. A. 

B. Longstreet, LL. D., 1839 to 1848; Rev. 
Geo. F. Pierce, D. D., LL. D., 1848 to 1854; 
Rev. A. Means, D. D., LL.D., 1854 to 1855; 
Rev. J. R. Thomas, D.D., 1855 to 1857 ; Rev. 
Luther M. Smith, D. D„ 1867 to 1871; and 
Rev. O. L. Smith, D. D., the present incumbent 
(1876), appointed in 1871. 

EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE, 
at Emory, Washington Co., Va., founded in 
1838, is under the control of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South. It has no endow- 
ment, and is supported by tuition fees, which, in 
the collegiate course, are $30 per term of 20 
weeks. The value of its grounds, buildings, and 
apparatus is SI '25.000. The college library con- 
tains 4,580 volumes, and those of the two litera- 
ry societies 9,000. The college has collections of 
minerals and fossils, philosophical and chemical 
apparatus, etc. It comprises preparatoiy courses, 
the ordinary collegiate course, and a scientific and 
a business course. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 in- 
structors, 163 students (80 collegiate, and 83 
scientific and preparatory), and 33'2 alumni. 
The presidents have been the Rev. Charles 
Collins. D. D., 1838—52, and the Rev. Ephraim 
E. Wiley, D. D., appointed in 1852 and still 
(1876) in office. 

EMOTIONS are those conditions of the 
mind in which the sensibility is excited, so as to 
act upon the will, and with the tendency to out- 
ward manifestation in bodily acts. The differ- 
ence between emotions and passions is rather 
quantitative than qualitative ; the former, while 
characterized by an intensity of feeling, still leave 
a considerable scope for the exercise of reason 
and ju Igment ; the latter, for the time being, 
disturb the equilibrium of self-consciousness, and 
produce a condition in which the mind is over- 
mastered and controlled by the particular feel- 
ing, and is borne along by its force, helpless and 
suffering (hence the name passion, meaning suf- 
fering). Of this, we have illustrations in the 
effects of extreme anger, love, hatred, and re- 
venge. Emotions are also to be distinguished 
from sentiments, the latter being to a greater ex- 
tent based on mental discriminations, and more 
steady and durable in their nature. Thus, he 
who has cultivated the sentiment of patriotism, 
cannot but feel an emotion of joy at a victory 
gained by his country over her enemies. Emotions 
are likewise to be distinguished from feelings, or 
the immediate sensations of the physical organ- 
ism, giving rise to mental perceptions, or to 
bodily pleasure or pain. The nature of children 
is more emotional than that of grown persons, 
because the restraining principle of the mind is less 
active, and the sensibility more fresh and more 
acute. This is particularly true of certain kinds 
of temperament and mental constitution. The 
office of educat ion is to recognize every principle 
of the human being, and to employ it or appeal 
to it in the educative processes. An emotional 
nature should be cherished ; inasmuch as one 
who is deficient in this respect is apt to be cold, 



selfish, and unsocial. The emotions are not only 
compatible with, but necessary to, the best ele- 
ments of man's moral nature ; and the educator 
should strive to connect them with moral mo- 
tives. Habit has much to do in laying the foun- 
dation of a rich emotional nature in the mind 
of a child ; but example, and the natural sym- 
pathy with the mind of an educator thus cul- 
tivated and enriched, has very much more. To 
cultivate the emotions there must be means for 
their exercise. The attempt to awaken emotion 
in the minds of children by mere sentimentality 
is futile and ridiculous. Stirring stories of hero- 
ism, endurance, patriotism, generosity, self-denial, 
filial affection, etc. will awaken corresponding 
emotions ; and when properly applied constitute 
a means of emotional culture ; but youth should, 
as far as possible, be permitted to yield to the 
natural emotions to which the ordinary circum- 
stances of their lives give rise ; they should 
witness emotion in others, under restraint, but 
still expressed ; and by imitation, as well as in- 
stinctive impulse, be habituated to ardor in their 
feelings toward all that is beautiful, true, and 
good in natural objects, historical incidents, or 
the conduct of those with whom they meet in 
their daily lives. 

EMPIRICAL METHODS, those methods 
of instruction or education which are based not 
on theoretical principles, but on the effects of 
practical operations as learned by experience. 
Hence the term (from Gr. kfareipia, experience). 
When the application of scientific methods, or 
those derived from general principles, is possible, 
the use of empirical methods becomes a cause of 
reproach, and is to be condemned. The science 
of education is, however, too unsettled and in- 
complete to justify such condemnation, except to 
a limited extent. Methods that have stood the 
test of actual experiment, and have proved 
effective, are not to be discarded merely because 
the principle underlying them is not understood, 
or because they seem to contradict some favorite 
theory. Such experimental processes are the 
source of much valuable experience, and the 
facts thus obtained should be generalized so as 
to supply additional scientific principles, or cor- 
rect those already deduced. In this way, the 
practical experience of educators may be em- 
ployed to improve and extend the science of edu- 
cation. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly 
true that teachers are too apt to follow 
empirical methods blindly, without concerning 
themselves with principles. The complaint is 
often and justly made that education is not sci- 
entific ; and, that, consequently old methods and 
processes are often employed, when the circum- 
stances render them entirely inapplicable. This 
would naturally be the result of adhering to em- 
pirical methods, since principles alone can guide 
to a just discrimination as to practical processes. 
The "rule of thumb" may answer when the oper- 
ator is confined to a very narrow sphere of his 
art, and is never obliged to depart from it; but it 
is entirely inadequate to grapple with the difficul- 
ties presented in a varied and enlarged sphere of 



260 



EMULATION 



practical effort, whatever the art or profession 
may be. This is particularly true of education, 
since the elements with which it has to deal are 
as innumerable in their combinations as the 
phases of human character. In proportion as 
education emerges from this condition of em- 
piricism, and assumes a settled scientific status, 
its practical operations will rise to the dignity of 
a profession, and those engaged in it will receive 
the consideration which appertains to the pro- 
fessional character. 

EMULATION (Lat. cemulatio, from cemulas, 
a rival), the desire to excel, is a principle of 
action which has had a very general application 
in practical education, being one of the most 
common incentives brought to bear upon chil- 
dren and youth to induce exertion in study. The 
various systems of merit marks, prizes, etc., are 
based upon this principle, inasmuch as they def- 
initely recognize and reward superiority or ex- 
cellence. 

Scarcely any subject has been more thoroughly 
discussed than the propriety of resorting to emu- 
lation as a school incentive. On the one hand, 
it has been held that the human mind, partic- 
ularly in its immature state, needs the stimulus 
of secondary motives to awaken its dormant 
energies, especially for the accomplishment of 
tasks in which it takes only an imperfect inter- 
est. Naturally, children are but little prone to 
study, their fondness being rather for active 
sports and amusements ; and, hence, the awaken- 
ing of an interest in the studies themselves, 
while an important object of the teacher's efforts, 
cannot be depended upon to incite the pupil to 
continuous industry. While there are some 
minds and temperaments that feel an almost in- 
nate desire for the acquisition of knowledge, and 
hence a love of study, on the other hand, the 
great majority of children have no such desire 
until it is engendered by the force of secondary 
motives, that is, by holding out inducements to 
study based upon the attainment of things in 
which they do take an interest. All children 
are, more or less, prone to emulation ; they love 
to excel others, particularly in things that bring 
commendation and honor, in this respect re- 
sembling those of maturer years ; for this prin- 
ciple of action has been recognized as leading to 
eminence in every department of human effort. 
Thus Cicero says, " Honos alit artes onmesque 
incenduntur ad studia gloria, jacentque ea sem- 
per quje apud quosque improbantur." Hence, 
in schools and colleges, emulation is an, impor- 
tant and valuable incentive which the educator 
may, by no means, cast aside. Of course, it is 
not to be allowed to degenerate into personal 
strife, animosity, or jealousy ; nor is it to be in- 
dulged in such a manner as to obliterate the pu- 
pil's real interest in the study pursued. It is 
always to be impressed upon the student's mind 
that he is working in a good cause, and that he 
should strive to attain to the highest possible 
degree of excellence in it, — higher, if he can, 
than that which he sees has been attained by any 
of his fellow students. Thus what others achieve 



becomes the measure of what can be done by 
him if he exerts himself to the utmost, and also 
the standard beyond which he is to go in order 
to obtain the prize of excellence. Whewell, in 
English University Education, remarks, " A 
combination of direct and indirect instruction 
appears to be desirable. The love of knowledge, 
and the love of distinction with the fear of dis- 
grace, are the two main springs of all education, 
and it does not appear wise or safe to try to dis- 
pense with either of them." Contention, per- 
sonal rivalry, and envy need not, it is said, be 
the offspring of a noble emulation ; and no other 
emulation than this should be encouraged or 
permitted by the educator. 

On the other hand, an appeal to emulation as 
a school incentive, has been either wholly or 
partly condemned by a numerous class of educa- 
tors of the highest distinction. Dr. Dwight said. 
" Emulation 1 condemn. I think it is a wicked 
passion, and the cause of great evil. I wish to 
see all actuated by this desire — to do the best 
they can for the glory of their Creator." But 
he also said, " On this subject I have often re- 
flected. I have attended to all the arguments ; 
and, for aught I know, impartially. I would 
carefully avoid emulation ; I would get along 
without it as far as possible, and as long as 1 
coidd ; but how we can prevent its existence en- 
tirely I do not know." Miss C. E. Beecher said. 
" Emulation always affects those the most, who 
least need excitement, and leaves unaffected those 
who most require it. Another evil is, that it 
renders those who come under the influence of 
this principle, less susceptible of better influence." 
(See Annals of Education, vol. in., p. 28.) This 
writer defines emulation as the " method of ex- 
citing others to exertion by rewards and punish- 
ments based on comparative excellence," or 
" giving rewards to those who are decided to be 
better than their companions, in any of those 
particulars for which rewards are offered." 
S. R. Hall, in Annals of Education, vol. n., 
thus sums up the results of his experience in 
employing emulation as a school incentive : 
" (1) A small part of the scholars applied them- 
selves to their lessons with great correctness ; 
(2) They aimed to get the lessons for recitations, 
but thought little of learning them for the pur- 
pose of applying knowledge to the practical pur- 
poses of life ; (3) Efforts were relaxed whenever 
the prospect of ' beating ' became faint ; (4) Those 
near the head were usually jealous of each other, 
and not unfrequently exhibited envy and ill-will; 
(5) Those often obtained the prize, who were the 
least deserving of it ; (6) Those who had be- 
come considerably acquainted with a study had 
greatly the advantage of others in their class, 
who had enjoyed less opportunity ; (7) Parents 
were frequently led to take the part of their 
children, and to believe they were treated un- 
fairly." Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review of 
Schools, gives the following condemnatory de- 
scription of emulation : 

" A principle, whose proud pretensions pass 
Unquestioned, though the jewel be but glass— 



ENCOURAGEMENT 

That, with a world not often over-nice, 

Kauks as a virtue, and is just a vice; 

Or rather a gross compound.— justly tried,— 

Of envy, hatred, jealousy, and pride — 

Contributes most, perhaps, to enhance their fame; 

And Emulation is its specious name." 

Most of the severe condemnation passed upon 
emulation seems, however, to be based upon a 
definition of it that includes too much of per- 
sonal rivalry, of the selfish desire for reward, \ 
and of the mere craving for approbation, the ! 
natural concomitants of which are "envy, hatred, 
and jealousy ;" whereas, the desire of attaining 
excellence in worthy things does not necessarily ; 
include these baser motives, although, it must be 
confessed, the tendency is in that direction un- 1 
less it is carefully regulated. " Emulation." says 
a distinguished educator, " is a generous ardor 
which nature herself kindles and nourishes. 
There may be minds so indolent, so unhappy, as 
never to have warmly felt its influence. There 
may be whole schools in which, thanks to bad 
organization, the indifference of the master, or 
other circumstances, emulation is only weakly 
manifested ; but in the school, as elsewhere, it 
exists naturally, and there is less need of excit- 
ing it than of directing it aright." In this, as 
in most other respects, the educator has great 
need to watch the indications of character in 
his pupils. Some minds, largely affect ed by ap- 
probativeness. or having excessive self-esteem, 
may be greatly injured by a system that tends to 
foster these qualities ; others may need the in- 
centive of emulation to bring out their powers. 
The prevailing system of treating all minds and J 
dispositions alike must often do irreparable in- 
jury. ■• There is no ground." says ( 'urrie, in The 
Principles and Practice of Common-School 
Education, " for confining the application of I 
this principle so exclusively as we do to the 
work of instruction. It is true that, in school, 
intellectual occupation is the chief work of the 
pupil, and that, therefore, to it there must be the 
most frequent occasion of applying the principle. 
Nevertheless, the teacher is supposed to have in 
view the moral training of his pupils, whilst con- 
ducting their instruction ; and if he is only im- 
pressed with a due sense of its paramount im- 
portance, he will find many opportunities of i 
directing their attention to acts of virtue per- 
formed under their observation, and of exciting 
a spirit of emulation in this sphere of the same 
active kind as that by which he helps forward 
their intellectual work. The application of this 
principle to moral actions ought to vindicate it 
against the indiscriminate condemnation with 
which we may be tempted to visit it, when we 
think only of its extreme exhibition in the ac- 
quisition of knowledge." 

ENCOURAGEMENT, as an educational 
incentive, is of indispensable importance in deal- 
ing with a certain class of minds, particularly 
with those characterized by an excess of caution, 
timidity, and diffidence. (See Diffidence.) Manx- 
teachers repress the exertions of their pupils by 
failing to discern their true character, so as to 
be able to ascertain the amount of effort they 
may have put forth in order to accomplish ait 



ENGLAND 



2<il 



assigned task, or to avoid a temptation to do 
wrong. Adopting an arbitrarv standard, they 
sometimes condemn alike all who fail to attain 
it, making no allowance for diversity of talent, 
opportunity, or the power of will ; whereas the 
true test of a pupil's merit is not the accomplish- 
ment of the task, but the exertion put forth and 
the self-control exercised in the endeavor to com- 
ply with the teacher's precepts or directions. 
Encouragement consists in adjusting the standard 
of success to the peculiar circumstances and traits 
| of the pupil. If the latter is dull, indolent, self- 
indulgent, feeble in will, and yielding easily to 
temptation, the educator who recognizes these 
traits, accepts with satisfaction the feeblest efforts 
at amendment which he sees have been put 
forth, and by judicious commendation induces 
stronger and more persistent ones, until the 
foundation of moral or intellectual strength has 
been safely laid. Timid children must be en- 
couraged to lay aside their fears by being shown 
that they are groundless. They must not be re- 
pressed by harsh words of censure, or by those 
forms of punishment which should be the ex- 
clusive penalty of willful wrong-doing. On the 
contrary, they should be made to feel that, even 
if they have failed, they have won their teach- 
er's approving smiles by their honest efforts. All 
the various forms of encouragement, within the 
power of a teacher of skill and experience, will 
find occasions for employment in dealing with 
the endless diversities of character presented by 
the pupils of a large class or school. Some 
minds, on the other hand, need rather urging 
than gentle encouragement ; and the latter, in 
the form of excessive praise, to talented pupils 
is i iff en a means of flattering their vanity, and 
thus operates as a kind of moral poison, destr. ty- 
ing the force of every true stimulus to activity. 
The following are the suggestions of practical 
educators : " Encouragement inspires confidence, 
and children, more than others, need it. Let it 
be given in all cases where this can be honestly 
done. To a want of this in the discipline of 
j classes are to be ascribed the timidity and reserve 
so often manifested among pupils by a hesitating 
manner, a low voice, and a tone of inquiry in 
response, especially to strangers. A proper de- 
gree of encouragement renders them confident 
and spirited, eager to tell what they know, and 
in an audible tone of voice. Encouragement has 
a peculiar influence in promoting both mental 
and moral improvement." — (How to Teach, N.Y., 
1873.) 

ENGLAND, an important European coun- 
try, forming with Wales the southern portion of 
the island of Great Britain, and being the prin- 
cipal member of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland. It has an area of 58,320 
sq. miles, and a population, according to the 
census of lSTl.of 22.712.2(16. On the basis of 
the official lists of births and deaths, the popula- 
tion, in 1875, was estimated by the registrar 
general at 23,944.45!). The last official census 
contains no information of the number of per- 
sons belonging to the established Church of 



262 



ENGLAND 



England and other religious creeds. The pop- 
ulation connected with the established church is 
variously estimated at from 55 per cent (Martin's 
Yearbook) to 77.8 per cent (Ravenstein's De- 
nominational Statistics of England and Wales) ■ 
The Roman Catholics are estimated at 4.6 per 
cent of the population. 

Educational History. — The history of educa- 
tion in England is a subject which deserves bet- 
ter and fuller treatment than it has yet received. 
•Probably, some system of education existed in 
Britain, or at least in the southern portion of it, 
before Julius Caesar visited its shores. After the 
Romans had resolved on making Britain a per- 
manent addition to their empire, education was 
one of the means which they employed to render 
their possession stable. Tacitus tells us that 
Agricola had the sons of the chief men instructed 
in the liberal arts, and the result was, that the 
Britons showed great ability, and devoted them- 
selves with ardor to the new pursuits. The Ro- 
man schools probably remained in existence 
after the Romans abandoned the island. At any 
rate, when Charlemagne conceived the great idea 
of spreading knowledge among all classes, it was 
in an Englishman, Alcuin, that he found his 
principal guide, as well as his own instructor. 
It is well known that Alfred the Great did much 
for the spread of learning and for the English 
universities, and many of the grammar schools 
were founded in the middle ages. Carlisle 
school, for instance, was established in the time 
of William II.; Derby, about the year 1160; 
Salisbury, in 1319 ; and Winchester, the oldest 
of the so-called nine Public Schools, in 1387. 
These schools were generally connected with 
cathedrals or monasteries. Their object was 
mainly to train either for the priesthood or for 
some lower service in the church, as for the 
choir. Speaking generally, the subjects of in- 
struction were grammar and music. Many of 
these schools were reorganized at the Reformation, 
and very many additional ones were formed. 
The range of instruction was considerably 
widened, and most of them were free ; but they 
helped to educate only a small portion of the 
community ; and, while the universities and a 
few of the schools rose to eminence, most of these 
schools were neglected. In process of time, too, 
the endowments of these schools were greatly 
abused ; and when a commission was appointed 
to inquire into their condition (December 28., 
1864), matters were found in an exceedingly un- 
satisfactory state. The commissioners excluded 
from their examination the nine schools which 
had been already reported on. The number of 
schools which came under their observation, and 
which they speak of as endowed, was about 
700 ; but they examined 82 other schools doing 
similar work, so that the entire number was 
782, in regard to which they make the follow- 
ing statement: " The aggregate net income from 
endowments of the grammar and other sec- 
ondary schools included in our list is £195,184. 
The gross income of the schools and charitable 
foundations, including grammar schools, is 



£336,201. The annual value of exhibitions to 
which the schools have a claim, but which are 
not included in these amounts, is at least 
£14,264. The total number of towns of more 
than 2,000 inhabitants, according to the census 
of 1861, which have endowments for a grammar 
or other secondary school, is 304. Many of these 
endowments are now applied to primary schools 
only. There are 228 towns of that size without 
any such endowment." 

The most singular feature in the results of the 
inquiry was, that, in many places, the endow- 
ments had come to be regarded and treated as 
private property. The school-master often drew 
the income without having a single pupil, and 
many school-masters seemed to feel that the 
fewer scholars they had, the more comfortable 
would it be for themselves. We quote some out 
of the very numerous examples which the Report 
furnishes : " At Bosworth (net income of school 
£792 a year), the head-master taught three 
boarders and no others ; the under-master only 
attended when he chose; the usher taught an in- 
ferior village school. Thame had two masters 
receiving £300 between them, one of whom had 
a good house also. Mr. Fearon foimd one boy 
in the school. A private school close by had 80 
boarders and 40 day-scholars, paying higher 
than the grammar school fees. At Witney, the 
head-master contented himself with teaching 
Greek to one boy. Reading, had three scholars, 
and there was no hope of the school's reviving 
under the then master. Aynhoe had five schol- 
ars, the master having once had a flourishing 
school at Banbury, and having come to Aynhoe 
for retirement. North Walsham (£266) had 
only 11 pupils, and 'the whole place wore an 
aspect of decay and desolation,' but the master 
objected to a new scheme's being procured." 

In consequence of this report, an executive 
commission was appointed to prepare schemes 
for the improvement of these endowed schools, 
and to see them carried into effect. This com- 
mission worked with great vigor, and naturally 
aroused the opposition of those who looked upon 
the endowments as belonging to them by vested 
right. The present government listened to 
these complaints and introduced an Amended 
Endowed Schools Bill, which transferred the 
power of the commission to the Charity Com- 
missioners. But the personal element in the 
administration was not greatly altered, and the 
Charity Commissioners are going on with the 
work of reformation in an earnest spirit. There 
was much need of it. These schools were the 
only endowed institutions which the country 
possessed for secondary education. In consequence 
of their failure to do this work, proprietary 
and private adventure schools had arisen in great 
numbers. The private adventure schools were 
for the most part boarding-schools. They were 
conducted by a single person as a money specu- 
lation; and, though some of them were admirably 
managed, most of them were utterly unfit to 
educate. The Yorkshire schools have been de- 
scribed with wonderful humor by Dickens in his 



ENGLAND 



263 



Nicholas Nickleby; but schools equally bad 
existed over the whole country, and some exist 
to this day. The proprietary schools were estab- 
lished by a number of gentlemen who combined 
together in their own districts to erect, maintain, 
and manage them. They were much better, on the 
■average, than the private adventure schools; but 
many glaring defects were brought to light by the 
inquiry of the Endowed Schools' Commission. 

These were the means which England hat! for 
her secondary education. They were marked by 
the two following characteristics: (1) Whether 
endowed, proprietary, or private, they had no 
connection with the state ; the state did not con- 
trol, examine, appoint masters for, or in any way 
interfere with, or take the slightest superintend- I 
ence of, these schools ; (2) They were to a large j 
extent boarding schools. The boys left their par- 
ents' home at an early age, and lived in houses 
where only boys and male masters lived ; these 
schools were thus essentially monastic institutions, 
ami the public opinion prevalent in them was 
the opinion upheld by the majority or by the 
strongest of the boys. Hence an inordinate love 
of outdoor games and such peculiar customs as 
that of fagging. These peculiarities still attach 
to the schools. The state has interfered with 
the endowments, and claimed, in consequence of 
these, the right to settle the nature of the govern- 
ing bodies ; but, after having once settled this, 
the state will withdraw and leave the schools 
entirely in the hands of the managers. 

At the Reformation, no provision was made 
for the education of the masses, and nothing was 
really done for them until the end of the last 
and the beginning of the present century. A 
very common idea prevailed, that it was better for 
the working classes to be ignorant. They would 
be more contented, it was argued, and would con- 
fine themselves to their ordinary toils, deriving 
ample happiness from these in their humble 
sphere, if they could neither read nor write, and 
knew little or nothing of theories of government, 
laws of trade, and the movements going on in for- 
eign countries. Knowledge would only make them 
restless. This feeling has continued down to the 
present day. though it is not often that utterance 
is given to it. The first vigorous effort made to 
educate the masses was due to the zeal of Robert 
Raikes (q. v.), who, in 1780, established Sunday 
schools. The manner of the commencement of 
these is noteworthy. The movement arose out 
of religious feeling ; and this has characterized 
English education in an eminent degree. In 
other countries, education has gradually become 
a subject of interest to all, and governments, 
especially, have deemed their interference essen- 
tial. In England, on the contrary, the effort 
to educate has mainly arisen with the churches, 
' and the state has, even to this day, obtained 
only a subordinate position in the manage- 
ment of the schools. The entire history of the 
•question will bring out this curious aspect of 
English education. It is certainly brought out 
prominently in the next stage. Lancaster (q. v.). 
■a man of strong impulse and generous heart, was 



eager to educate the masses. He made the ex- 
periment, and was well supported in it by the 
community ; but his success soon awoke suspicion. 
Lancaster was a Quaker, and solved the religious 
difficulty by confining his religious instructions 
to the reading of the Bible. Some saw in this 
a secret plot to undermine the ( hurch of Eng- 
land; and an effort, they felt, must be made to 
repel this insidious attack. Lancaster had gained 
distinction by the adoption of the monitorial 
system. Another educationist. Dr. Bell (q.v.), 
laid claim to having practiced this system before 
Lancaster, and a furious dispute arose on that 
question, but sides were formed according to 
churches. Dr. Bell was a clergyman of the 
Church of England, and those who were afraid 
for the safety of that church naturally looked to 
him to organize an education which should effect- 
ually oppose the Lancasterian movement. Out of 
this antagonism arose two societies, — the one, the 
British and Foreign Society, in 1808 ; the other, 
the National Society, in 1811. The National 
Society was formed to establish schools in which 
the principles of the Church of England should 
be taught, and over which the church should ex- 
ercise control. The British and Foreign Society 
followed Lancaster's system of teaching religion 
from the Bible, and the Bible only. 'J hese two 
societies proved themselves active in the work 
which they undertook, and schools arose in all 
parts of the land. But they were utterly unable 
to cope with the terrible destitution that pre- 
vailed, and the number of neglected and unedu- 
cated children was enormous. The religious dif- 
ficulty, however, always intervened to prevent 
legislation. The House of Commons was so 
deeply impressed with the importance of the 
subject, that it passed .Mr. Whitbread's Parochial 
Schools Bill in 1807; but the bill was thrown out 
in the House of Lords, and none was more earn- 
est in his opposition than the Archbishop of 
Canterbury. Brougham was the next states- 
man that attempted to grapple with the question. 
He made two distinct efforts, one in 1810, and 
one in 1K20. Brougham's ideas were compre- 
hensive. He wished to see a national system of 
education, embracing the universities at the one 
end. and at the other, parochial schools which 
should furnish an elementary education fit for 
the humblest of the people. But, though he 
labored with unremitting toil and with great 
ability. Parliament did nothing. Meantime, out- 
side of Parliament, there was considerable agita- 
tion in regard to the subject, mainly under the 
leadership of Brougham. Infant schools were 
established. The Society for the Diffusion of 
Useful Knowledge ordered the circle of Readers. 
The Central Society devoted its energies to the 
circulation of sound opinions on education, and 
gave information as to the progress and methods 
of education in foreign countries. It was not, 
however, until 1833, that Parliament was in- 
duced to do any thing for education, when a grant 
of £20,0110 was voted for distribution between 
the National Society and the British and Foreign 
Society, to aid in the erection of school build- 



264 



ENGLAND' 



ings. During this period, and for some time I 
subsequent to it, various inquiries were made I 
into the educational condition of the laboring ! 
classes, and the results were found to be unsatis- 
factory in the highest degree. The results of 
the inquiry carried on by the committee of edu- 
cation of 1838 were as follows : (1) That the kind 
of education given to the children of the working 
classes was lamentably deficient; (2) That it ex- 
tended, bad as it was, to but a small proportion 
of those who ought to receive it; (3) That, 
without some strenuous and persevering efforts 
on the part of the government, the greatest 
evils to all classes might follow from this neglect. 
The time was ripe for further progress ; and, 
accordingly, in 1839, the liberal government 
appointed an educational committee of the 
Privy Council ; and the House of Commons 
voted a sum of £30,000, to be distributed by 
this committee. With this sum, little could be 
done; but, at any rate, there was something 
like a government department for education. 
The best thing the committee did was to appoint 
Mr. James Kay, afterwards Sir James Kay 
Shuttleworth, to be their secretary. He was 
pre-eminently fitted for the peculiar position. 
The committee arranged a system of inspection; 
and if nothing more was done, at least the true 
state of matters was ascertained. The committee 
also attempted to found a training college for 
teachers, but they were baffled in this effort by 
the religious difficulty. Sir J. K. Shuttleworth 
resolved to set up such an institution without 
the aid of government, and he succeeded. The 
various religious bodies followed his example ; 
and, "within six years, fifteen training schools 
were founded." The result is, that, up to this 
day, all the training schools are under the con- 
trol of the churches ; but one body, the Inde- 
pendents, took no distinct part in the work of 
l education, except in founding and maintaining a 
training school for teachers; namely, Homerton 
College. In 1846, the Committee of Council 
made a still greater advance. A elaborate sys- 
tem of inspection, with grants, was established, 
much encouragement was given to pupil-teach- 
ers, and the profession of teacher rose in public 
estimation. But each year, under this system, 
the grants increased. They amounted, in 1846, 
to £100,000; in 1859, they had increased to 
£836,920 ; and there appeared to be no limit to 
this increase. A commission of inquiry was 
again appointed. Investigations of a most 
thorough nature were prosecuted, and the report 
was presented in six volumes. Mr. Lowe was 
at this time vice-president of the Committee of 
Council on Education, and was resolved to be 
economical. The plan which suggested itself to 
him as the most likely to serve the purpose, was 
one which he had seen employed on the convicts 
in Australia. The grants had been given to 
schools, before this time, on account of general 
efficiency. The inspector reported on the entire 
appearance of the school; note was taken of the 
discipline, and of the success of the pupils in all 
departments ; but especial praise was given when 



a school seemed to be imparting a good intel- 
lectual and moral training. Mr. Lowe thought 
that government should pay only for teaching 
the three R's; and the plan he proposed was to 
devise various standards in reading, writing, and 
arithmetic, to suit the progress which scholars 
might be supposed to make in one year, and to 
assign a money value for each of these subjects,, 
paying to the managers of the school a sum 
of money according to the number of passes- 
which the pupils had gained in the examination. 
This plan was followed by evil consequences. 
The higher branches were neglected, the profes- 
sion of teaching was lowered, and the instruc- 
tion became mechanical, and passed into mere 
cram for the purpose of the passes. The one 
good feature in the plan was individual exami- 
nation — a feature which had existed to some ex- 
tent before, and coidd well exist,'if the plan were 
given up. The essential peculiarities of this 
plan still exist, but the details have been modi- 
fied. Every year sees changes in the Code, the 
name given to the document which contains the 
regulations in regard to the standards and the 
passes. The higher subjects have received rec- 
ognition, and various other improvements have 
been introduced; but the code method must be 
continued as long as the religious difficulty bars 
the way to a completely national system. An 
effort in the direction of a national system was 
made by Mr. Forster, in his. bill of 1870. This 
act contains provisions by which local school 
boards may be established, rates may be imposed, 
and compulsory clauses enacted. It prescribes 
that the religious instruction shall take place at 
the beginning or end of the school day, and that 
no catechism or religious textbook shall be used. 
It was thus only a half measure. The grants 
were continued to the denominational schools. 
The establishment of school boards, the imposi- 
tion of rates, the employment of compulsion, 
and the teaching of religion, were all to be 
settled by the special localities. Many localities 
have taken advantage of the powers thus granted 
them, and some, such as the London school 
board, have done incalculable good ; but there 
has been considerable rivalry between the school 
boards and the churches, and much display of 
bitter religious animosity. 

The elementary education act of 1873 was de- 
signed to supplement, by some essential provi- 
sions, that of 1870; but more important changes 
have been introduced by that of 1876. The com- 
pulsory attendance provisions are strengthened,, 
the law declaring that " it is the duty of the 
parent of every child to cause such child to re- 
ceive an efficient elementary education" ; and, 
not only, as in the previous act, are the school 
boards vested with the power to make compul- 
sory by-laws, but provision is made for the ex- 
tension of this authority by means of school- 
attendance committees, to be appointed, in a 
borough, by the town council, and, in a parish, , 
by the guardians. The act of 1J76 also provides. 
for the establishment of day industrial schools, 
in which elementary education, combined witk 



ENGLAND 



265 



industrial training may be carried on, the pupils 
being supplied with one or more meals each day. 
This is designed to encourage and facilitate the 
education of a large class of neglected children 
whom the previous provisions did not succeed in 
reaching. A new t'ode of Regulations has been 
issued in pursuance of this act. 

The following table, compiled from official re- 
turns relating to the elementary schools of Eng- 
land aud Wales (including those of the Isle of 
Man), gives a view of the progress of education 
between the years 1864 and 1874. 





Number of 


Number of chil- 


Average number of 


Year 


schools 


dren that can be 


children in attend- 




inspected 


accommodated 


ance 


1866 


7,134 


1.510,721 


919,922 


1867 


7.601 


1,605.409 


978,332 


1868 


8,051 


1,724,569 


1,060,082 


1869 


8.592 


1,888,416 


1,153,572 




8,986 


1,950.641 


1,255,083 


1871 


9,521 


2.092.984 


1,345.802 


1872 


10.751 


2,397,745 


1,445,326 


1873 


11,951 


2,665.467 


1,570,741 


1871, . 


13,243 


2,982,981 


1,774,143 



Elementary Education. — National System, 
Appropriations are annually made by parliament 
for " public education in England and Wales'; 
and the grants thus made are administered 
by the Education Department, which consists of 
the Lords of the Committee of the Privy Coun- 
cil on Education. The object of the grant is nut 
to make full provision for the support of schools, 
but to aid local exertion, under certain condi- 
tions, to maintain (1) elementary schools, and 

(2) training colleges for teachers. Public element- 
ary schools must be conducted according to the 
following legal regulations: (1) No religious ob- 
servances, or attendance at any church or Sunday- 
school, must be imposed as a condition of ad- 
mission to the school ; (2) Religious observances, 
and instruction in religious subjects, must be 
either at the beginning or at the end of the 
school session, and must not be compulsory ; 

(3) The school must be open at all times to the 
visits of the government inspectors ; but the lat- 
ter are not permitted to take any cognizance of 
religious instruction. Unless the school is con- 
ducted according to the legal provisions, it can- 
not obtain any portion of the parliamentary 
grant ; and no grant is paid to any school, except 
on a report of an inspector. These inspectors 
are appointed by the Crown, on the recommen- 
dation of the education department. In order to 
obtain participation in the grant, the school 
must be placed on the list for inspection, after 
application to the Department by the school 
board or other managers. The school premises 
are required to be "healthy, well-lighted, warmed, 
drained, and ventilated, properly furnished, sup- 
plied with suitable offices, and to contain, in the 
principal school room, and class rooms, at least 
80 cubical feet of internal space, and 8 square 
feet of area, for each child in average attendance." 
The principal teacher must be certificated. If, 
on the inspector's report of any school, there ap- 
pears to be any serious objection, the grant may 
be withheld ; but a second inspection, by another 



inspector, is always made. There must be not 
less than 400 morning and afternoon sessions 
of the school during the year. The grant is 
based on the average attendance and the proficien- 
cy of the pupils in certain branches, that is, 
so much (4 s.) for each pupil in attendance, aud 
so much for each pass in reading, writing, arith- 
metic, geography, grammar, history, etc. Whether 
the mode of examination shall be oral or writ- 
ten, is left to the discretion of the inspector. 
The girls must be taught "plain needle-work and 
cutting out" as a regular branch in the day 
schools; and to show the proficiency acquired, 
specimens must be worked on the day of the in- 
spection. The evening schools must hold at least 
45 sessions during the year, and are similarly 
inspected and paid for. Attendances must not 
be reckoned for any pupil in a day school, under 
3 years of age or above 18 ; or, in an evening 
school, under 12 or above 21. The standards 
are six (from I., the lowest, to VI., the highest), 
and minutely prescribe the degrees of proficien- 
cy to be attained in reading, writing, arith- 
metic, grammar, geography, and English history. 
Reductions are made in the grants for various 
reasons, including an unfavorable report of the 
inspector, or the want of a sufficient number of 
pupilrteachers, who are prescribed as follows: 
for the first 60 pupils, none ; for any number 
between 61 and 100, inclusive, one ; between 
101 and 140, two, etc. The recognized classes 
of teachers are three : (1) certificated teachers ; 
(2) pupil-teachers ; (3) assistant teachers. Cer- 
tificates are obtained on examination, which is 
open to (1) students who have resided for at 
least one year in training colleges under inspec- 
tion, or (2) candidates who are upward of 21 
years of age, and have either completed satis- 
factorily an engagement as pupil-teacher, ob- 
tained a favorable report from an inspector, or 
served as assistants, for at least six months, in 
schools under certificated teachers. These exam- 
inations are held, in December of each year, at 
the several training colleges under inspection, 
and " at such centers as may be necessary"; and 
the list of successful candidates is published. 
Each certificate records the relative proficiency 
of the candidate receiving it. Candidates must, 
after examination, serve as teachers under pro- 
bation, before receiving certificates. The certifi- 
cates are of three classes ; and no certificate 
above the second class is originally issued ; the 
third (lowest) includes special certificates for 
teachers of infant classes. Good service alone 
entitles any teacher to a certificate of the first 
class. Those of the second class remain in force 
ten years. Pupil-teachers are boys or girls em- 
ployed to serve in a school, under certificated 
teachers. They must be at least 13 years of age ; 
and not more than four must be engaged for 
every certificated teacher. At the close of their 
engagement, these pupil-teachers may become 
assistants, or they may be examined for admis- 
sion into a training college, or be provisionally 
certificated for immediate service in small schools. 
— A training college includes both a " college 



266 



ENGLAND 



for boarding, lodging, and instructing candidates 
for the office of teacher in elementary schools," 
and a " practicing school, in which candidates 
may learn the exercise of their profession". An- 
nual grants are made to these institutions on the 
same conditions as to public elementary schools. 
Each college is entitled to £ 100 for every master, 
and £70 for every mistress, who, after two years' 
training, completes the prescribed period of pro- 
bation, and becomes qualified to receive a teach- 
er's certificate, or who has completed a like period 
of good service as an elementary teacher in the 
army, royal navy, or in the poor-law schools, cer- 
tified industrial schools, or certified reformatories. 
Examinations for admission are held annually, 
and are open, without restriction by the educa- 
tion department, to pupil-teachers, and others 
-who intend bond fids to adopt and follow the 
profession of teacher in elementary schools. All 
candidates, before admission, must be passed by 
the medical officer of the college, who must cer- 
tify that they are in good health and free from 
serious bodily defect or deformity. If candidates 
are admitted in violation of the rules, the edu- 
cation department refuses to grant them certifi- 
cates. — Pensions are granted to teachers in cer- 
tain cases, the maximum number and value 
receivable at one time, in England and Scotland 
together, being '270, as follows : 20 of £30 each; 
100 of £25 each; and 150 of £20 each; all of 
which, with special gratuities and donations, 
amount to £6,500. 

Besides the schools that receive grants of 
public money, according to the Code, there are 
schools that are inspected, but receive no grant, 
and private schools, the latter, however, rapidly 
diminishing in number. The school boards, con- 
stituted under the act of 1870, consist of not 
less than 5 nor more than 15 members, elected, 
in the boroughs, by the persons on the burgess 
roll; in a parish, by the rate-payers, except in the 
metropolis. Every voter may give all his votes 
to one candidate, or distribute them among the 
candidates as he thinks fit. Boroughs and par- 
ishes may be united by the education depart- 
ment so as to form a untied school-district. The 
societies which have the charge of the inspected 
schools, besides the school boards, are the fol- 
lowing : (1) The British and Foreign School 
Society, supported by Christians of all denomi- 
nations ; (2) The National Society for the edu- 
cation of the poor in the tenets and observ- 
ances of the established church ; (3) Diocesan 
Boards of Education which, in connection 
with special dioceses, look after the education 
given in church schools ; (4) The Church of 
England Education Society, consisting of mem- 
bers of the Evangelical party, which gives aid to 
schools, but does not establish any; (5) The Com- 
mittee appointed by the Boman Catholics to 
watch over the education of the poor ; (6) The 
General Committee on Education, appointed by 
the AVesleyans, for the first time, in 1840. There 
are other societies of less note, such as the Home 
and Colonial Society, the London Bagged School 
Union, the London Committee of the British 



Jews, and the Voluntary Society. The educa- 
tion furnished by the school-board schools ap- 
pears to be the best, the reports showing, on the 
whole, a larger percentage of passes in the 
standards. The teachers of the board schools 
are better paid, and of superior efficiency. The 
income of all the schools, except the board 
schools, arises from the following sources: 
(1) voluntary subscriptions ; (2) fees ; (3) govern- 
ment grants according to the Code. In the board 
schools, instead of the voluntary subscriptions, 
there is the rate. Pees and government grants 
are common to all. — There are also schools for 
special classes: (1) Bagged Schools, (2) Indus- 
trial Schools, (3) Beformatories. Bagged schools 
are supported entirely by voluntary contribu- 
tions, and consist, as the name denotes, of neg- 
lected, but not criminal children. The industrial 
schools give both intellectual and moral training 
and instruction in the industrial arts. These 
schools are subsidized by the government. Be- 
formatories are largely supported by the govern- 
ment, being intended for juvenile offenders. There 
are also schools connected with work-houses, 
schools for the children of soldiers, and training 
ships, in which boys are trained for marine ser- 
vice. — Special notice should also be taken of the 
Science and Art Department, which, under the 
fostering care of the late Prince Albert, has 
done so much to spread a knowledge of science 
and art over the country. Art schools have been 
established in various cities, and prizes offered 
and awarded. Examinations in science may be 
held in any town in which a committee can be 
formed ; certificates are granted to those who 
pass, and the teacher receives a sum of money 
for each pupil that passes. 

Educational Statistics. — The following statis- 
tics, for the year 1875, show what progress has 
been made in national elementary instruction: 

Expenditure from Education Grants. 

(Table A; — Classified according to Object of Grant. 

1. In annual grants to elementary £ s. d. 
schools under the new code, viz. : 

For day scholars 1,074,411 1 3 

For evening scholars 18,967 17 6 

2. Grants to school boards 317 10 11 

3. Toward the building and furnish- 
ing of school premises 34,4,91 13 2 

4. In grants to training colleges.... 94,376 19 4 

5. Unexpired pensions 438 15 

6. Administration: — £ s. d. 

For inspection. . 79,527 18 10 ) 
For office and > 

contingencies. 46,613 11 7) 126,141 10 5 

7. Organization of districts, etc 7,601 11 11 

Total 1,356,746 19 5 

((Table B) — Classified according to Denomination. 
On Schools connected with Church £ s. d. 

of England 822,565 9 5 

On British, Wesleyan, and other 

Schools 235,887 6 6 

On Roman Catholic Schools 73,881 19 5 

On Board Schools 90,231 10 10 

On Parochial Union Schools 120 

Administration (as in Table A) 126,14110 5 

Organization of districts, etc 7,601 11 11 

Grants to School Boards 317 10 11 

Total 1,356,746 19 5 



ENGLAND 



267 



The number of certificated male teachers in 
the schools receiving grants was 10,221 ; of fe- 
male certificated teachers, 11,731; of male as- 
sistant teachers. 872 ; of female assistant teach- 
ers, 1,549 ; of male pupil-teachers, 10,880; and 
of female pupil-teachers, 18.4Gti. The number 
of schools actually inspected during the year 
ending August 31., 1875, and the number of 
pupils, according to the denominations that edu- 
cate, are given in the following tables. 

NUMBER OF SCHOOLS. 



DENOMINATIONS 



Schools connected with National 
Society or Church of England. . 

British Wesleyan and other 
schools not connected with the 
Church of England 

Roman Catholic Schools 

School-Board Schools 



Day 

Schls. 



9.449 



2,034 

598 

1,136 



Night 
Seal: 



Total 



9,466 



2,086 

698 

1,140 



Total 13,217 73 13,290 

NUMBER OF PUPILS IN AVERAGE ATTENDANCE. 





Day Schools 


DENOMINATIONS 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Schools connected with Na- 
tional Society or Church of 


643,971 

190,802 

63,074 

128.636 


531,318 

137,378 
53.352 
98.649 


1,175,289 
328,180 


Brit. Weal, and other Schools 
not connected with the 




106,426 
227,285 






Total 


1,016,483 


820,697 


1,887,180 



Night Schools 



"Schools connected "with Na- 
tional Society or Church of 
England 

Brit. Wesl. and other Schools 
not connected with the 
Church of England 

Roman Catholic Schools 

School-Board Schools 



Males Females Total 



10,207 
1,737 
3,235 



2,707 

1,136 

861 



12,914 
2.873 
4,096 



Total 38,597 9,785 I 48,382 

The following table gives the number of 
pupils on the school registers, and the number 
of pupils for whom accommodation is provided 
at 80 cubic feet of internal space, and 8 square 
feet of area per pupil : 





Scholars on 


Scholars 


DENOMINATIONS 


the school 


that may be 




registers 


accommodated 


Schools connected with Na- 






tional Society or Church 








1,735,895 


2,011,434 


British Weslevan and other 






Bchools not connected 






with Church of England. 


492, 5S8 


571,582 


Roman Catholic Schools... 


163,850 


189,236 


School-Board Schools 


351.907 


387,227 


Total 


2.744,300 


3,159.479 



Of the pupils, 64 per cent attended the Na- 
tional Society schools ; 18 per cent, the British 
Wesleyan schools; 5.5 per cent, Roman Catholic 
schools; and 12.5 per cent, the Board schools. 



The pupils on the school registers were divided 
in regard to age as follows : 



AGE 



Under 3 years 

Between 3 and 4 years. 



9 ' 

10 ' 

11 • 

12 • 

13 • 
Over 14 years. 



7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 



No. of scholars Per cent 



19,358 
111.409 
232.630 
297,134 
323. 464 
320,442 
324.901 
315.496 
292,724 
242,042 
172,449 
65.307 
26,944 



0.70 

4.06 

8.48 

10.83 

11.79 

11.68 

11.74 

11.49 

10.67 

8.82 

6.28 

2.38 

0.98 



London School Board. — Of all the school 
boards created by the act of 1870, that of the 
metropolis had the heaviest task imposed upon 
it ; and it has, accordingly, accomplished the 
greatest results. The first board (elected Nov. 
29., 1870) contained many eminent members, 
among them Prof. Huxley, and Dr. Elizabeth 
Carret-Anderson. The School-Board district 
embraces a population of 3,400,000, out of 
4,200,000 people inhabiting what is now called 
Greater London, which covers (i!)8 square miles. 
The number of school-districts is 10, which are 
represented in the board by 49 members, elected 
by ballot. The population of London, in 1871, 
was 3,265,005, of whom 681,107 were children 
between the ages of 3 and 13; and of these, it 
was estimated that more than 200,000 needed 
school provision. Up to November, 1875, the 
number of new schools opened by the board was 
102, and 33 were in course of erection. There 
were, at that time, under the control of the 
board, 199 school-houses, in 436 departments, 
containing 112,901 pupils. The school-houses 
have been erected with great care, and upon the 
most approved principles of school architecture. 
(See Itobson's School Architecture, 1875, and R. 
T. Smith's School Buildings and Fittings, 1875.) 
"The result of the School Board action." says 
Sir Charles Reed, the chairman of the Board, "has 
been to add over 60,000 children now (1875) in 
attendance at the board schools, and about 
45,000, to the denominational schools." 

Teachers' Associations. — The teachers of 
England have formed various associations at dif- 
ferent times, of which the most effective is the 
College of Preceptors (see Preceptors, Col- 
lege of), which holds meetings and examinations, 
gives diplomas, and more recently, has instituted 
a professorship of education. Since 1870, the 
elementary teachers have formed an association 
called the National Union of Elementary 
Teachers, which is increasing in influence. 

Secondary Education. — The schools for second- 
ary education in England comprise the great 
endowed or foundation schools, including the 
nine so-called public schools ; the proprietary 
schools ; and the Ladies' Colleges. 

The public schools, or colleges, nine in num- 
ber, are Eton, Winchester, Westminster, St. 
Paul's School, Merchant Taylors' School, Char- 
terhouse, Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. In 



268 



ENGLAND 



18G1, the government appointed a commission 
to inquire into the revenues and management 
of these schools ; and the results of the inquiry 
were published in four volumes (1864) ; and, in 
1868, a Public Schools Act was passed, giving 
the commission power to frame statutes and 
regulations for these schools. They were accord- 
ingly remodeled, upon a new and uniform plan. 
The chief features are here presented. — (1) Man- 
agement. — Before the appointment of the com- 
mission, bodies quite different in character were 
the managers. Thus, at Eton, the managers were 
the provost and fellows of the college ; at Win- 
chester, the warden and fellows ; but the head- 
master had nearly absolute control. The Court 
of Assistants to the Mercers' Company were the 
governors of St. Paul's ; and the Court of As- 
sistants to the Merchant Taylors, of the school 
of that name. Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury 
were governed by trustees. The new statutes of 
the commission have established something like 
a system in the mode of electing the various 
governing bodies, without entirely removing the 
peculiarities of each school. Thus, the govern- 
ing body of Eton is now composed of (1) the 
provost of Eton, (2) the provost of King's Col- 
lege, Cambridge, (3) one member to be elected 
by the hebdomadal council of Oxford University, 
(4) one, by the council of the senate of Cam- 
bridge, (5) one, by the council of the Royal 
Society, (6) one to be nominated by the Lord 
Chief Justice, (7) one to be elected by the head, 
lower, and assistant masters, (8) not less than 
two, nor more than four, to be elected by the 
governing body itself. The governing bodies of 
the other schools are constituted in a similar 
manner, having regard to the peculiarities 
of each locality. These managers have entire 
control over the endowments, make regula- 
tions in regard to the buildings, and elect and 
dismiss the head-master. They are subject to 
no supervision except that of the Visitor, who 
is always a person of great eminence. — 
(2) Teachers. — The head-master appoints all the 
masters and other persons engaged in teaching 
in the school, and all hold their positions during 
his pleasure. The exercise of the power of dis- 
missal by the head-master has, however, given rise 
to several disturbances. The masters, in these 
schools, occupy a peculiar position. They are 
keepers of boarding-houses, as well as teachers ; 
and their incomes are mainly derived from the 
former. The expenses at the various schools dif- 
fer. Those at Harrow are given as a specimen: 

Public tuition and school charges (per annum), 
£28, 10 s. ; private tuition (per annum), £15 ; board, 
washing, etc., at head-master's boarding-house (per 
annum), £68; entrance fees, £12. The other board- 
ing-houses are divided into two classes, — large houses, 
in which the annual charge for board etc. is £90, and 
smaU houses, in which are received private boarders 
at an annual charge of £135. 

(3) Instruction. — Classical instruction has al- 
ways been the prominent feature of these schools. 
Other branches, such as mathematics, geography, 
history, and modern languages were formerly 
more or less neglected. The methods of teach- 



ing were bad. The tone of feeling prevalent 
discountenanced study. The boy who wished 
to gain the respect of his fellows, was compelled 
to distinguish himself in the cricket field, or in 
other athletic sports. If he failed in these, 
success in study brought him into contempt, 
instead of respect. The Public Schools 
Act has introduced great changes, and an ap- 
proach to a uniform system. The following 
subjects are prescribed by the statutes for Eton: 
religion, classics, writing, arithmetic, mathe- 
matics, history, geography, and English; French, 
for boys who have attained the middle division 
of the fifth form, but German or Italian may be 
taken instead; natural science, for all after en- 
tering the middle division of the fifth form, 
and for every boy in the school whose parents 
desire it. After a boy has come within the first 
It undred, facilities are afforded him for pursuing 
special branches. — The age of admission is not 
exactly the same at all the schools ; but, on the 
average, it may be said that no one is admitted 
below 10 years or above 15 ; and no one is al- 
lowed to remain beyond the age of 19. A pre- 
liminary examination is required. The number 
of classes, or forms, varies in the different 
schools. Each school is divided into two parts, — 
an upper and a lower school. The upper school 
of Eton is thus divided, the Sixth class being 
the highest: (I) Fourth, consisting of (1) Lower 
Remove, (2) Middle Remove, and (3) Upper 
Remove ; (II) Remove, consisting of (1 ) Upper 
Remove, and (2) Lower Remove ; (III) Fifth, 
consisting of (1) Lower Division, (2) Middle 
Division, and (3) Uppier Division (the lower 
and middle divisions being each subdivided into 
a lower and upper remove) ; (IV) Sixth. 

Before the commission sat, there was a great 
diversity in the numbers allowable in a division. 
At present, the statutes strictly limit this. In 
Eton, there must be not less than one classical 
master to every 100 boys in the school. In 
Rugby, there is to be at least one master for 
every 20 boys, including the headmaster, and no 
class of boys under instruction, except the 
sixth form, must exceed 32 in number, with- 
out permission of the governing body. — 
Annual examinations of these schools are con- 
ducted by examiners appointed by the govern- 
ing bodies. In all these schools, the pupils are 
divided into two classes,— foundationers and 
non-foundationers. The former, as the name 
implies, in some schools, receive their education 
gratuitously; in others, both their education and 
maintenance. Often, they have to gain admission 
to a foundation by a competitive examination. 
The others are boarded with the master, and 
sometimes, as at Harrow and Rugby, they re- 
side with their parents. In the masters' houses, 
the masters act as tutors. Fagging (q. v.) is a. 
custom peculiar to these schools ; but the right, 
to fag belongs, in most schools, to only a small 
number of seniors. At present, this custom is 
not wholly condemned. Indeed, the commission, 
after a strict investigation, reported that, "on 
the whole, it is a popular institution." 



ENGLAND 



269 



The location and date of foundation of 
of these schools are here given: 



;ach 



When 
founded 



Charterhouse London ' 1611 

Eton Eton i opp. "Windsor) ( 1*40 

Harrow Harrow-on-the-Hill ! 1571 

Merchant Taylors' London 1561 

Kugbv Kugby 1567 

St. Paul's London 1512 

Shrewsbury Shrewsbury 1551 

Westminster Westminster 1560 

"Winchester Winchester I 1378 

Other endowed schools are Christ's Hospital 
(q. v.), Dulwich College, at Dulwich, a suburb 
of Loudon, founded in 1C19 ; Queen Eliza- 
beth's School, at Ipswich (1505) ; the Free 
Grammar School at Manchester, founded in the 
reign of Henry VIII.; St. Andrew's College, at 
Bradfleld, near Reading ; the Tollbridge Free 
Grammar School (1552) ; Repton School (1557); 
King Edward's School, Birmingham (1552) ; 
Wellington College, near Wokingham, Berk- 
shire, founded by public subscription, in honor 
of the duke of Wellington, for the education of 
the sons of deceased military officers ; and the 
City of London School, incorporated in 1834. — 
According to the Grammar Schools Act, gram- 
mar schools include all endowed schools main- 
tained for the purpose of teaching Latin aud 
Greek, whether the instruction be limited to 
these, or extended to other branches, either of lit- 
erature or science. The purpose of these schools, 
as stated, is to give "an education higher than the 
rudiments, conducted under religious influences, 
within the reach of all classes, but with an 
especial preference for the poor boy who is apt 
to learn, and frequently also for some particular 
locality." The amount of endowment of the 
schools ranges from that of Christ's Hospital, the 
largest (over £42,000 a year), to some consisting 
simply of a rent charge of about £5 a year. 
Usually, the school possesses a school-house, a 
master's house, and an annual income. There are 
15 grammar schools which have net incomes ex- 
ceeding £2,000 a year; 13, at least £1,000 a 
year; 55, at least £500 ; 222, at least £100; and 
the rest are under £100 a year. The date of 
the oldest of the existing endowed schools is 
1216 A. D. The endowed collegiate and gram- 
mar schools are 782 in number ; and other en- 
dowed schools number 2,559 ; but, including 
those that have small endowments, the total is 
given at 4.021. The Endowed Schools Act 
(1869) intrusted to a commission the task of re- 
organizing these schools, chiefly in the direction 
of extending the benefits of the endowments. — 
The proprietary colleges and schools are of the 
same grade and character, as educational institu- 
tions, as the public schools. The most important 
are the following : Marlborough College, Chel- 
tenham College, 1 laileybury ( 'ollege, Clifton 
College, Brighton College, Lexington College, 
and Rossall School, near Fleetwood. Lancashire. 
Besides these, there are King's College School 
and the University College School, at London, 
which are partly preparatory schools. The gram- 



mar schools in the Metropolis are quite numer- 
ous, and some of old foundation, as the Mercers' 
Company's School, founded in 1542; St. Sa- 
viour's, Southwark, in 1562; and the Brewers' 
Company's School, in 1687. 

Ladies' Colleges. — Queen's College, Harley St., 
London, incorporated by royal charter in 1853, 
was instituted for the general education of 
ladies, and for granting certificates of knowledge. 
Queen's College School, for children from 5 to 
14 years of age. is attached to the college. — Bed- 
ford College, London, was founded in 1849, and 
incorporated in 1869. The affairs are adminis- 
tered by a council of management, and the lady 
president : and the members of the college (26 
male, and ,'!'i female) include many eminent 
educationists. — North London Collegiate School, 
established in 1850, is endowed by a grant from 
the estate of Alderman Richard Piatt. It pur- 
sues the course of study preparatory for the uni- 
versity examinations for women. The Camden 
School for Girls, established in 1871, is under 
the same governorship. — The Cheltenham Ladies' 
College was established in 1854, and now num- 
bers 320 pupils. The object of the institution is 
"to provide for the daughters of gentlemen a 
sound and religious education of the highest 
order, aud on moderate terms.'' — Girton Col- 
lege, Cambridge (incorporated in 1872), was 
opened at Hitchin, in 1869; and, in 1873, 
entered on the occupation of the present 
buildings, which had been erected by public 
subscription. The capital fund is now above 
£20,000. The college is designed to hold, in 
relation to girls' schools and home teaching, a 
position analogous to that occupied by univer- 
sities toward the public schools for boys; and 
the promoters seek to obtain for the students 
admission to the examination for degrees of the 
University of Cambridge, and to place the col- 
lege in connection with that university. The 
course occupies about three years, half of each 
year being spent in the college. — The Ladies' 
College, Southampton, was established by the 
Hampkin Association for promoting female 
education, with the view of raising the tone 
of female education in the south of England. 

Superior Instruction. — The universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge long stood alone as 
university representatives of higher education. 
(See Cambridge and Oxford.) The growing 
wealth and importance of the provinces how- 
ever, and the increasing demand on the part 
of the prosperous middle classes for the more 
advanced education, from which they were 
practically shut out by the exclusiveness and 
expensiveness of the great seats of learning, 
have led to the establishment of colleges in dif- 
ferent parts of the country. Indeed, the old 
universities have begun to recognize the neces- 
sity for an extension of their own influence and 
usefulness. In 1873, the Cambridge senate organ- 
ized a scheme of local lectures ; and, at the end 
of 1873, and again at the beginning of 1874, a 
session of twelve weeks was held in Nottingham, 
Derby, and Leicester ; — the subjects taught be- 



270 



ENGLAND 



ing political economy, physical science, constitu- 
tional history, and English literature, and the 
number of students ranging from 30 to 500. In 
] 874, the scheme was extended to Bradford, 
Halifax, Keighley, and Leeds; and, in 1874 — 5, 
applications were received from Derby, Not- 
tingham, Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Keighley, 
Liverpool, Birkenhead, New Brighton, Leicester, 
Burslem, Hanley, Newcastle-unrler-Lyne, and 
Stoke-upon-Trent. Three conditions were in- 
sisted on : (1) a standard of excellence to give 
definiteness aud thoroughness to study ; (2) reg- 
ular and systematic class teaching ; and (3) a 
system of examination, regulating the granting 
of certificates. The reports of the examiners 
were highly satisfactory. 

The University of Durham was instituted in 
1832, under an ant of parliament empowering 
the dean and chapter of Durham to appropriate 
an estate at South Shields for the establishment 
and maintenance of a university in connection 
with the cathedral. The management was in- 
trusted, under the bishop as Visitor, and the 
dean and chapter as Governors, to the warden, 
a senate, and a convocation, — the senate being 
composed of the warden, the professors of Greek, 
mathematics, and divinity, the two proctors, 
and five other members of the convocation. 
The convocation originally consisted of gradu- 
ates of Oxford and Cambridge, who are now re- 
inforced by the graduates of the university it- 
self. The office of warden is permanently an- 
nexed to the deanery of Durham ; and a can- 
oncy in the cathedral to each of the professors 
in divinity and Greek. University College was 
formed, at the opening of the university, for the 
purpose of uniting a system of domestic disci- 
pline with academical instruction. The Castle 
of Durham is held in trust for the University, 
its hall being used as a college hall, and its 
chapel as a college chapel. To extend the 
benefits of residence to persons of limited means, 
Bishop Hatfield's Hall was founded in 1846 ; 
and Bishop Cosin's Hall, in 1851 ; the students 
of the latter, however, were transferred to the 
former in 1864. The general academical in- 
struction is similar to that of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge ; and the B. A. degree examination is held 
at the end of two years, of 26 weeks each. There 
is a special course of theological study, and a 
License in Theology, granted on examination; 
and in the theological faculty alone is there any 
religious test or subscription. In 1870, the 
Newcastle - upon - T yne College of Medicine 
(founded in 1851) became the Durham University 
College of Medicine, and its students are mem- 
bers of the University. To obtain a license in 
medicine or in surgery, a student must spend 
four years at some approved medical school, 
(one of the years, at least, at this college) , and pass 
two professional examinations. The College of 
Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was 
founded in 1871, and incorporated with the 
University of Durham, in 1874. The endowment 
of the college was provided partly by the uni- 
versity, and partly by the leading landed proprie- 



tors, employers of skilled labor, etc. in the 
North of England. There are chairs of pure 
and applied mathematics, chemistry, physical 
and experimental philosophy, geology, and 
biology and physiology ; and lectureships in 
classics, French, German, English literature, and 
mechanical drawing. The course lasts two years, 
and successful students graduate as associates in 
physical science. The general government is in 
the hands of 47 members, partly ex officio, and 
partly elected ; and the ordinary administrators, 
are a council of 15, elected out of, and by, the 
governors. In 1875, Codringtou College, Bar- 
bados, was affiliated to the University. — Owens. 
College, Manchester, opened in 1851. (See> 
Owens College.) The Yorkshire College of 
Science was established in 1874, to supply in- 
struction in those sciences which are applicable 
to the manufactures, engineering, mining, and 
agriculture of the county of York, and in the 
"arts and languages thereto cognate". There is 
a board of governors, life, elected, and representa- 
tive ; and a council of 21 members, elected from 
and by them, for the administration of the college 
affairs. There are chairs of mathematics and ex- 
perimental physics, chemistry, geology and min- 
ing, biology, and civil and mechanical engineer- 
ing; and an instructor in textile industries. The 
title of Associate in Physical Science is conferred 
on students who attend classes, in not less than 
three departments, for each of two entire sessions, 
and who pass a special examination in each class 
at the end of their course. These departments 
are mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, bi- 
ology, and civil and mechanical engineering. In 
the session of 1875 — 6, there were 85 day students 
(of whom 28 were students of chemistry belong- 
ing to the Leeds School of Medicine), and 246 
evening and occasional students. — University 
College, Bristol, was instituted, in 1876, to sup- 
ply, for persons of both sexes above the ordinary 
school age, the means of continuing their studies 
in science, languages, history, and literature, 
and more particularly to afford appropriate in- 
struction in those branches of applied science 
which are employed in the arts aud manufact- 
ures. There are both day and evening lectures 
and classes ; and medical education is provided 
by the Bristol Medical School, 'which is affiliated 
to the college. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction.— The 
institutions for theological instruction are very 
numerous including those of the various denomi- 
nations : (1) Church of England, as follows: St. 
Aidan's College, Birkenhead (founded in 1846); 
the Missionary College of St. Augustine, Canter- 
bury (founded as an abbey in 605 A, D., sup- 
pressed in 1538, restored in 1848) ; Chichester 
Theological College (1839); Cuddesdon Theolog- 
ical College, AVheatley, Oxfordshire (1854); Lon- 
don College of Divinity, St. John's Hall, High- 
bury (1863); Lichfield Theological College (1857) ; 
Gloucester Theological College (1869); St. Bees 
College, Cumberland (1816) ; Salisbury Theolog- 
ical College (1860) ; Wells Theological College 
(1840); St. David's College, Lampeter (1822 ; 



ENGLAND 



2U 



chartered, 1828), which prepares for the civil 
service and other professions, as well as holy 
orders ; The Queen's College, Birmingham (facul- 
ty of theology, founded in 1852) ; and Church 
Missionary College, Islington. (2) Wesleyan ; 
Wesleyan Theological Institution, near Manches- 
ter (1834) ; Wesleyan Theological Institution, 
Leeds (1868) ; Richmond College (1843), for 
training missionary students; Primitive Method- 
ist Theological Institute. Sunderland (1868); and 
United Methodist Free Church Theological In- 
stitute (1872). (3) Congregational : Hackney 
College (1803); The Countess of Huntingt. mi's 
College, Cheshunt, Herts (1768) ; Spring Hill 
College, Birmingham (1831); Rotherham College, 
Yorkshire (1 Toli); New College, London, founded 
in 1850 by the union of several other Colleges ; 
Lancashire Independent College, near Manchester 
(181G); and Bala Independent College, founded 
in 1842. (4) Raman Catholic: College of 
St. Peter and Paul, Bath (1867), designed to 
furnish a liberal education for the higher classes, 
based on the principles of the R. C. Church, its 
course in philosophy and theology embracing 
5 years; St. Mary's College, Birmingham (1793), 
which affords a classical education, as well as 
professional instruction; and St. Bruno's College, 
St. Asaph, designed exclusively to prepare candi- 
dates for the priesthood. (5) Baptist: New Col- 
lege, London (1810) ; North Wales Baptist Col- 
lege, Llangollen (1862) ; Baptist Theological In- 
stitute, Pontypool, Monmouth (1807); The Bap- 
tist College, Haverford-west (1839) ; Pastor's 
College, instituted at Camberwell in 1856, re- 
moved to Metropolitan Tabernacle, in 1861 ; 
Bristol Baptist College (1770) ; General Baptist 
College, Chilwell, near Nottingham (1797) : and 
Rawdon College, near Leeds (1804). (6) Pres- 
byterian : Carmarthen Presbyterian College 
(1719) ; and Theological College, London (1844). 
(7) Unitarian: The Unitarian Home Mission- 
ary Board, Manchester (1854). (8) Calvinistic 
Methodist: Trevecca College, near Talgarth, 
Wales; (9) Free Religious Thought: Manchester 
New College (1786). 

There are four Inns of Court, qualified to call 
students to the Bar: (1) Lincoln's Inn, (2) the 
Middle Temple, (3) the Inner Temple, and 
(4) Gray's Inn. Each of these nominates two 
benchers, and the eight benchers constitute the 
Council of Legal Education. The council appoints 
five readers, who deliver lectures in each term, 
and guide the professional studies of young men 
preparing for the Bar. — There are medical schools 
connected with the universities ; also the Royal 
College of Physicians, the Royal College of Sur- 
geons, the Society of Apothecaries; Metropolitan 
hospitals and schools of medicine : St. Barthol- 
omew's, Charing Cross, Guy's, King's College, 
Middlesex, St. George's, St. Mary's, St. Thomas's, 
University College ; and the following provin- 
cial schools: Queen's College. Birmingham ; Bris- 
tol Medical School ; Cambridge Medical School ; 
Leeds School ; Liverpool Royal Infirmary and 
School ; Manchester Royal School ; Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne (Durham) ; and Sheffield Medical 



School. — Scientific instruction is given in the 
Science and Art Department of the Committee 
of Council, South Kensington, which administers 
a sum of money voted annually by parliament 
to promote instruction in science, especially 
among the industrial classes. Science schools or 
classes may be formed in any locality under the 
management of a local committee. The aid is 
' given in the form of (1) public examinations, 
held annually, in which Queen's prizes of books 
and instruments are awarded; (2) payments 
(from £1 to £4 per student) to teachers or com- 
mittees, on the result of the examinations ; 
(3) scholarships and exhibitions ; (4) building 
grants ; and (5) grants toward the purchase of 
fittings, apparatus etc. The science schools ex- 
amined in May, 1876, numbered as follows : in 
England. 1 .206; in Scotland. 113; and in Ireland, 
165; having an aggregate of 4,559 classes, and 
52,330 students. The schools of art in the 
United Kingdom, in 1875. numbered 136. with 
23,381 students ; and the night classes, 579 (in 
England alone, 543), with 21.601 students. 
j Other scientific schools are the following : 
(1 ) the Agricultural ( lollege, Cirencester, founded 
in 1842, which has a farm of 500 acres. The 
! teaching staff comprises professors of agricult- 
! ure, chemistry, veterinary surgery, natural his- 
tory, mathematics and surveying, and drawing. 
! (2) The Royal School of Mines, founded in 1851, 
| having grown out of the Geological Survey of 
| the United Kingdom, commenced in 1834, by 
the late Sir Henry de la Beche, its first professors 
being the officers of the Survey. There are vari- 
I ous exhibitions, scholarships, and free admissions. 
| attached to the school. (3) The Royal Academy 
: of Arts, founded in 1768. removed to the Na- 
tional Gallery, in 1838, and to Burlington Home, 
in 1869. (4) The Royal Academy of Music, 
founded in 1^22. receives an annual parliament- 
ary grant. (5) The Royal Military Academy, at 
Woolwich, founded in 1745. and the Royal Mili- 
tary College, at Sandhurst, in 1799. also the 
Royal Military Staff College. (6) The Royal 
Naval College at Greenwich, founded in 1873, 
and (7) Eastman's Royal Naval Academy. South- 
sea, founded in 1851. — See Sir J. K. Shdttle- 
worth, Public Education, 3 vols. (1853) ; Four 
Periods of Public Education (1862) ; and 
Tltoughts and Suggestions on Certain Social 
Problems (1873) ; Ernest Wagner, Volksschid- 
wesen in England (1864) ; Donaldson, Lectures 
on Education in Prussia mid England (1874). 
In regard to secondary instruction, see Report 
of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed to 
inquire into the Revenues and Management of 
certain Colleges anil Schools, etc., 4 vols. ( 1 S<>-4) ; 
Return — Public Schools (statutes, etc.), printed 
by order of the House of Commons (1876) ; 
Demogest and MoNTUCCI, De lenseignement se- 
condare en Angleterre et en Ecosse (Paris. 1868); 
Stai-nton, The GrealSchools of England (1865); 
Maxwell, A Hisloru of Eton College (1875); 
Ti'rner, Educational, Legislation (Loud.. 1876); 
Pascoe, A Handbook to the Schools of England 
(Lond., 1877). (See also Cambridge, and Oxford.) 



272 



ENGLAND 



ENGLISH 



ENGLAND, Church of. See Episcopal 
Church. 

ENGLISH, The Study of. The mother- 
tongue hag peculiar relations to education. Lan- 
guage has a twofold nature,— on the one side, 
voice, on the other, thought. Early thought is 
almost all stimulated, guided and supported by 
the mother-tongue. All early acquisition of 
knowledge may be regarded as the study of the 
mothei'-tongue; and, even in civilized nations, few 
persons ever advance beyond the knowledge stored 
up for them in their native speech. The mother 
speech is also the means of communicating with 
others, and of influencing them ; so that the 
study of it as an art includes the study of rhet- 
oric and oratory, and of the art of poetry. 

It would seem then that there are four chief 
direct uses in studying English : (1) To under- 
stand what is spoken or written in that language; 
(2) To speak it well; (3) To write it well ; and 
(4) To master English literature. And there are 
three remoter ends : (1) To master the language 
scientifically; (2) To acquire the knowledge of 
language in general ; and (3) General culture. 

Early study, in infant schools, kindergartens, 
and primary schools. — The meaning of words 
is the first thing children learn of languages. The 
names of a few familiar objects and acts are re- 
peated in connection with the objects and acts 
themselves so often, that the infant's thought 
passes promptly from the sound to the thing. 
Thus papa, mamma, kiss, laugh, make the child 
think of the person or act before it can speak 
any words. Many words are also attached to 
thoughts by being often heard connected with 
other words in discourse. Such knowledge, 
caught by the child rather than taught to it, is 
for the most part very indefinite and inexact, 
but no part of education is more important. 

The objects named should be objects worthy 
of thought. Good and bad qualities should be 
marked by such tones and manner as will 
give their names correct and powerful associa- 
tions. The means of expressing the affections 
should be carefully taught. In the kindergarten 
or other infant school, care should be method- 
ically taken to teach the words which accurately 
name the objects and processes that the children 
learn : unnamed objects and processes, however 
amusing or ingenious, enter little into thought 
and contribute little to culture. A leading pur- 
pose in all object teaching should be to give val- 
uable ideas ; but that is the same as giving 
familiarity with good words. Teachers of infant 
schools need good books, containing classified 
lists of important words, with directions how to 
teach them by means of well-chosen object 
lessons, and amusing occupations. See Kinder- 
garten, and Object Teaching.) For children of 
a larger growth, we have a great number of 
Spellers and Befiners, and small dictionaries 
which teach the meaning of English words. The 
latter should be constantly used. 

The study of meanings in such manuals is, 
however, of little worth, unless supplemented by 
object teaching on the one hand, and by the 



study of discourse on the other. Manuals of 
object teaching arranged for the purpose are 
wanting. Object teachers often contrast the 
study of words with the study of things, and 
condemn the study of words, instead of teaching 
them through their exercises. There are many 
books made up of progressive selections of dis- 
course, intended to introduce yomig pupils to 
words. Most Primers and Headers attempt 
something in this way, and some are skillfully 
prepared with notes and exercises for this pur- 
pose. (See Primer, and Reading.) 

To speak well requires a knowledge of the 
meanings of words and of the combinations in 
which they are actually used, of the meanings 
and uses of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, and 
of the exact sounds which are made by good 
speakers. Speaking must go on at a certain 
speed ; and, therefore, thoughts, words, and the 
movements of the vocal organs must be closely 
associated, so as to follow one another without 
effort and with great rapidity. Much practice 
in speaking is necessary in order to speak well ; 
and, in general, practice in the very kind of 
speaking in which the excellence is desired. In 
the early stages of education, this must be almost 
wholly imitative practice. Children catch and 
use the sounds and forms which make the live- 
liest impression on them, and which they hear 
oftenest ; to use a form or sound once, makes it 
most likely to occur to the mind again. Teachers 
should, therefore, train by inducing imitation of 
their own speech. Exercises may be used in 
repeating after the teacher the elementary 
sounds, and afterwards difficult words, and then 
familiar dialogues, and finally passages of poetry, 
or elevated prose, which the teacher likes and 
can repeat with feeling. Incorrect articulation 
and bad grammar should be constantly corrected, 
not by repeating and caricaturing what is faulty 
but by substituting the correct expression. Chil- 
dren should also be encouraged to talk, at proper 
times, to repeat the explanations of the teacher, 
not verbatim throughout, but yet with a con- 
stant, close, and correct use of the technical 
terms or important words ; nor is it unscientific 
to commit to memory formulas of permanent 
importance, to be fully comprehended afterwards; 
such as the multiplication table, catechisms of 
moral and religious truth, and noble utterances 
which it does men good to have fast in the 
memory. The youth should be led on by lan- 
guage faster and farther than his own thoughts 
could have gone alone. Practice of this kind 
will naturally go along with reading. 

Learning to read should begin early. The 
monstrous spelling of the English language makes 
this much more difficult than to learn to read 
German ; and teaching the names of the letter, 
and the sounds of the syllables as if made up of 
them, has a mischievous effect on the reason of 
the learners. Several methods are used in our 
schools to overcome the difficulties. The word- 
method (q. v.) is one. In this, children are taught 
to recognize words as wholes before learning the 
letters. In skillfully prepared books, with pic- 



ENGLISH 



273 



torial illustrations, children learn to read very 
rapidly by this method, but not so accurately; 
and it is veiy hard to teach them to spell. Skill- 
ful teachers will use a judicious combination of 
the two methods. Books are also prepared with 
an alphabet in which each letter has always the 
same sound, a proper phonetic alphabet, and with 
classified examples of words, and reading extracts, 
spelt in the phonetic alphabet wholly at first, 
and gradually passing to our standard spelling. 
These have been used for some years in New 
York, Boston, St Louis, and elsewhere, and are 
reported to save one half of the time usually de- 
voted to learning to read. There is now an active 
movement for the reform of our spelling which 
it may be hoped will save the next generation 
much time and toil. (See Orthography, and 
Phonetics.) Books of this kind are Leigh's 
edition of various elementary reading-books; also 
Davis's American Primer, Douai's Motional 
Phonetic Primer, Longley's American Plum < -tic 
Primer, Sheldon's New Phonetic Primer, 
Siiearer"s Combination Speller, Viceroy's Pho- 
netic First Reader. Primary cards and charts 
to aid in this early instruction are to be had in 
good variety. Practice in writing is one of the 
■best aids in learning to read and spell, and hence, 
copying choice extracts, and then writing them 
down from memory, is quite useful. Soon after 
lessons in penmanship begin, grammar should be 
taken up. 

Grammar is often used as a name for the 
whole science of language and the art of using 
it ; but by masters of the science of language, it 
is now confined to the classification of words 
into parts of speech, according to their uses in 
discourse, the description and exposition of the 
changes of form called inflections, and the uses 
of these in the correct construction of sentences. 
There woidd be some advantage in dropping the 
old traditional definitions, which lead teachers 
and pupils to expect that the study of English 
grammar will make them able to speak and write 
the English language correctly. It is only one of 
the helps to correctness in speaking and writing. 
The attempt by makers of school grammars and 
by teachers to do too much is one reason why the 
study is so much neglected and abused. Descrip- 
tive grammar consists of definitions of the parts 
of speech, paradigms, and rules of syntax. With 
children, a careful selection of simple and typ- 
ical matter should be made, just as in botany or 
in any other science. This matter should consist 
of definitions and rules, stated in accurate sci- 
entific language, but simply and briefly ; and of 
selections of words and sentences, also simple and 
clear, and suited to illustrate the definitions and 
rides. This matter should be managed by the 
teacher so as to use mere verbal memory as little 
as possible, and to train the pupil to see. hear, 
and think as much as possible. The definitions 
and the rides should be learned like rules in 
arithmetic, but the main work should be the ap- 
plication of them to examples. The scholar 
should every day hand in written grammar 
work on the slate or on paper, like sums in 



arithmetic; and the preparation and explanation 
of this work should be the main grammar lesson 

in the early years. This method needs so 

system of notation by which any sentence may 
be put on paper or on the blackboard with its 
words so designated by signs, or by an arrange- 
ment in diagrams, that the analysis and parsing 
of it may be made plain to the eye. Such systems 
are found in several books. A considerable num- 
ber of our best teachers use substantially this 
method, many of them, without a book, dictat- 
ing, day by day, definitions which the pupils are 
to remember, and giving out words and sentences 
to be classified and analyzed, also proposing trials 
iu collecting and inventing words and sentences 
of the kind to be studied. Books are often whol- 
ly condemned by these teachers, who collect, year 
by year, in their own note-books, or memories, 
a store of happy questions and examples, as well 
as carefully considered definitions and rules ; and 
it woidd obviously be a great help to young 
teachers, as well as to pupils, to get a good note- 
book of this kind, neatly printed, and there are 
some booksfor beginners which are. in substance, 
such note-books; we mention A Parser and 
Analyzer for Beginners with diagrams ami 
suggestive pictures, by F. A. March (New 
York), and Greene's Analysis (Phila.). (See 
A nai.ysis. Grammatical.) 

Advanced Study in High Schools am! 
CoUeges. — Students entering the high school 
should have been taught general descriptive 
grammar thoroughly, so as to be able to apply 
its definitions and rules promptly and accurately 
to sentences which they understand, and which 
have no strange idioms. They should also have 
mastered some system of notation to set forth 
their grammatical knowledge in writing. They 
should have also been trained in articulation and 
in the idioms of common conversation, and should 
have had some practice in writing compositions. 
The study of English will now be directed to 
acquire skill in speaking and in writing, and a 
mastery of English literature, and the philos- 
ophy of speech. Each of these demands special 
study and practice. 

I. Skill in Speaking. — This should be cul- 
tivated in various ways : (1) By free conversa- 
tion on topics at set times, when the teacher may 
act as a model and censor; (2) By the declamation 
of selections from standard authors ; (3) By trans- 
lating from foreign languages, the student being 
required to give the thought of the author in his 
own English with the common rapidity and in- 
flections of his own discourse ; (4) By recitations 
by topics. (In all studies which admit of it, the 
scholar should be made to stand up, face his 
audience, and speak to them on the topic on 
which he is to recite. This is probably the most 
efficient means of giving power of connected dis- 
course.) (5) By debates on assigned topics ; (6) 
By the study of grammar. Some larger gram- 
mar which gives a minute exposition of all the 
idioms of the language should be taken up. A 
historical and scientific grammar is the best. But 
for immediate use in speaking, correct and clearly 



274 



ENGLISH 



stated generalizations of the facts of the language 
are what is wanted. A knowledge of these is 
necessary to correct speaking. It is a great 
mistake to suppose that if one never heard bad 
English, he would always speak correctly. In 
the mother-tongue, every one generalizes instinct- 
ively. The child makes all its plurals in s, and 
says mouses for mice, mans for men ; so it says 
buyed for bought, and the like, making its in- 
stinctive and incorrect generalizations continu- 
ally. This process is active with every speaker 
until accurate generalizations, i. e., grammatical 
knowledge, are substituted for the instinctive 
work of association. The subject usually pre- 
cedes a verb ; hence, the instinctive talker uses 
who for whom before the verb. The object usually 
follows a verb ; the instinctive generalization 
suggests it is me, for it is I. In the households 
of educated people, a continual correction of the 
young folks is kept up, until they learn the most 
common words and phrases pretty thoroughly ; 
but, in the less common literary style, in which 
abridged constructions, tropical expressions, and 
relics of obsolescent forms occur continually, no 
one ever speaks with uniform correctness, un- 
less he studies grammar carefully. The greatest 
geniuses are no exceptions. Ohaueer, Ben Jonson. 
Milton, and Addison for example, were careful 
students of grammar. The text of Shakespeare's 
plays has to be corrected like a school boy's 
theme. Moreover, all of us hear much bad 
English, and need carefully and intelligently to 
study the laws of the language, in order to dis- 
tinguish the good from the bad. This kind of 
study should be constantly applied in the criticism 
of the speech and writing of pupils at school, and 
of printed matter. A knowledge of descriptive 
grammar is also needed for intelligent conversa- 
tion upon the meaning of obscure sentences. 
Among the many good descriptive grammars of 
modern English, we may mention Brown's, Bid- 
lion's, Butler's, Clark's, Covell's, Fewsmith's, 
Greene's, Hart's, Kerl's, Murray's, Pinneo's, 
Weld's, Quackenbos's, Vickroy's, and Whitney's. 
We shall mention, farther on, works in which a 
historical view of English grammar is presented. 
II. SJcitt in writing demands practice in writ- 
ing. From the time of entering the high school 
the student should write often and carefully. 
To study without pen in hand is to dream. Be- 
side the writing of grammatical exercises as 
above described, those who have their future oc- 
cupation decided, should be trained in the writ- 
ing needed in that occupation. Future business 
men should practice the writing of imaginary 
business letters, answers to advertisements in the 
newspapers, and the like. Any student may 
keep a journal, may write descriptions of build- 
ings, machines, scenery, persons, meetings, con- 
versations, books ; may prepare reports on such 
matters as are examined by committees for pri- 
vate corporations, or public meetings. They 
should also write in connection with their stud- 
ies, preparing careful statements upon assigned 
topics, notes of lectures, written examinations 
on general subjects, and the like. Then there 



are more elaborate, ornate, rhetorical perform- 
ances, and elegant essays, and metrical compo- 
sition. 

Two periods may be mentioned in the mastery 
of language. In the first, the ruling idea is 
imitative, the writer seeks to fashion his speech 
after that of the authors or persons whom he 
admires. He aims to have every expression bear 
the current stamp, and will reject every phrase 
not familiar in good books. Most writers never 
pass out of this stage. The source and model of 
good writing to them is an intimate acquaint- 
ance with literature. But great writers, original 
thinkers, learn that the current phrases do not 
convey their peculiar thoughts, and they advance 
to invention according to their own ideals. Vital 
signs should not be neglected even in school 
days ; it is by following these that the most per- 
fect mastery of the language is to be attained ; 
but school work will be mostly in the first stage. 
Active and carefid practice in writing is generally 
the best stimulus and help to the thorough study 
of English. Imitative work has its value. Fix in 
the memory the thought of an admirable passage 
in a classic author, then write it as well as pos- 
sible, and compare the result with the original. 
There are some good books prepared as aids to 
the young writer : Abbot & Seeley's English 
Lessons (N. Y.) ; Swinton's Language Lessons 
(N.T.); .Abbot's How to Write clearly (Boston); 
Crosby & Ludlow's First Lessons; Day's Young 
Composer, English Composition, and other 
works (N. T.) ; Parker's Aids to Composition 
(N. Y.); Quackenbos's First Lessons in Compo- 
sition (N. Y.), and other works by Cox, Drew, 
Frost, Harper, Hart, Kerl, Pinneo, Sprague. 
These lead on to rhetorics, like those of Bain, 
Blair, Day, Spencer's Philosophy of Style, 
Shedd, Whately, and the like. A great part of 
the writing should, however, be the record of 
thought and research in the study of English 
literature. 

IH. The philological study of English is the 
study of the language as used in literature, i. e., 
as shaped by the idea of the beautiful. The lan- 
guage of literature is an ideal language of men 
of genius. It is to be studied in their writings. 
The main object of the study is to rethink their 
thoughts. Every classic language contains in its 
literature the record of the noble thoughts and 
acts of thousands of years, expressed in thousands 
of happy and harmonious phrases, the invention 
of thousands of men of genius. This is the 
richest inheritance of a cultured race. Youth 
who, if they had no classic speech, could do 
nothing better than watch birds and bugs, to 
snare and kill them, can, by means of speech, 
rise, almost in childhood, to the highest thoughts 
of all the ages before them. The study of these 
masterpieces of literature may be carried on by 
two methods. One is rapid reading, enjoying 
and emphasizing special beauties, and making 
occasional esthetic and explanatory criticism, 
but avoiding all minute researches, especially all 
grammatical and scientific labor, which might 
give a distaste for the lesson and the author.- 



ENGLISH 



275 



The other method is that of giving minute and 
profound study, linguistic and philosophic, to the 
representative passages of representative works. 
The first method gives a delightful occupation 
to sympathetic pupils, and proves especially 
valuable in the education of women. The un- 
sympathetic and hard-headed are unaffected by 
it; and it is. at its best, but an introduction to 
the authors, leaving the real philological mastery 
of them yet to be attained. This comes, if it come 
at all, from long dwelling, and much study, line 
by line, word by word, such as is bestowed on 
the noble passages of Greek or Latin writers, In 
studying the literature of the mother-tongue, it 
is hard to get this concentrated and prolonged 
attention. The familiar words slip rapidly 
through the mind, and delude the young student 
with the impression that he thoroughly under- 
stands them. There is a fatal facility in extem- 
porizing the lessons. This difficulty is overcome 
by making the text the foundation of further 
study, and by requiring written papers. What- 
ever is necessary to comprehend all the thoughts 
and allusions, matters of history, biography, 
mythology, geography, physics, metaphysics, 
theology, and the like. will, of course, be care- 
fully looked up. The history of the book which 
is being studied, should also be learned, both as 
to its growth in the mind of the author, and its 
reception and influence. The character of the 
author and his life and times should be studied, 
as essential to a comprehension of his work and 
speech, so as to see the man as a representative 
man. and the work as a representative work. 
The rhetorical laws, and the principles of poetic, 
epic, and dramatic art should be applied word by 
word, line by line. Then there is the study of 
the words, their exact meaning and associations 
in the mind of the writer, to be learned partly 
by gathering up his different uses of them, an 
easy and delightful labor in those authors for 
whom a concordance has been made, as Shake- 
speare. Milton, Pope. Tennyson ; it implies also 
a study of the general usage of the time of the 
writer. The study of synonyms also comes in, 
and of derivations, as a guide and aid in fixing 
the exact meaning of words. "Written analyses, 
derivation papers, synonym papers, and tables of 
rhetorical figures, will make sure that the work 
is done. Happy phrases and notable sentences 
may be learned by heart; and by studying many 
works, the knowledge of English as a record of 
culture may be attained, which is the purpose 
of classical philological study. 

IV. Comparative philology, as the science of 
language is often called, suggests still further 
study. It sets before us English as a member of 
a great family of languages, having a history. 
and laws of growth, and made up of words and 
phrases, each of which has its own history, to be 
understood in view of the laws of thought and 
voice. It calls for the study of the physiology of 
the organs of speech as the basis of the classifica- 
tion of the vocal sounds made in English, and for 
the study of psychology to explain the meanings 
of the sounds. The English speech, as far as its 



grammatical forms are concerned, is a develop- 
ment of the Anglo-Saxon; in its vocabulary, it is 
a mixed language, made up originally of Anglo- 
Saxon and Norman-French, and later enriched 
by contributions from Latin, ( ireek, and many 
other languages. The languages which are nearest 
of kin, and throw most light on it. are Frisie, 
Gothic, Icelandic, and High German on the one 
side ; French and Latin, leading on to Greek and 
Sanskrit, on the other. 

Phonology gives a history and exposition of 
the sounds of English. It shows that the present 
sounds of most words are changed from earlier 
ones, and it seeks the laws which govern the 
changes. It also points out and explains the re- 
lations of these sounds to those in other lan- 
guages. The fullest discussion of historic pho- 
nology in any available text -books fur schools is 
in March's < 'omparative Grammar of the Anglo- 
Saxon. Ellis's Early English Pronunciation 
(London), still incomplete, is the great store- 
house of facts. Sweet's History of English 
Sounds (London), and the historical grammars 
mentioned below, are also worthy of study. 

Grammatical etymology seeks to explain the 
origin of all the inflections. In modern English, 
cases and tenses, and the like, seem to be formed 
by adding letters, or changing vowels at pleas- 
ure; we add s to form the possessive John'*, 
(I to form the past loved; we change a to e to 
form the plural iwii, o to e to form the past 
hi'hi. When we follow these words back to 
Anglo-Saxon, we find that our monosyllables are 
there polysyllables, and many of them obvious 
compounds, whose meaning we see at once : loved 
is there a trisyllable, compounded of love and 
did. But many words are not soluble in Anglo- 
Saxon, and we turn to other languages for aid. 
Gothic is the first great source of light. Anglo- 
Saxon is of the 9th century, but in Gothic we 
have the forms of the 4th century of a nearly 
kindred speech, and the gain is great: held, 
which is an obscure monosyllable in Anglo- 
Saxon, in Gothic shows haihald, a reduplicated 
root. The Gothic, however, often fails to solve 
the problem, but it generally serves to identify 
the forms with some like form in Latin and 
Greek, which may, perhaps, give the key, or, if 
not, lead us on to the Sanskrit, wdiere so large a 
number of inflection forms and affixes of deri- 
vation, are seen to be compound words, that the 
philologist works on the theory that they all are, 
and thus makes large progress in their solution. 
These languages, — Anglo-Saxon, Gothic, Latin, 
(ireek. and Sanskrit, have been most laboriously 
studied; and excellent manuals of comparative 
grammar and etymological dictionaries of each 
are at hand, at least to the German scholar, for 
the titles of which see the articles on these lan- 
guages. Icelandic, or Old Norse, is also of great 
aid in studying the forms of English, especially 
in the transition period from Early Anglo-Saxon. 
All these the earnest scholar may study. The 
High German also has been much worked over, 
and strengthens the inductions made from our 
nearer kin. occasionally throwing light on a doubt- 



276 



ENGLISH 



ful point. The comparative study of derivation, 
syntax, and prosody leads through the same 
historical course. Parallel with the external his- 
tory of the forms, runs a history of their mean- 
ing, a history of thought, and its laws of change 
and progress in connection with language. The 
science of language does not stop with the Indo- 
European family, but for a perfect understanding 
of English compares it with the other great lan- 
guages of the world, — with the Semitic, the 
Chinese, and the aboriginal tongues of America. 
It seeks to determine its relations to all lan- 
guages, and to an ideal form of speech. 

How much of this study should be attempted 
in our schools and colleges, and in what method, 
are mooted questions with educators. Germany 
has, heretofore, been the chief seat of this learn- 
ing, and it has been given in lectures to select 
classes in the universities. It is gradually work- 
ing its way, through our best grammars and 
teachers, especially of Greek, into the common 
stock of linguistic knowledge and teaching. A 
considerable number of the American colleges 
give a few lectures on the subject in the senior 
year, or study Whitney's Language and the 
Study of Language. In 1855, a department of 
the English language and comparative philology 
was established in Lafayette College, and an ar- 
rangement of all the linguistic studies of the 
college attempted, by which the topics of com- 
parative philology might be gradually introduced 
to the students, in connection with the recitations, 
in reading the classic authors of each language. 
Phonology is taken up the first term. Lessons 
in the pronunciation of Latin, Greek, or other lan- 
guages, are given, with the history of the sounds, 
and the laws of letter change. Then, at the daily 
lesson in reading, attention is called to such illus- 
trations of these laws as occur in the text, and 
the facts of each language are compared with 
English. A special examination in these mat- 
ters is held at the end of the term. In suc- 
cessive terms, the etymology of the verb and the 
noun, derivation, syntax, and prosody, are taken 
up in the same way, from the point of view of 
comparative philology, with daily application to 
the text. The languages are studied, in the clas- 
sical course, in the following order : Latin and 
Greek, French, German, Anglo-Saxon, English. 
In the scientific course, the early work is through 
a comparison of words in English, French, and 
German ; then come Anglo-Saxon and higher 
English. It goes on in connection with a literary 
and critical study of the authors, and ends with a 
synoptical general course, including, in one term, 
the science of language, and in another a sum- 
mary of English literature. This course has been 
very successful at Lafayette College, and has been 
introduced, in its application to Anglo-Saxon and 
English, into some other institutions, and has at- 
tracted interest and commendation in Europe. 
Perhaps no study, certainly no linguistic study, 
has grown more rapidly, within the last 15 years, 
than that of English. Previous to that time, there 
was then hardly an attempt at the scientific his- 
torical study of it in England or America. There . 



were no text-books, — historical grammars or 
other histories of the language, nor good etymo- 
logical or historical dictionaries, nor editions of 
classic English authors with philological ap- 
paratus for study. Now, all our good colleges 
and universities, and many of our best high 
schools and academies, attempt a course of En- 
glish, and a fair supply of text-books of every 
kind is to be had. Of these the following is a 
summary : Method of Philological Study of the 
English Language, by Francis A. March, 
(New York, 1865). This gives minute directions 
for carrying out a course of study like that above 
described. It begins with Bunyan, and sets forth 
topics for an introductory essay on his life and ; 
works, with bibliographical references. Then it 
gives an extract from Tlte Pilgrim's Progress, 
and references to parts of the grammar to be stud- 
ied, accompanied by questions applying the mat- 
ter to the text, given in full, like a verbatim report 
of a recitation, six pages of questions on twelve 
lines of text. Synoptical questions and topics 
for essays follow. Milton comes next, and then 
follow Shakespeare, Spenser, and Chaucer, treated 
in the same way, but with a progressive series of 
grammatical and philological topics. This method 
has been used in several high schools and col- 
leges with good success. The work is also to be 
had bound in one volume with Fowler's Gram- 
mar, to which frequent references are made. 
Sprague's Master-pieces of English Literature 
(New York) is prepared for the same kind of 
study ; it contains selections from Chaucer, Spen- 
ser, Bacon, Shakespeare, Milton, and Bunyan, 
with notes for progressive grammatical, phil- ,. 
ological, and rhetorical study, beginning with 
phonetics in connection with Chaucer, and end- 
ing with comparative philology in connection 
with Bunyan. Day's Introduction to English 
Literature (New York) is of similar content 
and method. Crate's English of Shakespeare 
(London and Boston) consists of the text of 
Julius Ccesar, prepared with copious notes on 
philological matters suggested by the text, and 
other apparatus for thorough study, — an excellent 
book. To these may be added Griee's Studies 
in the English of Bunyan (Phila.) ; and Car- 
penter's English of the XIY. Century (Boston). 
From American editors, we have the following 
series of classics prepared for school use, with 
more or less annotation : Boyd's Series (New 
York), including Cowper's Task, Milton's Para- 
dise Lost, Pollok's Course of Time, Thomson's 
Seasons, Young's Night Tlioughts, and Bacon's 
Essays; Hudson's Series (Boston) a valuable 
one; the notes and other apparatus are, in the 
main, directly explanatory or critical, primarily 
for rapid reading; it includes plays of Shake- 
speare; A Text-book of Poetry, consisting of 
selections from Wordsworth, Coleridge, Burns, 
Beattie, Goldsmith, and Thomson ; A Text-book 
of Prose, containing selections from Burke, 
Webster, and Bacon ; Bolpe's Series, New York, 
including Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, 
Tlie Tempest, Henry VIII., and Julius Ccesar; 
and Goldsmith. (See English Literature.) 



ENGLISH 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 277 



From the Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 
are issued for students of English, Chaucer, by 
W. W. Skeat ; Specimens of Early English,by 
R. Morris and W. W. Skeat ; the Vision of 
William concerning Piers the Plowman, by 
W. W. Skeat ; Shakespeare, — Hamlet, by W. G. 
Clare; The Tempest, by W. Aldis Wright; 
King Lear, by W. Alms Weight; Milton, — The 
Areopagilica, by J. W. Hales; Addison, — Se- 
lectionsfrom the Spectator, by T. Arnold ; Typ- 
ical Selections from the Sixteenth to the Nine- 
teenth Century, with notices and notes; Speci- 
mens of Lowland Scotch and Xorthern English, 
by J. A. H. Murray; also a series of English clas- 
sics for students, especially for ladies' schools and 
middle class schools, under the superintendence 
of Rev. J. S. Brewer, M. A., professor of En- 
glish literature at King's College, Ixmdon, in- 
cluding Parts of Chaucer, of Spenser's Faerie 
Queene, Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Bouk i.. 
Shakespeare's Merchant if Venice, Richard 
the Second, and Macbeth; Bacon, — Advancement 
of Learning, and Essays; Milton, — Poems; 
parts of Dryden, Bunycm, Pope, Johnson, 
Burke, and Camper. 

Grammars, Historical and Comparative, for 
the earliest period arc: March's Comparative 
Grammar (Xew York) (see Anglo-Saxon); 
Hadley's Brief History of the English Lan- 
guage (Springfield); Compendium of the Com- 
parative Grammar of the Indo-European Lan- 
guages, Sanskrit. Greek, and Latin, by A. 
ochlgicheb, translated by II. Bendale (London); 
A Comparative Grammar of the TeutonicLan- 
guages, by J. Helfenstein (LoikIod); Historical 
Outlines of English Accidence, by R. Morris, 
(London); Elementary Lessons in Historical En- 
glish Grammar, by R. Morris (London); ,1 
Shakespearian Grammar, An Attempt to illus- 
trate some of the differences between Elizabethan 
and Modern English, by Rev. E. A. Abbott, 
(London); Handbook of the English Tongue, by 
J. Angus (London) ; Latham's English Language 
(London and New York); Fowler's English 
Language (Xew York); Haldeman's English 
Affiles (Phila.) The great < Herman-English gram- 
mars are M.etznki'.'s. now translated in London, 
and Koch's, for which see Anglo-Saxon. 

Dictionaries. — Webster's Unabridged Dic- 
tionary of the English Language (Springfield, 
1 865); Worcester's Dictionary (Boston) ; Shake- 
speare-Lexicon, by Dr. Alexander Schmidt 
(Berlin and London. 1875); Halliwell's Diction- 
ary of Archaic and Provincial Words (London); 
A Dictionary of the Old English Language, 
V2th — 15ft Centuries, by F. H. Stratmann (2d 
ed., London. Is73); ^1 Dictionary if English 
Etymology, by II. Wedgwood (2d ed., London, 
IST'J); Etymologisches Worterbuch der engli- 

sehen Spraehe.hj Ed. MtlKI.LF.it (Kothen, 1865); 

Jamieson's Dictionary of the Scottish Language. 
ed. by Longmdir (Edinburgh, 1867); Bartlett's 
Dictionary of Americanisms | Huston). 

Further aids are: Lectures on the English 
Language (New York); and Lectures on 
the Origin and History of the English Lan- 



guage, by G. P. Marsh (New York); Hadley's 
Essays, Philological awl Critical (Xew York); 
Whitney's Oriental and Linguistic Studies 
(New York); Muller's Lectures on the Science 
of Lang a age. -.mil Chips from a German Work- 
shop (London and New York); Shepherd's 
History of the English Language (New York); 
De Vere's Studies in English (New York;; 
• ■in i.n's Good English (Xew York); Swinton's 
Rambles in Words (Xew York); Select Gloss- 
ary of English Words used formerly in Senses 
different from the present, by R. C. Trench 
(London); The Philology if the English Tongue, 
by J. Earle (London); On the Study if Words, 
and English Past and Present, by R. C. Trench; 
Alford's Queen's English (Land, and X. Y.), 
and Mucin's Dean's English (Lond. and X. Y.). 
and Bad English (Lond.); White's Words and 
their Uses ( X. Y.) ; Outlines of the History of the 
English Language, by G. L. Craik (London); 

Sources of Standard English. byOLiPHANT (Lon- 

ili.in: Changes in (he English Language be- 
tween the publication of Wictifs Bible and that 
of the authorized Version, A. D. 1400 to A. D. 
1600, by H. T. W. Wood (London); English 
Writers,bj EL Morley (London); History if 
English Sounds, by If. Sweet (London). 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. To know 
the writings and the lives of the best English 
authors, to learn what past or foreign literature 
influenced their minds and culture, to be able to 
trace a certain development of thought and style 
from the period of the Beowulf down to the 
time of Tennyson and Browning, to know a 
writer's place among his contemporaries, to be 
able to give the period and even the author of 
a passage seen for the first time. — to have in 
one's head, in short, some kind of historical view 
of the whole of our great literature, is a large- 
ambition, which — like many other ambitions — 
has a strong tendency to "overleap itself." But, 
if wisely begun at school, and followed out with 
zeal at the university, it is found to be a kind of 
knowledge as solid as most others, and far ex- 
celling many in its sources of delight, inspiration, 
and strength. But the subject is an enormously 
large one for school purposes; indeed, its very 
magnitude would seem to shut it out from the 
list of school subjects. The whole cycle of liter- 
ature is no more to lie known by one person than 
the whole circle of the sciences, still less by 
young people at school. The impossibility of 
achieving the whole task beiug seen, two ques- 
tions at once arise : (1) What shall we teach and 
what leave untaught '.' and (2) How shall we 
teach it ? 

In attempting to answer the first of these 
questions, we can find some guidance from an- 
alogy ; and the school subject which appeal's, in 
its vast size and the enormous contents of its 
wealth, to have the closest resemblance to liter- 
ature is the subject of geography. Xow, in 
geography, we do not burden the attention and 
overload the memory of our pupils with the in- 
finite number of names of small towns, insignifi- 
cant rivers, diminutive lakes, and unimportant 



278 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 



headlands ; but we take only the most prominent 
and, as it were, the central features of the world, 
and round these we group the knowledge which 
is intended to abide with the pupil, and to .serve 
as a nucleus for his subsequent accumulations. 
In the same way, there are certain names which 
the sifting of time has caused to stand out with 
always increasing clearness ; there are certain 
books which have been, and which continue to be, 
forces in the development of civilized humanity ; 
and it is with these authors and with these 
books that the teacher should make the pupil 
acquainted. Thus stated, the path seems to be 
plain — so plain that no good teacher can miss 
it. But there are two dangers — two besetting 
sins, which await the teacher in his attempts 
toward the systematic treatment of a subject so 
large ; and these are the vices of encyclopoedism 
and abridgment. Looked at more closely, both 
these vices are seen to be only two sides of the 
same central error — an error which pervades all 
kinds of teaching, and which is, indeed, the most 
prevalent educational error of the present day. 
By encyclopcedism, is meant the desire to include 
too many facts — and, in the present instance, 
too many authors — within the range of the 
pupil's mental vision ; and the consequence is a 
pressure which results in an abridgment of the 
closest kind — an abridgment in which nothing is 
said of — no facts are given about — the author, 
but when he was born, and when he died, and 
the name of his best-known book. It is plain 
that such knowledge is no knowledge at all, and 
is of no more value than an acquaintance with 
the street directory. The desire to teach too 
much ends in achieving too little ; the attempt 
to learn everything results in nothing. Be- 
sides, the pupil must have a living and in- 
terior knowledge of English literature, and not 
a dead and external acquaintance with its mere 
husk, appendages, and circumstances. He must 
be trained to know — and that is to love — 
Chaucer and Spenser, Dryden and Pope, Words- 
worth and Coleridge ; and the question which 
presses upon the teacher is therefore : How is this 
to be done ? Before answering this question, the 
teacher must have settled with himself what is 
to be done. 

(1) Let us suppose that, seeiug the impossibil- 
ity of embracing all the details of so large a field, 
he has resolved upon making a selection of the 
best writers in prose and verse in each epoch. 
Bound each of these he will then collect the most 
able of his contemporaries, and explain to his 
class their relations and the influence which each 
had upon the other, and which the requirements 
and spirit of the period had upon them all. The 
teacher will then, probably, select Chaucer — as 
the type of the chivalric period of Enghsh Liter- 
ature ; Mandeville — as the "Father of English 
Prose ;'' Spenser — as the richest poet of the 
Elizabethan era ; Shakespeare — as the greatest 
dramatist of the period when the drama was at 
its highest ; Hoolcer — as the type of the ornate 
and elaborate prose style of the sixteenth century; 
Bacon — as the most compact and thoughtful 



English essayist ; Milton — as the poet of the 
Reformation, and the master of the most sublime 
rhythms in the language, and in his prose works 
the most elaborate of sentence-makers ; Builei 
(in parts) — as the antipode of Milton ; Jeremy 
Taylor — as the sweetest prose-writer of the 
seventeenth century ; Dryden — as the herald of 
a new and more " popular'' style ; Pope — as the 
culmination of the most polished, clear-cut, and 
sparkling English ; Swift — as the most powerful 
intellectof his time; Johnson — as the representa- 
tive of the massive common-sense of his coun- 
try, too ponderously, though characteristically, 
expressed ; Goldsmith — as the most charming 
writer of his generation ; Burke — as the most 
brilliant rhetorician that the modern world has 
seen ; Cowper — as the transition and the link 
between the age of Pope and the nineteenth 
century : Wordsxcorth — as the dawn and the 
bright shining of the new day of Enghsh liter- 
ature ; and Be Quincey, as the most wonderful 
prose-writer of the nineteenth century. 

(2) But it is evident that all the works of 
these writers cannot be read in school ; and a 
selection from them is, therefore, necessary. Here 
again common repute comes to our aid and maps 
out our course for us. In Chaucer, we should 
probably find it sufficient to read the Prologue, 
or the Knighies Tale, or the Man ofLawes Tale; 
in Mandeville, a few chapters of his Travels; 
in Spenser, a book or two of the Faerie Queene; 
in Shakespeare, one or two plays, such as the 
Merchant of Venice or King Lear (Hamlet is too 
difficult and super-subtle, while the subject of 
Othello must always keep it out of schools) ; in 
Hooker, the First Book of his Ecclesiastical 
Polity ; in Bacon, twenty of his best Essays, 
such as those on Envy, Great Place, or Travaile; 
in Milton, the Lycidas, the Comus, the Hymn 
to the Nativity, and his other minor works, with 
perhaps one book of the Paradise Lost; in 
Butler, one or two Cantos of the Hudibras ; in 
Jeremy Taylor, a few chapters of the Holy Liv- 
ing and perhaps a Sermon ; in Dryden, the Ab- 
salom and Achitophel and the Mac Flecknoe ; 
in Pope, the Rapie of the Lock and the Essay 
mi Criticism ; in Dr. Johnson, two or three of 
Iris Lives of the Poets and the Preface to the 
Dictionary, with perhaps Rasselas ; in Gold- 
smith, the Vicar of Wakefield, the Traveller 
and the Deserted Village; in Burke, the Reflec- 
tions on the French Revolution and one of his 
speeches ; in Cowper, the Task, the Progress of 
Error, Truth, and some of Iris minor poems, 
while his Letters should be read, were it only 
for their style ; in Wordsworth, the best of his 
Sonnets, the Lines on. Tintem Abbey, Laodamia, 
and many of his minor poems ; and in De Quin- 
cey, his Sitspiria de Profuudis, his Vision of 
Sudden Death, and some of his criticisms. 

But, even after all this has been done and well 
done, there are still two things to do. The first is 
to give the pupil an intelligible and striking view 
of our literature before Chaucer — that is, from 
the Beowulf of the 5th century — a poem which, 
like the Iliad, existed only in the memory and 



ENGLISH LITERATURE 



279 



not in a written form, for several hundred years 
— down to Caedmon, Beda, and King Alfred, to 
the Saxon Chronicle and Chaucer. This ought to 
be done orally by the teacher, who should, at 
the same time, write upon the blackboard short 
characteristic extracts from the works of these 
authors, and explain and illustrate the growth 
of the oldest English, with its highly inflected 
forms, into our present English. The second 
thing to be done is. to connect every-where the 
appearance and the work of a writer with the 
social condition and the political events of the 
age in which he lived, and to show — as far as this 
can be shown to a young am hence — how these 
influenced the character and the feelings of the 
writer. Nothing, for example, can be clearer or 
more easy to explain than the influence of the 
two opposite views of polities upon the writings 
of the two contemporaries, Milton and Butler. 

The standing difficulty and perpetual tempta- 
tion — a difficulty with which the teacher will have 
constantly to fight, and a temptation which he 
will have at every moment to resist — is to present 
to his pupils conclusions the data for which have 
not been given, and critical results the steps to 
which have never been taken by the pupils them- 
selves. There is nothing more prejudicial to the 
young mind — nothing so fatal to its kindly and 
harmonious growth, as the presence within it of 
ready-made thoughts, of alien ideas, and of too 
easily accepted results. The pupil may seem to 
lie in possession of such ideas and conceptions, 
but he is not ; they may seem to be the fruit of 
his own mind, but they are really dead artificial 
apples — the witnesses, not of a vigorous, sponta- 
neous life, but of mental poverty and death. The 
second-hanti is the deadly foe of original life. 

A large part of the benefit of a course of 
literature will be lost to the pupils, if they are 
not required, always and every-where, to react 
with their own mind upon the material they re- 
ceive, and the forms which they are asked to con- 
template. This view demands that, accompany- 
ing every step of the course, there should be a 
well-selected and judiciously chosen set of exer- 
cises. Such exercises might include the following: 

(1) An account of a poem such as Chaucer s 
Prologue, in the pupil's own words, — always 
avoiding the vile practice of "paraphrasing." (2) A 
short life of an author, from memory. (.'!) An 
abridgment of an important chapter from some 
prose work. (4) The turning into modern 
English of a passage from a writer of the 11th or 
12th century. (:">) A critical comparison be- 
tween the treatment of the same subject by two 
different writer's. (Thus . I utumn has been treatei 1 
both by [feats and Shelley; the Nightingale by 
Milton, Iveats, and Matthew Arnold: the Death 
of a Friend by Spenser — in his Astro/the/ — and 
by Shelley — in his AdonaHs; an Escape by 
Shelley — in his Fugitives, and by Campbell, in 
his Lord Ullin's Daughter.) (6) The discussion 
of separate literary dicta — like the following by 
Russell Lowell : " Style, like the grace of perfect 
breeding, makes itself felt by the skill with which 
it effaces itself, and masters us at last with a 



sense of indescribable completeness." (This 
might be at first discussed in the class-room ; and 
then the line of argument and the results would 
be given in the form of an essay or paper.) 
(7) The story of a play of Shakespeare. (8) The 
analysis of some character in a play. There are 
many others which will naturally occur to the 
teacher in the course of his work. 

The steady purpose to be kept in view in this 
instruction is to deposit in the pupil's mind a 
few nuclei of thought, and to collect around 
these nuclei as large an accretion of cognate 
ideas from different writers and from different 
ages as possible. The existence of these nuclei 
will enable the teacher to preserve unity in his 
teaching — to link together his lessons with bonds 
of " natural piety;" and thus to make the thought- 
ful child the father of the wise and instructed 
man. And, from the point of view of intel- 
lectual training, they will enable him to keep 
true to the central principle of repetition with- 
out monotony. 

The study of English literature is incomplete 
unless it include a view of the works of Amer- 
ican authors, by whom many departments of the 
literature of the English language have been 
greatly enriched. Thus, in pi ©fa y. the chief pro- 
ductions of I'oe. Whittier, Longfellow, Willis, 
I iryant, etc., should be classified and criticised, 
and compared also with the productions of En- 
glish poets in the same departments. In history, 
due attention should be given to Present t. llil- 
dreth. Bancroft, and Motley; and. in general 
literature, including essays, fiction, etc.. Irving, 
I'oe, Hawthorne. Emerson, Tuckerman, and a 
host of others, claim attention. The principles 
and methods suggested in regard to English 
authors, in this article, are equally applicable to 
the American literature of the English lan- 
guage. 

.Many valuable books of reference have been 
published on this subject which the teacher 
should have at hand for consultation. In English 
literature proper, we may refer to Chambers, 
Cyclopaedia of English Literature (- vols., 1S43 
— 4); Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English 
Literature (3 vols., Phila., 1858—73) ; Cr.uk, 
History of English Literature anil Language 

(London, 1861); Taine. Histoire de la liiterature 
anglmse (Paris. 18<>4), English translation (N.Y., 
1K71); Spalmkg, History of English Literature 
( X. Y., 1853), a brief manual, good in parts, but 
very dry, and abounding in conceptions, views, 
and criticisms which only a mature and widely 
read person can appreciate; Arnold, Manual 
of English Literature (London, L862), — this has 
many good points, but is a little confused, and 
wants perspective : the latter half of the work— 
the ' rilical Section — is very much like Spalding; 
Shaw, .1 ( 'omplete Manual of English Literature, 
edited by Wm. Smith, LL, 1>.. with a sketch of 
American literature, by H. T. Tuckerman (X.Y.. 
1HG7); Morell, Biographical History qf En- 
glish Literature, full of lessons useful to young 
persons ; Collier, A History of English Liter- 
ature (X. Y., 1867), a brief and useful manual ; 



280 



ENTHUSIASM 



EPISCOPAL CHURCH 



Cleveland, A Compendium of English Liter- 
ature, from Mandeville to Gowper (Phila., 1848), 
and English Literature of the Nineteenth Cent- 
ury (Phil., 1852), also Compendium of Amer- 
ican Literature (Phila., 1859) ; Underwood, A 
Hand-Book of English Literature — British 
Authors (Boston, 1871), and American Authors 
(Boston, 1872) ; Duyckinck, Cyclopcedia of 
American Literature (2 vols., N. Y.,1856). Of 
series, the following may be mentioned : The 
Clarendon Press Series, one of the best pub- 
lished, is edited by men who know the En- 
glish language and understand their subject ; 
Chaucer, by R. Morris, is one of the most care- 
fully edited books in any language ; the Shake- 
speare Plays are also well done. Storr's Series 
is also excellent ; many of the books are edited 
by teachers, who understand best where pupils 
are liable to meet with difficulty. Of the London 
Series, only one book has, as yet, appeared — 
Bacon's Essays, edited by E. A. Abbott. This is, 
however, a model of its kind, showing how a 
work like the Essays, full of weighty thoughts 
and precious English, ought to be edited. — See 
also Maksh, The Origin and History of the 
English Language (N. Y., 1862) ; and Reed, 
Lectures on English Literature (Phila., 1855). 

ENTHUSIASM is an emotion of so strong 
a kind as to beget self-forgetfulness, and to 
awaken the most powerful energies of the mind. 
When made to rest upon an admiration of the 
good, the true, and the beautiful, it becomes an 
educational stimulus of a very useful and effect 
ive character; it must not, however, be per- 
mitted to supersede the exercise of conscience, 
or the sense of what is right, and thus de- 
generate into moral weakness. Earnestness, 
rather than enthusiasm, should be the qual- 
ity inspired by the educator ; and this is to be 
effected through the force of example, because the 
sympathetic influence of the true teacher upon 
the mind of his pupil is almost without limit. 
Especially should that spurious kind of enthusi- 
asm be repressed which is characterized by a 
habitual excitement about every thing that is 
new, and which tends to destroy every thing 
that is rational and stable in the character. En- 
thusiasm is an exceedingly important quality in 
the teacher as well as in the pupil ; indeed, a 
teacher can scarcely meet with any true success 
in his profession who is not enthusiastic in his 
devotion to it. While this is true of those en- 
gaged in any vocation, it is peculiarly the case 
with the educator ; since the effectiveness of 
his work depends so largely upon his personal 
zeal. The best results, perhaps, of his labors are 
those which he accomplishes by what has been 
aptly called unconscious tuition. 

EPEE, Charles Michel, Abbe de 1', a 
noted French teacher of deaf-mutes, and the 
founder of the system of instructing the deaf and 
dumb by means of a language of signs, was born 
at Versailles, Nov. 25., 1712, and died in Paris, 
Dec. 23., 1789. He was at first an ecclesiastic, 
but was suspended from the priesthood in conse- 
quence of his Jansenist opinions. While living 



a life of literary leisure in Paris, he, in 1755,. 
chanced upon two deaf-mute sisters whose edu- 
cation had been commenced by Pere Vanin, but. 
who were then, in consequence of his death, 
without the means of instruction. De l'Epee 
took so great an interest in their condition, that 
he determined to undertake the task of teaching, 
them. He at first continued the method of 
Vanin, that of pictures, and then tried articula- 
tion ; but being dissatisfied with these methods, 
he conceived the idea of using a system of signs. 
He succeeded so well that he took others under 
his instruction, and soon organized a school 
which he continued, at his own expense, till his. 
death. It is said that, even in his 76th year, he 
deprived himself of fuel in order to support his. 
school. Joseph II. of Austria and Catherina II. 
of Russia offered him royal gifts, but he declined, 
them ; as his great wish was to obtain the royal 
endowment of an institution for deaf-mute edu- 
cation. His desire was not realized till after his. 
death. A bronze statue has been_ erected at. 
Versailles to the memory of De l'Epee, and a 
bas-relief placed by citizens of Sweden in the. 
church of St. Sulpice. In 1855, the centennial 
anniversary of the establishment of his school 
was celebrated at Paris by a large concourse of 
persons, including delegations from many of the. 
countries of Europe. He wrote a work entitled 
Institution des sourds et muets (2 vols., Paris, 
1774), which was revised and republished under 
the title of La veritable maniere d'insiruire les- 
sourds et muets (Paris, 1784). F. Berthier, a. 
deaf-mute, wrote his biography (L'Abbe de l'E- 
pee, sa Vie, son Apostolat, etc., 1852). — See 
also I. Valette, Vie de I Abbe de l'Epee (Paris, 
1857) ; and Bebian, Eloge de G. M. de l'Epee 
(1833). 

EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the wider 
sense of the word, is applied to any church hav- 
ing an episcopal form of government. In a nar- 
rower sense, it is commonly used as the collective 
name of the churches which had their origin in 
the English Reformation under Henry VIII. The 
most important of these bodies are the Church 
of England, the Church of Ireland, and the 
Protestant Episcopal Church of the United 
States. The Church of England and the Church 
of Ireland constituted, from 1801, in which year 
the Act of Union between England and Ireland, 
was passed, until Jan. 1., 1871, when the Church 
of Ireland was disestablished, only one body 
under the name of the United Church of Eng- 
land and Ireland. Now each of these churches 
is an independent body, as are also the Scotch 
Episcopal Church and the Protestant Episcopal 
Church of the United States. In 1867, the 
bishops of all these churches assembled in a, 
Pananglican Council, under the presidency of 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, to deliberate on 
the common interests of these bodies. We shall 
treat of these churches separately. 

I. The Church of England. — The parent 
body is the Church of England. When its con- 
nection with the see of Rome was severed, under 
Henry VIIL, the avowed intention was to return. 



EPISCOPAL CHURCH 



281 



to the purity of the primitive church and to re- 
tain its creed and its discipline. The doctrinal 
standards of the church are, after the Scriptures, 
the Book of Homilies, the Thirty-Nine Articles, 
aud the Prayer-Book. There are within the 
church three widely differing schools, known as 
the High Church, the Low Church, and the 
Broad Church. The High Church men regard 
the apostolical succession in the three orders of 
the ministry as a divine institution ; the Low 
Church men generally look upon episcopacy as 
not essential to the being of the church, and 
recognize the claims of dissenters to lie members 
of Christ's body. The Broad Church, which is 
of more recent origin, is tolerant of doctrinal 
difference ; and. while its own tendency is toward 
what is called liberal Christianity, it would keep 
the platform of the church sufficiently broad to 
have room also for the high and low church 
parties. The Church of England is the established 
church in England and Wales, and the king is its 
supreme head on earth. England as an ecclesi- 
astical territory is divided into two provinces, 
Canterbury and York, with an archbishop in 
each and 25 bishops. Each province has a pro- 
vincial synod, called a convocation aud consist- 
ing of two houses, the upper house, which com- 
prises all the bishops of the province, and the 
lower house, which comprises the deans, arch- 
deacons, proctors of chapters, and proctors for 
the parochial clergy. The convocation is sum- 
moned by the archbishop at the command of the 
king, and its decisions have no legal force, since 
the regulation of all church affaire belongs to 
Parliament. As no religious census is taken in 
England and Wales, there are no official state- 
ments of the numerical strength of the church ; 
the population connected with it is variously 
estimated at from 50 to 77 percent of the entire 
population. As the Church of England is estab- 
lished by law, most of the great institutions of 
learning, including the national universities of 
Oxford, Cambridge, and Durham, and King's 
College, London, are under its control. All these 
four institutions have a number of theological 
chairs, and until recently (1856) academic de- 
grees were conferred by them only upon candi- 
dates who had subscribed to the thirty-nine ar- 
ticles. All the Great Public Schools and the 
large majority of Grammar Schools are under 
the management of clergymen of the Church of 
England. The study of theology can now 
be pursued at any of the universities which 
have been named, or in one of the theological 
seminaries wdiich have been founded by the 
bishops since the beginning of the present centu- 
ry. According to the " Kalendar of the Church 
of England for 1876," the Church of England 
had. in L875, theological seminaries at Birken- 
head (St. Aidan's, founded 1846), Birmingham 
(theological department of the Queen's College), 
Canterbury (St. Augustine's Missionary College, 
founded in 605, suppressed in 1538, restored in 
1848, to educate ministers for the distant depen- 
dencies of the empire); Chichester (185!)); Cud- 
desdon (1854); Cumberland (St. Bees, 1816); Lam- 



peter (St. Pavid's College, incorporated 1822); 
Lichfield (1857); Salisbury (I860): Wells (1840). 
There were in the same year, under the control 
of the Church, 23 colleges and schools for the 
training of school-masters and school-mistresses. 
The educational societies connected with the 
Church are (1) The Society for promoting Chris- 
tian knowledge, founded in 1698; (2) The Na- 
tional Society for promoting the education of the 
Poor in the Principles of the established Church 
throughout England and Wales, instituted in 1 811 , 
incorporated in 1817 ; (3) Home and Colonial 
School Society, for training teachers aud for the 
improvement aud extension of education in Chris- 
tian principles, instituted in 1836; (4) Church 
of England Education for the maintenance of 
schools in poor districts. The number of colonial 
and missionary dioceses of the Church of Eng- 
land has rapidly increased during the present 
century, and in connection with them a large 
number of educational institutions have been 
established. The first colonial see established 
was that of Nova Scotia, in 1787. In 1875, 
the whole number of dioceses was 60, of which 
5 were in India, 6 in the West Indies, 12 in 
Africa, 16 in Australasia, and 15 in North 
America. For further information in regard to 
the schools of the Church of England in the 
colonies see the articles on the several provinces 
of Canada, on India, and on Australasia. 

II. The Church, of Ireland. — Although sepa- 
rated from the Church of England in point of 
administration since its disestablishment, in 
L871, it fully agrees with it in doctrine. The 
Church has two archbishops, at Dublin and at 
Armagh, and ten bishops. It is governed by a 
genera] synod, meeting annually in Dublin, and 
consisting of a house of bishops and a house of 
clerical and lay delegates. The population con- 
nected with the < 'hui'ch was, according to the 
census of 1871, 683,295, or over 12 per cent of 
the total population. The largest and richest edu- 
cational institution of Ireland, the University of 
Dublin, also called Trinity College, is in close 
connection with the Church of Ireland, to which 
its officers and professors belong. As religious 
tests have been abolished, the General Synod 
has resolved to establish, under the direct man- 
agement of the Church, a new divinity school. 
The coDege of St. Columba, at Ratht'arnham, 
near Dublin, was founded in 1K43, to afford a 
good English education, and to inculcate the 
principles of this church. The education com- 
mittee of the General Synod specially designs 
" to add to the secular training of teachers in 
the central school of the National Board of Edu- 
cation, as efficient religious instruction as they 
can impart- in the very limited time at their dis- 
posal." 

III. Protestant Episcopal Church in the 
United States. — The organization of the'M 'hureh 
of England people" in the United States into an 
independent ecclesiastical body was not com- 
pleted until 1785 ; but, before this. Dr. Seabury 
had been elected by the Episcopalians of Con- 
necticut to be their bishop and had been conse- 



'282 



EPISCOPAL CHURCH 



ERASMUS 



crated, Nov. 14., 1774, by three Scottish bishops. 
The doctrinal standards of the Church of Eng- 
land were retained, and in the few alterations 
which were made in the English formularies, it 
was expressly stated that "this church is far from 
intending to depart from the Church of England 
in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or 
worship, or further than local circumstances re- 
quire." The dioceses formerly corresponded in 
number and extent with the states ; but, in 1834, 
a division of the state dioceses began. Each 
diocese has a diocesan convention, which meets 
-annually and is composed of the bishop, clergy, 
and delegates chosen by the laity. The General 
Convention, which meets triennially, is composed 
of all the bishops, who constitute the upper 
house, and four clerical and four lay delegates 
from each" diocesan convention, who constitute 
the lower house. The Report of the U. S. Com- 
missioner of Education for 1874 mentions the 
following universities and colleges as being under 
the control or influence of the Protestant Episco- 
pal Church : College of William and Mary, at 
Williamsburgh, Va., organized in 1693 ; Colum- 
liia College, in the city of New Tork, organized 
in 1754 under the name of King's College ; 
Trinity College, Hartford, Ct, 1823; Hobart 
College, Geneva, N. T., 1824 ; Kenyon College, 
Gambler, O., 1826 ; Norwich University, North- 
field, Vt., 1834; Burlington College, Burlington, 
N. J., 1846; St. Paul's College, Palmyra, Mo., 
1848 ; Racine College, Racine, Wise, 1852 ; St. 
Stephen's College, Anandale, N. T., 1858. Ne- 
braska College, Nebraska City, Nebr., 1865 ; 
Lehigh University, S. Bethlehem, Pa., 1866; Mis- 
sionary College of St. Augustine, Benicia, Cal., 
1868; University of the South, Suwanee, Tenn., 
1868. Columbia College, N. Y., which is enumer- 
ated in this list, has not, however, a strictly de- 
nominational character, as different religious de- 
nominations are represented in the board of 
trustees ; but the majority of the board and the 
presidents of the institution have always belonged 
to the Protestant Episcopal Church. Beside these 
institutions, 14 schools for the superior instruction 
of women are classified as Protestant Episcopal, 
with a considerable number of academies and 
seminaries. The oldest theological school of the 
church is the General Theological Seminary of 
New York City, which was organized in 1820, 
and is under the immediate control of the General 
Convention. The board of trustees consists of 
all the bishops of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, of one trustee from each diocese, of one 
additional for every eight clergymen, of one more 
trustee for every $2,000 contributed, until the 
same amounts to $10,000; and one for every 
additional $10,000 contributed. Since then, 9 
other schools of theology have been organized. 
The Sunday-Schools of the church had, in 1875, 
235,943 scholars taught by 23,448 teachers. The 
denominational societies for educational purposes 
are (1) The P. E. Society for the Promotion of 
Evangelical knowledge ; (2) The P. E. Evangel- 
ical Education .Society ; (3) The General P. E. 
Sunday-School Union and Church Book Society. 



The General Convention, at its triennial meet- 
ings, regularly appoints a joint committee on 
Christian education. 

EPISCOPAL METHODIST COLLEGE, 
at Lewistown, 111., an institution for the edu- 
cation of both sexes, is under the control of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It was 
opened in 1873, and incorporated in 1875. It 
has a preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate 
course. Instruction is given in French, German, 
music, drawing, painting, and book-keeping, for 
wdiich, except the last, an extra charge is made. 
The regular tuition fee varies from $20 to $50 
per year. For the special business course, pur- 
sued separately, the fee is $40 a year. In 1874 
— 6, there were 6 instructors and 89 students 
(35 preparatory, 27 academic, 13 collegiate, and 
14 in special branches). W. S. McKinney is 
(1876) the president. 

EQUATION". See Algebra. 

ERASMUS, Desiderius, was born in Rot- 
terdam, Holland, Oct. 28., 1467, and died in Basel, 
July 12., 1536. His original name, Gerard, he 
translated into its supposed Latin and Greek 
equivalents, Desiderius and ''Epaa/uog; these he 
united to form, the new name which he after- 
wards assumed. In the convent school of Deven- 
ter, where he was educated, he distinguished him- 
self so much, that even then it was predicted 
that he would become the most learned man of 
the age. After the death of his parents, his tutors 
sent him to a school at Bois-le-Duc to prepare 
himself for the priesthood; and, in 1486, a friend 
persuaded him to enter a convent near Gouda. 
In 1492, the bishop of Cambray took him into 
his service, and he was ordained to the priesthood. 
Five years later, he left for the University of 
Paris ; and thenceforward, he lived in France, 
England, the Netherlands, and Italy, for the most 
part independent, or supported by distinguished 
patrons. He acted as a private teacher here and 
there, and was for a short time professor of theol-' 
ogy and Greek at Cambridge; but he soon re- 
signed, and avoided after that any fixed position. 
The fame of his learning spread throughout the 
civilized world, and honorary degrees were con- 
ferred upon him by several universities. He bold- 
ly attacked Scholastic theology, and worked most 
powerfully to revive classical learning. This he did 
as well by the clearness of his own style and by 
his classical knowledge as by the satire and rid- 
icule which he directed against the Scholastics. 
For a long time the Reformers regarded Mm as 
in sympathy with them, but he soon separated 
from them and was even involved in a literary 
conflict with Luther. In personal character, he 
was egotistic, timid, and undecided, — faults 
which became especially prominent at that 
period of the Reformation. He contributed 
little to the profound thinking of his time, but 
was a critic and a scholar rather than a phi- 
losopher ; nevertheless, his unbounded powers of 
satire served to wrench men violently out of 
their accustomed mode of thinking, and, in this 
way, he acted as a powerful ferment, especially 
in the revival of classical studies. His great 



ERASMUS 



ERIGENA 



283 



acquaintance with classical authors and his 
mastery of the Latin language made his ridicule 
the most effective possible against the dense 

ignorance of his opponents. His two most 
famous works in this direction were his Marias 
Encomium [Praise of Folly), published in 1512, 
and the CoUoquia Puerilia [Children's Talk*), 
in 1518. The former derided the dialectical 
labyrinth in which the theologians had lost 
themselves, the syllogisms of the Scholastics, 
and the zeal with which they persecuted and 
condemned every opinion which differed from 
their own. The latter contains con versa* ions upon 
almost everything, but, at the same time, is full 
of satires upon the monks, a cloister life, pilgrim- 
ages, etc. This book was condemned by the 
Sorbonne. forbidden in France, burned in Spain, 
and prohibited in Home to all I 'hristendom ; 
nevertheless, both works exerted a tremendous 
influence. In 151(i, Erasmus published an edi- 
tion of the Greek New Testament with a Latin 
translation, which worked powerfully in the in- 
terests of the Reformation. Of his educational 
works, the most important are: Adagio. I The 
Adages), published in 1500; De Ratione Studii 
(Of'lhe Order of Studies), in 1512: the trans- 
lation of Theodore (iaza's Greek grammar; and 
Inslitutio Principis Christian! [Education of a 
Christian prince) in 1516. In L526, he pub- 
lished a book upon Christian matrimony, the 
last section of which treats of family culture. 

Erasmus divides education into four parts: 
(1) Religious-ethical culture: |2) Intellectual 
culture: \'.\) Material culture; (4) Formal cult- 
ure. By the third division is meant cleverness 
or skill in our daily labors; and. by the fourth, 
a knowledge of the amenities of cultured society. 
This division, however, was not very strictly ob- 
served by him. lie regarded the institution of 
marriage as of the highest importance for the 
proper culture of children, lie gives many rules. 
partly medical and partly moral, upon the way 
in which matrons should live in order to secure 
the best results for their children. The greatest 
(•are. he asserted, should lie taken with young- 
children to prevent vanity and vice from spring- 
ing up. Good birth is much, but good education 
is more. In the weight which he placed upon edu- 
cation in comparison with inherited tendencies. 
Erasmus incurred the charge of Pelagianism. 
Indeed, in his work I)e Pueris Statim <tc 
liberaliter instituendis, lie expressly refers the 
chief part of so-called original sin. to temptation 
and bail example. Instruction proper should 
not begin before the seventh year. Upon the 
subject of teachers and school-houses, Erasmus is 
never tired of pouring out a flood of ridicule. 
The greatest care should lie taken in the selection 
of teachers; and if possible. instruction should be 
private. The contagion of great schools ought to 
be guarded against. A clear pronunciation, as well 
as facility in reading and writing, is an absolute 
necessity for all classes. Rich parents, however, 
should not fail to teach their children some 
trade. The study of language should precede 
the study of things, as a knowledge of things can 



I be reached only through language. The first 
; thing to study is Creek and Latin grammar, for 
nearly every thing worth knowing is found in 
■ these languages. They should also be studied 
together, as their near relationship lightens the 
labor of acquiring them. The grammatical rides 
must be as few and precise as possible ; and the 
study of language should lie carried on rather by 
reading than by learning rules by heart. As sunn 
as any one has a fair foundation in the languages, 
he should proceed to study things. The best 
j sources for this study are the Greek authors. 
I Care should be taken to strengthen the memory, 
and the best means are a right understanding of 
the subject, a proper order of thought, and 
careful distinction. The notion that all Latinity 
1 must be Ciceronian filled him with incredible 
I disgust. The study of Latin ought to include 
] all the authors, and those pretended Ciceronians 
who will hear of nobody but Cicero were in- 
tolerable. The pseudo-classical enthusiasm which 
could find nothing valuable in any other litera- 
ture also came in for condemnation. Above and 
before all else, is religious instruction important. 
The minds of children must be so filled with 
the great facts of the Christian religion, that it 
shall seem to them the greatest reality of life. 
The world and life must always be spoken of as 
under the immediate control of God. If good 
seed be sown in this way. the best fruit may be 
looked for ; still the most important means of 
teaching morality is by example. 

Erasmus insisted also upon similar instruction 
for giils. It is sufficient according to many, he 
says, to keep a girl shut up and away from men 
until she is married, while often enough she is 
more injured by shallow women than by an as- 
sociation with men. Chastity must of course be 
maintained; but she alone is chaste who knows 
what chastity is, and how to maintain it. Inno- 
cence suffers chiefly from bad example; and 
parents ought to be careful to do nothing unbe- 
coming in the presence of even their youngest 
daughters. He also inveighs severely against 
love songs and romances, lascivious dances 
and pictures. Girls, too. ought to receive a 
liberal education. The multitude holds it to be 
folly, but wise men know that nothing is more 
advantageous to the morals of women than ex- 
tended knowledge. 

An edition of the works of Erasmus was 
published, after his death, by Rhenanus, at Basel 
l!> vols., 1540 — II); a more complete edition 
was published by Le Clerc, in Leyden (10 vols., 
fob, 1703 — 0). Biographies of Erasmus have 
been published in English by Jortin, Knight, 
Charles Butler, and 1!. B. Drummond (2 vols.. 
London. 1873). 

ERIGENA, John Scotus, one of the great- 
est philosopher's and scholars of the middle ages, 
was born in the beginning of the 9th century in 
one of the British Islands (probably Ireland), and 
died about 880. Charles the Bald appointed him 
head-master to the court school of Paris, which 
under his direction made so great progress, that it 
was no longer called schulo I'olulii, but f'triatium 



284 



ERNESTI 



ESTHETIC CULTUEE 



schoke. His instruction, which was confined 
chiefly to philosophy and the classics, gave a 
great impulse to the progress of philosophical 
studies. As his own philosophical views re- 
sembled, in some respects, those held by the 
Neoplatonists of Alexandria, he has been called 
the last of that school ; at the same time, he is 
regarded as the first forerunner of the Scholas- 
tics. Special works on Erigena have been written 
by Staudenmaier (1834), Taillandier (1843), and 
Huber (1861). 

ERNESTI, John August, a German 
philologist and educator, born August 4., 1707, in 
Tennstadt, Thuringia;died September 11., 1781. 
In 1731, he became connected with the Thomas 
School at Leipsic; and. in 1742, he was made 
professor at the university of the same city, in 
which position he remained until his death. His 
chief fame rests upon his philological studies and 
writings. He edited a great many classical works, 
and was a most enthusiastic Humanist. His 
work on the interpretation of the New Testa- 
ment [InstitvMo Interpretis Novi Teslamenti, 
3d edit., 1775 ; English translation by C. H. 
Perrot, Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1833 — 43) opened the 
way to a freer exegesis of the Scriptures, and is 
regarded as a forerunner of the later rationalistic 
criticism. The sum of all culture lay, for him, 
in the classics. " They unite beauty of content 
with beauty of form ; and out of them one wins 
political sagacity, practical wisdom, and moral 
culture.'' According to his method, less weight is 
placed upon grammatical rules than upon diligent 
reading, which he thought the best way to learn 
to read and write Latin fluently. This reading, 
too, should be rapid, taking in whole books in a 
short time; this he thought a better way of acquir- 
ing the spirit of a language than spending weeks 
upon single sentences with grammar and diction- 
ary. Literal translation he banished, and in- 
sisted upon an acquaintance with the public fife 
of the ancients, in order to understand them 
rightly. Besides his classical works, Ernesti 
published a book upon the elements of various 
studies (Tniti.a Doctrinal Solidioris). It treats 
of arithmetic, geometry, and the elements of 
philosophy. These are divided into five parts : 
(1) Metaphysics, embracing ontology, psychology, 
and natural theology; (2) Dialectics ; (3) Morals, 
embracing ethics and the law of nature ; (4) 
Politics ; (5) Physics. The high estimation in 
which Ernesti was held in Saxony, is shown by 
the fact that his system was adopted by the 
state Latin schools in 1773, and remained almost 
entirely unchanged until 1835. 

ERSKINE COLLEGE, at Due West, Ab- 
beville Co., S. C, under the control of the Re- 
formed Presbyterians (the Associate Reformed 
Synod of the South), was founded in 1839. It 
has large and commodious buildings ; libraries, 
containing 12,500 volumes ; a well-selected ge- 
ological cabinet ; a philosophical and chemical 
apparatus ; together with an excellent equatorial, 
refracting telescope, mounted in an observatory 
which affords a magnificent view of the heavens. 
The amount of its productive funds is $45,000. 



There is a preparatory course of two years, and 
a collegiate course of four years. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 5 professors, 77 students (56 collegiate, 
13 preparatory, and 8 irregular), and 356 
alumni. The Rev. W. M. Grier, D. D., is 
(1876) the president. 

ESTHETIC CULTURE. Esthetics (Gr. 
a'urftijTiKdg, from aicdavecdat, to perceive), the 
science which treats of taste and its object, the 
beautiful in nature and art, has been recog- 
nized, since the middle of the last century, as 
an independent branch of philosophy. Depend- 
ing, as it does, upon the exercise of a special fac- 
ulty of the mind, it forms a part of the basis of 
a complete and harmonious education. How- 
ever well the intellect, the will, or the conscience 
of an individual may have been trained, if es- 
thetic culture is wanting, he must continue rude 
and unrefined ; and, hence, in a comparison of 
nations which are esthetically cultivated with 
such as are deficient in this respect, we find a 
marked difference in the degree as well as in the 
general character of the civilization which they 
respectively present. The esthetic element, how- 
ever, cannot be wholly wanting. Even the rud- 
est nations or the most barbarous tribes manifest 
delight in those objects which satisfy their nat- 
ural sense of the beautiful. Like children, they 
feel an intense fondness for showj' ornaments, 
uncouth pictures and images, harsh and dis- 
cordant music, and grotesque dances. The love 
of these things springs from the esthetic prin- 
ciple in their minds, in its uncultivated and 
partly undeveloped condition. Their percep- 
tions of the beautiful are, like their thoughts and 
their reasonings, processes unregulated and mis- 
directed. They have, also, the moral sense — the 
sense of right and wrong, but not knowing how 
to distinguish right from wrong, they often con- 
scientiously perform acts which, judged by a 
proper standard of rectitude, are reprehensible 
in the highest degree ; for conscience is only the 
general impression that a distinction between 
right and wrong exists, not a power to discrim- 
inate between specific right and wrong. In the 
same manner, the esthetic principle is the sense 
by which the mind, hi a general way, distin- 
guishes between what is beautiful and what is 
ugly ; but it does not teach specifically what ob- 
jects are beautiful. Hence, however advanced 
persons may be in esthetic culture, they will still 
differ to some extent in this specific discrimina- 
tion. This difference we attribute to a diversity 
of taste, the word taste being used to designate 
the esthetic principle or faculty of the mind. 
"We find, also, the same diversity in the exercise 
of the moral sense, in the absence of a settled 
standard, some persons regarding as worthy of 
approbation the same act that others look upon 
as decidedly sinfid. 

The aim of esthetic education must, therefore, 
be to cultivate the sense of the beautiful, i. e.,the 
taste, (1) by showing what the elements of beau- 
ty are, and thus establishing in the mind a proper 
standard of the beautiful ; (2) by presenting to 
the mind simple forms of beauty, for the purpose 



ESTHETIC CULTURE 



285 



of illustrating this analysis of the elements, and 
also impressing them deeply upon the mind, aa 
the foundation of esthetic culture ; and (3) by 
practice in criticism, so that the mind may be 
trained to judge whether in any complex object, 
either of nature or art. the elementary principles 
of beauty are present, and in their normal or 
propel combination. The elements of beauty 
are to be sought for in the constitution of the 
human mind ; and, therefore, our knowledge of 
what they are and how they are to be combined 
must be derived from experience and observation, 
upon the results of which esthetics as a science 
must be based. The educator must, antecedent- 
ly to the exercise of his professional skill, have 
acquired a knowledge of this, just as the teacher 
of mathematics or of physics must be versed in 
those branches, bifore he learns how to teach 
them : but with this difference, that in esthetical 
culture, it is the faculty that is immediately ad- 
dressed, the primary object being disciplinary ; 
while in most other departments of instruction, 
discipline is a secondary object, the primary aim 
being to impart a knowledge of the subject 
taught. To illustrate, we do not, in elementary 
schools, teach esthetics as such ; but -we strive to 
cultivate the esthetic faculty by instruction in 
drawing, painting. music, etc. (See Akt-Edi-ca- 
tiox. Drawing, and MnsiO.) In this department 
of teaching, the practical value of the subjects 
themselves is a consideration of great importance, 
but the development of the pupil's taste is in- 
i lispensable to any true progress, and, therefore, 
during the earlier stages at least, must be the pri- 
mary aim of the educator. When the mind has 
become enriched with varied forms of beauty, the 
mechanical skill will soon advance to the degree 
requisite to give them expression. This work 
commences in the kindergarten, and is continue I 
in the object lessons of the primary school, by 
means of varied exercises in 'form (q. v.) or 
color (q. v.) The most rudimental exercises in 
drawing should have a strict reference to this 
principle : that is to say, the pupils should be re- 
quired to delineate not uncouth figures, but 
simple forms of beauty. The hand and the eye 
may be trained, it is true, by practice in drawing 
any forms, whether beautiful or not ; but the 
taste is to be developed and cultivated as well ; 
and, therefore, oidy such forms as appeal to the 
esthetic sense shotdd be, at first, presented. The 
elementary forms of the script letters are illus- 
trative of the esthetic principle ; and, hence, 
writing is a means of esthetic culture. The let- 
ters themselves being, however, complex forms, 
it is held that rudimentary drawing should pre- 
cede writing. " The experience of many good 
teachers," says Wickersham, " seems to prove 
that pupils shoidd receive instruction in the ele- 
ments of drawing before they begin to write, 
and that such lessons are better calculated than 
any others to aid the pupil in attaining the 
power of conceiving forms correctly." 

Esthetics is not only concerned in the beauty 
of forms; it embraces the objects of every bodily 
sense, and also of what may be called the inner 



sense. — a discriminative consciousness of the 
beautiful in thought and action, which the rhet- 
orician, the poet, and the orator recognize and 
address in their several spheres of activity. That 
part of esthetics which depends upon the ob- 
jects of hearing is cultivated by means of music, 
which is the expression of the beautiful in 
sound. The same guiding principle is appli- 
cable to instruction in this as to the teaching of 
form. Simple melodious combinations, regular 
and beautiful in themselves, should be constantly 
employed ; all that is harsh and dissonant should 
be avoided. (See Music.) The beauty of com- 
position, that is. rhetorical beauty, depending up- 
on subtler principles, requires a more careful 
treatment in education. Habit and association, 
however, play an important part in this branch 
of esthetic culture; and, therefore, the child, 
even from its earliest years, should be accus- 
tomed to hear only chaste, pure expressions; and 
the most familiar colloquialisms should be en- 
tirely free from what is coarse and vulgar, and 
especially from slang. The esthetic element in 
poetry cannot be addressed until an advanced 
stage of culture has been reached. Poetry is 
the expression of the beautiful by means of 
words; it embraces rhetorical beauty, ami the 
beauty of thought and action, as well rs of ex- 
ternal forms. 

From what has been said, it will be quite ob- 
vious that teachers themselves should possess 
esthetic culture, and should fully understand the 
peculiar function of this department of educa- 
tion in a harmonious development of the human 
mind. Nothing with which the young pupil is 
brought in contact should be of such a character 
as to offend the finest taste. What may be 
called the esthetics of the school-room should re- 
ceive the most careful attention. There are. in 
every school-room, resources fur producing pleas- 
ant impressions. The furniture should be neat 
and tasteful. and should be kept in precise order; 
the apartment should lie scrupulously clean: and. 
as far as possible, should be embellished with 
pleasing natural objects, such as flowers, plants, 
shells, etc.: as well as with simple works of art, — 
pictures, busts, etc. Maps, globes, and other 
school apparatus, kept in good order, and ar- 
ranged in the school-room in a proper manner 
and ready for use. will have a pleasing and happy 
effect on the minds of the pupils. The following 
are the observations of a practical teacher who 
has evidently learned to apply the esthetic 
culture of her own mind to the simple purposes 
of district school instruction: "Much can be 
done toward making a room pleasant by a skill- 
ful seating of pupils. There are harmonies of 
proportion and color to be observed. A girls' 
school always seems brighter than a boys' school. 
The colors of the dress of girls give warmth to 
the room in winter, and the light clothing of 
summer gives an air of freshness and coolness. 
The eye requires that the pupils shall be graded 
from rear to front according to size. A hap- 
hazard arrangement in this regard is never satis- 
factory But, after all, the soul of the teacher 



286 



ETIENNE 



EVENING SCHOOLS 



has greatly to do with the beauty of the school. 
A light glows in the face of the conscientious, 
gentle, sympathetic teacher, which illuminates 
all the room with its brightness. In the reflec- 
tion of her own character, she sees in the seats 
truthfulness, confidence, respect, and love ; and 
so the spiritual beauty sanctifies and glorifies all 
the beauty secured by ornamentation, by any 
and every device in material things." 

Among the foremost writers on esthetics, are 
Baumgarten, who first established the claims of 
esthetics to be classed as a separate science, He- 
gel, Schiller, Vischer, Oarriere, in Germany ; 
Cousin, Jouffroy, and Taine, in France ; Dugald 
Stewart, Hutchison, Alison, Jeffrey, and Payne 
Knight, in England ; and Henry N. Day ( The 
Science of Esthetics, New Haven, 1872) and 
Baseom [Lectures on Esthetics, New York, 1872), 
in the United States. A critical history of 
esthetics, from Plato to the present times, has 
been written by Schuster (Kritische Geschichfe 
der Aesthetik. Berlin, 1872). 

ETIENNE, or Estienne, Henry and 
Robert. See Stephens. 

ETON COLLEGE. See England. 

ETYMOLOGY (Gr. hvfioUyia, from erv- 
fioii, the true meaning of a word), a depart- 
ment of philological science which explains the 
derivation of words and their literal meaning. 
This is historical etymology. (See English, 
Study of, and Philology.) The term is also 
applied to that part of grammar which relates 
to the classification of words as parts of a sen- 
tence, and their various inflections, used to in- 
dicate their relations to one another, or modifi- 
cations of the general ideas which they express. 
This is grammatical etymology. (See Grammar.) 
As a branch of elementary instruction-, it teaches 
the component parts of words, — root, prefix, and 
suffix, and by explaining the primitive meaning 
of these parts in the language from which they 
are derived, shows the exact literal meaning of 
the words. (See Words, Analysis op.) 

EUREKA COLLEGE, at Eureka, Wood- 
ford county, 111., imder the control of the 
Church of the Disciples, was founded as an 
academy in 1849, and chartered as a college in 
1855. The college campus is in a spacious grove 
of forest trees. There are two substantial brick 
buildings. The endowment fund is nearly 
$50,000, only about half of which is now avail- 
able. The institution has libraries containing 
2,500 volumes, apparatus for the illustration of 
the physical sciences, and a museum of geology 
and natural history. It comprises five depart- 
ments ; namely, college, Bible (preparatory to 
the ministry), normal, business, and music. The 
college department comprises a preparatory, a 
baccalaureate (similar to the ordinary college 
course), a scientific, and an academic course. 
The scientific course differs from the baccalaure- 
ate in omitting the Greek and one half of the 
Latin. The academic course omits the Greek, 
one half of the Latin, two terms in algebra, an- 
alytical geometry and the calculus, and adds 
French or German. French or German may 



be substituted for the Latin of the scientific 
and the academic course. The college year is- 
divided into three terms, and the tuition fee' 
per term is as follows : preparatory course, $8 ; 
Bible, free ; college, $10 ; normal, $10. In 
1874 — 5, there were 6 professors, 215 students 
in the college department, 27 in the Bible de- 
partment, 68 in the commercial department, and 
47 in the music department; total, deducting rep- 
etitions, 234, of whom 146 were males and 88 
females ; the number of alumni was 74. The 
presidents have been as follows : Wm. M. Brown, 
George Callender, C. L. Loos, B. W. Johnson, 
H. W: Everest, A. M. Weston, and B. J. Kad- 
ford, the present incumbent. 

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a re- 
ligious denomination in the United States, which 
took its rise in Pennsylvania in 1800, through the 
labors of the Rev. Jacob Albright, who desired 
to reform the German churches in eastern Penn- 
sylvania. The confession of faith and the polity 
of this church are so similar to that of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church, that it has sometimes 
been called the German Methodist Church. Like 
the Methodists, it has annual conferences and a 
general conference, which meets every four years. 
The form of government is episcopal, but its 
bishops are elected only for a term of four years, 
not, as among the Methodists, for life. For 25 
years, the church had to struggle against violent 
opposition ; but since then it has made rapid 
progress ; so that, in 1875, it had 19 annual con- 
ferences with 836 itinerant preacher's, 519 local 
preachers, 95,253 members, and 1,233 churches. 
The church arose among the Germans, and has 
remained to a large extent a German-speaking 
body. Two of the annual conferences are out- 
side of the United States, the one in Canada, 
and the other in Germany. The first college of 
the church, the North-western College, was or- 
ganized at Plainfield, Will Co., 111., in 1861, and 
received a charter in 1865. In 1870, the college 
was removed to Naperville, Du Page Co.. 111., 
and has now an endowment fund of $100,000. 
Its annual expenditures amount to about $14,000. 
(See North-western College.) A theological 
school, The Union Biblical Institute, has been 
established in connection with the college, at the 
same place, having an endowment fund of 
$30,000. Other educational institutions under 
the control of the church are the Union Semi- 
nary, at New Berlin, Pa., and the Ebenezer 
Orphan Institution, at Flatrock, Ohio. Great 
attention is given to the Sunday-school cause. 
The number of schools of this class was re- 
ported, at the General Conference of 1875, as 
1,509, with 16,875 officers and teachers and 
90.090 scholars. 

EVENING SCHOOLS, or Night Schools, 
have been established in many countries, gener- 
ally in large cities, as a part of the public-school 
system, for two purposes : (1) to give to those 
of the school population who cannot avail them- 
selves of the advantages of the day school, an op- 
portunity to obtain an elementary education ; 
and, (2) to enable adults who have finished the 



EVENING SCHOOLS 



281 



oourse of instruction in the public day school, to 
acquire additional knowledge, especially on sub- 
jects relating to their particular occupations or 
professions. In England, France, Italy, and 
Germany, there are elementary evening schools 
for children employed in factories ; in the 
United States, a large portion of the pupils of 
evening schools consists of persons who have 
passed the school age. In most cases, the school 
regulations exclude all children below a certain 
age, and also provide that no pupils shall lie ad- 
mitted who are not engaged in a useful occupa- 
tion during the day. In those countries where edu- 
cation has been made compulsory, the evening 
schools are almost exclusively schools for adults, 
being chiefly intended to give to young apprent ices, 
mechanics, clerks, or peasants an opportunity to 
continue their school education. (See Adults, 
Schools for.) In Germany, the Sunday-schools 
long served for this purpose (see Slxdav-Si 'in >< ils j , 
the spreading of evening schools being of com- 
paratively recent origin. But wherever even- 
ing schools have been established, they are pre- 
ferred by a large number of pupils. In some 
countries, the Sunday school and the evening 
school are combined, the pupils being taught in 
some subjects, such as drawing, on Sundays, and 
in others on the evenings of the week days. Even- 
ing high schools, which offer instruction in the 
higher branches of study, or afford technical in- 
struction to artisans and others, are compara- 
tively rare. Such are the Evening High School 
and the schools of the Cooper Union (q. v.), of 
the City of New York, the Maryland Institute 
Art Night Schools in Baltimore, and the O'Fal- 
lon Polytechnic Institute of St. Louis. In some 
of the large cities of the United States, foreigners 
derive very great benefit from the evening schools, 
in the instruction afforded in the English lan- 
guage by teachers who speak the language of 
the students. Free evening drawing schools 
are quite numerous in many parts of the United 
States as well as in some of the countries of 
Europe. For statistics in regard to the evening 
schools in the different cities, see their respective 
titles. In England, according to the " New Code 
of Regulations," of 187(i, the managers of an 
evening school which has held not less than forty- 
five sessions in the course of a year, may claim a 
government grant. Special provisions regulate 
the examination of each of these schools. The 
number of night schools in England, in 187o, 
was 73, with 38,597 male pupils, and B,78S 
females. In Wiirtemberg, local magistrates are 
authorized to enforce the statutes by which all 
mechanics who have attained the Kith year are 
required to attend the technical complementary 
evening schools, thus making evening school in- 
struction compulsory. In the city of St. Louis, 
evening school pupils are rewarded for regular 
and punctual attendance, good behavior, and at- 
tention to study, by a year's free membership in 
the public library. More than 1,000 of these 
pupils have obtained this award during a single 
term by attending sixty evenings out of the sixty- 
four. 



In the organization and management of even- 
ing schools, great care should be taken to adapt 
the subjects and processes of instruction to the 
age, character, and circumstances of the pupils. 
Those methods which are particularly appropri- 
ate for the education of children, ami mosl of the 
machinery of school-keeping which is associated 
with childhood should be discarded as distasteful 
to the more mature years and more serious pur- 
pose of evening school students. The studies 
pursued should be practical, and. as far as pos- 
sible, should have an immediate reference to the 
pursuits and occupations of the students. The 
usefulness of the knowledge imparted in this class 
of schools, is paramount to any consideration of 
mental discipline, the latter being of secondary 
importance. On this principle, drawing, book- 
keeping, penmanship, and phonography, have 
proved eminently popular branches of study. 
The same principle should guide in the selection 
of teachers, none but those of superior tact, ex- 
perience, and skill being appointed to this work. 
They should also be of mature years and char- 
acter. A young man or a young woman who 
attends school with an earnest desire for self- 
improvenient. is not willing to submit to trivial, 
perfunctory, or formal school-teaching ; and 
the very seriousness of the student's purpose 
renders his judgment of the teacher extremely 
critical and severe. Mere amateurs in teaching 
should never be allowed to trifle with the time 
of evening school students. When the teaching 
is of a right character, the discipline will take 
care of itself, provided the organization of the 
school is correct, and the rules proper and judi- 
cious. None but those who are zealous in study 
should be permitted to attend these schools. 
Evening schools cannot be efficient reformatory 
institutions unless especially organized for that 
purpose. In the Report of the Superintendent 
of Schools of the City of New York for 1871, 
there is found an enumeration of the difficulties 
experienced in conducting the evening schools of 
that city, probably experienced also in most 
other places. These are. briefly, as follows : (1) 
The difficulty in obtaining for these schools 
teachers of the requisite capability (the super- 
intendent remarking, that "teachers of mature 
judgment, extensive general information, tact in 
management, and, above all. an earnest spirit, 
are especially needed ; (2) The imperfect organ- 
ization of these schools, owing to the haste with 
which pupils are admitted, and the consequent 
inaccuracy of their classification ; (3) Pupils are 
admitted at too early an age ; very young boys 
and girls (under 12) do great injury to the school, 
being generally in a physically exhausted con- 
dition, and so unfit for any mental exercise as 
to be often found asleep at their desks ; besides, 
the older pupils are disgusted and repelled by 
being classed with these young children ; (4) The 
exercises are dull and uninteresting to that large 
class of the pupils who, feeling deeply the need 
of elementary education, are willing to devote 
themselves laboriously, during the winter even- 
ings, to obtain it ; (5) The absence of instructive 



288 



EVEBETT 



EXAMINATIONS 



and interesting lectures, calculated to make a 
deep impression upon the minds of the pupils, 
enkindling an ambition for excellence and a love 
of rectitude and truth. This statement of defi- 
ciencies may very well serve to show what con- 
ditions and characteristics are requisite to insure 
efficiency in this class of schools. There can be 
no doubt that such schools constitute an essen- 
tial part of every common-school system, partic- 
ularly in large communities, in which many chil- 
dren are obliged to leave the day school before 
they have acquired even the rudiments of an 
education. The office of technical schools, while 
different, is no less important, since an increase of 
skilled labor in any community is one of the most 
valuable elements of its wealth and prosperity. 

EVERETT, Edward, an illustrious Amer- 
ican orator and statesman, distinguished for his 
advocacy of common schools, and his liberal and 
enlightened views in regard to education in gen- 
eral. He was born in Dorchester, Mass., April 
11., 1794, and died in Boston, Jan. 15., 1865. 
At the early age of 1*7, he graduated at Harvard 
College, with the highest honors, and became a 
tutor in that institution, at the same time pur- 
suing divinity studies. In 1813, he was settled 
as pastor of a church in Boston, and soon became 
distinguished for the eloquence of his sermons. 
Subsequently, he was for several years Eliot pro- 
fessor of Greek in Harvard College. His public 
life began in 1824, when he was elected to Con- 
gress, in which he served continuously for ten 
years. In 1835, he was elected governor of 
Massachusetts, and was three times re-elected. In 
1840, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary 
to England ; and in this position, was enabled 
to perform very important services for the Uni- 
ted States. On his return, in 1845, he was 
elected president of Harvard College. In 1852, 
he was appointed to succeed Daniel Webster as 
secretary of state, on the decease of that eminent 
statesman, and served during the -last four 
months of Fillmore's administration. The next 
year, he was elected to the United States senate; 
but, in consequence of ill health, he resigned his 
seat the year after. In 1860, he received the 
nomination of vice-president of the United 
States, on the ticket with John Bell of Tennessee 
as president. His oration on Washington, re- 
peated about 150 times in various parts of the 
United States, added greatly to his fame as an 
orator as well as a patriot, inasmuch as the pro- 
ceeds from its delivery were in the main con- 
tributed to the Mount Vernon fund. During 
the civil war, Everett adhered strongly to the 
cause of the Union, which he benefited by many 
eloquent and patriotic speeches. In 1863, he 
delivered the address at the consecration of the 
national cemetery at Gettysburg, Pa. His last 
address was delivered in Faneuil Hall, Boston, 
in behalf of the suffering people of Savamiah, 
only a few days before his death. It is not in- 
tended here to give more than a brief reference 
to his career as a statesman ; as an orator, he 
was distinguished for dignity and elegance in de- 
livery ; and his published orations, which fill 



four large volumes, contain an amount of intel- 
lectual wealth of priceless value, still further en- 
riched by a style of unsurpassed elegance. In 
relation to education, the most valuable of these 
addresses are, The Education of Mankind, de- 
livered in 1833 ; Education favorable to Liberty, 
Morals, and Knowledge, in 1835 ; Superior and 
Popular Education, in 1837 ; Education the 
Nurture of the Mind, in 1838 ; Importance of 
Education in a Republic, in 1838 ; Normal 
Schools, in 1839, in which he reviewed the his- 
tory of normal-school instruction, and advocated, 
in the most intelligent and eloquent manner, the 
necessity of special training and instruction for 
teachers; University Education, in 1846 ; Con- 
ditions of a Good School, in 1851 ; Education 
and Civilization, in 1852 ; and Academical 
Education, 1857. His various utterances in 
regard to education have been collected and pub- 
lished in a single volume. A full collection of 
his Orations and Speeches on Various Occa- 
sions has been published in four volumes 
(Boston, 1869). 

EXAMINATION'S constitute an important 
part of the educators work in order to test the 
result of what has already been accomplished,' 
and to incite his pupils to additional efforts. 
While it is perfectly true that the best effects of 
educational framing can be but imperfectly, if at 
all, tested by any personal examination ; yet, 
there is no other ready and definite method of 
ascertaining the efficacy of the teacher's work 
and the proficiency of the student. Examina- 
tions, moreover, are of great educative value, if 
they are conducted on sound principles. The 
judicious examiner who is master of the subject, 
while ascertaining what the student has learned, 
necessarily, to some extent, shows him what he 
has failed to learn, either in consequence of an 
imperfect method of study or a lack of attention 
to certain important parts of the subject. Thus 
he is taught how to make his future efforts more 
successful ; and, further, by coming in contact 
with a mind more mature in its operations and 
attainments, he obtains views of the subject 
which no amount of study of his own coidd im- 
part. On this account, examination and recita- 
tion should go hand in hand, the student show- 
ing, in the first place, what he has learned of the 
lesson assigned to him, and the teacher then, by 
skillful examination, demonstrating to him his 
ignorance on certain points, and in this way in- 
structing him in such things as may be beyond 
the grasp of his unaided research. Examinations 
of this kind form an indispensable part of in- 
struction itself ; those which occur at the end of 
certain periods, either for promotion, or for grad- 
uation, have in view the exclusive aim of testing 
the actual progress of the pupil. Indirectly, 
however, such examinations being anticipated by 
the student, guide and stimulate his efforts, both 
in acquiring and remembering. The considera- 
tions to be presented in this article will be dis- 
tributed under (I) Examinations of Schools; 
(II) Examinations of Teachers; (HI) College 
and University Examinations. 



EXAMINATIONS 



289 



I, Examinations of Schools. — This includes 

(1) examinations for classification and promo- 
tion, in which the merits of individual pupils 
are to be carefully ascertained and compared 
with a certain standard of attainment, ami 

(2) examinations for official supervision, the ob- 
ject of which need be only to ascertain the 
methods and skill of the teacher, and the gen- 
eral efficacy of his work, the relative standing of 
the different pupils of a grade or class nut com- 
ing under consideration. The latter [inspectional 
examinations) are of great value in every system 
of instruction, particularly in those in which 
large masses of children are to be educated, 
and, of course, a great number of teachers to 
be employed, for the following reasons : (1 ) They 
promote uniformity of instruction; (2) They 
stimulate the teacher, and guide his efforts; 

(3) They prevent negligence on the part of those 
whose duty it is to instruct, train, and discipline 
the children ; and (4) If the results are def- 
initely and diseriininativcly published and made 
the basis of commendation or censure to the 
teacher, they promote emulation among the 
teachers, and thus incite them to exertion, in 
order to attain the standard fixed by the course 
of instruction and the method of the examiner. 
Ir is. thus, not only a means of supervising the 
teacher's work, but also of instructing the teach- 
ers themselves. "The teacher," says Beale, "may 
be very earnest, but an experienced critic of his 
work may be able to point out where and why he 
has failed, and. from a larger experience, to sug- 
gest improved methods." (See SUPERVISION;) 

II. Examinations of Teachers. — As a prelim- 
inary to their employment in public schools, 
teachers are required by law to be licensed or 
certificated. The license is the legal permission 
to teach ; the certificate is the written or docu- 
mentary evidence that such permission has been 
given by the properly constituted authority. 
(See License, Teacher's.) This permission is 
granted usually after an examination in certain 
prescribed branches of study. The examination 
is generally conducted, in the different states of 
the Union, by the state superintendent of public 
instruction, the superintendents or boards of 
education of cities, or the county commissioners 
of schools. In some places, public examinations 
are appointed at certain times, and all who desire 
to obtain the certificate, attend as candidates. 
In such cases, the examination is generally not 
competitive, but only qualifying, all who show 
the degree of scholarship prescribed obtaining 
certificates. The methods of conducting these 
examinations are almost as various as the indi- 
viduals conducting them. When, as is some- 
times the case, particularly in the rural districts, 
the licensing officer has no technical knowledge 
of education or of schools, the kind of examina- 
tion (generally oral) is far from being such as is 
required to test properly either the teacher's 
knowledge, professional training, or special skill. 
Perhaps some peculiar vagary or conceit of the 
examiner, who may be a lawyer, physician, mer- 
■chant, or perhaps a farmer or mechanic, is made 



to serve as a procrustean standard by which the 
merits and defects of all who present themselves 
are judged. Graduates of state normal schools 
are generally, ipso facto, licensed teachers; inas- 
much as the state superintendent has the super- 
vision of these schools as a part of the common- 
school system of the state. 

III. College and University Examinations. — 
In the higher institutions of learning, periodica] 
examinations constitute an essential part of the 
process of education, which, in recent years, has 
received much more attention than formerly. 
•• Ours is an age of examinations," says Tod- 
hunter, referring to the rapid institution of this 
system of scholastic inquiry, ill various forms, in 
connection with the English universities. Every 
point in regard to this system has been carefully 
discussed, to the most important of which we 
here refer: (1) The general usefulness and ex- 
pediency of university examinations; (2) The 
relative value of written and oral examinations ; 
(3) Also of competitive and qualifying examina- 
tions ; 14) The mode of estimating and marking 
the results of written examinations. 

(1) Most educators are agreed that there are 
serious evils connected with the examination 
system, as there arc indeed, in all systems that 
incite the diligence of the student by indirect 
means. Undoubtedly, a deep interest in the 
subject studied can alone insure the best results; 
but it is obvious that this cannot generally be 
awakened in the mind of the student previous 
to his engaging in the study; and hence the 
necessity of bringing into play some indirect 
force. "Theloveof knowledge and the love of 
distinction, with the fear of disgrace," says 
A\ hewell. " are the two mainsprings of all edu- 
cation, and it does not appear wise or safe to try 
to dispense with either of them:" but he further 
remarks with great propriety," We cannot make 
the examinations every thing to our students 
without making the love of knowledge nothing." 
Examinations, it must be borne in mind, are 
only a means to an end ; namely, a good educa- 
tion, comprehending a sound liberal culture of 
all the mental faculties; and, consequently, ex- 
aminations case to be a benefit when they inter- 
fere with tins object. On this point, Whewell. 
in English University Education, remarks as 
follows : " Examinations, or something equiva- 
lent, must exist in a university; but when they 
are considered as the only means of university 
education, it is easily seen that the education 
must be bad. For their requisitions must be 
lowered to the level of the average power of 
mind and of application which young men pos- 
sess, in order that university degrees may be the 
general mark of a liberal education ; and, hence, 
the substance of such examinations cannot be 
sufficient to exercise and improve the quicker 
ami more capacious intellects. Moreover, for 
reasons already stated, the knowledge which is 
acquired for examinations operates less as cult- 
ure, than that which is obtained under other cir- 
cumstances. And when the examination is a 
compulsory one, there is a servile and ignoble in- 



290 



EXAMINATIONS 



fluence breathing about it, since it acts not on 
the hopes, but on the fears ; and holds disgrace 
and degradation before the eyes of the candidate. 
Such examinations may be necessary, but they 
can never be more than a necessary evil ; and 
that system would, . indeed, be unworthy of a 
great and highly civilized nation, in which the 
machinery of education was all of this structure." 
In the same connection, Todhunter remarks, " It 
is easy to refine and elaborate our examination 
machinery ; but the results will scarcely repay 
the expenditure of money, time, and ability. 
We cannot by our examinations create learning 
or genius ; it is uncertain whether we can in- 
fallibly discover them ; what we detect is simply 
the examination-passing power of the candidates, 
and this can be adequately appreciated by sim- 
pler and less costly processes." This remark can 
have but little application to the " local examina- 
tions" recently founded by the English univer- 
sities; inasmuch as these tests, while determining 
the " examination-passing power" of the canili- 
dates, also ascertain their special scholarship ; 
and, besides, operate as a powerful stimulus to 
studious exertion, in the case of thousands of 
persons anxious to obtain certificates of learning, 
as well as the things to which they are a passport. 
They also exert a very important influence on 
education at large, and tend to elevate the qual- 
ifications of teachers. Indeed, it was for this 
express purpose, that these examinations were 
established in 1858 ; and it is acknowledged, 
that they have been highly successful " in raising 
the tone of middle-class schools, as well as in 
widening the ai*ea of the influence of the uni- 
versities." In December, 1875, 4,435 candidates 
of both sexes underwent the local examinations 
of Cambridge, and, in June, 1876, 2,141 those 
of Oxford. "The local examinations," says Beale 
(University Examinations for Women, Lon- 
don, 1875), " have been very useful, especially 
in girls' schools, bringing them into relation 
with the national centers of education. The 
old-fashioned parrot-learning, and slovenly, in- 
exact work have been shown to be worthless, 
and a better curriculum has been introduced." 
Of the higher university examinations in Eng- 
land, several are open to women over eighteen 
years of age. (See Female Education.) 

In the German universities, less resort has 
been had to examinations than in the United 
States or England, more dependence being placed 
on the lecture system, or on the Greek mode of 
teaching by dialogue. University examinations 
have been emphatically condemned by some dis- 
tinguished German educators ; but by others 
they have been advocated as necessary to check 
idleness on the part of the students, many of 
whom, it was found, failed to attend the lectures, 
and others, although present, gave little or no at- 
tention to them. Against these examinations in 
the German universities various objections have 
been urged ; as, (1) that they do not incite to 
the right kind of study ; (2) that they are for 
school-boys, and, therefore, it is an indignity to 
subject university students to them ; (3) that 



the number of candidates is too large to admit' 
of a thorough and impartial examination (the- 
oral method being used) ; (4) that a large share 
of the examiners lack the requisite skill in ex- 
amining ; and (5) that the results are unreliable, 
because the students so greatly differ in disposi- 
tion, temperament, etc., a bashful, though ex- 
cellent student, being likely to fail, while the 
confident one, with less merit, comes off tri- 
umphantly. Most of these objections are ob- 
viously weak, and are satisfactorily answered by 
Von Raumer (German Universities, English 
translation, by Barnard). 

(2) The comparative value of written and oral 
(or viva voce) examinations as tests of proficiency 
has been much discussed ; of course, for the pur- 
pose of instruction, the viva voce method is in- 
dispensable. The object of the examination is 
an important element in determining this ques- 
tion. When it is simply desired to ascertain the 
qualifications, — the scholarship, culture, and gen- 
eral characteristics of the person examined, with- 
out regard to any precise standard of attainment, 
the oral method is often preferred ; but there 
are visually some written tests as well. A skillful 
examiner, who is master of the subject under 
consideration, can by a few judicious, well- 
arranged questions ascertain very speedily both 
the quantity and the quality of the candidate's, 
knowledge ; but, of course, this requires skilL 
and experience, as well as good sense and judg- 
ment, on the part of the examiner. In the ex- 
amination of teachers, where there is so much 
besides mere scholarship to test, the oral method 
ought not to be entirely excluded. The objec- 
tions urged against oral examinations may be 
briefly stated as foDows: (1) They are wanting 
in fairness and thoroughness, because they are 
necessarily very brief and hurried, and when 
classes are examined the questioning is uneven, 
so that a poor student may pass while a meri- 
torious one fails, particularly if the latter is dif- 
fident and timid ; (2) The questions cannot be 
carefully prepared, and hence may be quite im- 
perfect tests ; and (3) The candidate has no time- 
for proper deliberation, and therefore must often 
fail to show what his real attainments are. On 
the other hand, the advantages of a written ex- 
amination are the following : (1) The same- 
questions are given to each candidate, and, con- 
sequently, the test is even; (2) The candidates, 
are left entirely to themselves, without sugges- 
tion or aid from the examiner; (3) The questions 
can be more carefully prepared ; (4) The candi- 
date has more time for deliberation in answer- 
ing ; and (5) The examiner has a better oppor- 
tunity to consider the answers, and to form a 
just conclusion as to the merits of the candidates. 
The question of written or viva voce examina- 
tions in universities has been much discussed in 
England ; and the superior value of the latter 
has been particularly urged by various eminent 
professors in the University of Cambridge. In 
this connection, Todhunter remarks, " I will 
acknowledge that if only two or three candidates, 
have to be examined, and we have the command 



EXAMINATIONS 



EXAMPLE 



291 



of unlimited time and of adequate examining 
force, then whatever maybe the subject of ex- 
amination, the viva voce method may be not on- 
ly allowed but strongly recommended. We may 
ascertain with respect to each candidate both 
what he knows and what he does not know, and 
whether he shows evidence of independent 
power." Still, on the whole, considering the 
subjects of the examinations and the circum- 
stances under which they occur, he strongly 
prefers the written method, which is favored by 
most authorities both in theory and practice. 

(3) The remarks already made afford sufficient 
materials for a judgment as to the comparative 
importance of competitive and qualifying exami- 
nations. The aim of the examination may or 
may not necessitate any comparison of the merits 
of different candidates ; but when such a com- 
parison is necessary, there is no doubt that a 
written examination by entirely equal tests 
should be exclusively employed. For such a 
purpose, however, the construction of the exami- 
nation questions should be such as to firing out 
more than the mere accuracy of the knowledge 
of the candidate. There should be considerable 
diversity, some of the questions requiring only 
brief statements of facts; while others, of a 
topical character, necessitate fuller expositions, 
showing the relations of facts to each other and 
to principles, and thus giving scope for the dem- 
onstration, by the student, of his power of 
reasoning and analysis, as well as of expression. 
The general requisites for a set of examination 
questions are (1) that they should be free from 
ambiguity, (-) that they should strictly refer to 
what the candidate may be expected to know. 
(3) that they should be judiciously arranged 
(difficult questions, for example, not being placed 
first), and (4) that they should not require more 
time than is to be given to the particular ex- 
ercise, so as to make the candidate feel hurried 
and nervous. 

(5) The maimer of estimating and marking 
the results of written examinations requires a 
careful consideration. The value of each ques- 
tion as a test should be exactly estimated, and 
the character of the answer given marked ac- 
cordingly. Any scale may be adopted, but that, 
of 100 is the most convenient and the most gen- 
erally chosen. Whatever number may be an- 
nexed to each question as its specific value, the 
result can be readily reduced to a per cent, which 
will thus show the absolute, as well as relative, 
value of every paper. The system of negative 
marks is advocated by Todhuuter ; that is, to 
give marks for correct work, and to subtract 
marks for errors. The justice of this method 
he illustrates as follows ; " Suppose that one 
candidate has solved twenty questions all cor- 
rectly ; and suppose that another has also solved 
twenty questions all correctly, and has attempted 
four more and failed completely in them : then, 
assuming that the questions are, on an average, 
of equal value, the two candidates would be 
pronounced equal on our actual method. Tet, 
it may happen that the four failures betray such 



ignorance and incapacity as to demand some 
more decisive condemnation than simple want of 
notice." This method would probably be found 
impracticable, and the tendency would be to in- 
justice ; nor does it seem necessary if the ques- 
tions are properly weighted, since the omission 
to answer, or the failure in answering, a difficult 
question would cause the loss of a large number 
of marks, and negative marks would be duplicat- 
ing this loss. — See Whbwell, English Univer- 
sity Education (London, 1838) ; Von Kai.mer, 
German Universities, English trans., edited by 
Barnard (N.T., 1859); Todhunteb, The Conflict 
of 'Studies etc., s. v. Competitive Examinations 
(London, 1H73) ; Beam:. University Examina- 
tions for Women (London, 1875). 

EXAMPLE, the Influence of. This de- 
pends upon imitation and sympathy, two prin- 
ciples of action which are exceedingly potent in 
the minds of all persons. but particularly in those 
of children. Its influence among men is shown 
by the existence of national customs, prejudices, 
vices, fashions, etc., and by the use of language, 
which would lie scarcely possible without the 
force of imitation or example. In infancy and 
early childhood, this principle is the almost ex- 
clusive means of education, and the impressions 
which it makes are so strong and durable, that 
they are hardly ever obliterated in after life. I 'ai- 
cnts very rarely appear to realize that they are, 
I by a kind of "unconscious tuition," educating 
their children simply by wdiat they say and do in 
their presence. Locke says, "He that will have his 
son have a respect for him. and his orders, must 
himself have a great reverence for his son. Ma 
ima debet ur pueris reverentia. 5 ou must do 
nothing before him. which you would not have 
him imitate :" and also. " Of all the ways where- 
by children are to be instructed, and their man- 
ners formed, the plainest, easiest, and must em- 
eu inns, is to set before their eyes the examples 
of those things which you would have them do, 
or avoid. . . . The beauty or uncomelinessof many 
things, in good and ill breeding, will be better 
learnt, and make deeper impressions on them, in 
the examples of others, than from any rules or 
instructions that can be given about them." 
(See Thoughts Concerning Education) The 
power of example has an important application 
in the education of the intellect ; since, in giving 
instruction in any department of science or art, 
the illustrative power of the teacher, in showing 
to the pupil what it is desired that he should ac- 
complish, has great efficacy in stimulating his 
efforts, and more especially in fixing in his mind 
a definite standard to the attainment of which 
he may direct his aim. Indeed, in every branch 
of instruction, imitation is one of the most im- 
portant principles for the teacher to recognize 
anil employ. But it is in moral education that 
, the force of example has its chief sphere of 
I activity. In it is comprehended all that we 
mean by the personal influence of the instructor. 
His maimers, his modes of action and speech, the 
expression of his countenance, and the tones of 
his voice, all are constituent elements of this in- 



292 



EXCHANGES 



EYE 



fluence. This personal power, it has been well 
said, is an " emanation flowing from the very 
spirit of the teacher's own life, as well as an in- 
fluence acting insensibly to form the life of the 
scholar." — See Unconscious Tuition, by Prof. 
Huntington, in Baenaed's Journal of Edu- 
cation. 

EXCHANGES, Educational. See Hol- 

BKOOK, JoSIAH. 

EXHIBITION'S, School, are arranged for 
the public display of some of the ornamental ac- 
complishments of the pupils, such as music, rec- 
itation, and declamation, and of other exercises 
that admit of a ready performance in public, 
and can be made attractive, such as reading, 
composition, calisthenics, etc. Exhibitions of 
this kind are given for the purpose of bringing 
the school before the public, and popularizing it. 
Many parents take great delight in seeing their 
children participate in these public exercises ; 
and, hence, they generally attract a large audi- 
ence. While they are, in some respects, valuable, 
their general tendency as they are usually given, 
is injurious. They pervert not only the regular 
order of exercises of the school into a special 
preparation for display, but also the proper aim 
of the pupils, which should be to make progress 
in their studies, not to gratify their vanity by 
the exhibition of superficial accomplishments. 
Children whose special talents lie in this direc- 
tion, are apt to be greatly injured by excessive 
praise for these efforts at display, and are in 
this way unfitted for any steady exertion. Many 
teachers, on this account, entirely avoid giving 
public exhibitions or receptions. Besides, an 
exhibition does not present the best results of 
the instruction given, but, chiefly, such accom- 
plishments as are showy. The reading of essays 
and other compositions, it is true, shows some- 
thing of the culture, intelligence, and power of 
expression of the pupils ; but, in elementary 
schools, this must be very limited. In college 
commencements, the essays being of a higher 
character, show to a greater extent the students' 
intellectual development ; but, still, they do not 
at all exhibit their special scholastic attainments, 
upon which their time and study have been 
principally expended. On this account, some 
educators have endeavored to devise a method of 
showing these attainments in school exhibitions, 
and in some cases with considerable success. 
"When the classes are so well trained that they 
can be presented in public with an invitation to 
any competent person in the audience to examine 
them, the effect is very interesting, and quite 
satisfactory, because every suspicion of ruifairness 
is prevented. The following is, in part, the sug- 
gestion of a teacher as to the method of giving a 
school exhibition : (1) Engage a large hall, or 
use your school room if necessary ; (2) Spread 
out upon tables a portion of the work of the 
pupils (specimens of penmanship, written ex- 
ercises in arithmetic, etc.) ; (3) Place upon the 
walls the maps and drawings, herbariums, etc., of 
the pupils, in charge of suitable persons to ex- 
plain ; (4) Let the pupils exhibit cabinets, philo- 



sophical apparatus, etc., of their own collection or 
construction ; (5) During the exhibition have 
the pupils display their musical attainments by 
singing, etc.; (6) Intersperse dialogues, recitations, 
declamations, etc., or class examinations, of a 
suitable character. In this way an exhibition 
may be made not only interesting to an audience 
but a useful incentive to the pupils. 

The term exhibition, in the English universi- 
ties and Public Schools, is used to denote an 
allowance, or bounty, paid to the students, under 
certain conditions, for their maintenance while 
pursuing their studies in the university. Hence, 
such students are called exhibitioners. (See 
England.) 

EXPULSION is often resorted to in schools 
in the case of pupils who, by their willfulness, 
insubordination, reckless and disorderly conduct, 
or general depravity, cease to be amenable to the 
ordinary regulations of the school, or are likely 
to contaminate the manners and morals of the 
other pupils. It is an extreme measure ; and, in 
public schools, should not be taken until all other 
proper means to control the pupils have been 
employed ; because it generally deprives these 
pupils of all opportunity of receiving the educa- 
tion for which the laws of the state provide. 
Two circumstances can alone justify it : (1) That 
the pupil is utterly uncontrollable by any of the 
ordinary means of school government ; (2) That 
the depraved character of the pupil is such as to 
imperil the welfare of the other pupils. Expul- 
sion, in some places, is used as a substitute for 
corporal punishment ; but the propriety of this 
has been called in question. (See Corporal 
Punishment.) In view of the fact that the ex- 
pulsion of incorrigible pupils must be occasion- 
ally necessary under all circumstances, it would 
appear that a reformatory institution constitutes 
an essential part of every public-school system. 
(See Reform Schools.) 

EYE, Cultivation of the. The sense of 
sight is capable of an almost incredible improve- 
ment by culture ; of this, modern scientific in- 
vestigations leave no doubt. We see improve- 
ment in this respect not only in individuals but 
in the general visual capacity of whole nations. 
There can be no question, for example, that, 
3,000 years ago, when the civilization of the 
Chinese came to a stand-still, they were very de- 
ficient in the power of seeing perspectively ; so 
that, in spite of all their skill in drawing and 
painting, their pictures show all objects on the 
same plane, without any variation of size, or of 
light and shade, in order to represent the dis- 
tances and relative positions of the objects de- 
picted. Many proofs might be adduced to show 
that, in the course of centuries, the human eye 
has improved in power. The aim of education 
in this respect is twofold : (1) To improve the 
physiological conditions of sight, by removing any 
causes of a morbid state, or by strengthening the 
physical organ of vision; (2) To cultivate, by 
judicious practice, the sense of sight, so as to 
render it more observant, and able to receive 
more full and accurate impressions of the objects 



EYE 



293 



which pass before it. This is of special impor- 
tance, as of all the senses that of sight is, with- 
out doubt, the most far-reaching, and leads to 
the most numerous and vivid conceptions. 

The cultivation of the eye should begin soon 
after birth, and. for a few weeks, should be con- 
fined to keeping the infant, from all excessive 
glare of light: but. at the same time, allowing 
it sufficient light properly to excite the nervous 
activity. Children. like plants, need a great deal 
of sunlight, which, provided it is not dazzling, is 
the most important agent of both bodily and 
mental growth. At the first, it should be a re- 
flected, diffuse, and mild light, direct sunlight 
being admitted only alter several weeks, and 
then gradually. Weak eyes may also be caused 
by surroundings of but one color, particularly 
if decidedly brilliant. Hence, it is well to re- 
lieve the impression made by a single color, by 
alternation with its complementary. Red or blue 
curtains should never be allowed continuously to 
throw their tinge upon the infant's eye : but, as 
a rule, subdued colors should be preferred. The 
power of distinguishing both outlines and shades 
of color is susceptible of cultivation by means of 
the slow movement of bodies of different hues 
before the child's eyes. This is an exercise which 
is employed in Froebel's nursery education, and 
is very properly accompanied by singing, because 
the sense of hearing, having an earlier develop- 
ment, is well adapted to excite the action of 
sight. After the second or third mouth, when 
the infant can wield its hands and arms, the 
sense of touch should be called into activity in 
order to correct the impressions made on the 
eye. Various contrivances maybe resorted to 
for this purpose, among them the suspended 
wooden globe and colored balls which Froebel 
suggests for use at this stage of education. As the 
child learns the meaning of simple language fully 
one or two years before it is able to repeat the 
words, it is safe to let it hear the names of the 
things which it sees ami handles, but always in 
, connection with the objects themselves. Thus 
language fixes, at the age of infancy, the various 
impressions of the sens s. which impart a definite 
meaning to every wor band thus secure the proper 
expressions when the child begins to speak. 
When language has been acquired to some ex- 
tent, the teacher should, by means of skillful 
questioning, attract the child's attention to those 
visible properties and peculiarities of things 
which, without a trained observation, are gener- 
ally passed by without notice. It is surprising 
how much may be instantaneously perceived by 
a trained eye. and how delicate and far-reaching 
the sense of sight may become, under circum- 
stances requiring its constant exercise. Thus 
the practiced astronomer is able to notice the 
most minute points of light, which the ordinary 
observer utterly fails to detect. On the other 
hand, the eye is. of all our organs of sense-per- 
ception, the most delusive if it is permitted 
habitually to gaze at objects without any com- 
prehensive or discriminative view of their pecu- 
liarities and less obvious details. It is on this 



account, that Froebel invented that well-arranged 
system of kindergarten occupations, by which 
the free self-activity of the child, stimulated by 
agreeable intercourse with those of his own age, 
learns how to employ his sense of sight in an 
eudless variety of pleasurable work, thai never 
ceases to educate both mentally aud morally. 

(See KlNDEBGARTEN, and OBJECT TEACHING.) 

Without any special or technical aid. the 
teacher may readily discover whether any of his 
pupils are color-blind, by a proper use of color- 
charts or color-tablets. Every child that cannot 
select from among the tablets the exact color 
which is pointed out on the chart is. of course, 
more or less color-blind, and should have the 
benefit of frequent exercises with (1) the three 
primary colors, and (2) with their double and 
triple combinations. By using very strong and 
j brilliant colors alternately with those comple- 
mentary to them, this kind of defect in sight 
may be, in part at least, removed. (See < Iolor.) 

Teachers should not permit their pupils to 
stoop while engaged in reading, writing, or draw- 
ing; since this tends to injure the sight. It is 
also advisable to accustom the pupils to use 
their eyes, at changing distances of the object, 
with an equal degree of perfection especially 
in reading, writing, and drawing, '('hen. if 
the eye be tired at a given angle of sight, it 
may continue its work, without injury or dis- 
comfort, at a smaller or larger angle, and thus 
be enabled to do more work without detri- 
ment to the sight. Many of the ordinary school 
arrangements are more or less injurious to the 
organ of sight. ■■ Short-sightedness," says I.ieb- 
reich (School Life in its Influence on Sight, Lon- 
don, 1872), "is developed almost exclusively 
during school life: rarely afterwards, and very 
rarely before that time. Is this coincidence of 
time accidental, — i. e., does the short-sightedness 
arise at the period about which children go to 
school, or has school life caused the short-sighted- 
ness? Statistical inquiries prove the latter to 
be the case, and have shown, at the same time, 
that the percentage of short-sighted children is 
greater in schools where unfavorable optical con- 
ditions prevail." There are. according to this 
writer, three changes in the functions of the eye, 
which are immediately developed under the in- 
fluence of school life : (1) Decrease of the range 
of vision — short-sightedness (mi/u/iin), (2) De- 
crease of the acutenessof vision (amblyopia). and 
(3) Decrease of the endurance of vision (aslheno- 
pia). These are chiefly caused by such arrange- 
ments as afford either insufficient light, or admit 
it in an improper manner. The following is an 
important practical direction in this respect : 
'The light must be sufficiently strong, and must 
fall on the table from the left-hand side. and. as 
far as possible, from above. The children ought 
to sit straight, and not have the book nearer to 
the eye than ten inches at the least. Besides 
this, the book ought to be raised 20- for writing, 
and about 40- for reading. — See F uiknkr. The 
Child and the Drsk. (See Hygiene, School, 
and Senses, Education of.J 



29-4 



FACTORY SCHOOLS 



FACTORY SCHOOLS are, as the name 
indicates, elementary schools for the instruction 
of children employed in factories. They are 
established in the factory buildings, and gener- 
ally supported by the owners of the factories. In 
proportion as legislators, in modern times, have 
become desirous to extend the benefit of edu- 
cation to all the children of the state, the school- 
ing of factory children has attracted their atten- 
tion ; and the question, what can and should be 
done to secure to these children the benefits of 
education, now often engages the attention of 
the legislatures of civilized states. With the 
recent development of the factory system, the 
employment of children in factories has assumed 
large dimensions. They have been found to be 
useful helpmates in many mechanical processes, 
in some even indispensable ; and they have been 
employed to a large extent in house industries, 
mining, pottery, agriculture, as well as in all 
kinds of factories ; and nowhere more than in 
Great Britain, where formerly children, some as 
young as six years of age, were severely employed 
sometimes for 12, 14, 16, or 18 hours a day, or, by 
a relay system, during all the night, and frequent- 
ly at very exhaustive work, under unwholesome 
conditions and in morally dangerous surround- 
ings, while no time for school or home education 
was granted. The inhumanity and the dangerous 
effects of this practice began to be publicly dis- 
cussed more than a century ago ; but it led to 
no concerted action, until the abolition of the 
conspiracy laws against the coalition of laborers 
in England,in 1813. The first efforts to counter- 
act these baneful influences were made by asso- 
ciations of English laborers, and by their repeated 
petitions to Parliament, which led (1819) to 
enactments regulating children's factory labor. 
These were, however, entirely disregarded, no 
agency being ordained for their enforcement, 
against the greed of profit on the part of em- 
ployers, and the necessities of jioor families. A 
constantly repeated agitation by the workmen 
brought about a parliamentary commission of 
inquiry and the enactment of the law of 1833. 
This related only to factories in a very narrow 
sense, confined the work-day within the hours of 
6 J A.M. and 9J P.M., and the working time of 
persons from 13 to 18 years of age to 12 hours, 
of children from 9 to 13 years of age to 8 hours, 
and allowed the employment of children of less 
than 9 years in exceptional cases only. The latter 
two classes of children were to be employed only 
under the condition that they could show by some 
certificate, that they had enjoyed or were enjoy- 
ing school advantages amounting to 150 hours 
in the year. This latter clause was illusory, and 
could be easily circumvented like the rest of the 
law ; yet it was stricken out in a new enact- 
ment (Sept. 10., 1844), which allowed only 10 
hours as a work-day for children above 13, and 
from 6 £ to 9 hours for those below 13 years 
of age. This law would again have remained a 



dead letter but for the appointment of factory- 
inspectors, with very restricted powers, among 
whom was a man of extraordinary merit, Leonard 
Horner (1833 — 59), who, together with the 
trade unions and some few philanthropists, 
worked with untiring energy, to accumulate, in 
his reports to Parliament, ahuge mass of evidence 
in relation to the abuses of the factory system, 
and especially its direful influences on women 
and children. Later legislation gradually ex- 
tended the benefit of the factory laws to chil- 
dren employed in most kinds of industry, and 
slightly restricted their laboring time, chiefly by 
confining it within the hours of the day (Chil- 
dren's Employment Act of 1807) ; but the factory 
schools, being dependent on the school fees of 
parents, voluntary private donations, and denom- 
inational Sunday-schools, continued to be of the 
most inadequate character down to the new 
school act of 1870 ; and this still left much to be 
desired in respect to working children. 

The legislation of all the other countries in 
which modern industry is largely developed, is, 
more or less, a copy of the English, with hardly 
a single feature of improvement upon the latter 
as regards the restriction of children's employ- 
ment, and with the disadvantage that there is 
either no board of factory inspectors provided, 
or where there is, or was (in France it has been 
abolished) , that the inspection is of no value. In 
Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium, however, a 
sufficient provision exists for schools which are 
accessible to, or even compulsory on, every facto- 
ry child, thus affording a. schooling facility wdiich 
extends from the earliest childhood up to the 
adult age, or is about being so far extended. 
Prussia was the second state to regulate the 
hours of children's labor in factories, with the 
view to afford opportunity for school attendance. 
The laws of 1839, mere copies of the English act 
of 1833, were, in 1853, so far improved as to ex- 
clude from factories all children below 12 years 
of age, permitting those below 14 to work only 
G hours in each half day, under the condition of 
3 hours' attendance at school. The law of the 
new German Empire (Nov. 10., 1871) is, in all 
essentials, the same. France followed Prussia 
with a law (March 22., 1841) which entirely ex- 
cluded children below eight years and required 
all below 13 to prove some attendance at school ; 
but the law, having no enforcing clauses, was 
altogether disregarded. The Austrian factory 
law approves of the labor of children above 10 
years of age ; and thence up to 14, it allows an 
ascending scale from six to 10 hours, and be- 
tween 14 and 16 years, 12 hours; exceptionally, 
14 hours. The legislature of the Netherlands 
adopted, in 1875, a law akin to the modern En- 
glish law, but without any enforcing provisions. 
In Belgium, there were, according to the latest 
reports, 900 factory schools, comprising 158,060 
children of all ages, and schools connected with 
every factory hi which young children, to the 



FACULTY 



FALK 



295 



number of 33,878, were instructed. The law reg- 
ulates the attendance at school, but does not es- 
sentially restrict the maximum time of employ- 
ment. An attempt, made in L855, by the city 
council ul Berlin to establish four factory schools, 
failed, sis the school had to lie discontinued after 
one year's existence. Belgium is the only coun- 
try in which the state law has made provision 
fur the establishment of factory schools. In 
Massachusetts (General Statutes, 1863, eh. 12), 
the law ordains : " Xo child under the age 
of 12 years shall be employed in any manu- 
facturing establishment more than 10 hours 
in a day." The official labor statistics of that 
state show that the law is, almost every- 
where, a dead letter. The law of New Jersey 
(March LI., 1855) says : "No children under 10 
years shall be admitted in any factory, ami no 
minor for more than 10 horn's a day." The lie- 
vised Statutes of Rhode Island (1857, ch. 39) 
say : " Xo minor who has attained the age of 12 
years and is under the age of 15 shall be em- 
ployed more than 1 1 hours, nor before •"> A. M., 
nor after 7. 30 P.M." The enactments of other 
states are similar ; but there is nowhere an effi- 
cient provision for the enforcement of the laws. 
The legislation of most other states only requires 
that factory children should attend school for a 
specified length of time. It is easy to sec and 
is generally admitted, that factory children are 
not so situated that they can avail themselves 
of the public schools. Their attendance at the 
day schools will always lie irregular and of short 
duration. The larger children may. to sonic ex- 
tent, enjoy the advantage of evening schools and 
Sunday schools ; but, as long as children are em- 
ployed in factories, thy will have to obtain their 
education in schools especially adapted to their 
wants. Many schools of this class have been 
established by the proprietors of large factories. 
■of which the best known, in Europe, are those 
connected with the Krupp establishment in 
Essen, with that of Dolfuss in Mulhausen, Alsace, 
and that of Creg. Co. of Chester, England. The 
latter is a fair example of most of the schools. 
The proprietors of the factories assume the entire 
care of the children, chiefly orphans and poor- 
house pupils, clothe, feed, and lodge them, and edu- 
cate them in special schools. — See Vox Pi.knek, 
The English Factory Legislation, English trans., 
with Introd. by A. J. Mundella ( London); Hubeb, 
Reisebriefe cms England im Sommer (I sol). 

FACULTY (Lat. facultas), a term originally 
applied to a body of men to whom any partic- 
ular privilege or right is granted; hence, in a 
college or university, the faculty consists of those 
upon whom has been conferred the right* of 
teaching as professors of specific subjects [facul- 
tas prqfttendi et docendi.) The faculties of a 
university are subordinate corporations, each 
consisting of a body of teachers, or professors, in 
some particular department of knowledge. At 
first the European university (that of Paris) 
comprised but two faculties. — that of arts (q. v.) 
and that of theology, to which, in the 13th cent- 
ury, those of canon and civil law and of medi- 



cine were added. The division into four facul- 
ties was transferred from the University of Paris 
to the German universities: the faculty of arts 
was afterwards named the philosophical faculty. 
Man\ changes have been introduced in this part 
of university organization since that time. In 
American universities and colleges, the faculty 
consists of the body of professors, with the presi- 
dent at its head, and has the power of conferring 
degrees. 

FAGGING, a peculiar custom which has 
existed, from the earliest times, in the great 
public schools of England — Eton, Harrow, Rug- 
by, etc.. according to which boys of the lower 
forms (classes) perform certain personal services, 
for those of tl.e higher. These services are either 
due to a particular student — the special master — 
or to the whole higher class. The former are 
such as carrying the master's messages, preparing 
his breakfast, waiting upon him at dinner, stok- 
ing his fire, etc.: and the general duties are to 
attend at the games, in cricket, for example, 
standing behind the wickets to catch the balls, 
and other such minor services. While many of 
these services appear to be of a menial character, 
they are not considered such, inasmuch as. with- 
out a fag, the boy would be obliged to perform 
them for himself. The system of fagging, like 
pennalism, in the German universities, has been 
the means of great abuse and tyranny exercised 
upon the younger students, yet it has strenuous 
defenders, as being, on the whole, beneficial. 
(See England.; 

FALK, Johann Daniel, a < Ierman educator 
and philanthropist, bom in Uantzic, in 177<l, and 
died in 1826. After studying tit the university 
of Halle, he distinguished himself as the author 
of several satirical poems, and was introduced 
by Wieland into the literary circles of Weimar. 
lie founded, in that city, a children's aid society 
and the first < ierman house of refuge. He had 
great faith in the efficacy of music and labor as 
educational agencies, and was very anxious to 
foster in the minds of his pupils a spirit of cheer- 
fulness. At the request of the Pedagogical So- 
ciety of Leipsic, of which he was a member, he 
wrote an essay on common schools ( Ueber die 
Grenzen der yolks- uml Qehhrtenschide, 1H21), 
which is still highly valued. In an appeal to 
tin 1 diet of Saxe- Weimar and the entire German 
people [Aufrvf zunackst an die Landstande des 
Grossherzogthums Weimar etc., L819), he warned , 
the German people against confounding popular 
education with popular instruction. His institu- 
tion [Falkisches tnstitul) was carried on after 
his death by his widow, until 1829, when the 
state government took charge of it. — See A. 
Wagner, Folk's Liebe, Leben, uml Leiden hi 
QoU (1818). 

FALK, Paul Ludwig Adalbert, Prussian 
Secretary of State for the Department of Edu- 
cational. Ecclesiastical, and Medical affairs, born 
Aug. 10., 1827, at Metschkau, Province of Sile- 
sia, Prussia, is the son of a Protestant clergy- 
man. He received his first education at Schweid- 
nitz and Landshut. attended the Friedrich's- 



296 



FALK 



Gymnasium at Breslau, and, after graduation, 
Studied for the legal profession at the university 
at the same city, also paying great attention to 
history and natural philosophy. He entered the 
Prussian state service in 1847, received the de- 
gree of LL. D., in the same year, and, after having 
abandoned his original intention of preparing 
himself for a professorship in laws, and passed 
through the intermediate stations of his career, 
he obtained, successively, the appointment of 
assistant state attorney at Breslau. and (1853) 
that of state attorney at Lyk. In 1858, he was 
elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies 
and acted as a member of the Committee on 
Petitions, Budget, and Military affairs during 
the legislative period of 1858 — 61. In 1861, he 
was appointed state attorney at the Kammerge- 
ricltt in Berlin, and, in the following year (1862), 
councilor of the court of appeals in Glogau, 
Silesia. During this time, he took part, with 
other eminent jurists in the edition of several 
standard works on law. Although not engaged in 
practical politics, which he studiously avoided in 
consideration of his judicial office, he was elected 
(1867) to represent the district of Glogau (Sile- 
sia) in the provisional Parliament of the North 
German Union, but peremptorily declined a re- 
election. In 1868, he was appointed privy 
councilor of justice [Oeheimer Justiz-Rath) and' 
Referent in the state ministry of justice, in which 
position he took a very important part in the 
new codification of laws for the North German 
Union, and, subsequently, for the German Em- 
pire. In 1871, King William appointed Falk one 
of the representatives of Prussia in the Federal 
Council (Bundesrath, or Upper House of the Ger- 
man Parliament) , where he acted as chairman of 
the committee of justice, in which capacity he ren- 
dered very important services in the re-organiza- 
tion of the system of legal proceedings, adapted 
to the new order of things in Germany. In 
January, 1872, Von Miihler, the Secretary of 
State for Ecclesiastical, Educational, and Medical 
affairs, resigned his office, and Falk was ap- 
pointed his successor by King William. From the 
very beginning of his administration, a fresh and 
energetic spirit seemed to be imparted to the 
management of this important branch of the 
state government. The new minister found 
himself the inheritor of all the difficulties which, 
at that time, beset his department, arising from 
the differences between the authority of the state 
and the church in regard to the supervision of 
the schools, public and private. — a conflict which 
had already strongly manifested itself during the 
administration of Ins predecessor in office. In 
February, 1872, Minister Falk introduced a law, 
which was passed March 11. of the same year, 
according to which the supervision of all schools 
was declared to be the exclusive prerogative of 
the state. This law was carried against the 
united efforts of the Catholic and Conservative 
Protestant parties of the Prussian parliament. 
It provided that the supervision of all educa- 
tional institutions, public or private, in opposi- 
tion to the laws of some of the provinces of the 



kingdom, should be the sole prerogative of the- 
state ; that all officials or corporations charged 
with such supervision should be considered as 
state commissioners ; and, finally, that this law 
should not affect the co-operation in the super- 
vision of such institutions, on the part of com- 
munities and their constitutional organs, as- 
authorized by statute. 

In a rescript, dated March 13., 1872, and pub- 
lished in the official Ceiiiralblatt fiir die Unler- 
richlsverwattunr/, Falk explained the radical 
change which the new law effected in the rela- 
tion of the public schools to the state churches. 
" Heretofore," the minister says, " the inspection 
of schools was immediately vested in the church 
officers, — the pastors of the united Evangelical 
Church and of the Roman Catholic Church, these 
being inspectors of schools, in virtue of their 
offices. By the operation of the new law, the 
right of inspecting schools belongs exclusively to 
the state; and all authorities and officers to whom 
this inspection is entrusted, act in the name of 
the state." The new law vacated nearly all the 
offices of school inspectors in towns and " circles " 
(subdivisions of provinces); but, to guard against 
interruption, all the incumbents were to con- 
tinue provisionally the discharge of their former 
duties. The minister declared, however, that no- 
person would be allowed to remain in this offiee, 
or would be appointed to it, who was not known 
to be faithfully devoted to the interests of the 
state. The inspectors in the Polish districts of 
the state were, moreover, expected to take special 
care that the teaching of the German language 
was not neglected. This law has since been 
gradually carried into practice, and the number 
of lay school inspectors who take the place of 
clergymen has steadily increased. 

The Catholic bishops made a determined op- 
position to the new policy of the government. 
In a joint pastoral letter to the clergy, they in- 
structed them not to lay down their offices as 
school inspectors without previously consulting 
the diocesan bishop ; and, in a memorial ad- 
dressed to the government, they solemnly de- 
clared that they regarded this law as an incroach- 
ment upon the inalienable, holy right of the 
Church as to the public schools, and that they 
expected from it disastrous consequences both to- 
church and state. Falk, however, continued, by 
a number of measures, to assert the exclusive 
right of the state to legislate in all school affairs. 
A rescript of June 15., 1872, excluded members 
of ecclesiastical orders and congregations from 
holding positions in the public schools ; a decree 
dated July 4., abolished the so-called Marianic 
congregations, and forbade the pupils of state 
institutions to participate in them. 

In January, 1873, Minister Falk proposed and 
defended an act in relation to the scientific re- 
quirements exacted by the state for the admis- 
sion of candidates to ministerial functions, re- 
quiring an examination of maturity from a gym- 
nasium, an academic triennium, and a scientific 
state examination of candidates, with proper ex- 
emptions ; also conferring upon the state the 



FARMEii'8 COLLEGE 



FEAR 



29T 



right of supervising Catholic seminaries, and of 
approving appointments to office by the bishops. 
The act was passed by both houses of the I 'rus- 
sian Parliament, and became a law by royal 
sanction. May 11., 1873. It is the first of the 
famous May laws. Other difficulties arose in 
the province of Posen. where a large proportion 
of the inhabitants are of Polish nationality and 
profess the Catholic religion. A decree of the 
state ministry prescribed that, in all higher educa- 
tional institutions in which the German language 
was ordinarily used, religious instruction should 
likewise be imparted in German. Archbishop 
Ledochowski of Posen instructed his subordi- 
nates to disregard this decree, and to use the 
Polish language exclusively in religious instruc- 
tion. The government, at first, did not proceed 
against the prelate directly, but suspended a 
number of Catholic clergymen and instructors 
"who obeyed the archiepiscopal ordinance in pref- 
erence to the ministerial decree. The persistent 
opposition of the archbishop led to further 
measures against him, and, ultimately, to his 
being sentenced to imprisonment for two years 
(Febr. 3., 1874). Before the year 1st:! ended, 
the Prussian government found itself involved 
in similar proceedings against the other bishops 
of the kingdom, all of whom, without exception, 
refused obedience to the so-called May laws. 
These proceedings terminated in the same way; 
and the bishops who next followed the Arch- 
bishop of Posen into prison were the Bishop of 
Treves and the Archbishop of Cologne. < >tl i.-r 
severe measures followed, and the Archbishop of 
Posen was deposed (April 15.. 1874). In May. 
1874, the Prussian chambers passed a law regu- 
lating the administration of all Catholic bishop- 
ries which may be vacated by incumbents thn nigh 
legal decisions. The contest, between the state 
and church authorities is. however, not vet ended 
(1876). 

While substituting for the former co-operation 
of state and church, in the inspection of the 
public schools, the sole right of the state, Falk 
also conceived the plan of a total re-organization 
of the school system. Twenty prominent men. 
representing all the different parties, were called 
to Berlin to discuss a draft, which had been pre- 
pared by the minister. The conference lasted 
from dune 11. to June 20., 1872 ; and. on the 
basis of its deliberations, the minister. Oct. 15., 
1872, issued general regulations concerning the 
public schools and teachers' seminaries. These 
regulations were intended as a forerunner to a 
new school law ; and they were regarded as 
modifying, in very many essential points, the 
principles on which the former school regulations 
of Prussia were based, and as requiring a return 
to the educational principles advocated and 
practiced by Pestalozzi. ' 

FARMERS' COLLEGE, at College Hill, 
Hamilton Co.. Ohio, near Cincinnati, was char- 
tered in 1846. It is supported by the interest of 
a fund of about ©67,000. The institution belongs 
to the contributors to its funds; each contributor 
to the amount of §100 receives a certificate en- 



titling him perpetually to the education of a 
pupil free of charge for tuition. The holders of 
these certificates elect triennially 15 of their 
number directors to manage the college. The 
college has a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
ment, the latter having a classical ami ;i special 
course. Facilities are afforded for instruction in 
drawing and music. Both sexes are admitted. 
Libraries of over 2,000 volumes are connected 
with the institution. The cost of tuition is 810 
per term of 20 weeks. In 1875 — 6, there were 
8 instructors and 7(i students (38 nude and 38 
female I , of whom 24 were in the collegiate depart- 
ment. The presidents of the college have been 
as follows: Freeman G. Cary, 1847 — 53; Isaac 
1. Allen. 1853--6; Freeman G. Cary, pro tern., 
1856 — 7: the Kev. Dr. Charles X. Mattoon, 
1857 — GO ; Jacob Tuckerman, I860 — 6 ; Charles 
Curtis. 18G6 — 70; J. S. Lowe, the present in- 
cumbent (1876), elected in 1873. During 1870 
— 73, rival boards of directors were at law, and 
the college was closed. 

FEAR, a sense of danger, the apprehension 
of coming injury, or the anticipation of pain, is 
an emotion of the mind which the educator 
often finds it necessary to excite, in order to con- 
trol the actions of his pupil, but which he 
should address with extreme care and only after 
other means of persuasion have failed. There 
are two kinds of government, — that of influence 
and that of force : ami the former should always 
be preferred to the latter, because it addresses 
the inner nature and produces a permanent effect 
upon the character, while the latter can lie only 
temporary. By the one. the will of a child is 
trained, and a self-controlling power is fixed in 
the mind : by the other the misdirected, per- 
verted will is still left a prey to vicious propen- 
sities, the operation of which is checked only as 
long as the external restraint continues. Some 
dispositions, however, need to be restrained by 
a sense of fear before other influences can be 
brought to bear upon them. Many children are 
inconsiderate, rash, and impulsive and accord- 
ingly yield at once to their propensities. Phys- 
ical punishment seems to lie needed in order to 
produce any conscientious observation of their 
own conduct: but. without great care on the 
part of the educator, in inflicting pain for this 
purpose, much injury may be done to the child. 
Unless the educator's personality in this inflic- 
tion can be subordinated, in the child's mind, to 
the sense of deserved punishment for wrong- 
doing, he will antagonize the child, and destroy 
all means of controlling him by personal influ- 
ence. " The moment a child's mind is strongly 
affected by fear," says Horace Mann, "it flies in- 
stinctively away, and hides itself in the deepest 
recesses it can find, — often in the recesses of dis- 
ingenuousness and perfidy and falsehood. In- 
stead of exhibiting to you his whole conscious- 
ness, he conceals from you as much of it as he 
can ; or he deceptively presents to you some, 
counterfeit of it, instead of the genuine. No 
frighted water-fowd wdiose plumage the bullet of 
the sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker be- 



298 



FELBIGER 



neath the surface than a child's spirit darts from 
your eye when you have filled it with the senti- 
ment of fear.'' This is especially true of certain 
dispositions ; and, hence, this appeal to fear 
should not be made without very careful dis- 
crimination. Hecker, in the Scientific Basis of 
Education (N. Y., 1868), says, •' If cautiousness 
is too large, seek to influence the child through 
his affections. Pear will paralyze such a mind. 
To make this faculty useful where it is pre- 
dominant, the teacher must get the affections of 
the child, and he can then, by proper direction, 
make fear an intelligent restraint." Formerly, the 
idea of school government was identical with 
that of absolute tyranny, — arbitrary power in 
the teacher, aud unthinking obedience in the 
pupil, enforced by the greatest severity of punish- 
ment. Dr. Johnson, in the defense of the school- 
master Hastie, said, " Children being not reason- 
able, can be governed only by fear ;" but educa- 
tors do not find all children without reason and 
conscience, and, therefore, the proposition was 
too sweeping. When Boswell repeated to John- 
son the following sentence of a speech of Lord 
Mansfield : " My Lords, severity is not the way 
to govern either boys or men," he replied, "Nay. 
it is the way to govern them. I know not 
whether it be the way to mend them." But no 
school government can be approved that is not 
intended to amend as well as to control. Chil- 
dren should be made to fear to do wrong ; and 
this should be brought about as much as possible 
by what Herbert Spencer calls the method of 
nature, that is, by making punishment the neces- 
sary consequence of the wrongful act, on the 
principle involved in the maxim, " The burnt 
child dreads the fire." This eliminates the per- 
sonal element in the fear implanted in the mind 
of the child. He does not fear the teacher, but 
he fears to offend, — to do wrong. The same 
consideration excludes from discipline, all threat- 
ening, scolding, and harsh words, for the purpose 
of engendering fear, aud, especially excludes anger 
in punishment. The fear to be excited in the mind 
of the child should not be an apprehension of 
personal safety, leading to meanness, cunning, 
and deception as a means of self-protection, but 
should be akin to that feeling which Solomon 
referred to when he said, " The fear of the Lord 
is the beginning of wisdom." This is not incon- 
sistent with a constant appeal to the higher 
motives and finer feelings of human nature, but ; 
may be made a means of their development. 
which is the true end of all moral education. 

FELBIGER,, Johann Ig-naz von, one of I 
the foremost reformers of the public-school sys- 
tem of Austria, was born in 1724, at Gross- 
glogau in Silesia, and died at Presburg, Hungary, 
in 1788. After studying Catholic theology, he 
entered the order of St. Augustine, and. in 1.7.">8, 
became abbot of the house of his order in Sagan, j 
Silesia. In this position, it was his duty to 
superintend the churches and schools of Sagan ! 
andsome of the neighboring villages. The wretched 
■condition in which he found the schools, induced 
him to visit Berlin secretly, in order to acquaint 



himself with the new real school of that city and 
the tabular and literal method of Hahn (q. v.). 
As the result of this visit was entirely satisfactory 
to him, he not only repeated it several times, but 
sent a number of young men there to be edu- 
cated as school-masters. After the end of the 
Seven Years' war, he displayed great activity in 
founding new schools, some of which were organ- 
ized as model schools ; he also drew up several 
courses of instruction, and prepared a number . 
of school books, which were printed at his own 
printing establishment, and obtained a very large 
circulation. Halm's method became, through ' 
his efforts, predominant in all Silesia, and was 
often called after him Felbiger's or the Sagan 
method. In 1774, he was appointed by the 
Empress Maria Theresa chief director (Ober- 
director) of the German schools ; and, Dec. 6., 
1774, the empress sanctioned the general regula- 
tion for the German model, head, and trivial 
schools which had been drawn up by Felbiger. 
This regulation marks the beginning of a new 
period in the history of Austrian schools. It be- 
gins with the following significant sentence : 
" The education of youth of both sexes is the 
most important basis of the true happiness of 
nations." Though it did not make education 
compulsory, it expressed the expectation that all 
children of both sexes who did not receive pri- 
vate instruction, would attend the German 
school for six or seven years, beginning with the 
sixth year of age. Public education was treated 
as a state affair ; the methods of instruction and 
discipline and the course of instruction were 
regulated, a proper classification introduced, and 
provision made for the erection of school-houses, 
for cheap and good school-books, and for the 
better education and compensation of teachers. 
In regard to salaries, the provisions were, how- 
ever, far from being satisfactory, as may be in- 
ferred from the fact that the regulation expressly 
allows teachers to work in their leisure hours as 
book-binders, joiners, shoe-makers, tailors, and 
weavers. They were, however, absolutely for- 
bidden to keep taverns. In order to elevate the 
school-teacher's to a higher social position, the 
regulation assigned to them a comparatively 
high rank among public functionaries. As re- 
gards the different classes of the common schools, 
each town, market - town, and parish was to 
receive a trivial school, which had only one 
teacher, and imparted instruction in reading, 
writing, arithmetic, and the elements of agri- 
culture. In each circle, at least one head school 
(Ha)iplschule) was to be established, which 
should have three classes, three teachers, and a 
director, and teach, besides the subjects of the 
trivial school, German composition, drawing, 
surveying, history, and geography (especially of 
the native country), and also the elements of the 
Latin language. Wherever circumstances would 
allow it, female schools were established, besides 
the head schools for boys. Every province was 
to have at least one normal school, which was 
to combine the character of a model school and 
of a teachers' seminary. The course of instruc- 



FELBIGER 



FEMALE EDUCATION 



299 



tion embraced all the subjects of the head school, 
and, besides, natural science and physics, Latin, 
the history of arts and trades, architecture, 
and mechanics. The establishment of a German 
school book publishing office, in connection with 
the Vienna Normal School, gave a powerful 
impulse to educational literature. The empress, 
in 177". induced Felbiger to relinquish alto- 
gether his citizenship in Prussia, and. at the 
same time, appointed him provost at Presburg. 
Soon after this, the death of the empress put 
an end to his educational labors. The plan 
of military schools, which he had drawn up, was 
rejected by Joseph 11. .and lie was removed from 
the chief direction of the Vienna Normal School. 
Be was directed to remain at Presburg, and labor 
for the improvement of public instruction in | 
Hungary. He was. however, unable to accom- 
plish much, and died almost forgotten. Felbiger 
wrote a number of school books, and a manual 
explaining his method of instruction to teachers 
(Eigenschqften, Wissenschaften, vend Bezeigen 
rechtsckaffener Schidleuie). The best biography 
of Felbiger is found in Hklfert, Die cestreichi- 
sehe Pblksschule, vol. i. 

FELLENBERG, Philipp Emanuel von, 
a Swiss educator and philanthropist, was born 
in Bern, June 27., 1771, and died there. Nov. 21.. 
1*44. His father being a friend of Pestalozzi, 
lie early conceived the idea that society can be 
protected against revolution only by an im- 
proved system of education. He believed that. 
he had discovered the basis of a radical reform 
in the connection of education with agriculture. 
Be bought, in 1799, a large estate near Bern, 
the Wylhof, called by him Bofwyl, and there 
founded, in 1804, his tirst school, for the purpose 
of educating poor boys, and even convicts, as 
agriculturists. Fellenberg endeavored to make 
this school self supporting, and to cause instruc- 
tion to lie regarded by the pupils as a recreation. 
His institution proved a great success. All the 
visitors were struck with the cheerfulness and 
the eagerness to learn which were shown by the 
pupils generally : and a number of the pupils 
subsequently distinguished themselves as edu- 
cators and teachers. Fellenberg also believed 
that his institutions fully supported themselves 
by the labor of the pupils ; although, as liberal 
contributions were received all the time from 
friends of education, this has been doubted by 
many. Twice (in 1804 and 1*17). Pestalozzi 
was. for a short time, connected with the institu- 
tions of Fellenberg, but they found it impossible 
to agree. Fellenberg. being descended from a 
noble family and having himself filled high posi- 
tions in the state, was accustomed to rule and 
had dictatorial manners; while Pestalozzi. who 
as a practical educator was greatly his superior, 
was unwilling to act as a subordinate to him in 
educational matters. The fame of the school of 
Hofwyl was. to a large extent, due to Wehrli (q. 
v.), who became connected with it. in 1810. In 
the mean time, several new institutions for poor 
children had been established by Fellenberg. In 
l*ii7. hi opened, in buildings which the govern- 



ment of Bern had presented to him, a special school 
of agriculture. with which. in 1808, aphilanthropin 
for children of wealthy parents was connected. 
This school, in 1825, had eighty pupils, taught 
by twenty-two teachers. Among those who suc- 
cessively taught in the institutions of Fellenberg, 
were some of the foremost educators of ' lermany, 
as Berbart (q. v.) An institution for females. 
which was subsequently added, under the man- 
agement of the wife anil daughters of Fellenberg, 
was, like the original school of Hofwyl. chiefly in- 
tended for the poor. In 1830, a real school, de- 
signed for the education of the children of the 
mil Idle classes, was established, and still later an 
infant school. As the education of teachers had 
been sadly neglected in the canton of Bern. Fel- 
lenberg. with the approval of the government, 
called forty teachers to Hofwyl for a three 
months' normal course. The next year, the 
government denied its consent, as it feared 
that Fellenberg would obtain, in tins way, too 
great an influence in the affairs of the canton. 
In 1 So.'!, the government again arranged for 
holding a teachers' institute in Hofwyl: hut, as 
the arrangements were not entirely satisfactory 
to Fellenberg. he opened another normal course 
for one hundred teachers at his own expense. 
The institutions of fellenberg were celebrated 
throughout Europe, and were even visited by 
some of the reigning princes. A number of 
other institutions were fou in led after their model- 
After Fellenberg s death, the institutions were for 
a time continued by his son. Wilhchn von Fel- 
lenberg. but were afterward abandoned. In his 
religious views. Fellenberg shared the rational- 
istic principles which at that time were pre- 
dominant in Germany and Switzerland: but. 

unlike most of the Philanthropists, he attributed 
great importance to the religious element of 
instruction, and devotional exercises were strictly 
and solemnly observed in all his institutions. — 
See W. Hamm, Fellenberg's Lebenund Wirken 
(Bern, l*l">); Ameriaan Annals of Education, 
vol. I. (1831). An interesting account of the 
school of Hofwyl may also be found in the auto- 
biography of one of its American pupils, Robert 
Dale Owen (Threading My Way, X. \ r ., 1874). 
(Sec also Hoi-wvi..) 

FEMALE EDUCATION. This subject 
will be treated in two sections: (I) The history 
of female education, and (II) the discussion of 
its principles, or theory. 

1. History. — The history of education in the an- 
cient world almost exclusively refers to the educa- 
tion of the male sex. In the ancient monarchies 

of Asia and Africa no provision was made tor tin' 
instruction of girls in educational institutions. In 
GMna, tic daughter, after the illth year of age 
was confined to the house. There she was 
taught to behave modestly and politely, to listen 
and tii obey. She had to sew and to weave in heiiqi 
and silk, and to learn how to prepare the meals. 
At the age of fifteen, when she was betrothed, 
she received the ornament of the head-needle; 
and, at the age of twenty, she was married. In 
education, as well as in all other departments of 



300 



FEMALE EDUCATION 



life, China has remained stationary ; and the 
education of girls is now substantially the same 
as it was thousands of years ago. While the 
instruction of boys is quite general, nine-tenths of 
all the women can neither read nor write ; and 
it is only the daughters of the wealthiest families 
that receive even a meager education. In India, 
the instruction of the female sex was also totally 
neglected. An exception was made only in the 
case of public dancers, or bayaderes. The latter 
are daughters of poor parents, and, in childhood, 
are kept for the service of the temple. The 
priests teach them to read and write, and have 
them carefully taught music, dancing, singing, 
and all the ways of female coquetry. In Persia, 
winch had a system of national schools, the girls 
were generally excluded from public instruction. 
Still there seem to have been exceptions ; for the 
plot of a Persian novel is based upon the love of 
two persons, which is represented as beginning 
at school. In Egypt, the female sex occupied a 
more dignified and independent position than in 
the other oriental nations, attending to the 
business of the market and to commerce ; but 
no provision was made for their instruction. 
Cleopatra is, however, reported to have been one 
of the most accomplished women of antiquity, 
and to have spoken Hebrew, Arabic, Ethiopia 
Syriac, and other languages. The legislation of 
Sparta excelled, in this respect, not only every 
oriental country, but also every other Hellenic 
state. The Spartans held a very high opinion 
of the dignity of the family, and the wife 
and mother was the center of family life. The 
wife was held in especially high esteem ; she was 
called 6£a-oiva, mistress, and exerted a consider- 
able influence over her husband. This social 
position of woman required that her education 
should be similar to that of the other sex. The 
Spartans thought that free, noble men could only 
spring from noble, well-formed, healthy mothers; 
and the girls, therefore, participated, though with 
some modifications, in the peculiarities of Spartan 
education. They were to be inspired with feel- 
ings of morality and patriotism no less than men. 
The society of experienced matrons was one of 
the chief means of their education; and exercises 
in singing, the study of the poets, and the learning 
of choruses were used to promote their general 
culture. They practiced gymnastic exercises, 
on arenas specially provided for them, and grace- 
ful mimetic dances. At certain festivals, they 
sang and danced in public. Young men were 
usually present at these exhibitions ; and females 
attended those given by the males. Thus a 
rivalry arose between the two sexes, which had 
a beneficent influence upon the education of 
both. As the result of this education, the young- 
women of Sparta manifested a bodily vigor and 
beauty, and a national pride, which were admired 
by all foreigners. The school of Pythagoras 
which, like the Spartans, represents the peculiar 
development of the Doric tribes, produced 
several female writers on education (Theano, 
Phintys, Periktione) , whose writings are by far 
the best that can be found on the subject in the 



literature of the ancient world. The Dorians re- 
garded piety as the basis of self-control, and 
music and gymnastics as means for attaining it. 
This and a due harmony between the intellect 
and the will were viewed by them as the chief 
results of all sound female education. In Athens, 
female education was not so well provided for as 
in Sparta, and the elevated position which the 
Spartans conceded to their wives was derided by 
the Athenians as gynocracy, or female govern- 
ment. With them, the wife was not the 
cttoTTowa, or mistress, but, in fact, the servant of 
the house. Only in exceptional cases, did the- 
daughters of a family receive instruction ex- 
tending beyond the usual domestic duties ; female 
schools were unknown. Women appeared in 
public only at public festivals, and it was only 
the educated hetcera that the intelligent Athe- 
nian could meet in society. The Romans had a. 
very exalted idea of the dignity of family life and 
the position of woman. In no nation of antiquity 
was monogamy so strictly observed as in Rome. 
The kings, according to popular tradition, and 
afterward the decemvirs, were expelled from 
power on account of attacks made upon female 
virtue. The mother of the family [mater familias) 
jjresided over domestic affairs as a venerable 
priestess, and regarded the education of all her 
children, boys as well as girls, as her most sacred 
and most important duty. Thus the girls received 
an excellent home education ; and it would 
seem that they also attended schools, for we read 
that Virginia was seized by order of the decem- 
vir Appius Claudius as she was going to school. 
The influence of Christianity upon female 
education shows itself, for several centuries, 
only in the regeneration of family life. The 
first places in Christian countries in which in- 
struction was provided for girls, outside of their 
families, were the convents. The nuns, as we 
see from the correspondence of Boniface, not only 
copied the Biblical books, but also taught secular 
sciences. The number of girls who were educat- 
ed in these schools was, however, small in com- 
parison with that of boys. The daughters and 
sisters of Charlemagne, as appears from their cor- 
respondence with Alcuin. took an active part in 
the learned studies which distinguished the court 
of that great emperor; and their example was sub- 
sequently followed by several other princesses and 
nuns ; still no steps were taken toward a general 
provision for female instruction, during the first 
part of the middle ages. The development of 
knighthood organized a system of instruction for 
a small but very influential portion of female 
youths, — the daughters of the nobility. No- 
special institutions were founded for them ; but 
it was common to have a number of them brought 
up together in the castle of a count or other 
nobleman. The pupils, in this case, inhabited 
in common a separate part of the building, were- 
placed under a common governess, and received 
instruction from a priest, sometimes also from 
traveling artists, singers, and poets. Reading 
and writing were the principal part of this in- 
struction, and the young ladies were called upon. 



FEMALE EDUCATION 



301 



5u the long winter evenings, to read to the family 
or to a select company new songs, legends, and 
stories. Sometimes they also acquired a knowl- 
edge of foreign languages, especially of French 
and Latin. They were also instructed in singing, 
and playing upon musical instruments. When the 
towns grew strong, in their struggles against kings 
and nobles, important progress was made by 
the establishment of female schools. In Brussels, 
we rind, at the 1 pcgimring of the fourteenth century, 
aschool for small girls, with four female teachers ; 
and boys and girls who were brothers and sisters. 
were often allowed to attend the same school. 
•Similar schools were found in some of the other 
cities, but only in a limited number. In the 
convents, only those girls received instruction 
in reading and writing who intended to enter 
the order. In some of the towns, the girls 
were allowed to attend boys' schools. The 
great impulse which was given to the extension 
of female schools by the Reformation, in the 
16th century, is generally recognized, even by 
Catholic writers. Luther, in his appeal to the 
magistrates of the German towns, urged them to 
establish schools, not for boys only, but also for 
girls. All the church and school regulations which 
were issued during this period recognized the neei 1 
of establishing female schools. The chief reason 
adduced for the demand was the duty of women 
as well as of men to read the Scriptures. The 
greatest zeal for the establishment of female 
schools was displayed by Bugenfaagen (q. v.), who 
demanded these schools not only for the towns 
but also for villages. The course of instruction 
embraced reading, writing, arithmetic, catechism. 
Bible history, and singing. Although the ideas 
of the reformers were not carried out to their 
full extent, the number of schools for the in- 
struction of girls, established at the time of the 
Reformation, was very large. They were partly 
parish schools which were attended by both boys 
and girls, and partly schools for girls exclusively, 
which aimed to impart a higher education than 
could be found in the parish schools. Little- 
progress was, however, made in the second half 
of the 16th and in the 17th century; and, after 
the devastations of the Thirty Years' War, female 
schools were, in Germany ami other countries of 
the European continent, in a less flourishing 
condition than at the time of the Reformation. 
The work was resumed in the 18th century; but. 
at first, with only slow progress. Gradually, how- 
ever, the adoption of the principle of compulsory 
education (q. v.) prepared the way for the univer- 
sal education of female youth in public elementary 
schools. In some of those countries of Europe 
where the principle of compulsory education has 
not yet been adopted or carried out, a large 
portion of the female youth still grow up with- 
out any instruction. Among the most backward 
countries in this respect, is Russia. While, in 
187-1, the number of boys attending school in 
proportion to the entire school population varied 
in the nine school-districts into which the empire 
is divided from 1:1.5 (in Dorpat) to 1:10.5 (in 
Moscow) ; the proportion of girls attending school 



was as follows: Dorpat. 1:2.4; Warsaw. 1:6; 
St. Petersburg, 1:19; Odessa, 1:23: Wilna, 1:51; 
Kharkof. 1:51; Kasan, L: 33; Kief, 1:65.8; Mos- 
cow, 1:49.4. Among the seventeen provinces 
into which Austria proper is divided, there were, 
in 1*74, four (Lower Austria, Upper Austria, 
Salzburg, and Vorarlberg) in which the number 
of girls attending the public schools exceeded 
that of boys, seven in wdiich the number of girls 
was a little inferior to that of boys, and six in 
which it fell considerably below that of boys; 
namely, Triest, boys 6,188, girls 4,372; Goritz 
and Gradisca, boys 8,183, girls 6,441 ; Istria, boys 
7,961, girls, 4,146; Galieia. boys. 93,756, girls, 
60.193; Bukovina, boys, 6,8.i8, girls, 2,957 ; Dal- 
matia, boys, 8.436, girls, 1,898. Other statistics 
of this class may be found in the articles on the 
several countries of Europe. 

The need of schools providing a higher than 
elementary education for girls was very generally 
and deeply felt, especially when England, France, 
and Germany entered successively into the golden 
age of their national literature. An excellent 
institution of the kind was founded by A. II. 
Francke (q. v.), but there was a great diversity 
of opinion in regard to the course of instruction to 
be prescribed for die higher education of females. 
The large majority of the schools of f his class 
have ever since been private institutions; but. in 
Germany and several other European countries, 
the state governments as well as the municipal 
authorities have. in the nineteenth century, begun 
to establish female schools of a higher grade, in 
England, the education of the daughters of 
wealthy parents at home by governesses is more 
general than in any other country of the < Christian 
world ; but. recently, considerable progress has 
been made in the establishment of female schools 
of a higher grade. (See England.) — In Catholic 
countries, a very great majority of the female 
schools of a higher than elementary grade have 
been under the control of female religious orders. 
The number of these schools has largely in- 
creased since the beginning of the 16th century. 
When the ( 'ardinal Archbishop, < larlo Borromeo, 
of Milan, died, in 1584, there were, in his diocese 
alone, 600 Ursuline nuns, iu 11 houses, who 
devoted themselves to the instruction of girls. 
During the last three centuries, a number of new 
religious orders have been formed for the purpose 
of affording girls a higher education. There are, 
at present, more than 30 orders of this class, with 
several thousand members; and their schools are 
not only attended by Catholic, but also by large 
numbers of Protestant girls. (See Rojlan Cath- 
olics.) For statistics relating to female schools 
in Europe, see the articles on the several coun- 
tries. — The U. S. Commissioner of Education, in 
his report for 1874, enumerates 214 institutions 
for the superior instruction of women, of which 
114 were authorized by law to confer degrees. 
These are in part styled colleges, and iu part sent i- 
ii'irirs, institutes, etc. The oldest of these institu- 
tions is the Bradford Academy, at Bradford, 
Mass.. chartered in 1804; the oldest having the 
title of College are the Maine Wesleyau Seminary 



302 



FEMALE EDUCATION 



and Female College, at Kent's Hill, Me., and the 
Granville Female College, at Granville. Ohio, char- 
tered in 1821 and 1834, respectively. The progress 
of the higher education of women is illustrated by 
the following facts: in 1870, the number of these 
institutions in the United States reporting to the 
Bureau of Education was 33, the number of in- 
structors 378, and the number of students 5,337 ; 
while, in 1874, the number of institutions is re- 
ported at 209: the number of instructors, 2,285, 
and the number of students, 23,445. These 
institutions commonly comprise a primary, a 
preparatory, and a collegiate department. The 
last extends through a course of three or four 
years, and embraces the higher English branches, 
with the addition generally of Latin and French, 
frequently of German, and sometimes of Greek, 
Spanish, and Italian. Facilities are afforded, in 
most if not in all cases, for instruction in vocal 
and instrumental music, drawing and painting, 
etc. The principal degrees conferred by female 
colleges are Graduate in Arts (A. B.), Graduate 
in Science (B. Sc.) , Sister of Arts ( A. S.) , Mistress 
of Liberal Arts (M. L. A.), Mistress of Liberal 
Learning (M. L. L), Mistress of Science (M. Sc), 
Mistress of English Literature (M. E. L.), and 
Mistress of Music (Mis. Mus.). In some of the 
higher co-educative institutions, there is a separate 
course for females (Ladies' Course) similar to 
that of most female colleges ; in others, there is 
no distinction, females being admitted to the 
same classes, and on the same terms, as males. 
Among the institutions for, females exclusively, 
Vassar College, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., holds 
a very high rank, its curriculum being fairly 
comparable with that of good male colleges. (See 
Vassar College.) 

II. Theory of Female Education. — This is a 
subject which, especially in recent years, has very 
greatly engaged the attention of practical educa- 
tors, scientific educationists, physicians, and all 
others who have either written or spoken on 
questions concerning the present condition and 
future prospects of human society and human 
welfare. The proper education of woman has 
been recognized as an important, perhaps the 
chief, factor of social progress. In former times, 
both ancient and modern, as we have seen, woman 
in general, occupied a secluded state; and it was 
only in the extreme privacy of the home circle 
that she exerted the potent influence inseparable 
from her sex, whether as daughter, wife, or 
mother. The Boman matron, within this narrow 
limit, was an educator of her daughters always, 
and sometimes chiefly of her sons, as in the case 
of Cornelia, only illustrious as the " mother of 
the Gracchi." Ancient history affords many 
examples of women who, breaking through the 
barriers of social custom, became illustrious for 
their learning and eloquence. Such were Aspasia 
of Athens, and ITypatia of Alexandria. The career 
of such women illustrated the intellectual capacity 
of their sex under circumstances permitting or en- 
couraging its culture. Female education, however, 
has always been viewed as radically distinct from 
that of males, — as presenting entirely different 



aims, and requiring different processes of train- 
ing and instruction, and a widely different cur- 
riculum of study. Much has been said and 
done in recent years to modify very greatly this 
view; but it is still generally entertained, and is, 
at the present time, the principle on which most 
schemes for the education of females are based. 
"A system of education," says Maudsley, "adapted 
to women should have regard to the peculiarities 
of their constitution, to the special function in 
life for which they are destined, and to the range 
and kind of practical activity, mental and bodily, 
to which they would seem foreshadowed by their 
sexual organization of body and mind." " From 
the beginning of the eightli year," says Schwarz, 
" the two sexes require, in almost every respect, 
a different education." "The culture of girls," 
says Von Baumer, commonly requires a process 
of instruction entirely different from that of 
boys." Alonzo Potter, in the School and the 
Schoolmaster (N.Y.,1842), emphasizes this prin- 
ciple: "One cannot look at the female — with less 
muscular vigor and more nervous sensibility 
than the other sex ; with more timidity and 
gentleness ; with deeper affections and more 
acute sensitiveness — without perceiving, that she 
has been appointed to a sphere very different 
from that of man. Her appropriate empire is 
over the family, where she not only lays the 
foundation, during childhood, of individual char- 
acter, but where she ever exerts, through her ac- 
quaintance, and especially through her husband 
and children, a humanizing influence over the 
world." " Hence," he argues, "there should be, 
in the education of females, a special reference 
to their sex and condition of life." " The best 
educational training for a boy," says Dr. Clarke, 
in Sea: in Education (Boston, 1873), "is not the 
best for a girl, nor that for a girl best for a 
boy." Such are the views upon which the 
education of females has been based. Ar- 
ranged, as it has been by the other sex, the 
only considerations that have dictated its meth- 
ods and processes have been the average phys- 
ical weakness of women as compared with men, 
and the accomplishments they might need as 
wives and matrons. It is not difficult to per- 
ceive that were the education of men arranged 
by the other sex from an analogous stand-point, it 
would also be narrowed in its scope and proc- 
esses. During the last few years, the questions 
pertaining to female education have been vig- 
orously discussed by writers of both sexes ; and 
much experience has been gathered, which 
appears to show that the necessity for a modified 
S}'stem of education for females is by no means 
so great as has been supposed and asserted. (See 
Co-Education of the Sexes.) We say modified 
system of education, because just as it is necessary 
to adapt the educational processes to individual 
traits, so is it equally necessary, upon the same 
principle, to adjust the training and teaching 
processes to male and female, as far as they 
severally present peculiar characteristics. In 
home education, these proper discriminations 
must naturally be made. The girl is treated as 



FEMALE EDUCATION 



303 



a girl, and the boy as a boy — in manners, habits, 
amusements, and accomplishments. Over the 
former the mother exercises a peculiar care. 
The need of this all educators recognize. "Girls," 
says Schwarz, " require chiefly the guidance of 
the maternal hand, in order that their tender 
nature may not be rudely handled, their purity 
not invaded, and the appropriately female direc- 
tion of their development not interfered with. 
Their understanding and their feelings should be 
exposed to no rude touch, that, like the rosebud, 
they may develop themselves purely from with- 
in, and like the chaste mimosa, shrink from 
even the least contact." Such accomplishments 
are taught as are properly feminine ; such as 
sewing, embroidery, the methods of household 
management, which every woman should under- 
stand, to which may be added music and dancing. 
In every thing thus taught, the future destiny of 
the girl, as a member of society, should lie kept 
in view; not, as has been usually advocated, 
that her education is to be exclusively such as 
will fit her to perform the duties of wife and 
mother, but such as will enable her to live in- 
dependently of these relations, should such be 
her destiny. "As the general rule,"says Miss 0. E. 
Beecher, "every true woman would prefer to be 
a wife, mother, anil housekeeper, could her ideal 
be fully met. Hut in multitudes of cases this 
can never be, and so every woman should prepare 
herself not only for the ordinary duties of the 
family state, but also for some profession to 
secure an independent livelihood." 

In public elementary instruction, as shown in 
the article on Co-Education of ///<' Sexes [q. v.), 
girls and boys are frequently instructed not only 
in the same schools, but in the same classes. 
There are. however, numerous private female 
seminaries, many of which are boarding-schools. 
In such institutions, the discipline, instruction, 
and studies are all specially adapted to impart 
that culture and confer those accomplishments 
which are deemed to be proper for the female sex. 
The benefits of this one-sided training have been 
much called in question; many contending that 
the sexes should never be entirely separated in 
education. In this connection Mrs. AVillard, an 
experienced educator of females, says : "Feminine 
delicacy requires that girls should be educated 
chiefly by their own sex. This is apparent from 
considerations that regard their health and con- 
veniences, the propriety of their dress and 
manners, and their domestic accomplishments.'' 
In her Address to tin' Public (1819) in relation 
to female education, she discussed very ably and 
fully its defects, and thus enumerated in particular 
those of boarding-schools for girls: (1) A want 
of suitable accommodations, as well as of neces- 
sary apparatus for instruction; (2) Incompetency 
of instructors, those who keep these schools 
being unable, and sometimes unwilling to pay 
for properly trained and cultured teachers : 
(3) Imperfection of organization; (4) Tendency to 
teach showy accomplishments rather than such 
as ai-e solid and useful, the immediate and sole 
object being profit, and hence a wish to gratify 



the caprices and vanity of ill-judging parents. 
Female seminaries of all kinds have especially 
been subject to the latter reproach ; but the 
circumstances that have given occasion to it were 
due. in great part, to the false system of female 
education so long prevalent. Hannah More, in 
this connection, remarked: "Not a few of the 
evils of the present day arise from a new and 
perverted application of terms : among these, 
perhaps, there is not one more abused, misunder- 
stood, or misapplied, than the term accomplish- 
ments. This word, in its original meaning, 
signifies completeness, perfection ; but 1 may 
safely appeal to the observation of mankind, 
whether they do not meet with swarms of youth- 
ful females, issuing from our boarding-schools, 
as well as emerging from the more private scenes 
of domestic education, who are introduced into 
the world under the broad and universal title of 
accomplished .young ladies, of all of whom it 
cannot very truly and correctly be pronounced, 
that they illustrate the definition by a complete- 
ness which leaves nothing to be added, and a 
perfection which leaves nothing to be desired." 
Hut at the period in which this was written, women 
of scholastic or \ professional attainments or literary 
ability were quite exceptional. Once, the chief 
social employment of young ladies was a kind of 
fancy embroidery or needle-work, which con- 
sumed, or wasted, a vast amount of time. Of 
this. Miss Edgeworth, in Practical Education, 
Bays, " Our great-grandmothers distinguished 
themselves by truly substantial tent-work chairs 
and carpets, by needle-work pictures of Solomon 
and the queen of Sheba. These were admirable 
in their day, but their day is over; and these 
useful, ingenious, and laborious specimens of fe- 
male talents are consigned to the garret, or pro- 
duced but as curiosities to excite wonder at the 
strange patience and miserable destiny of former 
generations. " As late as lST.'i. Rev. S. Van Bok- 
kelen remarked, " I think we may venture the 
opinion that all over the United States the 
academic education of young women is mul- 
tifarious and desultory. It is comprehensive, 
embracing a little of every thing, but accurate in 
almost nothing. This is because it has no well- " 
defined purpose. When our young women, in- 
stead of closing their books at 17, aim to prepare 
themselves for a college course, their shams will 
give place to realities, and the public exercises of 
our own best seminaries for girls will present a 
more substantial programme than music and senti- 
mental essays, and have a higher purpose than to 
display the skill of the mantua-makers." (The 
Education of Women, a paper read before the 
X. Y. State Teachers' Association. July, 1K73.) 
The subject of the higher education of women 
has been chiefly discussed with reference to the 
question of their physical ability to undergo the 
continuous labor required to pursue a full college 
or university course of study. (See Co-Edocation 
of the Sexes.) The objections on this account, 
it may probably be said, have all been answered 
either by actual experience, or by the cogent 
reasoning of such writers as Anna C. Bracket! 



304 



FEMALE EDUCATION 



FEMALE TEACHERS 



(Education of American Girls), Caroline H. 
Dall(27/e Other Side), Mary P. Jacobi, M. D. 
(Mental Action and Physical Health), Mrs. E. B. 
P/uffey (No Sex in Education), and many others. 
The ability of young women to compete with the 
other sex, as university students, and without 
physical injury, appears to be pretty fully 
established ; and, hence, the doors of universities 
and other higher institutes of learning are gradu- 
ally being thrown open to women. This has 
been done only after the most strenuous opposition, 
and by stemming the adverse current of public 
opinion. In 1862, Mr. Grote strongly advocated 
that the University of London should admit 
women to degrees. "In refusing degrees," he ar- 
gued, "the Senate was called upon to say, 'We 
consider our studies laudable and deserving en- 
couragement only for men ; they are not laudable, 
and we intend to discountenance them for women. 
We cannot grant academical honors and advant- 
ages which will tend to encourage what is a bad 
and wrong type of education for women.' I 
maintain this is an answer which the Senate is 
not warranted in returning. This would be to 
usurp the right of determining by authority a 
point which individuals have a full discretion to 
determine by themselves. I contend that every 
woman has a right to choose for herself among 
the various types of education ; if among these 
she prefers that which coincides with our cur- 
riculum, we ought to be the last to discredit her 
for so doing." The Senate of the university, how- 
ever, positively refused to grant degrees to wom- 
en, on the ground that the strain necessary for 
passing the examination would be injurious to 
their health. To encourage women to compete 
for degrees, it was stated, is to invite them to 
self-destruction. Actual experience in the United 
States disproves the latter assertion. (See Co- 
Education of the Sexes.) In that country 
about fifty institutions for superior instruction 
are open to both sexes, besides which there is a 
large number for females exclusively. 

The progress already made in the complete 
education of women, as well as that which is 
promised in the future by the continued opera- 
tion of the same causes that have worked so 
great a change in the past, cannot but redound 
to the benefit of our race, and shed a genial in- 
fluence on modern civilization. "Already," says 
Yan Bokkelen, "an impulse has been given to 
society by the education of women ; yet no tridy 
womanly duty has been neglected, nor are wom- 
en less disposed to accept the cares of domestic 
life, or yield to the claims of conjugal or maternal 
affection." " Will woman's smiles," he asks, 
" cease to be attractive when they are brightened 
by intelligence ? Will her conversation lose its 
power when strengthened by words of wisdom ? 
Will her beauty of form and feature vanish amid 
geometrical and metaphysical problems? Will 
her kingdom be circumscribed as her knowledge is 
enlarged '? Will her companionship be less valued 
as her ability to counsel wisely and control judi- 
ciously is increased ? " "Girls too," said Erasmus, 
" ought to receive a liberal education. The mul- 



titude hold it to be folly, but wise men know 
that nothing is more advantageous to the morals 
of women than extended knowledge." "Educate 
all the men of a generation," says G. B. Emerson, 
"and leave the women uneducated, and every 
child under their influence begins his public edu- 
cation with all the disadvantages of his father. 
Educate all the females, and you will give a per- 
manent impulse to the onward movement of the 
race, which, it can never lose. Each individual 
begins his progress from a higher level, and, with 
equal exertion, will bequeath a richer inheritance 
of knowledge and wisdom to his successors." — See 
Fenelon, Traile de I'educaiion desfilles (1687) ; 
Beaudoux, La Science Mater nelle (Paris, 1814) ; 
Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (Leipsic, 1829) ; H. 
More, Strictures on the Modern System of 
Female Education (1799) ; Edgeworth, Prac- 
tical Education (London, 1798), and Letter's on 
Female Education (London, 1832); H.I.Schmidt, 
History of Education, part n. (N. Y., 1842) ; 
Geo. B. Emerson, On the Education of Females, 
a lecture delivered before the American Institute 
of Instruction, August, 1831 ; Emma Willard, 
An Address to , the Public, proposing a Plan 
for improving Female Education (1819), re- 
printed in Proceedings of N. Y. University 
Convocation (1870) ; Emily Davies, Higher 
Education of Women (London, 1867) ; Barnard, 
Studies and Conduct, s. v. Education of Girls 
(Hartford, 1873) ; E. D. Mansfield, American 
Education (N. Y., 1851) ; C E. Beechek, Educa- 
tional Reminiscences (IS' .Y., 1874); ORTON,XiJer- 
al Education of Women (N.Y., 1874); Markby, 
Practical Essays on Education, s. v. The Educa- 
tion of Women (London, 1868) ; Brackett, The 
Education of American Girls (N. Y., 1874) , 
Beale, University Examinations for Women, a 
paper read before the Social Science Association 
(London, 1875); Report of the U. S. Commis- 
sioner of Education for 1874. 

FEMALE TEACHEKS. As long as female 
education continued to be neglected, the work of 
instructing pupils in schools devolved upon the 
other sex ; but inasmuch as girls were taught 
only in the household, these schools were com- 
posed exclusively of boys. A woman capable of 
teaching was an intellectual and social phenom- 
enon; for the position of females rendered the ac- 
quisition of learning unnecessary. A writer of the 
13th century enumerated, as the end and aim of 
female education, " the knowing how to pray to 
God, to love man, and to knit and sew." In pro- 
portion, however, as women were set free from 
the social bonds that prevented their receiving 
the due culture of their faculties, it was perceived 
that they were well fitted to take a due share in 
the work of elementary education. In the United 
States, the number of female teachers by far 
exceeds that of male teachers. According to the 
census of 1870, out of 169,577 teachers, 126,822, 
or about 74 percent, were females. In the New 
England states the excess of female teachers over 
males is very great. Thus, in Massachusetts, 
during 1874 — 5, the number of female teachers 
employed in the pubKc schools was 8,047 out of 



FEMALE TEACHERS 



FENELON 



305 



an aggregate of 9.21 (i. or nearly 88 per cent ; in 
Maine, the proportion, in summer, is about 97 
per cent, in winter, only 55 per cent ; in Con- 
necticut, the proportion is nearly as great ; in 
Vermont, in 1873, out of 4,400 teachers. 3,739, 
or nearly 90 per cent, were females. In the 
state of New York, about 07 per cent of all the 
teachers employed are females ; in the city of 
New York, out of 3,140 teachers employed in 
the public schools, in 1875, 2.842. or more than 
90 per cent were females. In the other large 
cities of the Union, the preponderance of female 
over male teachers is very great. In the city of 
Boston, for example, out of 1,289 teachers em- 
ployed in 1874, 1,091, or about 8."> per cent, were 
females. In most of the western states, there is 
a smaller percentage of female teachers. Thus, 
in Ohio, in 1873, the number of female teachers 
was 12.110 out of 21.899; in Missouri, Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, and Kansas, the number of 
male teachers is in excess of that of female 
teachers. In some of the European countries, 
the number of female teachers shows a similar 
preponderance ; but. as a rule, the male teachers 
are in a majority. Especially is this the case in 
most of the German states Thus in the jxiblic 
elementary schooLs of Prussia, there were, in 1857, 
31,407 male and only 1,523 female teachers. 

The reasons given for employing a large num- 
ber of female teachers are chiefly the following : 
(1) The peculiar fitness of women for the work 
of instructing children; (2) The limited number 
of employments in which women can engage ; 
(3) the superior compensation paid to female 
teachers, in comparison with that paid in other 
occupations, such as sewing, copying, etc.; (4) The 
fact that men of talent and enterprise can obtain 
a larger compensation in other fields of labor, in- 
duces most to quit the work of teaching at an 
early age ; (5) Women are often preferred to 
men by superintendents and school officers on 
account of their being more tractable, and more 
willing to comply with the regulations and 
to carry out the policy of special systems ; and 
(6) Considerations of economy, the salaries paid 
to female teachers being considerably smaller than 
those paid to males. The last mentioned reason, 
though generally veiy influential, in a few cases 
does not exist. The question of equal compen- 
sation for equal service has been much discussed, 
but has rarely b_ j en decided in favor of the female 
claimants for equal salary. The city of St. Louis 
makes no discrimination between male and female 
teachers in fixing their salaries. The California 
legislature of 1873 enacted that "females employed 
as teachers in the public schools of the state 
should, in all cases, receive the same compensa- 
tion as is allowed to male teachers for like services, 
when holding certificates of the same grade." 

Much has been said, in addition, as to the com- 
parative value of the services of male and female 
teachers; and there is a wide difference of opinion 
on this point. Many contend that it is "woman's 
special mission" to teach, and that, therefore, the 
whole field should be left open to her without 
any competition from the other sex ; and some 



of the school systems of the states and cities of 
the Cnion have been based, wholly or in part, 
upon this principle. In some of the city systems, 
all those regularly engaged iti teaching are women, 
male principals being employed only for executive 
duty in the general management. These schools 
are, however, mainly or wholly, elementary 
schools. It is the opinion of most educators 
that the masculine element should have as effect- 
ive scope in education as the feminine. A writer 
in the Massachusetts Teacher (April, 1874) ex- 
pressed this principle in the following manner : 
"As soon as our youth have passed beyond the 
primary stage of instruction, their minds should 
come systematically in contact with teachers of 
both sexes, to such an extent that the teaching, 
character, and influences of one sex shall fairly 
supplement and qualify those of the other." 
A number of German educators, as G. Baub 
(Grtnukuge der Erziehungslekre), Palmer, 
(Evangelische Padagogik), and Bexeke [Erzie- 
himgslehre),axe generally opposed to the appoint- 
ment of female teachers; but their views have 
not prevailed, and in Germany as well as in most 
of the other European countries, the scale on 
which female teachers are employed is steadily 
enlarging, and the number of training schools for 
female teachers correspondingly increasing. (See 
Training Schools). It is sometimes said that 
female teachers are more earnest and devoted 
than male teacher's, and consequently that their 
work is more successful. This might be antici- 
pated from the fact that women pursue teaching 
more as a steady employment ; while there are 
but few young men engaged in elementary schools, 
who are not looking forward to more lucrative 
and more influential occupations. In this con- 
nection, Adams, in The Free School Si/ste?n of 
the United States (1875), remarks: "The large 
preponderance of female teachers in the States 
will always render the occupation of teacher 
more or less a temporary one. As a matter quite 
of course, women do not look to teaching as a 
lifelong career. In England, scarcely one in 
twenty of the female teachers reaches her tenth 
year of service. Of the female teachers trained 
at Bishop's Stortford, it has been ascertained 
that their average school life was under five 
years. The proportion of female teachers in 
America is ten times greater than in England. 
Female teachers may have other advantages over 
males, and in the United States are generally 
conceded to have, but the length of their school 
life is not one of them." 

FENELON, Francois de Salignac de la 
Mothe, a celebrated French educator and prel- 
ate, was born Aug. G., 1651; died Jan. 7., 1715. 
He was, in 1674, ordained a priest, and four 
years later appointed aumonier of a society of 
French ladies for instructing Protestant girls in 
the Catholic faith. His experience in this posi- 
tion induced him to write a work on female 
education, one of the first systematic works 
written on the subject. "When the Duke of 
Beauvilliers was appointed governor of the 
royal princes, he procured the appointment of 



306 



FERULE 



FICTION 



Fenelon as one of their educators. The results 
of his labors in this position gained for him a 
reputation as one of the most successful educators 
of princes that ever lived. The oldest of the 
princes, the Duke Louis of Burgundy, who when 
Fenelon was appointed was only seven years old, 
but already noted for a propensity to violent 
anger and stubbornness, became, under the in- 
struction of Fenelon, the model of a meek, docile 
young prince, and was enthusiastically attached 
to his teacher. In 1695, the king appointed him 
Archbishop of Cambray ; but, two years later, 
he fell into disfavor with the king in consequence 
of theological controversies with Bossuet, and 
was removed from his position of educator. His 
famous work, Les Aventures de Telemaque, is 
an educational novel, the chief object of which 
is to develop the principles that guided Fenelon 
in the education of the three princes. It was 
completed about the time his personal intercourse 
with the princes ceased. It was published 
against his wish, the manuscript having been 
stolen by a servant. The best edition of his 
educational works is that of Uidot (Paris, 1850) ; 
the best English translation of Telemaque is that 
of Hawkesworth (4to, London, 1768, and 12mo, 
New York, 1 859) . — See also De Bausset, Histoire 
de Fenelon (Paris, 1808). 

FERULE (Lsct. ferula, from ferire, to strike), 
an instrument used in inflicting corporal punish- 
ment in schools. Allusion is made to it by Hor- 
ace and Juvenal ; by the latter in the remark, 
manum ferulce subduximiis. Among the Ro- 
mans, this was the instrument for the lightest 
kind of punishment; of a much severer kind 
were the scidica, made of twisted strips of parch- 
ment, and the terrible Jiagellum, a whip consist- 
ing of thongs of hard ox-hide. The exact form 
of the ferula as used by the Romans is not 
known ; in modern times, it was a fiat piece of 
wood, narrow at the handle, generally with a 
small hole in the middle of its broad part, for 
the purpose of raising a blister on the offender's 
hand. Sometimes, it was a broad leather strap, 
about ten inches long, and at its broad part 
about four or five inches wide, fastened to a 
wooden handle. The Scotch ferule, called the 
taws, was a leather strap with one end cut into 
strips and hardened in the fire. — See Cooper, 
History of the Bod. (See also Corporal Pun- 
ishment.) 

FESTIVALS, SCHOOL. See School Fes- 
tivals. 

FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, one of Ger- 
many's greatest philosophers, and one of the most 
noted writers on the subject of national educa- 
tion, was born May 19., 1762, and died Jan. 28., 
1814. He was, for some time, professor of phi- 
losophy at Jena ; but being charged with athe- 
ism by some persons who had completely mis- 
understood him, he left that university, and went 
to Berlin, where he afterward became a professor. 
His philosophy is a development of that of Kant, 
and rests entirely upon the notion that the mind 
constructs its objects by an internal necessity. All 
activity, as well as the condition of the existence 



of all things, depends upon the ego. Very many 
profound remarks and fine psychological anal- 
yses occur in his philosophical writings. His 
bent of mind was strongly ethical; he viewed 
nature as valueless except as a means for devel- 
oping the moral character of the individual. 
Like Kant he had the greatest abhorrence of all 
utilitarian ethics, and would not sanction any at- 
tempt to reduce the moral law to a means of 
gaining either happiness or heaven. His ad- 
dresses to the German nation, delivered while 
Napoleon was in Berlin, are full of this ethical 
rigor, and are so stirring, that it is a wonder 
that Napoleon suffered him to deliver them. 
His connection with pedagogy consists in his 
emphatic enunciation of the doctrine that edu- 
cation must be an unfolding of the whole nature, 
moral as well as mental. The mere acquisition 
of knowledge he viewed as the smallest part of 
education. The great aim of instruction is to 
make good men ; or, since will was the man 
with Mm, to develop a will to do right. His hatred 
of selfishness — which was probably much in- 
creased by the political events of his time — 
brought him into sharp antagonism with the pre- 
vailing theories both of education and of religion. 
He complained that the aim of the schools was 
simply to make men knowing, and that they 
were utterly indifferent to their moral develop- 
ment. Religion itself, he said, as taught, ministers 
to selfishness by its theory of rewards and punish- 
ments. Selfishness was, for him, the root of all 
evil, and tainted the old methods in church, school, 
and state. The new education, therefore, must 
aim to produce complete and unselfish men. 
This demand for unselfishness led Fichte, in his. 
Addresses to the German Nation (the book 
which contains his leading utterances on educa- 
tion) to lay down a theory of state or national 
education, in which the rights of the individual 
do not receive proper recognition. This was a 
necessary revolt from the individualism of the- 
previous century, but it was no less one-sided, 
and prepared the way for the opposite theory of 
Herbart. Concerning Fichte as an educator, 
see Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogik ; and 
Struempell, Die Padagogik der Philosophen 
Kant, Fichte, Herbart (1843). See also Fichte's 
Leben und Briefwechsel, edited by his son, J. H. 
Fichte (2 vols., 1830—31) ; and Dittes, Schule 
der Padagogik (Leipsic, 1876). 

FICTION, Works of, constitute an import- 
ant part of the literature used in the education 
of children. The young mind delights in inter- 
esting tales, and receives impressions therefrom, 
deeper and more durable perhaps than those 
derived from any other source. While it instinc- 
tively perceives what is fictitious in the scenes 
and incidents of the story, it imbibes as true the 
characters of the personages and their relations ; 
that is, it feels that such characters and relations 
may, possibly or actually, exist in real life. 
Hence, the awe with which children listen to 
supernatural narratives is due not only to the 
excited condition of their imagination, but to the 
feeling that had such things never existed they 



FICTION 



307 



would not have formed part of the story ; for 
stories are felt to be senseless and idle that tell 
of things entirely impossible. This principle may 
serve to guide the educator in selecting or reject- 
ing works of fiction for the young. They must 
be looked upon as powerful instruments in either 
benefiting or corrupting the minds of children. 
The writings of Mrs. Barbauld, Miss Edgeworth, 
Berquin, and in part those of Hans Andersen, 
are illustrative of this principle. Some of the 
stories of the latter must be classed among the 
impossible, and hence are much less instructive 
and interesting to children. Nor do children take 
any real interest in those stories usually found 
in Sunday-school books, which are designed 
to improve their moral and religious nature 
by presenting examples of juvenile virtue and 
goodness, such as they never behold in real life, 
and which they, therefore, look upon as senti- 
mental and of no account. "There is," said 
Margaret Fuller, " too much amongst us of the 
French way of palming off false accounts of 
things on children, 'to do them good', and show- 
ing nature to them in a magic lantern, 'purified 
for the use of childhood', and telling stories of 
sweet little girls and brave little boys, — O, all so 
good, so bad ! and, above all, so little, and every 
thing about them so little ! Children accustomed 
to move in full-sized apartments, and to converse 
with full-grown men and women, do not need so 
much of this baby-house style of literature. They 
like, or would like if they could get them, better 
things much more. They like the Arabian 
Nights, and Pilgrim's Progress, and Bunyaris 
Emblems, and Shakespeare, and the Iliad and 
Odyssey, — at least, they used to like them ; and 
if they do not now, it is because their taste has 
been injured by so many sugar-plums." In the 
same spirit, Rosenkranz says, "The purest stories 
of literature designed for the aimisement of 
children from their seventh to their fourteenth 
year, consist always of those which were honored 
by nations and the world at large. One has 
only to notice in how many thousand forms the 
stories of Ulysses are reproduced by the writers 
of children's tales. Becker's Tales of Ancient 
Times, Gustav Schwab's most admirable Sagas 
of Antiquity, Karl Crinim's Tales of Olden 
Times, &c. — what were they without the well- 
talking, wily favorite of Pallas, and the divine 
swineherd ? And just as indestructible are the 
stories of the old Testament up to the separation 
of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their 
wives and children, these judges and prophets, 
these kings and priests, are by no means ideals of 
virtue in the notion of our modern lifeless moral- 
ity, which would smooth out of its pattern stories 
for the 'dear children' every thing that is hard 
and uncouth." 

By means of suitable works of fiction, the 
minds of children and youth may be cultivated 
in several respects ; ( I ) By imparting vivid con- 
ceptions of persons and things ; (2) By impress- 
ing upon them sentiments of virtue, courage, and 
patriotism ; (3) By developing and training the 
imagination and the taste. Such were the reasons 



which prompted Fenelon to write Telemaque, 
and probably Xenophon in the compqsition of 
the Cyrqpcedia ; and tins office of fiction as a 
! vehicle of instruction and moral elevation has 
; been recognized by most, if not all, great educa- 
t tors. Pestalozzi selected it as the most effective 
means of reaching the popular mind. In his 
Leonard and Gertrude (178-1), he laid the 
foundation for a national pedagogical literature. 
"As real history," said Lord Bacon, in The Ad- 
vancement af Learning (ZV A iigmcnlis Scienti- 
arum), "disgusts us with a familiar and constant 
similitude of things, fiction relieves us by unex- 
pected turns and changes, and thus not only de- 
lights, but inculcates morality and nobleness of 
soul. It raises the mind by accommodating the 
image of things to our desires, and not. like his- 
tory and reason, subjecting the mind to tilings." 
There are, however, dangers to be avoided in us- 
ing fiction as an educational agent, which we 
may thus briefly summarize : (1) By its exciting 
character, it may so occupy or intoxicate the 
mind, as to destroy the taste for more solid and 
useful reading. Such is uniformly the result of 
permitting children to read the wild, romantic, 
and startling stories, with which some of the 
juvenile periodicals of the day are filled. The 
constant perusal of such narratives is baneful ; 
like ardent spirits, it intoxicates but does not 
nourish. (2) In the case of narratives which 
present instances of suffering, the sympathies 
are expended upon fictitious objects, and pity 
thus becomes habitually a mere sentiment, instead 
of prompting to active beneficence. "In the 
healthy state of the moral feelings," says Aber- 
crombie, "the emotion of sympathy excited by a 
tale of sorrow ought to be followed by some ef- 
forts for the relief of the sufferer. When such 
relations in real life are listened to from time to 
time without any such efforts, the emotion gradu- 
ally becomes weakened, and that moral condition 
is produced which we call selfishness, or hardness 
of heart." (3) 'By presenting to the young mind 
fictitious scenes of immorality, vice, or crime, it 
becomes familiar with their associations, and is 
thus depraved. (4) By impressing upon the 
mind false conceptions of the enjoyments, duties, 
and objects of life, it may be the means of pro- 
ducing a kind of infatuation, unfitting for every 
sphere of useful employment. Johnson, in Ras- 
selas well describes this mental condition : "The 
mind dances from scene to scene, unites all pleas- 
ures in all combinations, and riots in delights 
which nature and fortune, with all their bounty, 
cannot bestow. In time, some particular train 
of ideas fixes the attention ; all other intellect- 
ual gratifications are rejected; the mind, in 
weariness or leisure, recurs constantly to the 
favorite conception, and feasts on the luscious 
falsehood whenever she is offended with the bit- 
terness of truth. By degrees the reign of fancy 
is confirmed ; she grows imperious, and in time 
despotic. Then fictions begin to operate as re- 
alities, false opinions fasten upon the mind, and 
life passes in dreams of rapture or of anguish." 
(See Imagination, Culture of.) 



308. 



FINE ARTS 



FINLAND 



FINE ARTS, a term which has, of late, 
undergone considerable modification. Formerly, 
it was the collective name of all those arts which, 
through the power of invention or imitation, are 
designed to produce pleasure in the mind ; such 
as poetry, music, etc. Fine arts, in the widest 
sense of the word, constitute an important 
agency in every complete system of education; 
for the element of beauty, which exists in the 
human mind and should be trained no less than 
the intellect, the will, or the conscience, depends 
for its development, to a great extent, on the 
proper application of the arts of poetry, music, 
and drawing. (See Esthetic Culture, and Aet- 
Educatiox). More recently, the meaning of the 
term Fine Arts has been restricted to painting, 
sculpture, engraving, and architecture, which 
influence us through the eye. In a still narrower 
sense, it is somtimes applied to painting and 
sculpture exclusively. 

Special art schools may be divided into two 
large classes, — schools of a lower grade, chiefly 
intended for industrial purposes, and embracing 
instruction in drawing, modeling, and design ; 
and schools of higher grade, specially intended 
for the instruction of young artists in the fine 
arts, according to the more restricted sense of 
that term. The former class has been fully 
treated of under the head of art-education (q. v.). 
The schools of the latter class have generally 
been designated by the name Academies of Art. 
In ancient times and in the middle ages, schools 
of this kind were unknown; and the young 
artist was educated in the atelier of his master, 
by being trained to take an immediate and active 
part in the master's work. The first institution 
which bears a similarity to our present academies 
of art, was founded at Padua by Squarcione, 
who, by his collection of antique works of art 
and by encouraging a thorough study of antique 
art, exerted a powerful influence upon the Italian 
artists of the 15th century. The school which 
was opened by Leonardo da Vinci at Milan, 
is designated by the name of academy, and 
even at that early period contained the principal 
features of the modern academy of art, the 
personal element of the atelier being enlarged by 
general instruction. The entire separation of 
the academy of art from the atelier began in 
the school of Bologna, founded by Lodovico 
Caracci, and soon met with general approbation. 
The influences proceeding from Louis XIV., 
closely attached art to the royal courts, and con- 
verted the academies of art, to a large extent, 
into court institutions. Among the most famous 
institutions of this kind, were the schools of 
Paris, founded in 1648, of Berlin, in 1694, 
Dresden, in 1697, and Vienna, in 1726. The 
revival of the fine arts, in modern times, caused 
also a revival of the academies of art and raised 
them to a higher standard. It, moreover, re- 
established the close connection which formerly 
existed between instruction and the work of the 
ateliers. Great celebrity, in modern times, has 
been attained by the schools of Munich and 
Dusseldorf. In Great Britain and Ireland, 



there are also schools for artists, located in 
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. France has 
3 schools of fine Arts ; and Italy, 25 academies 
and institutes. Russia has imperial academies of 
art at St. Petersburg and Warsaw, and a 
school of painting and sculpture at Moscow. 
The schools for artists in the United States have 
already been mentioned in the article on Art- 
Education. 

FINLAND, a grand duchy in the north- 
western part of the Russian Empire, having an 
area of 144,258 square miles, and a population, 
in 1872, of 1,835,138. Of this number, about 
five-sixths are Finns ; and of the remainder 
about 30,000 are Swedes, and 4,000 Russians. 
The great majority of the inhabitants belong to 
the Lutheran Church, very few of the native 
Finns having joined the Greek Church. Less 
is known of the early history of Finland than of 
any other country of Europe. It was originally 
governed by independent kings ; but, in the 
middle of the 12th century, it became subject to 
the kings of Sweden, who introduced Christian- 
ity, and retained their hold upon it up to 1809, 
when it was ceded to Russia. The Swedish 
language had taken such a deep root, however, 
that the Russians have not been able to eradicate 
it up to the present day. Very little was done 
for education in Finland up to the 17th century. 
In 1826, a gymnasium was founded in Abo, the 
pupils of which were educated to serve as clergy- 
men : but, in their learning and manners, they 
were not much better than the great mass of 
the people. In 1640, Abo obtained a university ; 
but the great obstacle to the spread of education, 
was the want of books. In 1642, a Finnish Bible 
was published at the expense of the government; 
and, by the efforts of the governor, Peter Brahe, 
the schools were greatly improved. During the 
northern war, which lasted up to 1721, Finland 
suffered very much ; but, after the conclusion of 
peace, education was revived, both in the Swed- 
ish and Russian parts of the country ; and insti- 
tutions of learning were every-where established. 
At the present time, education is well cared for, 
and the Finnish language, which had been 
neglected under the Swedish rule, is encouraged 
by the Russian government. A large number 
of native Finns were sent to Germany and 
Switzerland, in order to study the educational 
systems of those countries, and to become ac- 
quainted with them, both theoretically and 
practically. Among them, one of the most 
prominent was Uno Cygnaus, who, on his return, 
advocated manual labor as a means of education; 
and, in his proposition for the organization of a 
public-school system for Finland, he embodied 
this idea. In 1863, he was entrusted with the 
organization of a Finnish seminary for public- 
school teachers in Jyvaskyla. This met with so 
much success, that in 1871, two more were 
organized for Swedes, — one at Ekenas for female 
teachers, and the other at Ny-Karleby for male 
teachers. According to the latest accounts, 
there were 71 elementary schools, with about 
9,000 scholars. Secondary instruction is im- 



FISK UNIVERSITY 



FLORIDA 



309 



parted in 6 gymnasia ; and, for superior instruc- 
tion, there is one university at Helsingfors, with 
48 professors. Special instruction is provided 
for in the following schools : one cadet corps at 
Frederikshamn. three navigation schools, three 
technological schools, three commercial schools, 
one institute for rural economy, at Mustiala, ten 
agricultural schools, six industrial schools for 
girls, and one female academy, or high school, at 
Helsingfors. — See Busch, Beitrcige zur Ge- 
schichte mid Statistik den Kirchen- tend Schul- 
wesens des Grossfurstenihums Finnland (1874). 

FISK UNIVERSITY, at Nashville, Tenn., 
Was established by the American Missionary 
Association in 1866. The name was given in 
honor of Gen. Clinton B. Fisk, then chief of the 
Freedmen's Bureau for Tennessee, who aided in 
its establishment. It was known as the Fisk 
School till 1867, when it was incorporated as a 
university. It makes no distinction of race or 
sex, but the institution was especially designed 
for colored youth, and the students are mainly 
colored. It has received some aid from thj 
Freedmen's Bureau and the Peabody Fund, and 
a gift of between three and four acres of land 
from the United States ; but its support is 
chiefly derived from the Association. In 1871, 
a number of the students were organized as a 
singing band, known as the " Jubilee Singers." 
These and their successors, by concerts in the 
Northern states and in England, earned clear of 
expenses $130,000, which was devoted to the 
purchase of a permanent site for the University, 
comprising 25 acres, in a beautiful situation in 
the suburbs of the city, and to the erection of 
a fine building (dedicated .Ian, 1., 1876), called 
Jubilee Hall. The singers are now (1876) in 
England, engaged in the effort to raise an en- 
dowment of §100,000 for the institution. The 
property of the university is valued at ©176.000; 
its library contains 1,300 volumes; and it has 
chemical and philosophical apparatus, and a col- 
lection of over 3,000 specimens in natural history, 
geology, and zoology. Six courses of study have 
been organized; namely, a collegiate, a college pre- 
paratory, a higher normal, a theological, a nor- 
mal, and a primary course. Other courses, in- 
cluding law and medicine, are to be added as soon 
as they are required. The first college class, con- 
sisting of 4 students, graduated in 1875. In 1875 
— 6, there were 14 instructors. The number of 
students was as follows : in the college course, 1 1 ; 
in the college preparatory, 38 ; higher normal, 10; 
theological, 13 ; normal, 93 ; primary, 63 ; total, 
deducting repetitions, 212. The tuition fees 
vary from $9 to $13 per year. Prof. John 
Ogden was principal of the institution from 
1866 to 1870; and Prof. A. K. Spence, M.A., 
from 1870 to 1875. In 1875, the Rev. E. M. 
Cravath, M. A., was elected president. 

FLATTICH, Johann Friedricb., a Ger- 
man educator of the Pietistic School, was born 
October 30., 1713. at Baihingen. near Ludwigs- 
burg. He was successively garrison chaplain at 
Hohenasperg, and pastor at Metterzimmern and 
at Miinchingen, at the latter of which places he 



died, June 1., 1797. He was generally regarded 
in liermany as one of the most successful educa- 
tors in the country ; and there were always, at 
his parsonage, classes of pupils of all ages and 
various grades of advancement. He seemed to 
prefer as pupils those children whose parents 
were unable to manage them, or who seemed 
defective in mind or manners. He sought to 
avoid severity in discipline, and to govern by 
love. He objected to the use of the rod, not, he 
said, because it was not necessary with many, 
but because it was difficult to use it aright. He 
believed that the methods of instruction should 
be adapted to each child, according to his special 
disposition and endowments, the circumstances 
of his age, his bodily and mental strength, his 
disposition, his family condition, and the calling 
to which he was destined. Progress in instruc- 
tion should be made by slow steps, beginning 
with teaching of a simple character, ami grad- 
ually building up the understanding, and strength- 
ening the mental powers. Flattich's fame rests 
not so much on his actual work 'as a teacher, on 
the distinction attained by any of his pupils, or 
even on his written works, as on the pithy maxims 
in which he expressed his views on education. 
These maxims are often quoted in Protestant 
works on the subject, and have had considerable 
influence in molding the theory of teachers. — 
See Leddkriiosk. Lehen und Schriften des M. 
Johann Friedrich Flattich (4th edit. Heidel- 
berg, 1859) ; Scii.efer, Flattich mid sein pada- 
gogisches System (Frankfort. 1871). 

FLORIDA was ceded to the United States 
by Spain, by a treaty concluded in Washington 
in 1819, but not ratified till 1820. In 1821, the 
United States authorities took formal possession 
of its new dominions; and in 1 822 , President Mon- 
roe appointed William Duval of Kentucky gov- 
ernor of the territory. It was admitted into 
the Union as a state, March 3., 1845. Its pop- 
ulation, in 1830, was reported to be 34,730, of 
whom 15,501 were slaves; in 1870, according to 
the census of that year, the popidation was 
187,748, of whom 91.089 were free colored per- 
sons. The number of inhabitants, of all races, 
10 years old and upward, unable to write, was 
71,803. Of these 18,904 were whites, of whom 
5,083 were from 10 to 15 years old, and 4,345 
from 15 to 21. Of the colored inhabitants 
52,894 were reported as illiterate. The area of 
the state is 59,268 square miles. 

Educational History. — As early as 1839, a 
provision was inserted into the proposed consti- 
tution that the lands received for " the use of 
schools and seminaries of learning" should be 
held inviolate ; but there was no efficient com- 
mon school system in the state previous to 1869. 
In 1840, five years before the admission of Flor- 
ida into the Union, there were 18 academies and 
grammar schools, with 732 students, and 51 com- 
mon and primary schools, with 925 pupils. Ac- 
cording to the census report of 1850, there were 
10 academies and 69 common or public schools. 
In 1860, the census report gave Florida 97 pub- 
lic schools, with 2,032 pupils ; and 138 acade- 



310 



FLORIDA 



mies and other schools, with 4,486 pupils. The 
whole educational income was $75,412, of which 
$2,045 was from endowments. The constitution 
of 1865 contained a provision designed to secure 
for the benefit of the schools of the state the in- 
come derived from the school lands ; but little 
was done to promote the cause of education till 
the passage of the school law, Jan. 30., 1869, on 
which the present school system is based. 

State Superintendents. — The first state super- 
intendent of public instruction was C. Thurston 
Chase, appointed Aug. 13., 1868, under whose 
advice and direction the school law of the fol- 
lowing year was enacted. He held the office 
until his death Sept. 22., 1870 ; and Eev. Charles 
Beecher was appointed to succeed him March 18., 
1871, who served until .Tan. 23., 1873, when, a 
new administration coming into possession of the 
state government, he was superseded by Jonathan 
C. Gibbs. The latter held the office till his 
death, which occurred Aug. 11., 1874. William 
Watkin Hicks, the present incumbent, was ap- 
pointed March 1., 1875. 

School System. — The school law provides for 
the establishment of a uniform system of public 
instruction free to all children between the ages 
of 6 and 21 years. The officers of the depart- 
ment of public instruction consist of a superin- 
tendent, a state board of education, a board of 
public instruction for each county, a superin- 
tendent of schools for each county, local school 
trustees, treasurers, and agents. Each county 
board of public instruction consists of not more 
than five members, appointed by the state board 
of education. The board of education consists 
of the superintendent of public instruction, the 
secretary of state, and the attorney general, the 
superintendent being the president of the board. 
Its duties are, to take charge of' and control the 
sale or rental of all lands granted to, or held by, 
the state for educational purposes ; to have 
charge and direct the use of all educational 
funds of the state ; to audit the accounts of the 
superintendent ; to decide questions and appeals 
referred to them by the superintendent ; to re- 
move subordinate officers for cause ; and to keep 
in view the establishment of a university, the 
object of which shall be to impart instruction in 
the professions of teaching, medicine, and law, 
in natural science, the theory and practice of 
agriculture, horticulture, mining, engineering, 
and the mechanic arts ; also in the ancient and 
modern languages, higher mathematics, literature, 
and in such useful and ornamental branches as 
are not taught in the common schools. The 
superintendent holds office four years, and is re- 
quired to have the oversight, management, and 
charge of all matters pertaining to public lands, 
school buildings, grounds, furniture, libraries, 
text-books, and apparatus ; to furnish all school 
officers .with the necessary blanks for official re- 
turns, and information regarding the proper dis- 
charge of their duties ; to provide plans and 
specifications for the construction and furnish- 
ing of school buildings ; to call meetings of 
county superintendents and other officers for the 



purpose of advising and instructing them as to 
their duties ; to grant certificates to successful 
teachers, and to fix the grades and standards of 
qualification of teachers in general ; to apportion 
the interest of the school fund and that raised 
by the one-mill tax among the counties in pro- 
portion to the number of children residing there- 
in between the ages of 6 and 21 ; to decide 
questions and appeals arising under the school 
act, or to refer the same to the board of education ; 
to collect and preserve useful educational and 
historical documents, and specimens of natural 
history. Each county board is constituted a 
corporate body, and may take and hold real and 
personal property for educational purposes. Its 
duties are to have charge of all educational prop- 
erty in the county ; to locate and maintain 
schools where needed, so as to accommodate all 
the children of school age in the county, not 
less than three months of each year ; to examine 
candidates for teachers' licenses, and grant certif- 
icates to those found competent ; and to keep 
a record of its official proceedings. The county 
superintendent is secretary ex officio of the 
board of public instruction ; and, in addition to 
keeping the records, he is required to make him- 
self acquainted with all parts of the county, and 
to keep himself informed of the needs and wishes 
of the people in regard to schools ; to visit each 
school at least once in each term, and to confer 
with and direct the teachers in their work ; to 
exercise a supervision over the trustees, the gen- 
eral management of the schools, and do all in his 
power to awaken an increased interest in parents, 
trustees, and teachers, in regard to every thing 
pertaining to the welfare of the schools ; also to 
select persons for trustees, whose characters, 
qualifications, and sympathy with education 
specially commend them for such positions ; to 
decide questions in dispute, or refer them to 
the board of public instruction ; to keep a record 
of the name, description, and locality of every 
school established ; and to perform the duties, as 
far as may be necessary, of the board of public 
instruction, in case such a body should not be 
organized, or should fail without good cause to 
perform its duties. The school trustees are re- 
quired to take special charge of the schools in 
their respective localities, to see to the construc- 
tion and safe-keeping of the school buildings and 
other property, to co-operate with the teachers 
in maintaining order and discipline, to suspend 
or expel pupils for misconduct ; and to make a 
quarterly report to the county superintendent. 
Certificates of qualification to teach, valid 
for one year, may be granted by the county 
boards of' public instruction, also by the state 
superintendent to graduates of the Department 
of Teaching, and to eminently successful teach- 
ers, valid in any part of the state during the 
time specified. These certificates are of three 
grades, the standard for each being fixed by the 
state superintendent. A certificate may be an- 
nulled by the authority which issued it. for any 
cause which would disqualify a candidate for 
a license. 



FLORIDA 



FOREIGN EDUCATION 



311 



Teachers are specially directed to labor ear- 
nestly and faithfully for the advancement of the 
pupils in their studies, and to inculcate by pre- 
cept and example the principles of truth, hon- 
esty, patriotism, and the practice of every Chris- 
tian virtue; to require the pupils to observe 
personal cleanliness, order, and good manners, to 
cultivate in them habits of industry and economy, 
a regard for the rights and feelings of others and 
for their own responsibilities and duties as 
citizens ; to see that the buildings and furniture 
are not unnecessarily defaced or injured; to enforce 
needful discipline, avoiding unnecessary severity 
and measures degrading in their tendency ; to 
suspend pupils from school for ten days for gross 
immorality, misconduct, or persistent violation 
of the school regulations ; and to hold a public 
examination each term. The reading of the 
Bible and short devotional exercises of a non- 
sectarian character, at the opening of the school, 
are not to be prohibited ; but no pupil is to be 
required to engage in them against his conscience, 
or contrary to the wishes of his parents or 
guardian. 

A school day is defined to consist of six hours 
■exclusive of recesses ; a school month, of twenty- 
two days, exclusive of the first and last day of 
each week ; a school term , of three months ; and 
•a, school year, of three terms. 

School Fund. — The school fund consists of the 
Kith section of the various townships set apart 
by act of Congress for common-school purposes, 
the original amount of which, in Florida, was 
704.IJ92 acres, of which 110,1x4 have been sold 
(1875) ; state bonds amounting to $205,252, 63 ; 
and various donations by individuals for educa- 
tional purposes. Besides the income from these 
sources, there are appropriations by the state ; 
the proceeds of all property granted to the state, 
when the purpose of the grant is not specified ; 
all moneys which may be paid for exemption 
from military duty ; all fines collected under the 
penal laws of the state ; such portion of the per 
capita tax as may be prescribed by law for ed- 
ucational purposes ; twenty-five per cent of the 
proceeds of the sales of public lands which are 
now or may hereafter be owned by the state ; a 
special tax of not less than one mill on the 
dollar upon all taxable property in the state, to 
be levied and apportioned annually for the 
support of common schools ; a county tax to be 
raised by each county, annually producing a sum 
not less than one-half of the amount apportioned 
to each county from the income of the common 
school fund. 

The seminary lands were granted by Congress 
for the support of two seminaries, one to be 
located east, and the other west of the Suwanee 
River, and amounted originally to 85,714 acres. 
Of these about 38,000 acres remain unsold. The 
sun! realized by the sale of these lands has 
amounted to about $100,000 ; and the estimated 
value of the remainder is about $75,00(1. In 
addition to this, there are Florida (>, 7, and 8 per 
■cent bonds, amounting to $81,492.45. There is 
oo uniform course of instruction established as 



yet in the state. In the high schools, the usual 
higher English and classical studies are pursued; 
also the modern languages. The salaries of 
teachers, in the high schools, range from $75 to 
8175 a month ; and. in the common and primary 
schools, from $20 to $60 a month, according to 
the number of pupils and the qualifications of the 
teachers. 

Educational Condition. — There are three 
grades of schools, — liigh, common, and primary, 
in the principal towns ; in the country schools no 
grading is at present possible. The whole number 
of schools, in 1874, was 557, all of which wire 
common or primary except b' high schools, located 
as follows: in Jacksonville, 2, — Duval High 
School and Staunton Institute; in Pensacola, 1 ; 
in Key West, 1 ; in Monticello, 1 ; and at Fort 
Reid, 1. 

The following are the principal items of the 
school statistics for 1 874 : 

Number of pupils enrolled 21,196 

Average daily attendance 15.S97 

Number of teachers, male and female G50 

Receipts from all sources $103,774.53* 

Total expenditures 1139,870.6] 

There are no city-school systems proper in this 
state, the management of all the schools in each 
county being in the hands of the county board 
of public instruction. 

Seminaries. — The Middle Florida Seminary, 
located at Gainesville, and the West Florida 
Seminary, at Tallahassee, are supported by the 
special funds above mentioned. They are free 
to all the youth of the counties in which they 
are situated, and to those of the adjoining 
counties. The course of study includes common 
and higher English branches, with the classics 
and the modern languages. There are also several 
private and denominational schools in various 
parts of the state. 

Superior Instruction. — There is no institution 
for superior instruction in Florida ; but a state 
agricultural college has been planned and provided 
for by law, and was to have been inaugurated 
some time ago ; but this has been delayed by pend- 
ing litigation in regard to the constitutionality 
of the state bonds in which the college funds 
had been invested. Of this college when estab- 
lished the state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion will be ex officio the president. 

Educational Literature. — The Fkrnandina 
Observer is the official organ of the state educa- 
tional department, 

FOREIGN EDUCATION. By this is 
meant the education of children in foreign coun- 
tries. Parents in the United State's sometimes 
send their children to France or Germany to be 
educated, in preference to having them instructed 
in the schools of their native country. The custom 
also exists to some extent in Great Britain. The 
motive which prompts this course is the desire 
that their children shall have the best means of 
instruction, and the impression that this is af- 
forded by the teachers and schools of Europe. 

* Including $8,000 from the Peabody fund. 



312 



FOREIGN EDUCATION 



FORM 



Very frequently, however, it arises from the wish 
on the part of parents to accomplish their children 
in foreign languages, particularly French and 
German. " Some parents," says Von Raumer, 
" who think no attainment valuable in compar- 
ison with a facility in speaking French, send their 
daughters to French or Swiss schools, where 
they can hear and speak nothing but French. In 
such a foreign atmosphere they too often become 
estranged from their native home and country." 
" For our youth," says B. G. Northrop, "Ameri- 
can schools are better than European. To send 
our boys and girls away to a foreign boarding- 
school is a great mistake, or rather one of the 
fashionable follies which is just now having its 
day." Parents who adopt this course, seem to 
lose sight of the important fact that the school is 
not the only educator, nay, is not generally the 
most effective means of education. The influences 
that cluster around the home-circle, and that 
emanate from the peculiar laws, customs, man- 
ners, and institutions of the country in which the 
child lives, leave their indelible impress upon the 
plastic character of youth ; and these influences 
should be such as to form a character in har- 
mony with the life of the nation of which the 
child when grown up is to form a part. Lin- 
guistic and esthetic training cannot be a satisfac- 
tory substitute for this national culture. It is of 
little use that young men or women know how to 
speak fluently and correctly French, German, 
Italian, or any other foreign language, or excel 
in either judging or executing works of art, if 
they are ignorant of, or indifferent to, the lan- 
guage and institutions of their own country. 
Children growing up in a foreign land must nec- 
essarily imbibe a predilection for foreign man- 
ners, customs, and sentiments, because these are 
inseparably associated with the most delightful 
part of their existence. Every one reverts with 
pleasure to the scenes of childhood, consecrated 
in the mind, as they are, by the memory of the 
enjoyments peculiar to that age. It is this that 
renders the foreign education of children so dan- 
gerous, as tending to unfit them for the duties of 
special citizenship. How often do we hear the 
most unfavorable criticism pronounced upon the 
institutions and customs of the native country 
by those whose notions, associations, and modes 
of thought have been formed by a foreign educa- 
tion ! " The experience of American colleges," 
says B. G. Northrop, " is believed to be nearly 
uniform, as to the superiority in the qualifica- 
tion of candidates trained at home over our 
youth prepared for college abroad. The number 
of the latter class is relatively small ; but the 
instances of eminent success, either in college 
studies or practical life on the part of American 
boys chiefly educated abroad, are rare and excep- 
tional." 

These objections, of course, do not apply to 
the practice of sending abroad young men and 
women of more mature age, either to finish their 
education in foreign schools or universities, or to 
acquire a knowledge of some special arts in tech- 
nical schools, because the national character hav- 



ing been once fully formed, is not easily affected 
by later influences and conversations. Young- 
men, among the Romans, particularly in the later 
periods of the republic, were often sent to Greece 
and other countries to finish their scholastic or 
literary education. Thus Cicero addresses his 
De qfficiis to his son Marcus, then a young man 
of 21, who had been for some time pursuing 
his studies in the schools of Athens. In the same 
manner and with equal propriety, a young man 
may be sent from the United States to any of 
the great European universities, either in Great 
Britain or on the continent, to pursue linguistic, 
scientific, technical, artistic, or other studies, for 
which those institutions are able to afford greater- 
facilities than are offered at home. 

Foreign travel constitutes an important part 
of a complete education, and is not at all subject 
to the objections which are urged against a 
foreign elementary education. Nothing more 
enlarges the mind than the observation of the 
manners, institutions, etc.. of foreign countries. 
New and vivid ideas are impressed upon it ; 
narrow prejudices are removed ; and a founda- 
tion is laid for just and liberal thought. This, 
however, should occur at a comparatively mature- 
age, and should be preceded by sufficient educa- 
tion to fit for the observation of things abroad. 
„ Foreign travel," says Bishop Watson (cited in 
Knox on Liberal Education), "is of great use 
when it is undertaken by men who have learned 
to bring their passions under the control of 
reason and religion ; who have had some experi- 
ence in life, acquired some knowledge of the 
manufactures, policy, revenues, and resources of 
their own country." — See Northrop, Education 
of Americans abroad (New York). 

FORM, one of the most important branches- 
of object teaching, since, from the first dawn of 
intellect, the endless variety of forms presented 
to the child's sight constitutes perhaps the most 
effective means of awakening and exercising its 
perceptive faculties. The first comparison which 
the young child makes between the objects of its 
perception must be based upon their resemblances, 
the conscious perception of differences occurring; 
somewhat later. This arises from its need of 
forming general ideas as preliminary to the exer- 
cise of its thinking powers. '(See Intellect.) The 
diversity of forms, like that of color, as seen by 
the child, very greatly interests it and attracts 
its attention ; and, hence, when formal education 
begins, the child has already accumulated in its 
mind, in a rude and indefinite way, many 
materials which the expert teacher will use, in 
guiding his pupil to more exact knowledge. 
The untaught child's vocabulary of terms to 
denote the various forms which it has seen is 
very meager ; and, hence, its conceptions are too 
indefinite to form the materials for conscious, 
thought. They are, as it were, only embryotic 
thoughts, to be developed by the power of 
language. Hence, an important office of the in- 
structor is to teach the proper term, or word, by 
which each particular object of the child's atten* 
tion is to be designated, and in this way clearly 



FORM 



FOUNDLING ASYLUMS 



313 



individualized. For example, a young child 
intuitively perceives the difference between the 
form of a round object and a square one ; but 
before the terms round and square have been 
learned as the names of these forms, they cannot 
be used by the mind in any process of thought. 
Besides, the young mind, in the exercise of its 
unaided powers, is chiefly occupied with the 
observation of resemblances and analogies, and 
only after the guidance of the teacher, comes to 
recognize clearly points of difference, the sense if 
analogy, as it has been called, taking the lead in 
the first stages of mental development. 

In making use of form as a basis for training 
the observing faculties the teacher should be 
guided by the following principles: (1) Resem- 
blances are perceived before differences ; (2) The 
concrete precedes the abstract ; (3) Every object 
is perceived as a whole before its component 
parts are noticed ; (4) Every idea must have its 
proper verbal designation to be clearly and 
permanently fixed in the mind. The teacher 
should, therefore, begin with simple regular forms, 
such as the cube, prism, parallelopiped, pyramid, 
sphere, cone, and cylinder. These, at first, should 
be all alike in material and color, and about 
the same in size, so that the teacher may clearly 
develop the idea oiform, as the rudimental step 
in the instruction. At first the process should 
be very slow. Thus the teacher holds up to the 
view of the pupils a cubical block of wood [one 
of the box of solids usually employed in such 
lessons], and asks, "What is this?" And the 
children probably reply, " A piece of wood." 
Then the teacher presents successively the sphere, 
cone, cylinder, etc., asking the same question and 
obtaining the same answer. The teacher then 
says, " Each of these is a piece of wood ; are 
they all alike? " To which the children answer, 
"No." "Do they differ in color?" "No." 
" In size ? " " No." This leads the teacher to 
show, in a very general way, not by giving names 
at first, but by directing the pupils' attention, 
that the objects differ inform ; that is, each has 
its own peculiar form. The teacher may then 
go back to the cube, and ask the pupils to men- 
tion any other things they have seen which have 
the same form as the block of wood ; and so on 
with the other forms. This exercise being a 
perfectly natural one will awaken interest, 
besides familiarizing the children with the par- 
ticular forms presented. The next step will be 
to lead the children to observe the points of 
difference between these forms ; and, in order to 
do this, the analytic process must begin. Thus, 
the teacher develops the idea of side ox face, and 
the pupils perceive that the cube has six faces : 
the edges, corners, and equality offices and 
edges may then be observed. When the pupil 
has perceived the distinctive characteristics of 
the form, its name, as cube, prism, etc., may be 
taught. This method requires the teacher to 
begin with solids (as the concrete) and to deduce 
from the observation of them the ideas of sur- 
face, line, and point (as the abstract), in accord- 
ance with the principle (2). After these ideas 



have been thus developed, and the method of 
representing lines and figures on the blackboard 
shown to the pupil, he is prepared for varied 
slate and blackboard exercises on the positions 
and combinations of lines both straight and 
curved, to be followed by similar exercises on 
plane figures. The study of form thus passes 
into that of drawing, in connection with which 
inventive exercises of a simple character may be 
employed, the children being shown how to 
combine lines and figures into simple patterns or 
designs. Of a similar but more elementary 
character are block combinations, which will 
serve to interest and instruct very young children. 
Boxes of blocks made for this purpose, with de- 
signs for construction, can be readily obtained. 
Charts containing diagrams of plane figures will 
also be found very useful in giving lessons on 
form. These lessons should be systematic, not 
desultory, but regularly arranged, with the under- 
lying principle kept steadily in view. Especially 
should the teacher guard against requiring the 
pupils to commit to memory formal geometrical 
definitions, the chief point to be attained being 
the discipline of the observing faculties. — See 
Cirrie, Principles and Practice of Early School 
Eilucalion (Edin. and Ixjnd.) ; Hailman, Out- 
lines of Object -Teaching (N. Y.,1867); Oalkins, 
Primari/ Object Lessons (N. Y., 1871) ; How to 
Teach (N. Y.; 1874). 

FORT WAYNE COLLEGE, at Fort 
Wayne, Ind., founded in 1846, is under the 
patronage of the North and North-West Indiana 
Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
It is situated in the most pleasant part of the 
city, and occupies a large and commodious edi- 
fice. It comprises six departments : the college 
(with a classical and a scientific course), the 
normal, commercial, and academic departments, 
and those of music and art. It is supported by 
tuition fees, and both sexes are admitted. In 
1875 — G, there were 11 instructors and 132 
students. The Rev. Reuben D. Robinson, D.,D., 
is the president of the college (1876). 

FOUNDLING ASYLUMS are institutions 
in which children are received who have been 
abandoned by their parents. The Christian 
Church, in the earliest period of its history, pro- 
vided for foundlings ; and, as early as the sixth 
century, a foundling asylum is said to have ex- 
isted in Treves. But the first institution of this 
kind of which we have any authentic informa- 
tion is that of Milan, founded in 787. Others 
followed in course of time, and they spread 
rapidly. Later, they disappear from the Ger- 
manic countries, and principally from those iu 
which the Protestant faith prevailed ; while 
they continued to spread in the Catholic and 
Romanic countries. Particularly have they in- 
creased in France, and wherever French influence 
has predominated. Thus in France the number 
of foundlings received in asylums increased 
from 40,000, in 1784, to 129,700 in 1834. In 
Austria proper, there were, in 1872, 15 foundling 
asylums, taking care of 13,725 children in the 
institutions, and 42,460 outside. The number of 



314 



FOURIER 



FRANCE 



foundlings annually received in Rome is esti- 
mated at 3,000; in Naples, at 2,000; and in Tus- 
cany, at about 12,000. Spain had, in I860, 149 
asylums, with 53,464 foundlings. Portugal had, 
in the same year, 21 asylums, with 33,500 found- 
lings, 16,000 being received annually. England 
has foundling asylums in London and Wanstead. 
The institution in London, in 1870, maintained 
504 children. The only asylum in Dublin was 
closed in 1835. . Norway has several institutions 
of this kind, and the number of foundlings has, for 
■some years, been more than 9 per cent of the total 
number of births. Sweden has also an asylum at 
Stockholm. There are but few foundling asylums 
in the United States, the children being generally 
brought to the alms-houses. In New York, a 
Catholic asylum was founded in 1869, which re- 
ceived considerable aid, in money and grants of 
land, from the state. Besides this institution, 
there are several others in the same city, all, how- 
ever, established and controlled by private char- 
ity. The Nursery and Child's Hospital, founded 
in 1 854, has, however, a school, which is partly sup- 
ported from the state school fund. This asylum 
has a country branch on the north shore of Staten 
Island. Nowhere, in the United States, has the 
government taken any further part in the erec- 
tion of foundling asylums, than to aid them with 
money and grants of land. Considerable differ- 
ence of opinion exists as to the utility of found- 
ling asylums. One of the chief objections raised 
against them is the excessive mortality of the chil- 
dren ; but this has been greatly reduced by send- 
ing the children into the country, and boarding 
them out in private families. Very little has 
been done for the education of foundlings, at 
least in the asylums, as they are sent to other in- 
stitutions for instruction, and continued there 
up to their thirteenth or fourteenth year, after 
which they are provided with places of employ- 
ment, generally as apprentices to farmers and 
•others. In Rome, a large number of the chil- 
dren are educated in families. The boys that 
return to the asylum, are sent to the foundling 
asylum in Yiterbo, where they learn trades up 
to their twenty-first year, when they are dismis- 
sed with a present of 10 scudi. If they remain 
in the families, they are educated in the same 
manner, and, when of age, receive a similar 
present. The girls are kept in the families or in 
the asylum until they marry, when they receive 
a dowry of 100 scudi. In Russia, foundlings 
are educated for a trade or profession ; and those 
who show particular talents are sent to the uni- 
versity. Here also the children are boarded in 
private families as much as possible. In Russia 
and France, agricultural colonies have also been 
established, where the boys are brought up as 
farmers. — See Huegel, Die Findelhduser und 
das Findelmesen Europa's (1863). 

FOURIER, Pierre, the founder of an edu- 
cational order of the Catholic Church, was born at 
Mireeourt, Lorraine, in 1565, and died in Gray, 
Franche-Comte, in 1640. He studied, for a time, 
in the university of Pont-a-Mousson, where 
he led a very strict life. At the age of seven- 



teen years, he began to teach in the highest 
families, and conceived the plan of devoting his 
entire life to the education of youth. He entered 
the order of Premoutre ; and when the dissolute 
monks compelled him to leave the order, he be- 
came the parish priest of Mataincourt, where he 
gained a great reputation as an educator. In 1 5 9 8 , 
with Alice Le Clerc and other nuns, he formed 
an educational institution for girls. In 1603, he 
obtained a papal bull for the organization of the 
society of Notre Dame de Lorraine, of which 
Alice Le Clerc was the first abbess ; and this 
society was confirmed by Paul V., in 1616. The 
order spread rapidly and has, at present, flourish- 
ing establishments in France, Hungary, Canada, 
the New England States, and Chili, with its 
central house for America in Montreal. He also 
reformed the canons of the order of Premontre, 
who bound themselves to the education of 
christian youths. In 1632, he was elected superior 
general of the new society, which called itself 
St. Sauveur de Lorraine. He was beatified Jan. 
29., 1730, and is generally styled the Blessed 
Peter Fourier. — See Rittee, Der selige P. 
Fourier. (Linz, 1855). 

FRACTION'S. See Arithmetic. 

FRANCE, one of the principal countries of 
Europe, having an area of 204,090 sq. m., and 
a population, according to t>e census of 1872, of 
36,102,921. Formerly France had immense pos- 
sessions in America, far exceeding those of Great 
Britain ; but of these she, at present, retains but 
a very small part. During the present century, 
however, French rule has been extended over 
considerable territories in northern Africa, Far- 
ther India, and the insular world in the Pacific. 
The total area of the French colonies and de- 
pendencies, inclusive of Algeria, was estimated, 
in 1875, at about 373,000 sq. m., having a popu- 
lation of about 6.600,000. Including its colonies 
and dependencies, France occupied, in 1876. the 
fifth rank among the nations of the earth in 
regard to population, and the twelfth in point of 
territorial extent. The people of France proper 
are remarkably homogeneous in language and 
religion. Almost the entire population speak 
the French language, and more than 98 per cent 
are actually or nominally connected with the 
Catholic Church. 1 hus France is the chief re- 
presentative, among the countries of the earth, 
of what is sometimes called the Latin race ; 
and its language is foremost among Romanic lan- 
guages, as its people are chief among the supporters 
of the Catholic Church. — Ihe present territory 
of France, in the earliest historic times, was in- 
habited by the Gauls, a Celtic tribe. The country 
became a Roman province 58 — 51 B. C. During 
the 5th century A. D., it was conquered by the 
Franks, a German tribe, who built up an empire, 
which, under Charlemagne, reached its greatest 
territorial extent, embracing, besides modern 
France, a large portion of Germany and Italy. 
With the division of this empire, in 843, by the 
treaty of Yerdun, begins the separate history of 
France and Germany. The kingdom of France, 
slowly consolidating itself by the absorption of 



FRANCE 



315 



the territories of numerous petty princes, at- 
tained the summit of its glory under Louis XIV. 
(1643 — 1715); but, tired at last of the long-con- 
tinued oppression of the kings and the priv- 
ileged classes, the people, in 178!), rose in a 
mighty insurrection, proclaimed the republic in 
IT'.'J. and executed King Louis XVI. in 1793. 
The republic was overthrown by Xapoleon I., 
who made himself emperor of France, in 1804, 
and established the greatest empire of modern 
times, subjecting to his direct or indirect rule 
all Kurope except England and Russia. With 
his final dethronement, in 1815, this empire 
•came to an end ; and the re-instated Bourbons 
only ruled within the former limits of the king- 
dom of France. In 1848. a second republic was 
proclaimed, and Louis Napoleon was elected 
president, who, in 1852. proclaimed himself em- 
peror under the title of Xapoleon III. His de- 
feat, in 1870, by the united German states led to 
the deposition of his dynasty and the proclama' 
tion of the third French republic. 

Educational History. — Little is known of the 
state of education among the Celts of ancient 
Gaul; but Caesar says of the Druids that they 
"held a great many discourses about the stars 
and their motions, about the extent of the 
universe and of various countries, about the 
nature of things, and the power of the immortal 
gods," and "transmitted their opinions and 
knowledge to the young." In the flourishing 
Greek colony at Marseilles, a school was estab- 
lished long before the time of Caesar, which at- 
tracted a large number of pupils. Under the 
rule of the Romans, the cause of education made 
considerable progress. Lyons, Narbonne, Bor- 
deaux, Toulouse, Aries, Besancon, Treves, and 
other centers of population, had both public and 
private schools, in which the Greek and Roman 
classics were read. The teachers of these schools 
enjoyed many privileges. They drew their salaries 
from the imperial treasury, and, before entering 
upon their office, had to undergo a public com- 
petitive examination. The scholars were divided 
into three classes: extern i, living outside the 
institution, co>iviclores, boarders, and alimen- 
tarii, those supported in the institution by pub- 
lic or private stipends. When, in the course 
of the 5th century, the education and civilization 
of pagan Rome gradually decayed, and finally 
disappeared before the advance of Christianity. 
Christian schools sprung up in connection with 
many monasteries, and France soon took a prom- 
inent part in the establishment of cathedral, 
collegiate, and convent schools. Among the 
cathedral schools, those at Aries, Bourges, 
Clermont, Le Mans, Paris, Poitiers, and Vienne, 
and among the convent schools, those of Luxencc. 
and of >St. Vaudville, in Normandy, were espe- 
cially famous. I luring the 7th century, dense igno- 
rance prevailed ; but Charlemagne infused new 
life into the existing schools, and founded many 
new ones. Through the efforts of Alcuin, the 
court school (schola palalina), in which the sons 
of nobles were educated, became a model school 
for all ecclesiastical institutions. The reign of 



Louis le Debonnaire was not favorable to this 
school, but its prosperity revived under Charles 
the Bald, when it counted .lohn Scotus Brigena 
among its teachers. After the death of Charles 
the Bald, the efficiency of the school departed 
for ever, and theological seminaries and convent 
schools were the only institutions in which an 
education could be obtained. The feudal wars 
which followed entirely prostrated all educational 
institutions. In the lith and 12th centuries, 
the reformatory movements among the clergy 
favorably reacted upon education, and many of 
the clerical schools regained new luster. Paris 
became the great center of learning, and many 
were the distinguished teachers who added to 
the reputation of the Parisian schools. The 
most illustrious among all the French teachers 
of this period was Abelard (q. v.). Besides the 
episcopal schools of Notre Dame and Genevieve, 
in Paris, those of Reims and Chartres, and the 
! convent school of Bee, in Normandy, were 
especially famous. In 1200, a royal decree which 
exempted the teachers of Paris, the students and 
their servants, from the jurisdiction of the city, 
prepared the way for a corporate organization 
of teachers and students, and, consequently, for 
the establishment of the Paris university, which, 
after animated controversies with the chancellor 
of the chapter of Notre Dame, in 1203, had 
its independence recognized and permanently 
secured by Papal privileges. The reputation 
and influence of the new university increased 
with man-clous rapidity, and attracted thousands 
of students from all parts of Europe. In 1 233, 
another university was established at Toulouse, 
which received from Gregory IX. privileges 
equal to those of Paris. A third university was 
founded at Montpellier, where, probably, the 
scholarship of the Arabian schools in the neigh- 
boring Spain were exerting a favorable influence. 
In the natural course of development, these in- 
stitutions became the only seats of the higher 
studies, while cathedral and convent schools re- 
mained almost exclusively training schools of 
candidates for the priesthood. The controversy 
of the university of Paris with the powerful 
J orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans led 
to the organization of the theological faculty, 
i which was gradually succeeded by the division 
of the entire university into four faculties. As 
' the example of Paris was followed in most 
countries of Europe, the establishment of distinct 
! faculties marks a new departure in the history 
| of, the European universities. (See University.) 
I Another educational movement of great inipor- 
I tancewas begun in Paris by the establishment of 
colleges in connection with the university. These 
j institutions were, at first, intended to give to 
students from the French provinces, and from 
foreign countries, lodging and board, and some 
j of them were founded even before the establish- 
j ment of the university. But their character as 
preparatory and auxiliary schools was only de- 
veloped in connection with the universities. 
Among the oldest and most renowned Parisian 
I colleges, were those of St. Thomas, the Danish 



316 



PRANCE 



College, the College of the Dix-Jiuit, the Greek 
College (1206), and the Sorborme (1253). Besides 
these colleges, which, however, were numerous 
only in Paris, the universities conducted also 
independent middle schools to meet the growing 
demand of large classes of the population for in- 
struction. Paris, at this time, had even a system 
of parochial or elementary schools, under the 
Grand Chanter, or master of singing. In 1380, 
the male and female teachers of Paris held a 
general meeting, from the proceedings of which 
it appears that there were, at that time, in Paris 
at least 41 male, and 22 female teachers. Of the 
former, many had the degree of bachelier or 
maitre-es-arls. In the course of the 14th and 
15th centuries, the desire for knowledge and edu- 
cation became quite general among the nobility 
and the population of the towns. The number 
of students rapidly increased in all parts of the 
country. New universities arose at Orleans, 
Cahors, Perpignan, Angers, Aix, Caen, Poitiers, 
Valence, Nantes, Bourges, and Bordeaux. The 
kings recognized their importance, conferred 
upon them many favors, and by gradually with- 
drawing them from papal and placing them 
under royal jurisdiction, substantially changed 
their character. Strict conformity with the 
teaching of the church was no longer, to the 
same degree as before, the highest aim kept in 
view, and a more exalted position was accorded 
to the foremost representatives of the high 
schools in both church and state. Among the 
grandest triumphs of the university was the 
leading part which it was called upon to take in 
the termination of the papal schism. The trans- 
fer of the lectures from the halls of the univer- 
sity to the colleges was an innovation which 
has not proved conducive to the progress of edu- 
cation. By making the colleges the centers of 
university instruction, instead of preparatory 
aud auxiliary schools, it retarded the sharp dis- 
tinction between secondary and superior instruc- 
tion, which has greatly promoted the educational 
development of other European countries. The 
ecclesiastical seminaries and convent schools 
greatly suffered, toward the close of the middle 
ages, from the disorders prevailing in the church; 
but the petites ecoles, or small Latin schools, 
which were conducted by clergymen in all the 
larger towns, attained a high degree of prosper- 
ity. Under Louis XI. (1461—1483), the sub- 
jection of all the non-clerical Softools to the 
supreme jurisdiction of the state government 
was completed. In 1529, Francis I. founded the 
College de France, a school for the study of the 
humanities, which were too much neglected by the 
university. The new school nourished in spite of 
all opposition, and attained a very honorable 
position among the high schools of France. The 
university, on the other hand, lost, to a great ex- 
tent, its former influence and prestige, while im- 
morality made alarming progress among the 
students, especially between 1548 and 1558. 
The government took occasion, from the deplor- 
able condition of the university, to curtail its 
privileges. The rector, instead of being the 



head of an independent organization, became an 
officer of the king. After the conversion of the 
universities into state institutions had been com- 
pleted, the government deemed it expedient to 
extend their educational influence, and, to that 
end, conferred upon them the exclusive privilege 
of preparing students for the academic degrees 
and for the state examinations. The powerful 
competition which existed between the schools 
of the Jesuits and the universities, was an effi- 
cient spur for the latter, but, when Louis XIV. 
took the Jesuits under his special protection, 
their influence upon the educational institutions 
of the country became, for a time, all-powerful. 
Another religious order, the Oratorians, were 
active and zealous in the management of town 
schools, while primary education, in the rural 
districts, appears to have been, on the whole, in 
a very unsatisfactory condition. After the- ex- 
ample of the Jesuits and Oratorians, a number 
of other religious orders devoted their chief or 
even exclusive attention to teaching schools of 
different grades ; and no other country of the 
world showed itself so prolific in the formation 
of new congregations of school brothers and 
school sisters as France. (See Roman Catholic 
Church.) The philosophy of Descartes emanci- 
pated the French high schools to a considerable 
extent from the rule of scholasticism, which until 
then had been generaUy prevalent, and through 
the peiites ecoles of Port Royal, its influence 
reached even the primary schools. The peiites 
ecoles of Port Royal were not of long duration, 
but their school books were continued in use for 
a long time. Rollin, the celebrated Rector of 
the Paris University, followed closely in the 
footsteps of Port Royal, and France is indebted 
to him for several important reforms. The rigid 
centralization which, under Louis XIV., began 
to be established in all departments of public 
life, was also applied to the educational institu- 
tions. A closer connection was established 
among the colleges, a general course of studies 
was drawn up, new studies were introduced, and 
the training of teachers was improved. Many 
distinguished educators found, however, in the 
educational methods of the French schools too- 
much of a mechanical formalism ; and Rousseau 
violently* attacked the pedagogy of his time as 
lifeless and weak, perverse and inefficient. — The 
influence of the great revolution of 1789 showed 
itself first in an attempt to introduce the prin- 
ciples of the revolution into all the schools of 
the country. Several plans were tried, but with- 
out satisfactory results. Talleyrand, in 1791, 
submitted an elaborate and comprehensive plan 
of national education, but the Constituent As- 
sembly confined itself to sanctioning two prin- 
ciples : (1) public instruction shall be estab- 
lished common to every citizen, and gratuitous 
in respect to those branches which are necessary 
to all, and its establishments will be grad- 
ually arranged in accordance with the divisions 
of the kingdom ; and (2) national holidays will 
be appointed. In 1792, the philosopher Con- 
dorcet submitted another elaborate plan to th& 



FRANCE 



317 



Legislative Assembly, which, however, was like- 
wise prevented, by the gravity of political events, 
from completing the reconstruction of public 
education. In September of the same year, the 
Convention pronounced the abolition of all the 
colleges, and of the faculties, turning instruction 
over to private enterprise. As the consequences 
of this measure proved to be very injurious, the 
Convention founded, in 1794. the Ecole < 'entrale, 
subsequently named Ecole Potytechnique ; and, 
in 1795, the £co/e Normals, which was aban- 
doned after three months, and one hundred cen- 
tral schools, a kind of real gymnasia, which 
likewise did not prove a success. A general nation- 
al school law was likewise proclaimed in 1795, 
but it never took effect. Real progress in re- 
construction was made by the Consulate, which, 
in 1800, established four large colleges called 
prykmeums, a,t Paris. Versailles. Foutainebleau, 
and St. Germain, to which were afterwards 
added one at Brussels, and one at Compiegne, 
the latter for mechanical arts and navigation. 
A general revival of education began in 1802, 
and in 1805, France again possessed 30 lyceums 
and 250 communal colleges. At the same time, 
the government restricted the absolute freedom 
of teaching, and subjected the entire educational 
system to a strict supervision. In 1808, Napo- 
leon abolished the old provincial institutions, 
and united all the teaching forces of the country 
into one educational corporation, which he 
called Uhiversite tie France. He comprised in 
this one organization all the educational insti- 
tutions, from the primary school to the uni- 
versity. The chief peculiarity of this organ- 
ization was that the university alone possessed 
the right of teaching, and that in this way every 
body was forced to receive its teaching. The 
supreme direction was placed in the hands of a 
Grand Master, and a Council of the University. 
In 1815, after the overthrow of the Empire, this 
grand master and the council of the university 
were abolished, and their powers were transferred 
to a royal commission acting under the authority 
of the minister of the interior. The commission 
was, in 1820, changed into a royal council of 
public in si ruction, the president of which again 
received, in 1822, the title of Grand Master of 
the University, and in 1824, that of Minister of 
Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. 
The Charte of 1830 promised a new educational 
law, as well as a law on freedom of instruction ; 
these provisions were, however, only carried out in 
part. In 1833. a new law on primary instruction 
appeared, which introduced important reforms. 
Mr. Guizot, the minister of public instruction, 
addressed, in connection with this law, a circular 
letter to the primary teachers, which was trans- 
lated into all the languages of Europe, and 
gained for its author hosts of warm admirers. 
The bishops regarded the existing school legis- 
lation, and especially the privileges of the uni- 
versity, as detrimental to the interests of the 
Catholic Church.and accordingly began a vigorous 
agitation for freedom of instruction. In 1845, 
the minister of public instruction, Salvandy, 



consented to a change in the composition of the 
Council of Studies, by appointing, in addition 
to the life members of which it was formerly 
composed, some members for a term of years. 
In April 1847, Salvandy drew up this draft of a 
new law which substituted for the Council of the 
University a Superior Council of Puhlic Instruc- 
tion, which was to contain, beside the members 
of the University, representatives of the state 
government, of the bishops, of the Protestant 
consistories, of the Jewish and of the private 
schools. Only a few provisions of this law had 
been carried into practice, when the revolution 
of 1848 interrupted its further execution. In 
1850, a new law was passed which substantially 
granted the demands of the Catholic party as to 
the composition of the superior council. This 
body was henceforth to be composed of arch- 
bishops, bishops, Protestant clergymen, council- 
ors of' state, and members of the Institute of 
France, all elected by the free suffrage of their 
colleagues. Under the second empire, this mode 
of election was abolished ; and the government 
claimed the right of appointing all the members. 
In making the appointments, the government 
showed itself, however, anxious to give no offense 
to the church. By the law of 1854, sixteen acad- 
emies were established, to which one was added 
afterward. These academies were subdivisions 
of the University, and comprised all the insti- 
tutions of a district, faculties, lyceums, colleges, 
and primary schools. For each academy a coun- 
cil was appointed, composed of the inspectors, 
the deans of the faculties, a bishop, two clergy- 
men, two magistrates, and two other state officers 
of the academic district, the seven last being ap- 
pointed by the ministry. After the overthrow 
of the second empire, Jules Simon, one of the 
most distinguished educational writers of France, 
became minister of public instruction. The 
chief aim of the new minister was to make 
primary instruction as general as possible, and 
to raise the French schools of all grades to a 
level with the best in any country of the world. 
By a law of 1873. the council of public instruc- 
tion was again made elective. As the majority 
of the legislative assembly were favorable to the 
demands of the Church, superior instruction was, 
in 1875, so regulated as to make it possible for 
the Catholic Church to establish free t atholic 
universities. In 1876, the chamber of deputies 
passed a bill to restore to the university the sole 
right of conferring degrees, but it was not con- 
curred in by the senate. 

Primary Instruction. — The policy of estab- 
lishing public primary schools under the control 
of the state, in which all children might receive 
instruction, was not incorporated into the legis- 
lation of France until after the law of June 28., 
1833, under the administration of M. Guizot as 
minister of public instruction. The attempts 
made during the revolutionary period, and un- 
der the empire, to provide a national system of 
instruction, had lasting results only for secondary 
and superior instruction, but not for primary 
schools. One of the great scholars of that time, 



318 



PRANCE 



M. Cuvier, made an extensive tour through 
Holland, Germany, and Italy, to study the edu- 
cational systems of those countries ; and his re- 
port, published in 1811, which specially com- 
mended the elementary schools of Holland for 
their sound practical organization, excited a 
lively interest, and led to regretful comparisons, 
but not to any real improvement. M. Guizot, 
in a brief review of the educational history of 
France, commends the heads of the educational 
department under the Restoration for their good 
intentions ; but of the educational condition of 
the country, from 1814 to 1830, he can only 
state : " It cannot be said that elementary in- 
struction did not suffer from political attacks ; 
but still it did not completely perish in the dan- 
gerous contact." The government of 1830 
proved itself, from its commencement, higlily 
favorable to elementary instruction. The exec- 
utive government and the chambers vied with 
each other in the promotion of this object. In 
1831, M. Cousin, one of the ablest scholars of 
France, was sent to Germany to study the edu- 
cational system of that country ; and, in the 
report published on his return, he carefully dis- 
cussed all questions which the new law on 
primary education, then in preparation, was to 
settle. M. Guizot, who was appointed minister 
of public instruction, in 1832, was supported in 
the preparation of the new law, by a number of 
eminent men, among whom, besides M. Cousin, 
may be especially mentioned M. Villemain, M. 
Thenard, and M. Rendu, on account of their 
reputation as scholars or educational writers. 
The conscientious care with which the law of 
1833 had been prepared, is now recognized on 
all sides, as is also the beneficent influence 
which it has exerted upon the progress of pri- 
mary education. In 1826, there were 14,009 com- 
munities which had no elementary schools ; and, 
in 1832, there were in Paris 30,000, among the 
70,000 children of school age, who received no 
instruction. Four years after the promulga- 
tion of the law of 1837, as many as 29,613, 
of 35,280 communities in the country, had 
their own school-houses. On the basis of the 
new law, the primary-school system: was more 
fully developed by the law of March 15., 1850. 
the organic decree of March 9., 1852, and the 
law of Jan. 14., 1854. These laws supplement 
each other, and contain the chief principles 
which are still in force. The primary schools of 
each commune are under a local board, consisting 
of the mayor, the parish priest, and a few citizens 
elected by the officers of the arrondissement. 
This board superintends both public and private 
primary schools. It cannot appoint teachers; 
but, in case of a vacancy, it can decide whether a 
lay teacher or a member of a religious congrega- 
tion shall be appointed. In urgent cases, the 
mayor has the power to remove teachers, but he 
must give immediate notice to the inspecleur pri- 
maire. The inspectors are generally experienced 
teachers ; and it is their duty to visit and ex- 
amine the schools, and to attend the examina- 
tions of candidates. They make annual reports 



to the inspector of the academy. The highest 
school authorities in a department are the rector 
of the academy and the prefect. The former 
supervises the instruction, has charge of the 
normal schools and of the examinations of teach- 
ers, and has all this done through his inspectors, 
of whom he has one for every department in 
the academic district. He makes an annual 
report on the condition of the primary schools 
in his district, both public and private, to the 
[ minister of education. The prefect has charge 
! of the entire external administration of the 
schools. He sees to the erection of the school- 
houses, has charge of the finances, can appoint, 
I remove, or reprimand teachers, and is assisted in 
these duties by the inspector of the academy of 
his department. Four inspecteurs generaux are 
appointed by the supreme council of public in- 
struction, to superintend the primary institutions 
of the entire country. Besides these, there are 
six inspecteurs generaux for the lyceums and 
colleges, and eight for the faculties. Any French 
citizen, twenty years of age or over, may give 
primary instruction in public or private schools, 
provided he has the necessary certificate. The 
salaries of the French teachers are very small, 
though they have been raised seven times since 
1833. The lowest class of teachers, in 1833, re- 
ceived 200 francs; 250 francs, in 1844; 275, in 
1847 ; 454, in 1849 ; and 600, in 1867. Accord- 
ing to a law of July 19., 1875, the salaries of 
the teachers are regulated as follows : Male 
teachers are divided into four classes, according 
to their term of service, and the size of the cities. 
The first class receive 1,200 francs; the second, 
1,100; the third, 1,000; and the fourth, 900. 
Female teachers are divided into three classes, 
and receive 900, 800, and 700 francs, respectively. 
The course of studies comprises religion, read- 
ing, writing, grammar, arithmetic, the elements 
of French history, and geography. Teachers 
may add to these studies the elements of natural 
history, natural philosophy, agriculture, hygiene, 
singing, and gymnastics. Only in recent years 
have reforms been introduced in the methods of 
teaching. As late as 1843, there were still 5,484 
primary schools pursuing the so-called individual 
method (mode indimduel), each child being 
called to the desk, and instructed separately. 
This method, as well as the monitorial system, 
which found many admirers in France, is now 
abolished. The method most generally employed 
at the present time, is the simultaneous method, 
by which the children are divided into three 
divisions, all the pupils of one division receiving 
instruction at once. Those who are not able to 
take part in any of the three divisions, are placed 
under the charge of the best pupil in the school. 
The total number of schools, in 1875, was 53,350, 
with 3,477,542 pupils, of whom 1,366,360 were 
free scholars. Of the schools, 19,044 were for 
boys, and 6,399, for girls, besides which there were 
16,570 mixed schools. The number of pupils in 
the lay schools was 2,340,344, of whom 704,028 
were free scholars. Of the convent schools, 1,970 
were for boys, 8,322, for girls, and 1,099 were 



FRANCE 



319 



mixed schools. The number of pupils in the 
convent schools, was 1,137,198, of whom 662,352 
were free scholars. Infant asylums and schools 
were first established in 1808, but met with little 
success. In 1827, they began to increase and 
flourish, until, in 1860, there were 3.517, of 
which, 1,088 were private. The public asylums 
were attended by 344,381 children ; the private, 
by 74,380; in all, 418.761. Of these. 307,556 pay 
no fees ; and 2,608 asylums, private and public, 
with 323,460 children, were directed by religious 
orders. The instruction given, consists of the 
first principles of religion, of reading, mental 
arithmetic, and linear drawing ; manual occu- 
pations, and other exercises appropriate to the 
age of the pupils ; the singing of hymns, and 
moral and physical training. The decree of 
1864 placed them under the patronage of the 
empress, and created, in the ministry of educa- 
tion, a central committee of patronage, for the 
increase and superintendence of these schools. 
In every academy, there is an inspectress, paid 
by the government, to inspect all the public and 
private asylums. Besides, there are two delegates 
connected with the central committee, who go 
wherever they are called. — As soon as primary 
instruction had made some progress in France, 
it was found necessary to open schools for adults, 
in order to complete the instruction of some, 
and to begin that of others. The first school 
for adults was opened by M. Delakaye in Paris, 
in 1 820. An evening school was opened by the 
Christian Brothers, in 1830. In 1833, M. Guizot, 
minister of public instruction, alluded to them 
in an order of the department ; and, in 1835, 
they were formally recognized and aided by the 
government, but were not incorporated into the 
public-school system of the country until 1867. 
During the winter of 1865 — 6, there were 24,686 
courses for adults, in 22,947 communes. They 
were attended by 42,567 women and 552,939 
men. — The first normal school in France was 
founded in 1810, in Strasbourg. Under Napo- 
leon I. and the Restoration, they greatly flour- 
ished ; but soon, objections were raised against 
them, and, after the promulgation of the law of 
1850, its authors considered normal schools not 
only unnecessary, but even dangerous. It was, 
consequently, proposed to abandon the normal 
schools, and to recruit the ranks of the teachers 
from a certain number of pupil-teachers, who 
were to receive their training in the best com- 
munal schools. This plan, however, proved a 
failure, and the pupil-teacher schools were grad- 
ually abandoned, and normal schools again came 
into favor. Their number, in 1875, was 81, of 
which that of Nancy is considered the best. 
Recently, efforts have been made to connect a 
library with every school, particularly in the 
country. The system was first organized by a 
decree of M. Rouland, in 1862. The books, 
which are of two classes, — classics, reading-books, 
and arithmetics, and books of general reading — 
are the property of the commune, and are placed 
under the charge of the teachers. France (ex- 
clusive of the department of the Seine), in 1875, 



had 15,623 libraries connected with schools, com- 
prising 1,474,637 volumes. The number of books 
loaned, in 1873, was 925,358. 

Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
tion is imparted in the lyceums and communal 
colleges (culter/ps communau.c). The lyceums are 
composed of eight classes, and correspond to the 
German gymnasia. Classes 8 and 7 compose the 
elementary division ; 6, 5, and 4, the grammar 
division; and 3, 2, lb, and la, the superior 
division, to which is added, in some lyceums, a 
mathematical school. The studies taught in the. 
elementary division are French, Latin. Biblical 
history, geography, arithmetic, linear (hawing. 
and penmanship. In the grammar division, 
Greek is added to the above studies. In the 
superior division, the system of bifurcation has 
been introduced, so that it comprises two courses, 
— the literary and the scientific. The studies 
of the literary course are latin, Greek, geome- 
try and stereometry, natural philosophy, chem- 
istry, natural history, and logic. The scientific 
course comprises arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
trigonometry, natural history, natural philos- 
ophy, chemistry, and plane and linear drawing. 
Common to both are the French language, 
history, geography, and German or English. 
.Most of the lyceums are also boarding-schools. 
The Censeur is the head of the boarding-school. 
Corporal punishment is not allowed, and re- 
proofs are required to be administered without 
harshness. The communal colleges were estab- 
lished in 1802. They are founded and sustained 
by the towns, with the approbation of the govern- 
ment. Most of them have a boarding-school at- 
tached. Some of them comprise the lowest 
classes of the lyceums; others, the lowest and 
middle classes; and still others, besides these, one 
or two of the higher classes. In addition to these 
public schools, there are many private secondary 
institutions [etablissements libres), partly of a 
classical, and partly of a realistic, or scientific, 
character. Included in this class of institutions 
are the so called petiis seminaires, or the ecoles 
secondaires ecclisiastiqves (ecclesiastical insti- 
tutions) , which are superintended and conducted 
by the bishops, and, in many respects, resemble 
the lyceums. The number of secondary schools 
of each class, with the number of students in 
each, as given by Braehelli (Die Staaten Eu- 
ropds, 1876), is as follows: 

Schools. Students. 

Lyceums (1872) 80 36,756 

Communal colleges (1872).. . .244 32,744 

Private institutions (1H05) 935 74,585 

Total 1,259 144,085 

A superior normal school for the education 
of ieachers of secondary schools has been estab- 
lished in Paris. It is composed of two depart- 
ments, a literary and a scientific, each compris- 
ing a three years' course. 

Superior Instruction. — France has. at present, 
five classes of faculties ; namely, for theology, 
law, medicine, mathematics and natural science 
(fucuttes de sciences), and literature or philo- 
sophical, historical, and philological science 



320 



FRANCE 



(faculte des lettres). These faculties, which are, 
state institutions, are not, as in other countries, 
united into complete universities, but' each is an 
isolated and independent institution. Among 
the schools of superior instruction, are also 
counted the high schools for pharmacy, and the 
schools for medicine and pharmacy. The organi- 
zation of medical faculties was begun in 1794; 
of law faculties, in 1804; and the others, in 
1808. There were, in 1876, six faculties 
of theology (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Aix, 
Rouen, and Montauban, the 5 former being 
Catholic, the latter Reformed) ; 12 for law 
(Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Aix, Caen, 
Dijon, Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, and 
Douai); 6 for medicine (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, 
Nancy, Montpellier, and Lille); 15 for science 
(Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Caen, Dijon, 
Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Montpel- 
lier, Clermont, Besancpn, Lille, and Marseilles); 
15 for lettres (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, 
Aix, Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, 
Toulouse, Montpellier, Douai, Clermont, and 
Besangon); 3 higher schools for pharmacy (Paris, 
Nancy, and Montpellier) ; and 2 higher schools 
for medicine and pharmacy. The medical facul- 
ties at Bordeaux, Lyons, and Lille are also in- 
tended for pharmacy. Inclusive of preparatory 
schools for medicine and pharmacy, and 4 pre- 
paratory schools for instruction in science, these 
institutions for superior instruction, were, in 
1872, attended by 14,572 students; and the ag- 
gregate number of professors and teachers was 
421.— The law of July 26., 1875, authorized the 
establishment, by private citizens or associations, 
of free institutions for higher instruction (free 
faculties), which, if three of them are united, 
may assume the name of free universities. At 
the beginning of 1876, the bishops of France 
founded three free Catholic universities, at 
Paris, Angers, and Lyons. — The College de 
France, which provides for lectures on many of 
the university studies, and the Practical School 
for Higher Studies, which, in five different 
sections, prepares its students for the higher 
study of mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural 
history, the historical sciences, and philology, 
are also institutions of this grade. 

Special and Professional Instruction. — The 
Polytechnic School, at Paris, is an institution 
having a military organization, and prepares its 
pupils for the higher technical institutions, both 
military and civil. The latter class comprises the 
Ecole centrale des arts et manufactures, for the 
education of civil engineers, and of directors of 
glass-works and factories, the Ecole des ponts et 
chaussees, for the education of road engineers, 
and the Conservatoire des arts et metiers, all 
in Paris. The Polytechnic School, in 1873, had 
19 professors and teachers, 20 assistants, and 420 
pupils. Roman Catholic theology is taught in 
the diocesan seminaries, which are established in 
the principal town of every French diocese. The 
numerous religious orders for males have gen- 
erally theological schools of their own for the in- 
struction of their novices. The Lutheran Church 



has a seminary at Paris ; and, in the same city, 
there is a Free Theological School, founded by the 
Free Evangelical Church. The Ecole des diaries, 
at Paris, educates paleographists and archivists. 
For technical instruction, there are 12 ecoles pro- 
fessionnelles, 3 ecoles des arts et metiers, at Aix, 
Angers, and Chalons sur Marne ; schools for 
watch-makers, at Cluses, in Upper Savoy, and at 
Besangon, a school for manufacturers of tobacco, 
and a higher commercial school, at Paris, many 
lower commercial schools, 42 hydrographic schools 
for educating seamen for the mercantile marine, 
and many other schools and courses of study. 
Agriculture is taught in 3 high schools, at 
Grignon, near Versailles, Grandjouan, in Loire- 
Inferieure, and Montpellier, and in 43 fermier- 
e'coles, or agricultural schools of a lower grade ; 
besides these, there is a school of forestry at 
Nancy. The principal mining school is the Na- 
tional School of Mines, at Paris, besides which 
there are mining schools at St. fitienne and Alais. 
For instruction in the fine arts, there are 3 na- 
tional schools of fine arts, — at Paris, Lyons, and 
Dijon, the National Conservatory of Music and 
Declamation, at Paris, and many other institu- 
tions. Military instruction is imparted in the 
Staff-school, at Paris, the School of Artillery and 
Military Engineering, formerly at Metz, now at 
Fontainebleau, the Special Military School at 
St. Cyr, near Versailles, the schools of artillery 
at Valence and Nimes, the school of infantry 
at the Camp dAvor, the naval school at Brest, 
the school of military medicine and pharmacy in 
Paris, the school of cavalry at Saumur, the Mili- 
tary Pyrotechnic School, at Bourges, the Normal 
School for Gymnastics, at Vincennes, the Prac- 
tical School of Maritime Engineering, at Cher- 
bourg. — There are 314 orphan asylums, in which 
15,745 orphans were educated. The scdles d'asi- 
les, of winch there were 2,950 (2,008 public and 
882 private), were attended by 307,000 children, 
and had an annual budget of about 2,000,000 
francs. Moreover, 673 ouvroirs give almost 
gratuitously an industrial education to 1 ,277 boys 
and 18,695 girls. — See Schmid, Encyclopadie,axt. 
Franhreich (by Dr. Bvicheler); Barnard, Na- 
tional Education, vol. ii.; Thery, Histoire de Vedu- 
cation en France (Paris, 1858, 2 vols.); Jules Si- 
mon, L' Ecole (8th edit., 1874); Aunuaire deVin- 
struction publique (Paris). Among the school 
journals, the Revue de I'instructimi publique (es- 
tablished in 1842) is regarded as the most impor- 
tant for secondary, and the Man uel gen eral de V in- 
struction primaire, as the foremost for primary 
instruction. A complete collection of all the 
laws and regulations which have been issued in 
France relative to primary instruction from 1789 
to 1874 has been published by Greard, La legis- 
lation de I' instruction primaire en France depuis 
1789 jusqua nos jours (3 vols., Paris, 1874). 
The history of primary-school inspection is given 
in Brouard and Defodon, Inspection des ecoles 
primaires (Paris, 1874). A very full account of 
the primary schoools of Paris and of the Depar- 
tement de la Seine is given in Greard, llnslruc- 
tion primaire a, Paris en 1875 (Paris, 1870). 



FRANCISCAN COLLEGE 



FRANCKE 



321 



FRANCISCAN COLLEGE, a Roman 
Catholic institution at Santa Barbara, Cal., was 
founded in 1868. It is conducted by the Fathers 
•of the Order of St. Francis. In 1873 — 4, it had 
15 instructors, 7-3 students, and a library of 
2,500 volumes. The Rev. J. J. O'Keefe, O. S. 
F., is (1876) the president. 

FRANCKE, Hermann August, a distin- 
guished German educator whose name is insepa- 
rably associated with a cluster of orphan houses 
and schools at Halle, and with the development 
of pietism as an educational influence, was born at 
Liibcck, March 22., 1663, and died June 8., 1727. 
After studying, with great success, theology and 
the oriental languages, at the universities of Er- 
furt ami Kiel, he fell under the influence of 
Spener, then court-chaplain at Dresden, and re- 
ceived from him impressions which largely affect- 
ed the motives and character of his future life. 
He began his labors as an educator in 1687, by 
opening an infant school at Hamburg. Realizing 
the importance and difficulty of teaching children, 
he resolved to devote himself to the improvement 
of schools and methods of instruction. The results 
of his experience he afterwards embodied in a 
work which he published under the title, Vjidii the 
education of children to piety and christian wis- 
dom. In 1 61)2, he became professor of the Greek 
ami oriental languages in the university of Halle, 
and pastor of the Glaucha church. Here he re- 
mained till his death, July 8., 1727. highly 
respected, but removed from the sympathy of his 
colleagues on accouut of his religious views. His 
orphan ami charity schools originated in connec- 
tion with his pastorate. The poor of the parish 
came to the parsonage on Thursdays for bread. I le 
called them in, taught them religious doctrines, 
and prayed with them. He formed the children 
into a class, and hung out a poor-box for contribu- 
tions. Finding seven florins in the box one morn- 
ing, he decided to found a permanent school. He 
soon had to enlarge the school ; and circumstances 
led to the further development of his enterprises, 
and the organization of other institutions, until 
there grew up under his charge the < Irphan House, 
the Pcedagogium, the Burgher School, the Insti- 
tution for Women, the Bookstore and Printing 
Office, the Apothecary's Shop (established with a 
legacy left by one Burgstaller) , the Oanstein Bible 
House (the fruit of a gift by the Baron von I Ian- 
stein for the purpose of printing one hundred 
thousand copies of the Bible), and the Mission 
Listitute. At the time of Francke's death, these 
institutions comprised the following : The Pceda- 
gogium, having 82 scholars and 70 teachers; the 
Latin school of the Orphan House, 3 inspectors, 
32 teachers, 400 scholars and 1 servants ; the Ger- 
man Burgher School, 4 inspectors, 98 teachers, 
8 female teachers, 1728 boys and girls; the Or- 
phan House, 100 boys, 34 girls, ten overseers; 
the Free Table. 255 students, 360 poor scholars ; 
the household of the Apothecary's Shop and 
Bookseller's Shop, 53 persons ; the Institution 
for Women and Girls, with 15 persons in the girls' 
department, 8 in the boarding-house for young 
women, and 6 widows. In 1876, they included 



nine schools with three boarding-houses and an 

orphanage, and with property valued at 313,266 
thalers. Since their foundation, 10,000 teachers 
and more than 200,000 children have been taught 
in them. In the orphanage proper, more than 
7000 orphans have been cared for. These in- 
stitutions furnished the model after which those 
of a similar character were founded in other 
parts of Germany. They were carried on after 
Francke's death by his son, Gottlieb August 
Fiancke. 

The governing ideas, in Francke's work and 
teaching, were trust in God. and the cultivation 
of the love of God in the heart. He built his 
institutions upon trust, relied upon prayer as his 
strong support, and regarded the help and gifts 
which he received as direct bounties from the 
hand of the Almighty. He regarded piety as 
the chief thing needful ; without it. all knowledge, 
wisdom, and worldly culture were more harmful 
than useful. He taught that, in bringing up 
children, the teacher should first look to the im- 
provement of the heart and the removal of faults. 
While paying due regard to the peculiarities of 
the child's nature, he should seek to banish 
whatever interferes with the higher development. 
The inculcation of godliness was likewise 
Francke's predominant object in discipline. 
On this subject, he observed. (1) that system 
must be followed in discipline, and (2) that 
chastisement must be administered not in anger, 
but in love. The schools, in all their departments, 
were characterized by the prevalence of religious 
zeal. Prayer was faithfully observed in what 
was done outside the school as well as within it. 
The Scriptures and religion received precedence 
in arranging the courses of instruction. With 
all this, the ordinary studies had their allotted 
place in each school according to its grade. 
The course of the higher Latin school included 
reading, writing, arithmetic, Greek (chiefly of 
the" New Testament). Hebrew, mathematics, 
history, geography, music, physics, anatomy, 
oratory, and logic. The Pcedagogium had at- 
tached to it a botanical garden, a cabinet of 
natural history, philosophical apparatus, a labo- 
ratory, conveniences for anatomical dissections, 
turning-lathes, and glass-cutting machinery. The 
evidences of Christianity, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
and French were taught in it. The system of 
classification in the schools allowed the pupils 
to be graded according to their advancement in 
particular studies, so as to occupy different ranks 
in the several classes. The number of regidar 
teachers employed was relatively small ; because, 
for the most part, the teaching was done by select- 
ed pupils. The teachers lived with the scholars, 
and Francke himself exercised a constant super- 
vision over all. Besides Zinzendorf, Francke's 
best known pupils were the two Freylinghauseus ; 
namely. John Anastasius, Francke's son-in-law, 
and his son, Gottlieb Anastasius ; J. G. Knapp ; 
Joachim Lange ; Jacob Rambach ; H. Freyer ; G. 
Sarganeck ; Johann Julius Hecker, who founded 
the famous Berlin real school ; and Anton Bu- 
sching. Francke is regarded by some as the 



322 



FRANKLIN COLLEGE 



FREE SCHOOLS 



greatest practical educator that ever lived, and 
even those who are opposed to the religious basis 
of his educational theories do not hesitate to hold 
him up as a model for all time. He was the author 
of the orphan and charity schools of Protestant 
Germany; and' his, ideas on superintendence, 
inspection, and examination exerted great influ- 
ence upon the development of the public-school 
system in Germany. The flourishing institutions 
of the Moravians (q. v.), whose founder, Count 
Zinzendorf, had been educated by Francke, were 
for a long time conducted in accordance with 
Francke's principles. About 1770, the institu- 
tions began to decline ; but the entrance of A. H. 
Niemeyer, a great-grandson of Francke, into the 
directory, ushered in a new period of prosperity, 
which still (1876) continues. — See Guericke, 
A. H. Francke (Halle, 1827) ; Eckstein, Die 
QeslaMung der Volksschule dwell den Francke- 
sclien Pietismus (1867). (See also Germany.) 

FRANKLIN COLLEGE, at Franklin, Ind., 
is under the control of the Baptists. In 1834, 
a number of Baptist ministers and laymen met 
at Indianapolis to form an education society. 
Bids were advertised for a site on which to 
plant a school. The institution was first called 
the Baptist Manual Labor Institute. About the 
year 1841, the name was changed to Frankliu 
College, a college charter was secured, and college 
instruction begun. This name it has ever since 
retained, although it has had one suspension of 
five years, and another of as many mouths. The 
present organization dates from 1871. The col- 
lege has two large brick edifices, a campus of 12 
acres, a dwelling-house, and philosophical and 
chemical apparatus, the whole valued at $40,000. 
The endowment amounts to $85,000. The libra- 
ries connected with the institution contain about 
3,000 volumes. It has both a preparatory and a 
collegiate department, with a classical and a 
scientific course. Facilities are offered for in- 
struction in music and painting. Both sexes 
are admitted. The cost of tuition in the college 
is $28 per year ; in the preparatory department, 
$23 per year. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 in- 
structors and 99 students, of whom 18 were in 
the collegiate department. The presidents have 
been the Rev. G. C. Chandler, D. D., Silas Bailey, 
D. D., and the Rev. W. T. Stott, D. D., the 
present incumbent (1876). 

FRANKLIN COLLEGE, at New Athens, 
Harrison Co., Ohio, was chartered in 1825. It 
grew out of the Alma Academy, which had been 
conducted for some time under the auspices of 
the Rev. John Walker, a Presbyterian minister. 
The college was early involved in the anti-slavery 
controversy, and, in 1840, became distinctively an 
anti-slavery institution. It comprises a prepara- 
tory and a collegiate department, the latter having 
a classical and a scientific course. Both sexes are 
admitted. The library contains 3,000 volumes. 
In 1873 — 4, there were 8 instructors and 148 
students (27 collegiate and 121 unclassified). In 
1875, there were 319 alumni. The presidents of 
the college have been as follows : The Rev. Dr. 
Wni. McMillan, 1825—32; the Rev. Richard 



Campbell, 1832—5; the Rev. Johnson Welsh 
1835 — 6 ; the Rev. Br. Joseph Smith, 1837 — 8 ; 
the Rev. Jacob Coon, pro tern., 1838 — 9 ; the 
Rev. Mr. Burnett, 1839—40 ; the Rev. Edwin 
H. Nevin, 1840 — 5 ; the Rev. Dr. Alexander 
D. Clark, 1845—61 ; the Rev. R. G. Campbell, 
1867—71 ; and A. F. Ross, LL. D., the present 
incumbent (1876), appointed in 1871. During 
the civil war, there was no regular president. 

FRANKLIN AND MARSHALL COL- 
LEGE, at Lancaster, Pa., is under the control 
of the Reformed (German) Church. This insti- 
tution was founded in 1853, by the consolidation 
of two older institutions, — Franklin College, 
established in 1 787, at Lancaster, mainly through 
the exertions of Benjamin Franklin, who also 
contributed liberally to its endowment, and 
Marshall College, founded in 1836, and trans- 
lated for the purpose of this union from its former 
location at Mercersburg, Franklin Co. It has 
an endowment fund of a little over $100,000- 
The cost of tuition is $39 per annum, but most 
of the students receive tuition free on standing 
scholarships. The curriculum is the ordinary 
four years' classical course of American colleges. 
There are no optional courses of study, in which 
the student is allowed to choose for himself what 
he shall learn. The college receives no irregular 
students, as they are called, and has no provisional 
or mixed classes. The college and society libra- 
ries contain about 11,000 volumes. Connected 
with the college are the Franklin and Marshall 
Academy and the Theological Seminary of the 
Reformed Church. The academy is designed as 
a training school for those who desire to prepare 
for college, and also to furnish a complete aca- 
demical course for those who do not propose to 
take a full collegiate course of study. The full 
course is six years. The full course in the Theo- 
logical Seminary is three years. Tuition is free. 
The library comprises from 7,000 to 8,000 vol- 
umes. In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors 
(college, 7 ; academy, 2 ; seminary, 3), and 135 
students (college, 67 ; academy, 36 ; seminary, 
32). The number of alumni of Marshall college 
was 182 : of Franklin and Marshall College 358 ; 
total 540. The first president of Franklin and 
Marshall College was the Rev. Emmanuel V. 
Gerhart, D.D., appointed in 1855. He continued 
in office till 1866, when he was succeeded by the 
Rev. John W. Nevin, D. D., LL. D., the present 
incumbent (1876). 

FREDERICK COLLEGE, at Frederick, 
Md., was organized in 1797. It has a valuable 
mineralogical cabinet, philosophical and chemical 
apparatus, and a library of 3,000 volumes. There 
are three departments : The classical department, 
including the Latin and Greek languages, also 
the German, with related subjects ; The math- 
ematical and higher English departments ; and 
the elementary department. The cost of tuition 
in these departments is, respectively, $60, $40, 
and $25 ; but there is an extra charge of $20 
per annum for German. G. C. Deaver, A. M., 
is (1876) the president. 

FREE SCHOOLS. See Public Schools. 



FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS 



FREEWILL BAPTISTS 



323 



FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS. A proclama- 
tion issued by President Lincoln, Jan. L, 1803, 
abolished slavery in the United States, and the 
colored people set free by the proclamation re- 
ceived the name of freedmen. As nearly the 
whole of this population was illiterate, various 
charitable and religious organizations of the 
North began at once to exert themselves to aid 
in establishing schools and employing teachers 
for them. On .March 3., 1865, an act of Congress 
was passed establishing a special "Bureau of Ref- 
ugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lauds," after- 
wards known as the " Freedmen's Bureau." It 
remained in operation until Dec. 31., 1868, when 
its functions ceased, with the exception of the 
educational department, which continued until 
July I., ll-iTI). After the organization of the Bu- 
reau, the schools already existing were taken in 
charge by it. and in some states were carried on 
entirely by aid of its fund and under its provisions. 
A number of benevolent ami religious societies 
continued to co-operate with the Bureau in the 
establishment of schools, and most of the Amer- 
ican churches expressly included the care Of the 
freedmen's schools among the objects of their 
home missionary societies, or of special Freed- 
men s A ill Societies or Committees. A general 
superintendent, appointed by the commissioner 
of the Bureau, traveled through most of the 
Southern states, and provided for the establish- 
ment and supervision of their schools. The fol- 
lowing table gives the number of day and night 
schools from which regular reports were received 
by the Bureau during the years stated ; besides 
which there were many Sunday-schools, industrial 
schools, and day and night schools, that made 
only occasional reports to the Bureau. 



Year 


Day & Night 
Schools 


Teachers 


Pupils 


Total number 
of pupils 


1866.... 
1867.... 
lsr.s ... 
1869.... 
1870. . . . 


975 
1,839 
1,831 

2,118 
2,039 


1,405 
2,087 
2,2'.i5 
2,455 
2,563 


-> 90,778 
111,442 
104,327 
114,522 

114,516 


150,000 
238,342 
241,819 
250,000 
247,333 



Of the schools reported in 1870, 1 ,321 were sus- 
tained wholly or partly by freedmen, who owned 
592 school buildings; 74 schools, with K.147 
pupils, were high or normal schools. Of the 
teachers, 1 ,251 were white, and 1 ,31 2 colored. The 
whole number of schools, of all kinds, was 4,239, 
with 9,307 teachers; of these, 1,502 were Sunday- 
schools, with 6,007 teachers and 97,752 pupils, 
and 61 industrial schools, with 1,750 pupils. 
The whole amount expended for educational 
purposes, to Aug. 31., 1871, was .§3,711,204, the 
greater portion of which was for the erection 
and renting of school buildings. The Freedmen's 
Bureau also aided in the establishment of a con- 
siderable number of schools of a higher grade for 
the colored population, in some cases co-operating 
for this purpose with one of the religious denom- 
inations. Among the institutions thus found- 
ed, were Howard University, Washington, D. 0. 
(unsectarian) ; Atlanta University, Atlanta. Ga. 
(unsectarian) ; Claflin University, Orangeburg, 



S: 0. (Method. Episc); Straight University, New 
Orleans, La. (Congregational) ; Fisk University 
(Method. Epis.), and Central Tennessee College 
(unsectarian), both at Nashville, Tenn.; Wayland 
Seminary (Baptist Theological), Washington. I>. 
O.J and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural 
Institute, at Hampton, Ya. All these institu- 
tions still exist (1876). — Since the abolition of 
the Freedmen's Bureau, efforts for maintaining 
and enlarging these schools have chiefly been 
made by the American churches, nearly all of 
which support churches as well as schools for the 
benefit oi the colored population. The impor- 
tance of a good education for a population which 
numbers several millions, and which, although 
only just emerging from a condition of absolute 
illiteracy, lias been invested with all the rights 
and duties of citizenship, is now fully recognized 
by all parties in the country, though there may 
be considerable difference of opinion as to the 
best means to reach this aim. (See Colored 
Schools.) None of the American churches has 
carried on operations in behalf of the freedmen's 
schools on so large a basis, as the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church. At the anniversary of the Freed- 
men's Aid Society of the M. E. Church, held in 
Dec. 1875, it was reported that the total disburse- 
ments of that society, during the eight years of 
its operations, had been 5523,000. The receipts 

of the last financial year (ending May 31., 1875) 
were $86,000. The Society has aided iii the 
establishment and support of fourteen institutions 
of a higher grade in the Southern states. It has 
also aided in the support of many common schools. 
It is claimed that fifty thousand children have 
been taught in its day schools, and a still larger 
number in its Sunday-schools ; that more than 
a hundred ministers, and over a thousand teach- 
ers, have been instructed in the institutions it 
has established and sustained, and that upward 
of forty thousand children have been taught by 
persons whom it has trained. Besides receiving 
this aid from the several American churches, the 
schools for freedmen have had considerable sup- 
port from the Peabody fund. (See Peabody.) 
FREEWILL BAPTISTS, a section of 
Baptists, which commenced in North America 
in 1780. The name was reproachfully given by 
their ealvinistic brethren to Benjamin Randall 
and a few other Baptist ministers who gave spe- 
cial prominence to the doctrine of the freedom of 
the will in the work of salvation. Randall and 
those who agreed with him accepted the distinc- 
tive name, and used it after the separation from 
their brethren had. taken place. At present, they 
are in opposition to the Regidar Baptists chiefly 
on the ( 'onimunion question, the Freewill Bap- 
tists being Open t 'oinmunionists. (See Baptists.) 
A number of churches, conveniently located, unite 
as an association, and hold a meeting by delega- 
tion four times a year, which is called a Quarterly 
Meeting. Several Quarterly Meetings, similarly 
situated, unite and meet annually; und this as- 
sociation is called a Yearly Meeting. All the 
Yearly Meetings send representatives to the 
General Conference, which meets once in three 



324 



FRENCH LANGUAGE 



years. They agree almost wholly in doctrine 
with the General Baptists in England. In 1841, 
nearly the whole body of another Baptist de- 
nomination, the Free Communion Baptists, chiefly 
belonging to the state of New York, united 
with them; while,, on the other hand, their 
congregations in North Carolina left them, and 
several thousands of Baptists in Kentucky and 
other Southern states, who agreed with them 
on doctrinal points, were refused admission to 
their communion in consequence of the very de- 
cided position which the church assumed against 
slave-holding. More recently, negociations have 
been begun to bring about a union with the 
Church of God (q.v.), as the two churches are 
essentially one in principle ; but from a report 
made to the Freewill Baptist General Confer- 
ence in 1874, it appears that the Church of God 
is unwilling to give up its present name. The 
Freewill Baptists reported, in 1875, 38 yearly 
meetings, 1,399 churches, 1,185 ordained preach- 
ers, and 72,128 members. Of the yearly meet- 
ings, one is in British America, and one in India; 
the others are in the United States. The Free 
Baptists of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are 
in full agreement, though not in organic union, 
with the Freewill Baptists ; the former, in 1875, 
had 138, the latter, 30 churches. The Freewill 
Baptists have 21 literary institutions for second- 
ary or higher instruction, six of which are col- 
leges; namely, Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale, 
Mich, (organized in 1855); Bates College, at 
Lewiston, Me. (1863) ; Ridgeville College, 
Bidgeville, Ind. (1867) ; West Virginia 
College, at Flemington, W. Va. (1868) ; 
Storer College, at Harper's Ferry, W. Va. ; 
and Wolsey College, at Peach Grove, Tenn. 
Theological schools are connected with Hills- 
dale and Bates colleges. The Freewill Baptist 
Education Society has invested funds to the 
amount of .$45,000, the interest on which is 
chiefly devoted to sustaining theological instruc- 
tion in Bates and Hillsdale colleges. It makes 
liberal provision in aid of young men preparing 
for the ministry. This denomination, from the 
beginning of the anti-slavery struggle, main- 
tained an unwavering and strenuous opposition 
to slavery, and is still doing good service for the 
freedmen, especially in the Shenandoah and Mis- 
sissippi valleys. Among the newspapers issued 
by the denomination, are two Sabbath-school 
papers, which, by alternating with each other, 
furnish a weekly issue. Its Sabbath-school work 
is pursued with much interest and vigor. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE. The French 
language is universally recognized as standing, 
■with the English and German, at the head of the 
languages of the civilized world. Wherever a 
knowledge of any other than the native lan- 
guage is valued, French is sure to have its claims 
considered. Hence, in the schools of the English- 
speaking world, it usually occupies, with the Ger- 
man language, a place in the course of instruction. 
Whatever should be said of the study of modern 
foreign languages in general, and especially of the 
languages of great nations, like those of France 



and Germany, is reserved for the article Modern 
Languages, this article treating only of what be- 
longs to the French language exclusively. 

This language is one of the so-called Bomanic 
languages (q. v.), which, after the destruction 
of the Western Roman empire, sprang from the 
development of the provincial dialects of the 
empire, and from the Latin colloquial language 
[lingua Romana rustled), which continued to 
exist by the side of the refined language (sermo 
urbanus), and was carried by the victorious 
armies into south-western Europe. In Gaul, the 
Latin colloquial language, in consequence of the 
conquest of the country by the German tribes, 
soon became the only medium of conversation 
between the people of the various tongues ; and, 
by the close of the 7th century, displaced all the 
other languages, except in a small district of the 
north-west, a part of Brittany, where a Celtic lan- 
guage, like that of primitive Gaul, maintained it- 
self. The name French language, which is derived 
from the Franks, a German tribe, who established 
themselves in Gaul, in the 5th century, did not 
come into general use, until the language of the 
Franks (which, for a considerable length of time, 
co-existed with the Latin provincial dialects in 
the northern and eastern parts of the country) 
became extinct. The dialects which coidd be dis- 
tinguished in the language thus formed grouped 
themselves into two classes, — the South French 
(roman provencal, langue d'oc) and the North 
French [roman wallon, langue d'oil or d'otii). 
Both developed a literature, chiefly poetical ; but 
gradually the South French, in which the Latin 
element had a more thorough predominance, 
lost ground, and the North French, which was 
more largely mixed with German elements, be- 
came the language of the entire country. In 
the 1 6th century, Francis I. made it, in place of 
the Latin, the language of public transactions, 
and thus elevated it to the position of a national 
language. The first work in genuine French was 
published in the 14th century. Since the 16th 
century, the development of the language made 
rapid progress. Richelieu etablished the acade- 
miefranpaise for regulating all questions relative 
to the national language ; and under Louis XIV., 
it attained a high scholastic authority. Even in 
the middle ages, the French language was known 
and spoken far beyond the boundaries of its native 
country. It was the court language of England 
and Scotland, was generally understood in south- 
ern Italy and by the German nobility, and was 
also the chief language of the merchants in the 
East. At the peace of Nimeguen (1678), it 
was, for the first time, used as the language of 
European diplomacy; and this position it has 
maintained to the present day. It is the national 
language in all France, and in most of the French 
colonies, as well as in south-western Switzerland, 
and also in Hayti. In Belgium, though spoken by 
only about one half of the entire population, it is 
the prevafling language. It is also spoken as a 
native language by most of the inhabitants of the 
province of Quebec, and, other parts of the Domin- 
ion of Canada; and in a part of Lorraine which. 



FRENCH LANGUAGE 



325 



in 1871, was ceded to Germany. It has. to some 
extent, maintained itself in that part of the 
United States, which formerly belonged to France, 
especially in Louisiana and .Missouri ; but there 
it has gradually receded before the advance of the 
English language, and will doubtless soon be ex- 
tinct. The inhabitants of the English Channel 
islands speak mostly a Franco-Norman dialect ; 
the upper classes, however, use pure French. 
About twenty different dialects and patois of 
the French language are still distinguished. 
Even at present, no language is probably 
studied to so great an extent by foreigners as 
the French ; and, therefore, travelers find the 
knowledge of French more useful than that of 
any other modern language ; although, in this 
respect, it is at present far less important, as com- 
pared with the English and German languages, 
than it was a hundred years ago. The instances 
are also now very rare in which distinguished 
writers and scientists, like Leibnitz, Humboldt, 
Frederick the Great, Gibbon, Beckford, and Sir 
William Jones, write their works in the French 
language, in preference to their vernacular, either 
as a matter of taste or to insure to their writings 
a wider circulation. 

There is a sufficient number of literary docu- 
ments extant of every period of the French lan- 
guage, by which its gradual growth may be traced 
from its first formation to the present time. It 
has been a general opinion with philologists, 
especially classical scholars, that the origin of the 
French, as well as the other Romanic languages, is 
to be found in the gradual corruption of the Latin 
language, which was finally shattered to pieces by 
the German conquest ; and that, when these frag- 
ments were used for the building of new lan- 
guages, the French withdrew farthest from the 
Latin source. More recently, the researches of 
comparative linguistics have shown, in the growth 
of the French and other Romanic languages, 
the working of the great natural laws which reg- 
ulate the formation and development of new 
languages ; and, in the light of these researches, 
much that formerly was looked upon as a deteri- 
oration, now appeal's as a development and an 
improvement. If we see, for instance, that from 
the Latin word horn, the new French language 
formed a long series of words, as or, lors, des-hrs, 
alors, lorsque, encore, dorenarant, desormnis, 
heure, heures, horn ire, each with a different idea ; 
it is obvious that, in the origin of the French 
language, there was not only the decay of the l^at- 
in, but the creative power of new ideas. The 
abundance of simple words in French, where the 
English and Germans have to use compounds, is 
generally conceded to be an advantage; as French. 
pommier, vigne; English, tipple-tree, vineyard. 
Among the commendable qualities of the French 
language, are generally enumerated its logical 
precision, neatness, and perspicuity ; while, on the 
other hand, the monotony of accentuating the 
final syllables, and the frequent occurrence of the 
nasal sound make it less euphonious and rhyth- 
mical than other Romanic languages. Its excel- j 
lencies, therefore, appear to greater advantage in 



prose than in poetry, and it is also admirably 
suited for conversation. In common with most 
other Romanic languages, it has introduced from 
the Teutonic languages the use of auxiliary verbs 
with personal pronouns in the place of the Latin 
inflections; a&j'aiaime (German, kh huh.' ge- 
liebt), for amavi, I have loved; also the use of two 
articles, a definite and an indefinite, the material 
of both being taken from the Latin (fe, In from 
We, illn; un, ii/ie from units, una): as fe cere, the 
father, In mere, the mother; un pere, a father: 
line mere, a mother; for (Latin) pater, father ; 
mnler, mother (German, iter Voter, </ir Mutter; 
ein Voter, eine Mutter). Like its Romanic sisters, 
it appeare less inflected than any Teutonic lan- 
guage, by the entire loss of case-endings in nouns, 
as tin pere, the father's (German, des Voters ; 
Latin, pnlris). 

The French language is studied in most of the 
secondary and higher schools of English-speaking 
nations, besides being taught by a host of private 
teachers. In a large number of' schools, it is still 
I the only modern language studied; in many 
others, in which provision is also made for Ger- 
man and other modern languages, special promi- 
nence is assigned to French.. Especially is this 
the case in female colleges, seminaries, and acad- 
emies, both in England and in the United States ; 
and in these institutions particular stress is usu- 
ally laid. in the prospectus, on the opportunity af- 
forded to obtain a thorough knowledge of French. 
The German language is, however, competing 
with the French, and now frequently holds a 
place by the side of it in many institutions in 
which formerly, during many generations, the 
latter was exclusively pursued. As the secondary 
and higher institutions of both England and the 
United States are not regidated by a central 
government, but are more or less independent in 
tlu- arrangement of their courses of instruction, 
the study of French is not pursued, in any large 
class of institutions, according to a uniform plan ; 
but its regulation has been. to a very great extent, 
influenced by habit and fashion. As French is 
pre-eminently looked upon as the language of 
a refined people, and is the favorite foreign 
language of the upper classes in most civilized 
countries, principals of schools are induced, more 
than in the case of any other foreign language, to 
embody it in the course of studies merely as a 
means of commen ling tin ir schools to favor and 
patronage. In such schools, the time and attention 
given to this study are generally insufficient to se- 
cure any progress of imp a tanee. and, consequently 
are. in great part, wasted. Where the study of 
French is dictated 1 >y proper motives, the mistake is 
frequently made in providing for it a course of only 
one. two. or three years, sometimes with only one 
recitation a week ; and in discontinuing it in the 
higher classes. The aim in all these institutions, 
without doubt, should be to impart, besides the 
correct foreign pronunciation, a knowledge of the 
principles of the language, with a constant refer- 
ence to the English, and to furnish the key for 
the understanding of its truly magnificent liter- 
ature. It is desirable to use the French, as far 



326 



FRENCH LANGUAGE 



as possible, in the recitations, in order to famili- 
arize the ear of the student with the spoken 
language, and also to afford him some practice in 
speaking it. The ability to speak the French 
language, however, cannot be acquired in school 
except within very narrow limits. To discontinue 
the study after a fair knowledge of grammar and 
reading has been acquired, is a serious educational 
error. Where the study is introduced, it should be 
continued without interruption until the com- 
pletion of the school course. When it is intended 
to teach pupils to speak French fluently, a course 
of instruction of at least four years should be 
provided, with daily exercise, and constant inter- 
course with a French teacher. The French, in 
this respect, does not differ from any other mod- 
ern langage. (See Modern Lanouages.) 

Instruction in French, as in every other foreign 
language, begins with the acquisition of a correct 
pronunciation. Next to English, French is the 
least phonetic of all languages ; and, there- 
fore, a large number of rules must be learned 
before the pupil is able to pronounce ordinary 
words. It is important that tin's pronunciation 
should be learned, partly at least, by means of an 
imitation of the teacher's pronunciation. Memoriz- 
ing lessons, before the correct pronunciation has 
been acquired is positively injurious. The French 
grammar offers but few peculiarities and difficul- 
ties. The absence of case-endings and of many 
other inflections, and the paucity of simple tenses 
and of changes in the radical part of irregular 
verbs, facilitate the reading of a French author at a 
very early stage of instruction. The chief peculiar- 
ities, such as the interrogative and negative form 
of sentences, ought to be frequently practiced. 
Attention should be called to the relationship 
which the Latin and the Norman elements of 
the English language bear to both English and 
French. Simple exercises in etymology maygreat- 
ly facilitate the early acquisition of a sufficient 
number of words, to enable the pupil to read easy 
writers without a too frequent use of the dic- 
tionary. If French is studied by pupils who pos- 
sess some knowledge of Latin, this knowledge can 
be used to great advantage in etymological illus- 
tration, and in giving a clear view of the peculiar 
character of the Romanic languages. The under- 
standing of French authors can be made quite 
easy for most pupils, who soon find that the 
majority of the words have equivalents from the 
same roots in their own language. The reading 
should, therefore, be rapid and not too much inter- 
rupted by grammatical or literary remarks. The 
aim, at first, should be to make the language 
familiar to the pupil ; as he advances, it will be 
easy, without any. sacrifice of time, to call at- 
tention to the rhetorical excellencies of the 
French classics. Classic prose should precede 
poetry, and should be read to a much larger ex- 
tent. The great prose writers of the 17th and 
18th centuries have some claims to the privilege 
of being read first ; at all events, they should not 
be neglected. French literature is exceedingly rich 
in works suited, in every respect, for beginners ; 
and there is no reason why modern writers should 



deprive Fenelon's Telemaque and Voltaire's 
Charles XII of the deserved popularity which 
they have so long enjoyed. In selecting modern 
writers, teachers should exercise the greatest care 
to avoid all works the contents of which are ob- 
jectionable. .In general, the reading of foreign 
authors who in a marked manner reflect the 
national peculiarities of their country, is to 
be preferred ; but whenever there is reason 
to apprehend that the impressions thus made 
upon the pupil's mind may weaken his patri- 
otic sentiments, there will be need of the ex- 
ercise of caution. — There is, generally, too little 
time in English and American institutions for 
the study of French literature. In most cases, 
the time devoted to it may be more profitably 
spent in improving the pupil's technical knowl- 
edge of the language. Of course, advanced 
pupils should become acquainted with the most 
celebrated authors as well as a rudimentary out- 
line of the literary history of France ; but most 
of this can best be learned as an introduction to 
the reading of the standard writers. Good French 
reading books, with literary introductions to the 
different authors, may be used for this purpose, es- 
pecially in advanced classes, with great advantage. 
The reading of selections which would make the 
pupil acquainted with the peculiar style and ex- 
cellencies of Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Boileau, 
Fenelon, etc. of the age of Louis XIV. ; of Vol- 
taire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Florian, &c, of the 
philosophical century ; of Chateaubriand, Be- 
ranger, Lamartine, V. Hugo, G. Sand, Guizot, 
Thiers, Michelet, &c, of modern times, is prefer- 
able to the exclusive reading of one or two entire 
works of French literature. — When colloquial ex- 
ercises constitute the chief part of French instruc- 
tion, and to acquire fluency of speech is the chief 
aim, care should be exercised that the command 
of the language thus obtained may give to the 
pupil something more than a collection of trivial 
2)hrases and unmeaning expressions of politeness. 
Eminent educators have often called attention 
to the dangerous influence which a knowledge, 
so exclusively formal and without substance, may 
exercise upon the pupil's mind. 

The first grammar of the French language was 
written by an English author, Palsgrave (L'es- 
clarcissement de la lanyue frangoyse, Lond.,1 530; 
new edit, by Genin, Paris, 1852). It was followed 
by another grammar likewise for English persons, 
by Giles du Guez (likewise edited by Genin). 
The first grammar published in France, by Jac- 
ques Dubois (Sylvii in linguam Gallicam isagoge, 
Paris, 1531), was written in the Latin language. 
Great progress was visible in the works of 
Robert and Henry Stephens (q. v.). Among the 
later grammars published by French scholars the 
most highly valued are those by the Port-Royal 
writers, Lancelot and Arnauld (1660), de Wailly 
(1754), Girault-Duvivier (1811), Landais (1836), 
Bescherelle, Noel and Chapsal, Poitevin, Boniface, 
Lttillier and Larousse. Among the grammat- 
ical works on the French language written by 
foreigners, the works by Matzner, (Syntax der 
neufranzosisclien Sprache, 2 vols. Berlin, 1843 — 



FRIENDS 



32T 



1845, and FranzGsischeGrammatik.'\Vv\m.\x~>t'i) 
are especially esteemed by French scholars. — The 
first noteworthy dictionary of the French language 
was published by Robert Stephens ( Dictionnaire 
francais-iaiin, 1539). It went through many 
editions, and received additions from several 
authors, the most prominent of whom was .lean 
Xinit (1573). The dictionary by Richelet (Ge- 
neva, lljstl) embraced etymology within its scope, 
and gave quotations from French authors. The 
Dictionnaire universel by Antoine Furetiere 
(Hague, 1690) was a kind of general encyclope- 
dia. A revision of this work, made by the Jesuits, 
became celebrated under the name Dictionnaire 
de Trevoux (17(14). but was declared by the 
French Academy a plagiarism. The first edition 
of the Dictionnaire de I'Academie Franpaise 
appeared in 1IJ98, and was at once accepted by 
the country as the standard lexical authority. 
The lith edition appeared in IS.'!."); supplements to 
this edition were published by Raymond (1836), 
Landais ( 1 837) . Rarre. 1 S42, and others; a 7th edi- 
tion, to be completed in 2 vols., was in progress in 
1 B76. It is edited by 1'atin, with whom de Sacv, 
Sandeau. C. Doucet. and Mignet are associated. 
On the basis of the dictionary of the French 
Academy, numerous smaller works have been 
constructed, the most noted of which are those 
by Roiste (1801), Landais, Rescherelle (2 vols., 
l's.'d), Poitevin (1854), Dochez (1860), LarouEse 
(1865). The new work by Littre (3 vols., Paris, 
1863 -731 is regarded as the best of all diction- 
aries of the French language. A historical dic- 
tionary of the French language, on a grand scale, 
has been begun by the French Academy, The 
first volume, published in 1858, contains only the 
articles from A to Abu. — Dictionaries merely 
etymological have been published by Menage, 
Borel, du Fresne, Pongens, Roquefort (1829), 
Noel and Carpentier 1831), Oharrasin ( 1 * ! 2 . 
Mazure (1863), Scheler (1862).— The best works 
on the history of the French language are those 
by Wey [Histoire des revolutions du langnge 
en France. Paris. 1848)", Genin (Des variations 
du langage frangais depuis le V2me siecle, Paris, 
1845), and Littre {Histoire de In langue franpaise 
2 vols., Paris, 1803). — The standard works on 
French synonyms are those by Girard (1736), 
Beauzee (17(>'.>). Roubaud (1785), and Guizot 
(1MI!) — 22). — Complete histories of French 
literature have been published by X'isard (1 vols. 
18411 — Ij 1 ) , Demogeot (3 vols., 1857). and Geruzez 
(2 vols., 1852). — In connection with the other 
Romanic languages, the French has been, gram- 
matically and lexically, treated in the standard 
ijorks of Diez on these languages. (Grammatik 
aer romaniscken Spraehen, 3 vols.. 1836 — 12, 
4th edit., 1876 ; and Etymohgisches Wbrterbuch 
ile/- mm, in. Spraehen, 1853, 3d edit. 1869, Engl. 
trans, by Donkin, 1804). 

FKIENDS, Society of, commonly called 
Quakers, a religious denomination which was 
organized in England, in the 17th century, by 
George Fox. He began his religious reform in 
1647, and only a few years later, in 1655, the 
first of his followers came to America. In 1827, 



a schism took place in the Philadelphia Yearly 
Meeting, which afterwards extended to most of 
the other yearly meetings in America. Both 
parties claim the exclusive right to the denomina- 
tional title of the Religious Society of Friends. 
One division is known as Orthodox, a title 
which they claim as being nearest the original 

Friends in their religious views ; and the other 
division is called llicksite. from Elias Hicks, a 
leading member of that branch: but these disdain 
that title, and call themselves only Friends, ac- 
knowledging no man as their leader. The fol- 
lowers of Hicks do not insist on uniformity of 
belief in some of the tenets which the Orthodox re- 
gard as the fundamental doctrines of Christian- 
ity, but desire that every one should be fully per- 
suaded in his own mind. They are. in particular, 
charged by the Orthodox Friends with holding 
Socinian views in regard to the doctrines of the 
Trinity and of Satisfaction. The Friends recog- 
nize only a ministry of Divine appointment, 
and regard it as unchristian to take an oath or 
to go to war. As they do not have clergymen, 
they can allow no system of theological training, 
and are, therefore, entirely without theological 
schools. The Orthodox Friends have twelve 
yearly meetings, the oldest of which, that of 
London, is regarded by the others with respectful 
affection as the mother of yearly meetings. The 
number of members in England and Ireland is 
about 17,000. There are settlements of Friends 
in France. Germany. Norway. Madagascar, and 
in several parts of Australasia. all of which make 
annual reports to the London Yearly Meeting, and 
acknowledge subordination to it. The member- 
ship in the United States is about 60,000; in 
the entire world. 85,000. The other party (the 
Ilicksites) have six yearly meetings with about 
35,000 members. The Orthodox Friends have, 
in, the United States, four colleges; namely, 
llaverford College, in Pennsylvania (organized 
in 1830); Earlham College, at Richmond. End. 
(1859), Whittier College, at Salem, Iowa (1868), 
and Perm < lollege, at Oskaloosa, Iowa. They also 
have large boarding-schools, the most noted of 
which are those of ^'est Town, Pa., Provi- 
dence, R. I., Onion Springs, N. Y., and New 
Garden, X. C. In England and Ireland, there 
are also several educational institutions of merit 
under the care of the society. Considering 
the small number of Friends in Great Britain 
and Ireland, the educational advantages of the 
society are unequaled by any religious com 
niunity. The Flounders College, at Aekworth 
near Pontyfract. is the only college belonging 
to the Friends. It was founded in 17s4, has 
an endowment of € L0.000, and is exclusively de- 
voted to the training of young men for teachers 
in the Friends' educational establishments, or 
in their families. Aekworth School, also at Aek- 
worth. is thi; chief public school of the society, 
and has an endowment of £37,000. All the 
pupils (about 180 boys and 120 girls) are board- 
ers. Resides Aekworth, the Friends possess 
public schools at Croydon (endowment £30,000), 
Sideot (£15,000), Wigton (£12,000), Rawden, 



328 



FROEBEL 



FURMAN UNIVERSITY 



near Leeds (£5,000), Penketh, near Warrington 
(£4,000), Sibford (£10,000), Ayton, near Dar- 
lington (£14,000), Newton, Waterford ; Mount- 
meUick (£9,000), Lisburn (£11,000), Brookfield 
(£8,000). First-day schools (Sunday-schools) are 
conducted in all the yearly meetings with zeal 
and efficiency, and North Carolina has taken the 
lead in the establishment of a normal first-day 
school. The other branch (the Hicksites) have, 
in the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Bal- 
timore, and Richmond, Ind., extensive and well- 
conducted schools, adapted to a high standard 
of useful and practical education. There are also 
numerous schools of varied character through- 
out the yearly meetings. Swarthmore College, 
near Philadelphia, was organized in 1869, and is 
intended for three hundred pupils of both sexes. 
FROEBEL, Friedrich, a celebrated German 
educator, and the inventor of the kindergarten 
system of school instruction, was born in Ober- 
weissbach, Thuriugia, April 21., 1782, and died 
in Marienthal, June 21., 1852. He was the son 
of a Lutheran clergyman, but had few oppor- 
tunities for education, leaving home at the early 
age of 13, to become a forester's apprentice. As 
such he learned the elements of geometry and 
surveying, and acquired the means to prepare 
himself for the university of Jena ; but his funds 
being exhausted, he was compelled to shift for 
himself in various stations, until, in 1803, he 
was employed as a teacher in a model school in 
Frankfort on the Main. To acquaint himself 
with the details of Pestalozzi's reforms in educa- 
tion, he became his associate in the school at 
Yverdun, Switzerland, from 1807 to 1810. He 
then continued his studies at the universities of 
Gottingen and Berlin; but, in 1813, he took part 
as a volunteer in Liitzow's celebrated campaign 
against Napoleon I. In the same year he was ap- 
pointed assistant inspector of the mineralogical 
museum in Berlin ; but he resigned that posi- 
tion in 1816 to found in Griesheim, Thu- 
ringia, a school, which he soon after transferred 
to Keilhau, near Rudolstadt. His system of 
education, as practiced here for fifteen years, was 
based on the principle of cultivating the self- 
activity of the pupil, by connecting manual 
labor with every study. Not fully satisfied, how- 
ever, with the results of his experiments, he left 
his school to the guidance of three devoted and 
excellent assistants, — Middendorf , Barop, and 
Langethal, and went to Switzerland, where he 
hoped to find more support in his reformatory 
plans. He founded a school first in Willisau, in 
1832, and afterwards another in Burgdorf, in 
1835, which he again left to be carried on by 
Middendorf and Langethal, and returned to Ger- 
many in order to realize his plan of kindergarten 
schools. He had become entirely convinced 
that no thorough educational reform could be 
effected, without changing the methods of the 
earliest instruction. The powers of the infant's 
mind, before they become stunted by neglect, 
he held, must be harmoniously developed, in an in- 
stitution specially adapted to prepare these young 
minds for the ordinary processes of school instruc- 



tion. In this institution, teachers were also to be^ 
trained for the special work of infant education. 
Such a school he called a Kindergarten, that is, 
a garden for children, partly because it was to be 
located in a hall within a garden, and, partly, be- 
cause the children were to be treated like plants, 
being carefully tended, and aided in the natural 
development of their powers. His first attempt 
at a practical realization of this scheme, was made 
in Blankenburg, Thuringia, in 1840; the second, 
at the invitation of the Duchess of Meiningen, 
in Liebenthal, in 1849, in the latter of which 
places he began the training of young women to 
be kindergarten teachers. Other kindergartens, 
were opened in several of the German cities — 
Dresden, Hamburg, etc., previous to Froebel's 
death, in 1852. Before his death, he had the 
mortification to find the establishment of state 
or public kindergartens forbidden by the Prus- 
sian Minister Von Raumer, who supposed their- 
founder to be Karl Froebel, his nephew, who was: 
charged with being a democratic agitator and so- 
cialist. Like all self- educated persons, Froebel was 
deficient in logical clearness, especially in writ- 
ing, when a flood of ideas overwhelmed him ; as. 
a practical teacher, he was wonderfully impress- 
ive and clear. Awkward in appearance, indif- 
ferent to the conventionalities of life, and always 
filled with one interest, one range of ideas and 
efforts, he, nevertheless, exerted on all genuine 
educators who came in contact with him, irre- 
spective of creed, station in life, or party, am 
almost magical influence. Although a devout 
Christian and religionist, he was entirely un- 
sectarian ; although a revolutionary thinker in- 
most respects, he kept free from all attempts at 
practical revolution ; although a cosmopobtan 
and lover of mankind, be was an ardent national 
German ; and although in theory he was most 
uncritical, in speech incoherent and hardly in- 
telligible, his system of methods for the develop- 
ment of the mind is eminently practical, syste- 
matic, and effective. The most complete biog- 
raphy of Froebel is that written by A. B. Hansch- 
siann (Eisenach, 1874) ; shorter ones are found 
in Wichard Langb's complete edition of Froe- 
bel's pedagogical works (3 vols., Berlin, 1862), in 
Diesterweg's Rheinisclie Blatter (1860), in the 
journal Erziehung der Gegenwart (1874, sq.) by 
the Baroness Marenholtz-Buelow, and in Aug. 
Kcehler's Praxis des Kindergartens (3 vols., 
Weimar). An excellent biographical sketch has 
also been written by Matilda H. Kriege (New 
York, 1876). (See Kindergarten.) 

FURMAN' UNIVERSITY, at Greenville, 
S. C, founded in 1850, is under Baptist control. 
It has ample buildings beautifully located on a 
tract of land, of some forty acres. Its endow- 
ment was almost wholly lost by the war. The 
remnant spared has recently been augmented by 
an addition of $200,000 in bonds bearing 7 per 
cent interest. Hereafter tuition will be free for 
10 years. The university has an educational 
fund of about $10,000, the interest of which is 
to aid young men who are preparing for the 
ministry. It comprises eight schools; namely, 



GALBSVILLE UNIVERSITY 



GAMES 



329 



Roman literature ; Greek language and litera- 
ture ; mathematics and mechanical philosophy : 
natural philosophy : chemistry and natural 
history ; logic, rhetoric, and the evidences of 
( 'hristianity ; metaphysics ; and English litera- 
ture. Students are allowed entire freedom in 
the selection of the schools which they desire to 
attend. The full course for a degree of A. B. 
extends through four years. The preparatory 
department was discontinued in 1869, and has 
bean succeeded by the Greenville High School. 



The theological department was abandoned some 
years after the organization of the university, in 
order to make it the germ of the Southern Bap- 
tist Theological Institution, which holds its ses- 
sions at Greenville, and has 5 professors. The 
university, in l(i74 — 5, had 5 professors, 54 stu- 
dents, and 7!) alumni. The Rev. James C. Fur- 
man, D. D., has been the presiding officer of the 
institution since its opening. 

FURNITURE, SCHOOL. See School 
Furniture. 



GALESVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Gales- 
ville, Wis., chartered in 1859, is under the con- 
trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Both 
sexes are admitted. It is supported by tuition 
fees and an endowment of $15,000. It has a 
library of over 4,00(1 volumes, a cabinet of natural 
history, and apparatus for the illustration of nat- 
ural philosophy, chemistry, and astronomy. It 
has a preparatory and a collegiate department 
with a classical and a scientific course, and a course 
in modern languages and in music. The cost of 
tuition in the preparatory department is $21 per 
year, and, in the collegiate department, $27. In 
1874 — 5, there were 7 instructors; and the num- 
ber of students was as follows: in the collegiate 
department, 29; in the preparatory, 96; in music, 
28; total, deducting repetitions, 135. The Hon. 
(ieorge Gale, LL. I)., was the president of the 
university from 1859 to 1864, when the Rev. 
Harrison Gilliland, I>. !>.. the present incumbent 
(1876), was elected. 

GALL, Franz Joseph, a German physician 
and the founder of phrenology, was born at 
Tiefenbronn, in Baden, March 9., 1758, and 
died at Montrouge, near Paris, Aug. 22., 1828. 
The first impulse to his phrenological inves- 
tigations was given by the observation made by 
him, when a boy, that all pupils who excelled 
in committing pieces to memory had prominent 
eyes. Gradually proceeding in his observations, 
he thought he perceived in the human head 
external marks of other intellectual and moral 
faculties; and, after twenty years of uninterrupt- 
ed study, he believed that he had discovered 
about twenty organs of different faculties. In 
1796, he began to lecture on his peculiar theory 
in Vienna ; but, in 1802, the Austrian govern- 
ment interdicted his lectures on the ground that 
they were dangerous to religion. This charge, 
which has since been often repeated, against the 
phrenologists, was stoutly denied by Gall, who, 
on the contrary, contended that training in 
early youth could overcome a vicious disposi- 
tion, and that, therefore, a knowledge of phre- 
nology, which revealed better than any other 
means of observation, the good and bad disposi- 
tions of men. was ot great importance to every 
educator. Gall had many followers, the most 
noted of whom was Spurzheim, the author of 
A View of the Elementary Principles of Edu- 
cation (Edin, 1821), and other important works. 



GALLAUDET, Thomas Hopkins, a noted 
teacher and philanthropist, was born in Phila- 
delphia, Dec. 10., 1787, and died in Hartford, 
Ct., Sep. 9., 1851. He graduated at Yale College 
in 1805, entered the theological seminary at 
Andover, in 1811, and was licensed to preach in 
1814 ; but, becoming interested in the instruction 
of deaf-mutes, he turned his attention almost 
entirely to that subject. Soon after, he was 
appointed superintendent of an institution 
founded for the purpose at Hartford, and in 
1815, visited Europe in its behalf. Finding 
that the accomplishment of his purpose to enter 
the London Asylum as a pupil would be de- 
layed, and a similar purpose for the institution 
at Edinburgh entirely thwarted, he sought an 
introduction to the Abbe Sicard. then in Lon- 
don, and was invited by him to visit Paris, 
where every facility was afforded him to study 
the system of deaf-mute instruction there in 
vogue. In July 1816, he returned to this country 
with Mr. Ijaurent Clerc, one of the ablest 
pupils and assistants of the Abbe Sicard. and 
founded, with a class of seven pupils, the Amer- 
ican Asylum at Hartford — the first institution 
of the kind in this country. After thirteen 
years' superintendence, he resigned, in 1830, his 
jjosition as principal, on account of failing health. 
From that time till his death, in 1851, he gave 
his attention liberally to all educational and 
benevolent pursuits, speaking and writing more 
particularly on female education, and the treat- 
ment of the insane. His most important works, 
are. Child's Book an the Soul, Mother 's Primer, 
Defining Dictionary, Practical Spelling-Book, 
The Every-Day Christian, Letters of a Father, 
and Public Schools, Public Blessings. — See 
Barnard, American Teachers and Educators ; 
and Tribute to Gattaudet (Hartford, 1852) ; H. 
Humphrey, Life of T. H. Oallaudet; North 
American Review for October, 1858. 

GAMES are formal methods of sport or 
diversion, which constitute, in an especial man- 
ner and degree, the peculiar life of childhood. 
Play maybe regarded as a part of that spon- 
taneous exercise of the bodily organs of an 
animal, which promotes its growth and adapts 
it to its surroundings ; and games, as convention- 
ally established modes of play. These games 
may be more or less in harmony with the nat- 
ural wants of those who engage in them ; but it 



330 



GAMES 



GAUMB 



-will be found that the mare nearly they agree 
with these natural wants, the more generally 
they have prevailed in every period of the his- 
tory of mankind. Thus modern research has 
shown that the best games, both of children and 
of adults, were practiced, with certain variations 
occasioned by differences of climate, soil, and 
national character, thousands of years ago. 
"With the progress of civilization, these games 
undergo certain modifications so as to be adapted 
to the age ; and thus, like language, become the 
characteristics or exponents of special degrees 
and kinds of national culture. Children's games 
are, in part, imitations of those of adults ; and, 
indeed, sometimes, in an imaginative way, of the 
Serious occupations of the latter. Thus the 
child " plays school " with other children as 
scholars, or assumes the functions of the head of 
the household, or of the lawyer, the doctor, the 
mechanic, etc., this disposition resulting from the 
activity of the conceptive faculty peculiar to 
•children. It has been asserted that the educator 
should not meddle with the plays and games of 
children, at least not in a positive manner ; be- 
cause to be really interesting they should be 
spontaneous. This principle is undoubtedly cor- 
rect in regard to play in general, as far as it is 
not prejudicial to mental or physical health, or 
unsuited to the age of those engaged in it ; but 
parents, and other educators, can exert very 
great influence over their children or pupils by 
joining in their games ; and, in this way, they 
may regulate the games themselves, and thus 
make them an instrument of training and in- 
struction. The principle which should limit all 
interference is obvious : the self-activity of the 
child's powers should be fostered and directed, so 
that amusement may be not only the means of 
stimulating their growth, but also a result of 
that growth. In what way this may be done, 
from the earliest childhood, by means of plays 
and games, such as have been employed for ages, 
has been demonstrated by Froebel, and by those 
who have practiced his method in the household 
or the kindergarten. The latter, however, ap- 
proaches perfection chiefly through the surpris- 
ing ability of the children, when stimulated by 
that method, to invent an endless variety of 
beautiful plays and games for themselves, — an 
ability which not only interests and amuses 
them as children, but prepares them for many 
spheres of useful activity in after life. Experi- 
ments to adapt Froebel's means of occupation, 
and his games, to pupils from the seventh or 
eighth year upward, are now being made in a 
number of schools in Germany and the United 
States. These comprise a great variety of ball 
games, gardening occupations, light gymnastics, 
and movement games; as well as those of a more 
mental character, such as charades, puzzles, and 
rebuses ; and also construction games by means 
of geometrical solids, cutting, weaving, folding, 
and twining, with paper, leather, etc. The peculiar 
charm connected with these amusing occupations 
must tend to keep children from rough, boisterous, 
and dangerous sports, and will also obviate the 



need of purchasing costly and elaborate toys, in 
which children take but a transient interest. More 
particularly will it dissuade from supplying 
children with contrivances for such games of 
chance as tend to foster the spirit of gain and 
gambling. Chddren should be led to make their 
own toys, and to contrive their own games and 
pdays as much as possible. 

The importance of games in the education of 
children was recognized by Plato and Aristotle. - 
The former proposed that the children, assembled 
in the temples, should be trained, under female 
direction, to imitate actual life in their plays, 
and thus to develop a taste or inclination for 
particular vocations. Aristotle praised games as 
the means of exercise, and as preventing or 
counteracting idleness ; but he based them too 
exclusively on the principle of recreation. Quin- 
tilian also recognized the developing power of 
certain games. In the middle ages, only the 
knights appear to have appreciated the value of 
games for physical and social culture. Luther 
was favorable to the games of children ; but the 
schools of the 16th and 17th centuries are, in 
general, noted for their gloomy neglect of this 
cheerful element in the education of youth. The 
schools of the Jesuits were, in this respect, 
conducted on more reasonable principles than 
most others. Montaigne advocated games for 
children, and Comenius likewise favored them. 
Locke commended them, but particularly enjoined 
that children should be required as far as 
possible to make their own playthings. "All 
the plays and diversions of children," he says, 
'■should be directed towards good and useful 
habits, or else they will introduce 01 ones. What- 
ever they do leaves some impression on that ten- 
der age, and from them they receive a tendency 
to good or evil ; and whatever hath such an in- 
fluence ought not to be neglected." Rousseau 
showed himself unable to appreciate the value of 
children's games. In the lyth century, no one 
has done so much to call attention to their 
importance as Froebel ; and, at the present time, 
no educational system can be considered complete 
which does not'embrace a consideration of every 
thing pertaining to the rational amusement of 
children as well as what belongs to their formal 
instruction. A large number of books in the 
English language have been published, contain- 
ing a full description of every variety of games 
and amusements for both boys and girls, and 
much labor and ingenuity have been expended 
in inventing interesting and instructive in-door 
games for children, and in constructing material 
for them. For a thoroughly exhaustive treat- 
ment of this subject, from an educational point 
of view see Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spiele 
(1861). (See Diversions). 

G-ATJME, Jean Joseph, a French ecclesi- 
astic and author, especially noted for his earnest 
opposition to the use of the pagan classics in 
education, was born in 1802, and died in 1869. 
He received holy orders at an early age, and, in 
1827, was appointed professor of theology in the 
seminary of Nevers, of which institution he was 



GEDIKE 



GENIUS 



331 



afterwards the director. Subsequently, he be- 
came anion of the cathedral and vicar-general. 
In his Le ver rongeur des societes modernes 
— Tin- Canker^ioorm <>f Modern Society (Paris, 
L851), be endeavored to show that all the so- 
cial evils of the last four centuries could be 
traced to the revival of pagan art and literature. 
The publication of this book gave rise to an ex- 
citing controversy in which Bishop Dupanloup 
strongly opposed the views of Gauine. (See 
Dupanloup.) In 1852, Gauine published Le/lrfs 
a Mgr. Dupanloup sur le paganisms dans 
Vedncatioii. contending that only expurgated 
editions of Latin and Greek authors anterior 
to the 4th century A. D. should be read in the 
schools. In order to carry out this idea, he 
issued Bibliothequp den ctassiques Chretiens, la- 
tins ei grecs (30 vols.. Paris. 1 852 — 5) and PoStes 
el prosateurs profanes completement expurges 
(2 vols., 1857). In 1841, he was made a knight 
of Sylvester by Gregory XVI., and. in 1854, a 
prothonotary "apostolic by Pius IX. (See Clas- 
sics, Christian.) 

GEDIKE, Friedrich, a German educator, 
born in 1755, died in 1803. He studied at the 
university of Frankfort on the Oder, was 
appointed sub-rector of the Friedriohswerder 
Gymnasium in Berlin, in 1770, and director of 
that institution, in 1779. His success in this 
position was very great ; and the organization 
which he introduced into his.gynina.shun, became 
a model for all similar institutions in Prussia. 
His principal reform is described by himself as 
follows: " As it frequently happens that a yi lung 
man does not make equal progress in all his 
Studies, but advances more rapidly in some than 
in others, it would be unreasonable to let him 
attend to all the studies in the same class. Our 
plan is. therefore, arranged in such a manner that 
a scholar can attend one lesson in a higher, and 
another in a lower class, without missing a study 
otherwise necessary." In his position as chief 
school councilor (Oberschulrath), to which he was 
appointed in 1787, he also showed great talents 
88 an organizer. The creation of the supreme 
School Board (OberschulcoUegium) and the in- 
troduction of the examination of candidates for 
graduation in the gymnasia (AbUwrientenexamen | 
were chiefly his work. In 1787, he established a 
teacher's seminary for the instruction of teachers 
of classical schools, the direction of which he 
retained until his death. He published a collec- 
tion of his Sahtdschriften (Educational Works) 
in two volumes (1789-95). 

GENETIC METHOD, in instruction, is 
but another name for what is more frequently 
called the developing method. The term genetic 
implies that the mind of the pupil is to be guided 
by the teacher in such a way that it will be able 
to perceive the genesis of' the truths communi- 
cated, that is, their development from fundamen- 
tal principles; or that it will be led to construct 
for itself general principles from observed facts 
as antecedents. This method recognizes the need 
of a genesis, or development, of actual concep- 
tions in the mind of the pupil, as the basis for 



' every other educational process. (See Develop- 
ing; Method.) 

GENEVA COLLEGE, at West Geneva. 
Logan Co.. Ohio, under the control of the Ke- 
fonued Presbyterian Church, was organized in 
L849, and chartered in 1853. It includes a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate department. In 1873 — 1. 
there were 7 instructors and 1711 students (109 
males and 61 females). The cost of tuition for 
preparatory and scientific studies is §24 per year; 
for classical studies, $30. The Rev. II. II. George, 
1). 1)., is (1870) the president, having held this 
position since 1872. 

GENIUS (Lat. genius, innate power or 
capacity, from gignere, to produce), as used in 
modern times, has been variously defined by 
many writers, who. though differing widely as to 
its essential quality, are agreed as to its out- 
ward, distinguishing manifestation ; namely, un- 
usual mental ability coupled always with great 
intuitional or creative power. Absolute creative 
power cannot, of course, be claimed for it, since 
it does not create the elements with which it 

I works ; but that it is creative in the sense of re- 
combining these, and discovering new and subtle 
relations between them, which we instinctively 
recognize as both real and novel, and hence view 
with admiration and delight, is generally ad- 
mitted. Originality is its distinctive feature. 
In whatever field of human inquiry, therefore, it 
is exerted, its action and results are always the 
same, — it masters intuitively, or by a stud-, so 
rapid as to seem intuitive, all that is known in 
that particular field, and. leaving talent by.the 
wayside, reaches out into the great unknown 

' which surrounds us on every side, rescues some? 
tliing from that shadowy realm, and adds it to 
the domain of positive knowledge, lints, with 
Beethoven, it listens as if to celestial harmonies, 
and transcribes them for mortal ears; with 
Newton, it follows the falling apple till worlds 
and atoms proclaim the same immutable and 
unerring law ; it broods with Napoleon over the 
camp fire, and, scorning experience as its guide. 
gathers sudden and overwhelming victory from 
the very field of disaster ; it paints the heroic 
past with the simplicity and grandeur of nature 
herself, as in Homer, or probes, as in Shakespeare, 
the mysteries of the human heart with a power 
and vividness which ages cannot autiquate. Tran- 
scending thus all contemporaneous effort, it is 
alwavs a lawgiver; while talent deduces from its 
works the rules by which alone excellence may 
be attained. Disdaining all present attainment, 
and living too exclusively in the future, it 

j quite often happens, however, that the man of 
genius falls out of harmony with the age in 
which he lives. And here the duty of the educa- 
tor towards him must be considered. Our first 
question, therefore, is. How far can the teacher 
influence genius ? If genius be. as many think, 
only an abnormal development of one faculty at 
the expense of the others — as the ear becomes 
exquisitely acute by the loss of sight — the 
method to be adopted by the teacher is plain ; 

i namely, a repression of the abnormal faculty and 



332 



GENIUS 



GEOGRAPHY 



a careful cultivation of the others. Whether this 
process would result in a reduction of them all 
to mediocrity, or a harmonious and powerful 
development of them all, remains to be con- 
sidered. If, on the other hand, genius be, as it 
has sometimes seemed, an irrepressible impulse, 
an apparently higher power, acting from with- 
out, and impelling its possessor, almost in spite 
of himself, in a given direction, any attempt to 
change its course by education, must bring only 
injurious irritation and disgust to the pupil and 
discouragement to the teacher. History furnishes 
many instances in which genius, thwarted in its 
legitimate aim, and not suspecting its own power, 
has passed for stupidity, till a fortunate chance 
has disclosed its real nature. Perhaps, the ques- 
tion how far genius can be profitably influenced 
by education, must wait for an answer till a 
better system of psychology than we now possess 
has laid down the principles according to which 
the experiment must be conducted. 

Our second question is, How far is it desirable 
that genius should be influenced by education ? 
Perhaps it is not too much to say that the last 
and best result of education is to make men 
happy. If happiness be the only consideration, 
and if happiness, according to an extensive 
modern school of philosophy, consists in bringing 
man into harmony with his surroundings, and if 
further it be granted, that the mind thus gifted 
can be harmoniously developed and retain all its 
original power, the duty of the educator is agam 
plain — the race would be benefited by such 
development, and the man of genius made more 
happy by eliminating from his mental constitu- 
tion all those jarring differences which arise from 
inharmonious development, and which take the 
form of eccentricities. There then arises the 
broader consideration, how far the permanent 
welfare of the human race is concerned in the 
harmonious development we have been discussing. 
This question, however, in the present state of 
our knowledge, is, perhaps, beyond our power to 
solve. — Akin to genius are those special aptitudes 
which are manifested, some times at quite an early 
age. These, as constituting a part of the char- 
acter, should be recognized by the educator ; and 
while they shoidd not form the basis of general 
training or discipline, should be allowed their 
specific exercise ; and, in the more advanced 
steps of education, should become distinct objects 
of culture. The existence of this special talent, 
or of genius itself, should not be permitted to 
supersede the necessity of industry and applica- 
tion. As far as possible, the tasks imposed by 
the instructor should bear a proper relation to 
the special ability of the students, those who are 
of brilliant parts being required to accomplish 
more than those who are comparatively dull and 
slow to acquire. Many youths of great promise, 
in large schools, are often seriously injured by 
insufficient requirements, lapsing into sloth or 
bad habits by the want of full occupation. This 
principle is of great importance ; though its 
application in school and college education is 
accompanied with many difficulties. The true 



educator will, however, recognize it, and allow it 
to guide and regulate many of his operations. 
The possession of the brightest genius camiot 
supersede the necessity of industry and study. 
"Invention," said Sir Joshua Reynolds, "is one of 
the great marks of genius ; but, if we consult 
experience, we shall find, that it is by being con- 
versant with the inventions of others, that we 
learn to invent, as, by reading the thoughts of 
others, we learn to think". 

GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yia, yij, the earth, and 
ypatieiv, to write) has in its own name a concise 
yet comprehensive definition. Strictly speak- 
ing, modern scientific geography necessarily in- 
cludes a great part of the results and many of 
the details of the several natural and physical 
sciences. We must look to astronomy for an ex- 
planation of the phenomena of day and night and 
of the seasons; and for the means of determining 
the true form of the earth, its magnitude, and 
the relative position of places upon its surface. 
Geology must explain the phenomena of eleva- 
tion and contour, and their incessant though slow 
mutations. Physics only, can enable us to con- 
sider intelligently the conditions of climate, the 
origin of the wind and ocean currents, the rain- 
fall, the relations of temperature to elevation, 
and the mysteries of terrestrial magnetism. 
And, finally, biology, in its various departments, 
must help us to comprehend the geographical 
distribution of plants and animals, and to un- 
derstand the nature and origin of those impor- 
tant factors in modern civilization, — petroleum 
and mineral coal. Geography combines con- 
tributions from all these and many other depart- 
ments of human knowledge, and subordinates 
them to its own chief purpose, — a knowledge of 
mankind, and of their distribution, of the pecu- 
liarities of the countries which they inhabit, and 
of the effects of their physical environment up- 
on their social development and their condition; 
also a knowledge of their resources, industries, 
and government ; and of the commercial rela- 
tions of nations. It is evident that a subject 
so vast and comprehensive cannot be exhaus- 
tively treated in any ordinary school course of 
study. As in the science of arithmetic there 
are very many things which cannot possibly be 
included in an elementary or " practical " busi- 
ness course, so in the study of geography, a very 
large part of the entire subject must necessarily 
be omitted, partly because of the immaturity of 
the pupil's mind, and partly because of the pres- 
sure of other subjects upon his time and atten- 
tion. The contents of the modern daily news- 
paper furnish, perhaps, the best general indica- 
tion of what should constitute a proper course 
in geography for ordinary schools. With most 
persons, the newspaper furnishes by far the 
greater part of their reading, and is the chief, if 
not the only, source of their stock of general in- 
formation. None can safely dispense with it ,- 
and, in the not distant future, with the general 
increase of the number of intelligent readers 
through improved systems of instruction, the 
daily journal must become more and more the- 



GEOGRAPHY 



333 



medium for spreading a knowledge of the things 
which every one should know." Its telegrams, 
editorials, and communications, as well as the ad- 
vertisements, relate to every great human inter- 
est, political and commercial, social and religious. 
They are from every part of the world; and 
those of chief interest involve geographical 
knowledge which the editor must necessarily as- 
sume to be already possessed by the reader. In 
order to be truly practical, a proper course of 
study in geography should recognize the fact 
that, after reading, writing, and elementary 
arithmetic, a knowledge of no other subject 
studied in school, perhaps not of all others taken 
together, is so frequently called into practical 
use, as a knowledge of geography. 

In view of the limited time that can usually 
be given to the subject in school, it is obvious 
that, if a text-book be used, it should be clear 
and concise, and should chiefly direct the atten- 
tion of the pupil to those matters which will 
afterwards be most needed. All unimportant 
details should be omitted. It is a matter of no 
consequence that the pupil should know the de- 
tails of Arctic geography, or be able to describe 
minutely, and by long formulas, the courses of 
rivers, the precise boundaries of countries, or 
the exact location of a large number of towns 
and cities of the third and fourth orders. Gen- 
eral but substantially correct ideas are all that 
are here necessary ; and, in nearly every case, 
these will be nearly all that will remain in the 
pupil's mind, after all the labor and time ex- 
pended upon details. A knowledge of local geog- 
raphy is indispensable as a basis for the proper 
study of the more important descriptive geog- 
raphy ; but great care should lie taken to make 
it no more than a well-selected outline, such as 
the average mind is likely to retain. When 
judiciously pursued in the school room, geography 
becomes a lifelong study, full of pleasure ami 
profit ; badly taught, it is perhaps more than 
any other subject, "stale, flat, and unprofitable." 
Geography, like all other subjects, cannot be 
taught by any one who is not specially prepared 
to teach it. The teacher should know a great 
deal more about it than the brief statements of 
the taxt-book. He should have a fund of illustra- 
tion from books on history, travel, commerce, and 
other collateral subjects, so as to fill up and en- 
liven the simple outline of the book. There are 
few more common or more distressing illustra- 
tions of incompetency in the school room than 
that of the misnamed "teacher," with his eyes 
fastened upon the book, now following with his 
finger the printed question, and then doubtfully 
poring over the map, or over the printed answer 
in the descriptive text, to see if the pupil "knows 
his lesson." Pupils are quick to estimate such a 
teacher at his proper value. 

Geography is, comparatively speaking, a mod- 
ern science. The Phoenicians, the Egyptians, 
the Greeks, and the Carthaginians, in the prog- 
ress of their commercial enterprises, made a 
few discoveries, principally confined to the shores 
of the Mediterranean Sea ; and the great mili- 



tary expeditions of Alexander, in the 4th century 
B. G. added somewhat to this knowledge, which 
Eratosthenes (about 200 B. 0.) first reduced to 
a scientific form. The treatises of Strabo and 
Ptolemy contained nearly all the geographical 
information possessed by mankind tor centuries. 
When Columbus embarked on his daring voyage, 
little addition had been made to geographical 
knowledge, except what had been gained during 
the lath century, by the voyages of the Portuguese 
along the coast of Africa, stimulated by that noble 
prince, Henry of Portugal, surnamed the J\'<iri- 
gator. The first attempt at a description of the 
earth, subsequent to this, was that of Sebastian 
Franck ( Weltbaoch ,\»'Ai) . The works of Sebastian 
Minister, Orteiius, Cluver. Merian, and others fol- 
lowed. J.Bergmann (died 1787) was the founder of 
physical, A. P. Busching (175-1). of politico-statis- 
tical geography. It was, however, the labors of 
Karl Bitter, that first gave geography a truly 
scientific character. A new and important era of 
geographical discovery began just before the 
middle of the 19th century, and is still in prog- 
ress. The geographical society of Paris was 
founded in 1821 ; that of Berlin, in 1828 ; the 
Royal Geographical Society of London, in 1830; 
and the American Geographical Society, in 1852. 
There are now (1870), at least thirty-four such 
societies, differing, of course, in extent, activity, 
and importance. Within a brief period, and under 
their advice, direction, or encouragement, pro- 
digious results have been accomplished. A few 
years ago, more than one-half of the map of 
Africa was a blank j and of the 17 millions of 
sq. in. of Asia, more than 12 millions was cither 
entirely unknown, or wholly cut. off from all 
intercourse with mankind. Twenty-five years 
ago, a geographer wrote of Australia, "a corner 
of this huge mass of land is all that is known." 
Besides the newly opened empires of China and 
Japan and the recent vast conquests of the Rus- 
sians, nearly every other country of Asia has 
been visited by scientific explorers, eager to 
notice every fact relating to physical or political 
geography, ethnology, geology, botany, or 
zoology, and to discover the various agricultural, 
mineral, and other physical resources, developed 
or undeveloped, which play so important a part 
in modern civilization. In the same spirit, the 
limits of the unexplored regions of Africa and 
Australia have been greatly reduced ; the Arctic 
Ocean has been penetrated nearly to the 83rd, 
and the Antarctic to the 77th, degree of latitude ; 
and the vast and almost unknown regions in the 
heart of South America have been visited, again 
and again, by enthusiastic observers. Twenty- 
five or thirty years ago, the greater part of the 
ares, of the United States, — more than 2 millions 
of scpiare miles, was inhabited only by savages, 
and was almost unknown; now, although a great 
part yet remains unexamined, the admiration 
of the world is fixed upon "its great mountain 
ranges, extraordinary canons, wonderful geysers, 
and prehistoric ruins ; upon its lakes, rivers, 
majestic cataracts, and broad areas of culturable 
land ; its untold mineral treasures of every kind, 



334 



GEOGRAPHY 



and the rapidity with which its ancient solitudes 
are becoming the homes of an advanced civili- 
zation." (President Daly's Annual Address, 
1876.) 

The study of geography in schools is, compar- 
atively speaking, of recent introduction. The 
first text-books appear to have been modeled in 
part upon the extensive descriptions of Strabo, 
and in part upon the briefer work of Ptolemy, 
much of which consists essentially of mere lists 
of places. Until the latter part of the last cent- 
ury, nothing had been done in the United 
States to popularize the subject and adapt it to 
school instruction. The first text-book on the 
subject published in that country was a small 
18mo manual by Jedidiah Morse, issued in 1784. 
This work was of little use beyond affording a 
means of giving some slight geographical informa- 
tion to the pupils of elementary schools ; but, pre- 
vious to the publication of the work of William 
0. Woodbridge and Mrs. Emma Willard as joint- 
authors (The Woodbridge and Willard Geog- 
raphies and Atlases, 1822), it continued to be 
the chief text-book in use on the subject. "Up 
to this period," says Dr. Alcott, in his biography 
of William C. Woodbridge, "geography as a 
science had received but little attention in the 
public schools of New England ; with the excep- 
tion of a few of the more favored of the larger 
schools, spelling, reading, and writing were nearly 
all the branches that received special attention. 
As for geography, some few schools studied 
Morse ; a few others used as a sort of reading- 
book, Nathaniel D wight's System of Geograph y, 
which was arranged in the form of question and 
answer. The vast majority, however, paid no 
attention to the subject." Mrs. Willard thus de- 
scribes the method of teaching geogi-aphy in 1814, 
and for some years subsequently: "In geography, 
the eye was not made the sole or the chief me- 
dium of teaching the signs of external things, as 
the forms, proportions, and situation of countries, 
rivers, etc.; for though maps existed, yet they 
were not required to be used ; but the boundary 
was learned by the words of the book, and the 
latitude by numbers there set down." This pre- 
sents a very striking illustration of the error, 
once so prevalent, of addressing the mere mem- 
ory (and generally the memory of words), with- 
out any endeavor to develop the intelligence. 
The attempt to teach the situation of places 
(topography) by mere verbal description was 
perhaps the most absurd error which the history 
of education presents. William C. Woodbridge, 
who had been for some time engaged in teaching 
geography to deaf-mutes, and Mrs. Willard, of 
the Troy Female Seminary, appear to have been 
simultaneously impressed with the absurdity of 
the method in use, and with the need of reform 
in teaching geography ; and both proposed to 
publish textbooks on the subject, and on plans 
substantially identical. This led to the union of 
authorship already referred to. The application 
of a principle of scientific generalization to geog- 
raphy, whether apprehended by them or not, 
was not introduced into their text-books ; nor 



was it in the work published about the same 
time by Sidney E. Morse (New System of Mod- 
ern Geography, 8vo, 1823), nor in the subsequent 
editions of that work, which had a wide and 
long-continued circulation. The improvements 
of Woodbridge and Willard, adopted and added 
to by Morse, Olney, Smith, and many other au- 
thors, obliged the pupil to make the maps the chief 
study, and to describe in his own language, 
though by given formulas, the boundaries of 
countries, the courses of rivers, the situation of 
towns, etc., lists of which were furnished for 
this purpose. Although nearly all of the text- 
books then, and subsequently, contained a de- 
scriptive text relating to matters not represented 
on the map ; such as the soil, climate, and pro- 
ductions of countries ; yet the prominence given 
to the map studies, and their greater relative 
convenience for recitation and home study, veiy 
generally led to a practical neglect of the de- 
scriptive text. In some works, as that of Hart, 
which was in extensive use in American schools 
for many years, all exercises but those upon the 
maps, and a few preliminary definitions, were 
omitted as not strictly belonging to the subject. 
The evils of such a method of instruction must 
be obvious. W hen the convenient plan of print- 
ing maps and text in one volume was adopted, 
the pages opposite the maps were largely, and in 
some cases exclusively, given up to map exercises, 
chiefly consisting of lists of islands, capes, rivers, 
etc.; this, though convenient for map study, was 
very apt to be abused. In 1849, Arnold Guyot 
(q. v.) published a small volume of lectures, en- 
titled Earth, and Man, which was the first 
presentation to the American public, in a pop- 
ular form, of the geographical labors of Eitter 
and Humboldt. This work gave a powerful 
stimulus, in the United States, to the study of 
geography as a science, and led to many changes 
in school text-books on the subject, as well as 
more rational methods of presenting it in the 
class room. The publication of Earth and Man 
has been followed by an admirable series of wall- 
maps and school text-books of geography, by the 
same author, who has thus borne a leading part 
in carrying out the reform which he was the first 
to introduce. In a similar manner, the labors of 
Eitter and Humboldt have influenced the treat- 
ment of the subject in European schools, partic- 
ularly in those of Germany. An outline of geog- 
raphy, however imperfect, early formed a part of 
the studies, in some at least of the schools of that 
country. In 1590, we find The Cosmography, 
probably that of Sebastian Mtinster, recommended 
as a useful reader in certain schools of Hesse- 
Darmstadt. The school regulations for Saxe- 
Gotha, in 1680, provide for a simple geographical 
outline, in schools where there were more than 
one teacher. In 1763, the school regulations for 
Prussia, drawn up by Hecker, furnish a brief 
outline of geography, and order its use. Similar 
provisions were made in Silesia and some other 
countries. The method followed in all appears to 
have been that of oral instruction by means of 
a few outline maps, beginning with the native 



GEOGRAPHY 



33» 



village and province. Yet notwithstanding these 
directions and provisions, Dittessays {Schuleder 
P&dagogik, Leipsic, 1876), "As late as the be- 
ginning of the 1 Hth century, there was still, in 
schools, scarcely any geographical instruction ; 
and when it was given, it was confined to a few- 
lessons on the continents, the principal countries, 
and their capitals. Even in the higher schools, 
but little geography was learned." — Notwith- 
standing all that has been done to facilitate this 
study, aud the costly geographies, richly adorned 
with maps and pictorial illustrations, which are 
supplied to the pupils, teachers quite generally 
complain that the results of teaching it are very 
unsatisfactory. The vast multitude of facts which 
it embraces, imperfectly generalized, or not at 
all, and bound together by no obvious relations, 
drop from the pupil's memory almost as soon as 
committed to it. Candidates for admission into 
colleges and universities, it is said, stand much 
lower in this branch than in any other: although 
mine receives SO much attention in the element- 
ary schools, except reading, spelling, and arith- 
metic. To what causes this is to be attributed 
has been already in part considered and will be 
further noticed as we proceed. In treating of 
geography as a branch of elementary instruction 
(for such it exclusively is at the present time 
we shall consider (I) what are the faculties which 
are specially exercised in studying it: (II) the 
different stages into which the instruction should 
be divide 1. and what is proper to each; (III) the 
age at which the study should be commenced; 
and (IV) the proper methods of teaching it. 

I. Geography seeks to present to the mind 
conceptions of countries and peoples that we 
have never visited, analogous to those which we 
have acquired in relation to regions which we 
have actually seen. It further seeks to com- 
bine and generalize these conceptions into a 
systematic view of the earth as a whole, and as 
the abode of mankind. — The fundamental con- 
ceptions, therefore, which are to be thus ampli- 
fied, combined, or otherwise modified, must be 
based upon objective presentation. A landscape, 
the more varied the better, or in default of this, 
a good pictorial representation, as its nearest 
equivalent, must furnish most of the basic ele- 
ments. The first, though limited, steps must, 
therefore, be made through an appeal to the per- 
ceptive faculties. The second stage must consist 
in an exercise of the conceplive faculties in 
vividly recalling and combining the impressions 
which the objective presentation has made upon 
the mind. The pupil must be trained to recall 
the image of the mountain, the island, the forest, 
the placid lake, the verdant plain, or the flowing 
river ; to see again, as it were, the tossing ocean 
and to hear the roar of its waves as they break 
upon the beach ; ami to picture to himself in one 
season of the year the aspect of nature in an- 
other. These and other analogous impressions, 
already obtained from physical phenomena, must 
furnish the indispensable basis for any true prog- 
ress in geographical knowledge. — But all this 
training is not the teaching of geography, but 



only the necessary preparation for it. These con- 
ceptions are to geography but as tin' syllables to- 
language, or as the gamut to melody. Through- 
out the teaching of geography, another mental 
faculty, the imagination of the pupil, must be 
brought into exercise. These conceptions of 
phenomena and of regions that he has actually 
seen must now be modified, amplified, and com- 
bined, to form conceptions of phenomena anil 
regions that he has not seen. The conception of 
the rivulet must be expanded to that of the 
mighty river; the little lake or pond must lead 
the mind to the broad ocean; and the little hills, 
to mountain ranges. The low sun and snowy fields 
of winter must be modified into an arctic land- 
scape; ami the rerdant meadow, into the bound- 
less prairie. It this is properly done, and especially 
if pictorial representation is properly employed. 
the nam. of the Amazon will not recall to the 
pupil the conception of a long and crooked black 
mark, widening towards the right-hand side of 
his map; but his imagination will at once picture 
the broad surface and turbid waters of that vast 
river, its hut and humid climate, and its limit- 
less forest solitudes with their tangle of giant 
vims, and their troops of chattering monkeys. 
When, at the proper stage, the study of maps is 
introduced, the discipline of the memory is ad- 
ded to that of the perceptive, conceptive, and 
imaginative faculties, as in remembering the 
location of mountains, islands, rivers, and towns, 
and the various facts associated with them: 
while an appeal is also made, with increasing 
frequency, to the judgment, in tracing the neces- 
sary relation of the location of cities to rivers 
and coast-lines, and in connecting the general 
course of a river with the elevations and slopes 
of the country which it drains. 

II. The successive stages of geographical in- 
struction have been already, in part, indicated. 
The conceptions and distinctions of mainland 
and island ; of mountain, hill, and table-land ; of 
lake, river, basin, valley, peninsula, and cape ; of 
climate, vegetation, race, and other geographical 
elements, should first be fixed, and then the terms 
which embody them should be described by the 
pupil himself. Too much stress is usually placed 
upon the precise and formal definitions of these 
terms. Some of them, such as sea, gulf, bay, and 
lake, as actually used, defy all shaqj differentia- 
tion : and others, such as continent and water- 
shed, are variously used by standard authorities. 
It must be borne in mind that the definitions in 
geography have a totally distinct function from 
tlmse of mathematics, grammar, and other logic- 
al or deductive sciences. In these, the correct 
conception of a term, such as parallelogram or 
adjective, is to be obtained from its definition ; 
whereas, in geography, the definition, if required, 
must be developed from a correct conception of 
the object defined. The formal definitions of 
geographical terms have, indeed, their place ; but 
this is not in the first stage of the subject. The 
geographical terms and their association shotdd 
be followed by ideas of direction or relative 
position, that is, a knowledge of the cardinal 



336 



GEOGKAPHY 



points; after this, the construction and inter- 
pretation of a simple map of limited and known 
localities, beginning perhaps with a plan or map 
of the school room itself, followed by a map of 
the immediate neighborhood, then by that of the 
county as it would appear if seen from a balloon. 
When the pupil has been thoroughly trained to 
understand the symbols of the map, and readily to 
picture to himself the things that are symbolized 
ty the various lines, dots, and other marks, he is 
in possession of all the elementary ideas essential 
to the subject. — Either of two opposite courses 
may now be pursued in giving the outline of 
geography itself which is usually included in a 
primary or elementary course for beginners. One 
of these plans, known as the synthetic, begins 
with the study of a map of the locality of the 
pupil's home or neighborhood ; it takes next the 
map of the county, then of the state or district, 
and, finally, of the whole country in which the 
pupil resides. After this, follows the study of 
the simple outlines of the continent of which the 
country forms a part ; then the outlines of the 
other continents or grand divisions, in some pre- 
ferred order, and finally a general review, which 
completes and combines all that has preceded it 
into a brief view of the world as a whole. The 
other, or analytic system, pursues, at least in its 
early stages, an exactly reverse course. From 
the consideration of certain common phenomena 
and other well-known facts, the pupil is first led 
to form a conception of the earth as a gigantic 
globe or ball ; then of the primary divisions of 
its surface into land and water ; and then of 
the leading subdivisions of these primary ele- 
ments. After learning the climatic division of 
the earth into zones, the pupil studies the conti- 
nents, each in its turn, as in the other system. 
Both of these systems have their strong points, 
both have been successfully followed, and both 
have earnest advocates. Excepting in their in- 
itial and terminal stages they have much in com- 
mon. One great advantage of the analytic system 
is, that it more readily admits the early intro- 
duction of the terrestrial globe, and requires its 
frequent use throughout. In no other way can 
certain serious misconceptions be thoroughly 
prevented. The use of maps of different scales, 
together with the inherent faults of projection, 
leads to erroneous ideas in regard to the relative 
size of countries, and to wrong conceptions of their 
relative positions. These first impressions are 
hard to correct, and, in the majority of cases, 
are never corrected. The globe should have 
the leading place in teaching elementary geog- 
raphy. It should be used to "fix the idea of the 
spherical shape of the earth, its dimensions, and 
the division of its surface into land and water. 
It should give the first view of its division into 
continents, oceans, islands etc., and just concep- 
tions of their relative position and magnitude. 
By no other means can the astronomic elements 
of primary geography be so simply and correctly 
taught ; such as the causes of day and night, and 
of the seasons, the zones, the nature of latitude 
and longitude and the need of these measurements. 



The final stage of geography, as a branch of ele- 
mentary instruction, is much more comprehensive 
than the preceding stages, and makes more fre- 
quent appeals to the judgment and the memory. 
The outline already given is to be reviewed and 
filled up. Political or social geography is then to 
be more fully and systematically taught; and the 
whole subject of the peculiarities and resources, 
together with the commercial and other relations 
of all the most important countries of the globe, is 
to be more fully shown. Geographical definitions 
are now desirable. These should be followed by 
a review of the outlines of astronomical geog- 
raphy, and then by a thorough training in the 
outlines of comparative physical geography, as 
furnishing the only scientific basis, and the only 
true principles of scientific generalization, for the 
facts of political geography. This training should 
include, at first, well-arranged exercises on simple 
physical maps of the hemispheres, great care 
being taken, at this stage, to furnish only so much 
of topography as is necessary for the lessons on 
descriptive comparative physical geography ,which 
should immediately follow. These descriptive 
lessons should be brief and clear, and should sub- 
stantially include the following points in their 
proper order: (1) a comparison of the continents 
or grand divisions of the land in regard to posi- 
tion, form, size, and principal horizontal projec- 
tions ; (2) the comparison and classification of 
islands, the chief mountain systems, table-lands, 
and lowland plains ; (3) the oceans and ocean 
currents, and the great rivers and lakes ; (4) cli- 
mate as affected by latitude, by elevation, and by 
winds and ocean currents ; and (5) the general 
distribution of characteristic plants and animals, 
and of the races of mankind. All, or nearly 
all, of these may be profitably taught simply 
as physical facts to be known by observation. 
The study of the explanatory theories belongs 
to a higher stage of geographical knowledge. 
Each of the six grand divisions should now be 
considered in turn ; first, in relation to the lead- 
ing facts of its physical geography, including its 
surface, drainage, climate, and characteristic 
plants and animals, indigenous or exotic ; and 
secondly, on the basis of these physical facts, in 
relation to the separate political subdivisions, 
their inhabitants, towns and cities, resources, 
commerce, industrial development, government, 
and general social condition. Finally, a brief but 
comprehensive general review should bring out, 
in strong relief , the various interrelations of the 
different countries in regard to commerce, gov- 
ernment, race, language, and religion. 

III. As a general rule, the pupil should not 
begin the study of geography, at least, not what 
may be called map geography, until ten or eleven 
years of age- There are, however, geographical 
lessons, of a very simple character, which may 
be profitably given to younger children. These 
should, according to the principles already 
stated, be pictorial and descriptive, approximat- 
ing to object-lessons, in being designed to develop 
ideas rather than to impart knowledge. In rela- 
tion to this stage of the instruction, Currie says, 



GEOGRAPHY 



337 



in Principles of Early School Education, " The 
geography of the infant school is a series of ob- 

i'cct -lessons connected by a geographical link. It 
>ut prepares materials for the formal study of 
geography. It may be thought that the use of 
the map would facilitate this instruction: but it 
is quite immaterial whether the map be in the 
school or not. It is the business of the next 
stage of progress to localize all that has been 
learnt ; which it does by going regularly over 
the map. and fixing down in position the coun- 
tries, which as yet are only names to the children. 
The utmost use of the map that should be made 
in the infant school is to go over w ith the elder 
infants, if time permit, at the end of their course, 
on a physical map of the world, distinctly out- 
lined so as to show the features of districts, the 
general outline of what they have learnt." If it 
were not for the early period at which most 
children leave school, the regular study of geog- 
raphy might be profitably deferred considerably 
longer, The prevalent practice of thrusting the 
study of maps upon the time and attention of very 
young children has much to do with the general 
disgust of both pupils and teachers witli the usual 
net results of its study. The introductory course 
should occupy from a year to a year and a half : 
the subsequent course, from two and a half to 
three years. 

IV. The principles which should guide in the 
selection of methods of teaching this subject, 
have already been explained, and the difference 
between the synthetic and analytic systems has 
been defined. The following suggestive hints 
will prove valuable to practical teachers : (1) the 
memorizing of the details of maps without suffi- 
cient descriptive matter, will leave no permanent 
impression on the mind; hence, (2) let the study 
of the map be subordinated to that of the other 
important facts, such as soil, climate, productions, 
etc.. relating to the separate countries; and 
(■'!) let these facts be presented and studied in a 
uniform order, so that the pupil's mind will 
always have a guide, both for investigation and 
oral description. A special order of topics for 
this purpose has already been suggested. It must 
always be borne in mind, that in proportion as 
the pupil becomes interested in the particular 
country studied, he will desire to know more of 
its geographical details, and will remember them 
longer. Ilence, the exhaustive study of the map 
should not precede all other lessons. After fully 
locating the country to be studied, by means of 
its boundaries, etc., the teacher may proceed with 
a description of some of its most striking 
features, passing from these to the more minute 
details of topography, as they are brought out 
by this description, until all the topographical 
and descriptive details are sufficiently learned. 
In considering the methods to be pursued in 
the study of geography, reference must also be 
made to the necessary appliances. For the first 
stages of the study a simple terrestrial globe and 
good wall-maps are indispensable. Relief maps 
and relief globes, as now constructed and used, 
are of great value in giving correct ideas of the I 



superficial configuration of different countries. If 
a text-book is used, it should be chiefly a well-illus- 
trated reading-book, using the simplest language 
the subject will allow, with very brief map exercises 
designed to sum up and locate the substance of the 
reading lessons. As far as possible, each locality 
should have some associated idea interesting tc > the 
pupils. Whatever is taught should be frequently 
and systematically reviewed by careful question- 
ing, so that the impressions made may be definite 
ami lasting. In the first stage of geographical 
study, the teacher is obliged to do a large part 
of the work; in the later stage, the pupil should be 
trained to do as much as possible for himself. 
This subject, when properly taught, furnishes an 
excellent and necessary discipline for the memory. 
The illustrations of the text-book should be 
supplemented, if necessary, from other sources. 
I-iooks of travel may be made one of the most 
powerful of auxiliaries in teaching geography. If 
the school possesses a cyclopaedia or gazetteer, it 
should lie used for illustration or additional facts. 
j No element in the successful teaching of geog- 
raphy is of greater importance than thorough re- 
views. These may take any one or more of a 
variety of forms too well known to need de- 
scription. < Cartography, or the drawing of neat 
and minutely accurate maps, is esteemed by 
many experienced teachers as a valuable adjunct 
in geographical teaching; yet it is at least 
questionable whether the large expenditure of 
time required is fairly repaid by the value of the 
results. The necessary topography may be much 
more effectively memorized and reviewed by 
spirited exercises iii drawing, or rapidly sketch- 
ing, outline maps from memory. Of systems of 
map-drawing, for this purpose, there is a con- 
siderable variety, all having more or less merit ; 
but the great desideratum in this pari of the in- 
struction is. that the relative sizes of countries and 
distances of places should, by means of it.be per- 
manently impressed upon the memory. This 
constitutes what is sometimes called the con- 
structive method of teaching geography; upon 
which much dependence is placed in the German 
systems of instruction. For the aid of the pupil 
various devices are resorted to. some using the 
square, others a series of triangulations, and still 
others a combination of these, in connection with 
arbitrary measures. — Sec Catechism on Methods 
of Teaching, translated from Diksterwko's 
Almanac for 1855 — fi, in Barnard's Journal if 
Education; Gdtsmuths, Versuch einer Meiho- 
dik des geographischen Uhterrichts — Essay on 
Methodical Instruction in Geography (1845) ; 
Diesteeweo, Anleitung zu einem methodischen 
Unterricht in der Geography — Introduction iv 
Methodical Instruction in Geography (1833); 
liuMKii. Geschichte der Pddagogik; Dittes, 
Schuleder Piiihujoijik (1H7C) ; Bt issox. Buj >jior! 
sur ^instruction primaire a Vexposition univer- 
selle ile Yienne en 1873 (Paris, 1875), containing 
information both as to methods and appliances 
in present use ; Currie, Principles and Practice 
of Common-School Education (Kdin.andLond.); 
Wickersham, Methods oflnslruction (Phil., 1805.) 



338 



GEOLOGY 



GEOLOGY (Gr. yfj, the earth, and Myog, a 
discourse) , the science which treats of the history 
of the earth. More exactly, it consists of a 
group of sciences which treat of the materials of 
which the earth is composed, and of the arrange- 
ment of these materials, whether superficial or 
deep-seated, and of their relations to one another; 
of the changes which the earth is undergoing at 
present, and of the series of changes through 
which it has heretofore passed. Nay more, the 
inorganic changes that have, in the course of time, 
resulted in the present physical geography and in- 
ternal condition of the globe, nave been accom- 
panied, through the latter part of the series, by a 
corresponding series of appearances and modifi- 
cations of organic forms ; and these two sets of 
phenomena, organic and inorganic, have been so 
interdependent, that it is impossible to separate 
the history of the earth from the history of the 
life it supports. It will thus be seen, (1) that 
geology is intimately connected, both by the facts 
of its own genesis as a science and by the light 
it throws, in return, on the origin of existing con- 
ditions, with physical geography; and, (2) that, 
while in its branches, mineralogy , lithology, and 
palaeontology , it has its descriptive and classi- 
ficatory elements, these are, in fact, only subor- 
dinate to that element, which, by the aid of 
dynamical geology, weaves the material facts in- 
to a web of cause and effect, — a continuous his- 
torical argument. It is important to observe 
here that the part of geology which treats only 
of the material conditions, without regard to the 
reasoning which connects them into historical 
sequence, is recognized as geognosy, a term, how- 
ever, that is but little used by English or Amer- 
ican writers. Paleontology is really a natural- 
history science, bearing much the same relation 
to zoology, that geology does to physical geog- 
raphy. Geology, however, cannot tie read with- 
out its aid; and it might perhaps be well to re- 
suscitate the term oryciology for this application 
of palaeontology to geological interpretation. 

If the highest aim of man, in the acquisition 
of material knowledge, is to obtain the fullest 
attainable insight into his true position in the 
great scheme of existence, and into the respon- 
sibilities which that position implies, assuredly, 
geology must be one of the fields in which he 
may hope to gain most important information ; 
as the truths of this science, in throwing light 
upon the history of his surroundings and their 
antecedents, of the earth which supports him, 
and of the life of which he is a part, must in- 
evitably throw light upon the history and rela- 
tionships of man himself. A science so com- 
pletely underlying all the facts of our existence, 
developing so miiltifariously our dependence up- 
on all parts of the scheme of which we seem to 
be the temporary culmination, should surely 
commend itself to the educator, should be beyond 
the need of having its importance asserted as an 
essential factor in the problem of universal edu- 
cation. Yet, as a matter of fact, the simplest 
teaching of geology, even to-day, is generally 
looked upon as supererogatory. Whether the 



world is six thousand years old, or of incalcu- 
lable antiquity ; whether it always has been as. 
it is at this moment, or whether it has passed 
through a vast series of changes ; whether life 
has or has not had its progress ; whether the 
facts that are taught us by every pebble and 
every rain-storm are not worth thinking upon, or 
whether they lead to conclusions more wonder- 
ful than the strangest dreams of the ancients, 
implying more power than the boldest myths 
ever imagined, and illustrating the rule of law so 
universally that even the minutest grain of sand 
proclaims its control ; — these are questions on 
which most parents and teachers have thought it 
scarcely worth while to enlighten the minds of the 
children placed in their charge. Since the answer 
will aid the purpose of this article, it is impor- 
tant to ask, why this neglect of so important a 
science? In the first place, the reply comes, 
geology is a young science, begotten in the last 
century, and brought forth in the commencement 
of the present, an offspring of the second great 
Reformation, the reformation not of creeds but 
of philosophy. Secondly, geology has had to 
fight its way as an intruder, as a disturber of old 
received notions, of deeply ingrained prejudices ; 
its claims in the realm of thought were seen to 
be stupendous, and the possible consequences of 
their admission beyond all calculation. Thirdly, 
although, as in all reform movements, it has 
derived genuine strength from persecution by 
its foes, its progress has been all along greatly 
impeded by the too hasty zeal of many of its 
votaries. (For the history of the gradual devel- 
opment of geology, until, by Playfair's Illustra- 
tions of Hutton, and the patient researches of 
William Smith, the clues were given by which 
its accumulated facts could be systematized into 
a scientific form, see a concise account in the 
first four chapters of Lyell's Principles of Geol- 
ogy) Excluding the almost invincible vis iner- 
tia! of ancient prejudice, the third cause has, per- 
haps, been the most potent in retarding the ac- 
ceptance of geological discoveries ; because some 
hypotheses, which had been accepted by numer- 
ous and, perhaps, influential geologists, were 
ultimately proved to be untenable, therefore the 
significance of truths that were incontrovertible 
was unfairly belittled. It is, even to this day, a 
frequent argument against geology, that there is 
so much in connection with it that is uncertain ; 
but those who make this objection are unwilling 
to admit — will not allow themselves to realize, 
how much of proven truth there is in the science, 
and how thoroughly it is founded upon facts 
which need only the proof of observation. Per- 
haps, the best way in which, in this brief article, 
the fundamental ideas upon which geology is 
based may be presented, will be to put them in- 
to the form of simple statements, or axioms, 
which, though incapable of proof, it would be 
absurd to deny, because their truth may be 
seen at a glance : (1) It is a matter of observa- 
tion, that wherever on the surface of the earth 
there is moisture, there, under the influence of 
changes of temperature, will be chemical and 



GEOLOGY 



339 



mechanical changes in progress, in the rocks ex- 
posed to its action. In other words, that rocks 
exposed at or near the surface are forever under- 
going destruction by the action of moisture in 
the atmosphere, of running water, waves, frost, 
moving ice, etc. (2) The results of this destruc- 
tion, in the form of gravel, sand, and finer part- 
icles, of clay or of calcareous rocks, are continu- 
ally moved onwards by this same agent water 
from higher to lower levels, until they finally 
s ink to rest in the quiet depths of the ocean. 
(3) If this process of the degradation of the dry 
land were continued a sufficient length of time, 
it would residt in the ultimate destruction of 
every island and every continent. ami in the fill- 
ing up, in part, of the depressions in the bed of 
the ocean ; unless some counteracting agency be 
at work re-elevating the deposits thus accumu- 
lating beneath the sea level. (4) A large part of 
existing dry lands are formed of conglomerates, 
sandstones, clays, and limestones, the very con- 
stitution of which shows that they were origi- 
nally sediments deposited from water; a fact that 
is still more clearly evidenced by the shells and 
other organic remains which they contain ; and 
they thus show that continents have either been 
elevated out of the water, or that water has been 
withdrawn from over them. (5) Careful and 
extended examination has shown that altera- 
tions in the relative level of sea and land are 
the rule, and not exceptional cases, along coast- 
lines ; that these movements are not necessarily 
connected, directly at least, with volcanic phe- 
nomena ; that they are exceedingly gradual ; 
and, finally, the undoubted existence of move- 
ments of elevation and depression in opposite 
directions, in adjoining areas, at the same time, 
proves conclusively that these are movements of 
the crust of the earth, and not apparent oscil- 
lations due to the rising and falling of the sur- 
rounding waters. (6) As, moreover, we meet 
with many series of sedimentary rocks, overlying 
one another, in the same continent, we see that 
the same region must have been repeatedly sub- 
merged, and that the dry land has thus been 
gradually built up by successive additions. We 
have also clear evidence that intervals of sub- 
aerial elevation intervened between the submer- 
gencies — as the older deposits had evidently 
been partially denuded before the later sedi- 
ments were laid upon them. (7) We have thus 
evidence of a force at work within the earth, 
capable of elevating the sediments resulting 
from the destruction of one continent, so that, a 
new continent shall be formed from them ; and 
our existing lands are in fact built up of the 
debris of older and destroyed continents, up- 
heaved by tins subterranean power. (8) From the 
observation of volcanoes and the volcanic phe- 
nomena of hot springs and of the temperature of 
mines and deep borings, we have evidence of 
the existence either of a highly heated interior 
of our globe, or of local areas of elevated tem- 
perature at a greater or less depth below the 
surface. (9) From the constant presence of 
water in volcanic phenomena, from the character 



of the various phenomena themselves, and from 
the nature of many volcanic rocks, we are ir- 
resistibly led to infer that water is an active 
agent in developing these phenomena. (10) In 
addition to rocks undoubtedly of volcanic origin, 
we find others that appear to have resulted from 
the metamorphisni of sedimentary rocks. Such 
rocks do not appear to have ever been in a state 
of incandescence or even of igneous fusion; they 
appear to have been chemically acted on by 
highly heated water, or by steam under pressure 
at great depths beneath the surface, and me- 
chanically by the pressure itself. Whatever 
the cause of the change, the metaiuorphic nat- 
ure of many of these rocks is clear, since they 
retain their original sedimentary stratification, 
and, in some cases, even traces of fossils. These 
gradually pass into rocks in winch all signs of a 
sedimentary origin vanish. In such "nether- 
formed" or "Plutonic" rocks we have every 
gradation of change, from the granites and gran- 
itoid mcks, through the metamorphic, to the 
unaltered sedimentary rocks, on the one hand, 
and to the undoubtedly volcanic rocks, on the 
other, ill) The relative age of sedimentary 
rocks is determined, in the first place, by their 
superposition, — the lowest in the series, those on 
which the others rest, being necessarily the 
oldest ; and, secondly, by the fossils they con- 
tain ; because, (12) We find that each series of 
rocks contains the remains of certain character- 
istic forms of life, differing more or less from 
those that preceded, and from those that suc- 
ceeded them. (13) We find, as a fact, that the 
fossils of the later rocks resemble existing forms 
more nearly than those of the earlier, so that 
the oldest deposits contain forms most unlike 
those of to-day. We find, moreover, that when 
a peculiar type of life has disappeared.it has 
never again been reproduced. (14) On the other 
hand, there is a sufficient amount of resemblance 
1 ' :tween successive faunas to justify us in assert- 
ing, that, at no time in geological history, has 
there been a complete and total extinction of 
life, succeeded by a new creation, on the earth ; 
but that the chain of vitality has been contin- 
uous, — old forms gradually disappearing, and 
new forms taking their place. (IS) As nature 
is forever destroying parts of the geological 
record of life that is kept in the rocks, this 
record for this, amongst other reasons, is in a 
most fragmentary condition. Imperfect as it is, 
few, except the professional palaeontologist, can 
realize the enormous variety of fossils that have 
already been exhumed, and upon which the above 
generalizations have been based. (16) Where 
nether-formed rocks have been elevated and 
subsequently denuded, so as to appear on the 
surface, we can only judge of the age of their 
formation by their association with unaltered 
sedimentary rocks ; and in extensive regions of 
highly disturbed and metamorphoseiLrocks, the 
determination of their age becomes one of the 
most difficult problems of the geologist ; but 
even here characteristic differences in the min- 
eral characters of different series may help us 



340 



GEOLOGY 



in the determination. (17) The oldest known 
rocks, or those underlying the lowest fossilifer- 
ous rocks, are, generally speaking, so highly 
metamorphosed that they may be regarded as 
belonging to the border period of legitimate 
geological history ; ■ and the ingenious specula- 
tions of physicists and chemists, as to the events 
that accompanied and preceded the origin of 
an earlier earth, apply to what is really to us a 
mythical epoch. (18) The evidence that has 
been collected in every field of geological in- 
quiry, conclusively shows that all terrestrial 
forces act, as judged from a human stand- 
point, with extreme slowness, except in occa- 
sional and local instances ; and if such energetic 
disturbances of ordinary conditions could ever 
have occurred, more widely spread over the 
whole or even a large part of the earth at once, 
it is certain that they would have left us evi- 
dences, both organic and inorganic, of the fact. 
The more cai'eful and exhaustive our researches 
have become, the more incompatible with facts 
are such hypothetical universal catastrophes 
shown to be ; — until we are impressed with the 
conviction, that, under the conditions which 
have obtained during the " historical " period of 
the earth, such catastrophes would involve the 
suspension of the ordinary laws that govern 
matter; and no case has, so far, been met 
with, apparently suggesting such an interpreta- 
tion, which on examination cannot be shown to 
be more readily explicable by the application of 
known natural laws, acting through prolonged 
periods of time. (19) The existence of any one 
series of geological monuments involves, on anal- 
ysis, the idea of indefinite time. For example, 
let us take the series of strata known as the coal 
measures. We know by examination that coal 
is formed from vegetable matter; that, in almost 
every instance, there is satisfactory proof that 
this matter was accumulated by growth on the 
spot where the coal now is found; that coal con- 
tains by its constitution but a portion of the orig- 
inal vegetation; that it contains that portion in 
a very compressed and condensed form, and con- 
sequently a single workable coal-seam, a few feet 
in thickness, represents an amount of vegetable 
matter, which, under the most favorable circum- 
stances conceivable for growth, and without 
Tdlowing for waste in other ways, must have re- 
quired certainly hundreds, probably thousands, 
of years for its accumulation. In most localities, 
where the coal measures occur, we find several, 
in some cases many, such seams of coal vertically 
■overlying one another, and this proves with 
mathematical certainty, that such periods were 
as many times successively repeated. Finally, 
intercalated between these coal beds, are beds of 
sandstone, clay, limestone, etc., in the aggregate 
hundreds, or in some cases thousands, of feet in 
thickness, so constituted as to show the slow and 
gradual mode of their accumulation, thus giving 
evidence of great lapses of time between the 
existence of the successive coal-making forests. 
By a process of exact reasoning, we thus arrive 
at the conclusion, that a vast period of time was, 



altogether, required for the formation of the coal 
measures alone ; and these can be shown, in a 
similarly logical manner, to constitute a record 
of only one, and that a subordinate, series of 
events, in an epoch of the earth's history very re- 
mote from the present. (20) We must here 
insist on the importance of the evidence, given in 
geology, of vast gaps of what may be termed un- 
represented time ; — that is to say, of time during 
which no rocks were permanently formed to 
record events. Tet that such gaps occurred, — 
that they were of enormous duration, can be most 
emphatically proved. At the conclusion of the 
jyalceozoic age, after the formation of the coal 
measures, the areas that had been oscillating for 
wons between dry and submerged conditions, 
became, by an extensive upheaval, permanent dry 
land ; the borders of the growing continent, 
formed of sediments thousands of feet in thick- 
ness, were elevated far out of the waters; water- 
sheds, due probably, in the first instance, to un- 
equal amounts of elevation, were formed, and 
running streams carved out valleys hundreds and 
thousands of feet in depth, and left standing, as 
evidences of their patient industry, mountains 
and mountain ranges sculptured in relief. The 
materials eroded, the chips of the sculptor, were 
swept away, were sorted and resorted , arranged 
and re-arranged, until at length, during the next 
great period of submergence, they found perma- 
nent rest as the deposits of the mesozoic age. 
Resting as they do on the beds and sides of the 
valleys, they attest the prior excavation of the 
latter. Such was the birth-time and such the 
history of the Appalachian Range ; and, in the 
interval that subsequently occurred between the 
close of the mesozoic and the commencement of 
the cainozoic periods, such a history repeated 
elsewhere gave rise to the vast chains of the 
Rocky Mormtains and the Andes ; — a third and 
later pause saw in Europe outlines given to 
the Alps and Pyrenees ; and, later still, the 
Himalayas were carved out, the mightiest of 
existing landmarks of geological progress. We 
thus see that the history of a continent is divis- 
ible into periods of extensive submergence, dur- 
ing which sediments are arranged into rock 
masses, and periods of upheaval, during which 
the surface configuration is given to the new 
land. (21) Additional evidence of the length 
of geological time is afforded by the changes 
in life, that have taken place on the globe. Thus, 
while it can be shown that comparatively slight 
changes in the mammalian fauna of Europe have 
taken place since the glacial epoch, and that the 
great vicissitudes in climate, which that epoch 
(humanly speaking of such immense duration, 
as to be measured at least by tens or by hun- 
dreds of thousands of years) implies, did not 
produce any radical change of types ; yet, in the 
cainozoic period, we find the whole class of 
mammals modified from the most generalized to 
the most specialized forms. And in the interval 
between the existence on the globe of the seas in 
which mesozoic and cainozoic deposits were re- 
spectively formed, a still more striking revolution 



GEOLOGY 



(JKOMKTRY 



:;n 



in animal life occurred ; — reptiles and amphibi- 
ans gave way, as predominant forms, to mam- 
mals and birds ; so that, if by the test of the 
amount of biological change, we sought to com- 
pare the length of time that elapsed between the 
mesozoic and cainozoic ages with that from the 
commencement of the glacial period to the 
present day, we should have to turn the tens of 
thousands of years of the latter into millions in 
the former. 

In conclusion, the following brief summary of 
the fundamental conceptions of geology is pre- 
sented, as constituting the basis for a series of 
elementary lessons upon the subject : ( 1 ) The 
uniformity of action of natural laws. (2) The 
universal unrest of matter under the influence 
of these laws. (3) The exceeding slowness of the. 
great changes that result from this constant un- 
rest. (4) The indefinite length of geological 
time. (5) The definite order that has prevailed 
in the introduction of living forms, ((i) The 
certain order which prevails in the arrangement 
of rocks, and thus enables us, as a rule, to de- 
termine the relative geological age of any partic- 
ular rock. From these fundamental ideas, we 
are led to recognize the gradual building up of 
our continents and the successive epochs of for- 
mation of our great mountain ranges. Jn this 
sketch is presented only the briefest outline of 
the basis on which geology is founded, space not 
permitting a consideration of the details of its 
lithological or stratigraphical aspects. Neither is 
it possible to discuss certain geological questions 
of profound educational interest. — such as the 
antiquity of the human race, the arguments in 
the support of the former existence of a glacial 
period, the application of the doctrine of evolu- 
tion to geology, etc. 

The general omission of geology from the 
course of instruction in high schools and colleges 
is much to be regretted ; since, whether for the 
purpose of culture or information.it has many 
claims to consideration, a few of which are here 
suggested: (1) Of all sciences it most thoroughly 
cultivates a habit of inductive reasoning ; (2) It 
so completely permeates physical geography, that 
a knowledge of its elements is essential to the 
intelligent comprehension of the latter; (:S) It is 
obviously necessary and proper, while children 
are taught that the earth revolves around the 
sun, and other facts of the solar system, that 
they should also learn that this earth of to-day 
has had a long and eventful history, and that 
the living forms upon it were not created at once 
as we rind them now ; (4) The practical applica- 
tions of the truths of geology are not only of 
scientific interest and importance but of great , 
general utility. 

If it is true that difficulty has arisen in com- 
municating geological knowledge, it has, probably, 
been owing to two causes: (1) To a hesitation in 
telling the whole truth, and, (2) to a misconcep- 
tion, in teaching, as to what really constitutes 
the essential part of the science. It is customary 
among teachers to dwell upon the details of 
strata, fossils, etc., instead of upon general un- 



derlying principles. The inculcation of the lat- 
ter, at an early age, by reference to surround- 
ing causes and effects, and in conjunction with 
the earliest lessons in physical geography, would 
lay a sure basis for the former, to lie studied if 
desirable at a later date. If you wish to give a 
child fundamental ideas regarding valleys and 
mountains, make him see that every rain-storm 
carves out, in miniature, such surface features in 
the sand-heap and the clay-bank; and that it re- 
quires but a sufficient increase in the number of 
the rain-storms to increase indefinitely the extent 
of their action. With a realization of the powers 
constantly at work producing such changes, the 
student will advance to an intelligent study of 
the rocks and of the fossils, as examples of some 
of the effects thus produced. 

The works on geology, exclusive of special 
treatises on mineralogy (q. v.i and palaeontology 
(q. v.), needed by the general reader, to aid him 
in interpreting his out-of-door readings, are not 
numerous. A few are here suggested : Lyell, 
Principles if Geology \ this should lie thought- 
fully perused by eveiy one aspiring to be con- 
sidered educated, and especially by all engaged 
in the education of others; J. D. Dana, Man- 
ual of Geology, which should lie at hand for 
general information, especially in American ge- 
ology ; Lyell, Elements of Geology, for (.'special 
information on European geology. The Manuals 
of Geology, by Jdkes and by Haughton, suggest 
various views with regard to the chemical and 
physical nature of rocks ami natural processes. 
For local geology, and the economic aspects of 
the science the Geological Reports of the vari- 
ous states of the Union, of Canada, and of 
Great Britain, should be consulted. See also 
D'Akchiac, Histoire dit Progres de la Geologie, 
which treats fully of the general development 
and progress of the science. For a graphic his- 
tory of coal and the coal measures 'as developed 
in Nova Scotia). see Dawson, Acadian Geology; 
on the phenomena of the glacial period, Geikie, 
The Great Ice Age ; and on the geological his- 
tory of the human race. Lyell, Antiquity if 
Man; Lubbock, Prehistoric Man; and Page, 
Handbook of Geological Terms, other ele- 
mentary works by the same author, on geol- 
ogy and physical geography, will be found of 
assistance to the teacher. We hesitate to recom- 
mend to beginners any of the numerous works 
which aim at popularizing geology. Most of 
these either endeavor to throw a sensational 
cast over the subject, or are controversial in their 
character ; and, in either case, are generally 
more or less unscientific, because inexact and 
inaccurate. After the student can separate the 
correct from the incorrect, he will, however, find 
that such works, with all their errors, are often 
rich in newly-discovered facts, and in ingenious 
presentations of those long known. 

GEOMETRY (Gr. yeufierpia, from ;■»,}>/, 
the earth, and //tr/ifii', to measure), the science 
which treats of the properties and relations of 
magnitudes. We get the elements of this science 
as well as the word used to designate it from the 



342 



GEOMETKY 



ancient Greeks. Etyniologically, the word is 
synonymous with our term land surveying ; but 
it does not appear that it ever had simply this 
signification. As far back as we can trace the 
history of the subject, there appears to have been 
a body of theoretical truths and problems des- 
ignated by this term. Thus, in the time of Plato, 
the word ysu/ierpia does not appear to have had 
any more specific reference to land measuring, 
than it has with us ; for, when he spoke of God 
(9edf) as geometrizing, he certainly had no refer- 
ence to land surveying. But it is not the pur- 
pose of this article to trace the history of geom- 
etry, nor to give even a resume of its truths 
and methods. The object is to point out its place 
and function in a scheme of general education, 
and to offer certain practical suggestions in re- 
gard to the methods of teaching it. These will 
be presented in connection with the following 
inquiries and considerations. 

I. How should this subject be approached, in 
the first instance, by the learner? The proper 
reply to this is, he should first become acquainted 
with the leading facts of plane geometry, with- 
out any attempt at scientific demonstration; 
notwithstanding the fact that the chief excel- 
lence of geometry, as a means of mental im- 
provement, lies in its admirable body of prac- 
tical logic. It is, in part, in consequence of this 
very fact that the learner should have an ac- 
quaintance with the fundamental truths of the 
science, as facts, before he attempts to reason 
upon them. It must be remembered that the 
logical faculty is not the inventive faculty. In gen- 
eral, its materials must be furnished it. Especially 
is this true with reference to fundamental truths. 
The history of the development of science affords 
abundant proof that these truths are furnished 
to the logical faculty rather than by it. Thus, 
the theorems, If one straight line meet another 
straight line, the sum of the angles formed equals 
two right angles ; The sum of the angles of a 
triangle is two right angles; The square described 
on the hypolhenuse of a right-angled triangle 
■is equivalent to the sum of the squares on the 
othei- two sides; The circumference of a circle is 
a Utile more than three limes its diameter; and 
many others, were known to men as facts, and 
their practical significance was well understood, 
long before their logical connection with axioms 
and definitions was traced. As it has been with 
the race, so it should be with the individual ; 
the facts are needed as a basis for logical inquiry. 
We cannot reason about that concerning which 
we know little or nothing. Indeed, this principle 
has been almost universally acknowledged in the 
construction of our text-books on geometry up- 
on the analytical rather than upon the synthet- 
ical model. From the time of Euclid, at least, 
to the present time, the custom has been to state 
each truth in formal proposition before attempt- 
ing to demonstrate it ; but this is not sufficient. 
The mere statement of such a truth does not give 
the ordinary mind a sufficiently clear and full 
apprehension of it to interest the attention or to 
guide the thought. What is needed by the in- 



dividual student is exactly what was possessed 
by the race, as antecedent to logical inquiry : he 
needs to know the fact, and to perceive its practical 
significance, before he attempts to reason about 
it. For example, if the tyro has learned by trial 
that he cannot take three given rods and, by 
placing their ends together, make triangles of 
different forms, he is prepared to understand, 
and reason upon the fact that Mutually equi- 
lateral triangles are equal. Again, if he has 
experimented with two sets of proportional rods, 
and found that he can combine them only into 
triangles of the same shape, he is prepared to be 
intelligently interested in the reasoning which 
proves that, If two triangles have their homol- 
ogous sides proportional, they are similar. And 
so of all the fundamental truths of plane geom- 
etry. Much of the superficial and merely 
mechanical, memoriter work which is done by 
pupils in geometry is caused by their having no 
adequate conception of the facts about which 
they are attempting to reason. Once show the 
pupil by measurement that the circumference of 
a given circle is a little over three times its diam- 
eter, and he will be induced to inquire whether 
it is so in another, and finally if this is true in 
all circles. Again, let him draw several pairs of 
chords intersecting in a circle, and by actual 
measurement find that the segments are recipro- 
cally proportional, and his curiosity naturally 
prompts him to inquire why it is so. Finally, a 
few illustrations of the mechanical value of the 
truths with which they are becoming familiar will , 
with most pupils, give added zest to their study 
and acquisition. To know that the brace stiffens 
the frame because the angles of a triangle cannot 
be changed without changing the sides, while those 
of a quadrilateral can ; to see how the carpenter 
can square his foundation, calculate the length 
of his brace or rafter, on the principle that the 
square on the hypotenuse is equivalent to the 
sum of the squares on the two other sides of a 
right-angled triangle; how inaccessible heights, 
and the distances between inaccessible objects, 
can be determined by the property of similar 
triangles — these, and the like applications of the 
principles he is about to investigate, give an air 
of practical reality to the abstract speculations 
of the science, which will be found exceedingly 
helpful and stimidating to the student. 

II. It should be borne in mind that geometry 
is a mechanical as 'well as a logical science. No 
more mischievous mistake can be made than to 
underrate the problems of geometry; nevertheless 
this is not an uncommon practice with teachers. 
While some teachers permit the pupil to omit 
these problems in construction altogether, others 
allow him the almost equally pernicious habit 
of describing the construction without actually 
performing the work according to the description. 
Thus, they allow him to tell how an angle is 
bisected without requiring him actually to bisect 
a given angle ; they accept a clumsy descrip- 
tion of the process of inscribing a circle in a 
triangle, illustrated by a free-hand caricature of 
the tiling itself, instead of requiring a neat and 



GEOMETRY 



343 



accurate construction upon correct geometrical 
principles. Now, this is geometry with the ac- 
tual geometry left out. Nor is it simply that the 
mere mechanical part (not an inconsiderable or 
unimportant part) is left out; but any critical 
examination of such pupils will usually show 
that the logical part is also omitted; in short, that 
the pupil neither comprehends the nature of the 
process and the reasons for its several steps, nor 
is actually able to execute it. While it is possible 
for a person to have the mechanical faculty in a 
high degree, and tolerably well cultivated, and 
yet, being deficient in the logical faculty, to fail of 
being a good geometrician, it is equally possible, 
aud, as the subject is too commonly taught it 
is quite common, to find those who have fair 
logical powers, or who have learned the for- 
mulas of logic, so destitute of mechanical ability 
or culture, that they utterly fail to appreciate 
the real spirit of geometry, even though they 
may know, and be able to demonstrate, its chief 
propositions. Nor are the skill and taste requi- 
site to effect neat and accurate geometrical con- 
structions, attainments to be despised in secur- 
ing an education. .Shall we study the science 
of form, and not cultivate taste, eye, or hand in 
reference to form ? Shall we call a person pro- 
ficient in the science of extension and form, who 
cannot construct a parallelogram, and whose taste 
and eye are so completely uneducated, that he 
cannot discriminate between a right angle and 
an angle of 85 or 9:") degrees, and who cannot, 
with any degree of precision, construct either'.' 
Moreover, the zest which the construction of neat 
and accurate figures adds to the stuly. and the 
clearness of perception which is thus induced, 
are most helpful. In the course here recommend- 
ed, a student will never be called upon to demon- 
strate a proposition in plane geometry, the figure 
for which he cannot construct upon geometrical 
principles; nor, in any well-conducted class, will 
the pupils pass any proposition, the figures for 
which they have not so constructed. It is not 
intended that every figure used for the purpose 
of demonstration should be thus constructed; 
but it is urged that- the pupil should be able to 
construct every figure thus, and that he should 
frequently be required to do this ; and, moreover, 
it is claimed that there is a positive power to in- 
vestigate geometrical truth begotten of this 
method. Who that has ever attained any pro- 
ficiency in geometrical investigation does not 
know the value of an accurately constructed 
figure? This is, generally, the very first step in 
an original investigation, the construction itself 
often suggesting the entire line of thought. 

III. But, passing from preliminaries, suppose 
the student ready to commence the study of the 
body of geometrical propositions which make 
up the Elements of Geometry, and to learn how 
to demonstrate them. What should he find 
presented to him ? Most assuredly, a well clas- 
sified arrangement of the subject matter is a 
prime requisite in a branch of study which en- 
joys the distinction of being the most perfect of 
the sciences. It is. however, a singular fact, that 



no such classification has been commonly found 
in our text -books. The sole principle of the ar- 
rangement in Euclid, which has prevailed for so 
many centuries, is to demonstrate at first such 
propositions as arc elementary, and hence of 
essential use in subsequent demonstrations. Of 
course, such an order of sequence as this is a ne- 
cessity ; but is there not that in the nature of 
the subject matter which calls for a more scien- 
tific arrangement '! We venture to suggest the fol- 
lowing : (1) The concepts of plane geometry arc 
the straight line, the circumference of (he circle, 
and the angle; (2) The two fundamental inquiries 
are concerning magnitude and form, the latter 
of which results from position. Bearing these 
statements in mind we shall commence with the 
simplest concept, the straight line. But shall 
our first inquiry be concerning magnitude, or 
concerning form or position ? There are two 
ways of measuring a straight line, (1) the direct 
way, by applying one line to another, and (2) the 
indirect way, as in trigonometry, when, having 
two sides and an included angle of a triangle 
given, we determine the third side, etc. Now, 
in the first, there is little or no science, and the 
second is not elementary. Hence, we dismiss 
the question of magnitude, and turn to the ques- 
tion of position, which gives rise to form. Here 
we at once find legitimate objects of inquiry, 
and the relative i»isiii<>it of two straight line* 
will be the first section. The subdivisions will 
be of perpendiculars, of oblique lines, of paral- 
lels. As these are all the positions that Straight 
lines can occupy with reference to each other, 
we have exhausted this line of thought. Pass- 
ing to the circumference, we dispose of the ques- 
tion of magnitude in exactly the same manner as 
we did in the case of the straight line. The direct 
measurement by the application of an arc in- 
volves no science ; and the indirect, as when we 
determine the circumference from the radius, is 
a remote inquiry. Hence, the question of posi- 
tion recurs. Comparing the straight line and 
the circumference as to relative position, we find 
the elementary properties of chords, secants, and 
tangents. Comparing two circumferences as to 
relative position, we have external tangency, in- 
tersection, internal tangency, or one wholly in- 
terior to the other ; and thus we exhaust this 
line of inquiry. Reaching the angle, we find 
that the elementary method of measuring an 
angle (by an arc) is the fundamental object, 
while the relative position of angles is an unim- 
portant inquiry. Hence, we treat the measure- 
ment of an angle by an arc; and have the 
elementary propositions concerning the angle at 
the renter, the angle between intersecting chords, 
tlie inscribed angle, the angle between tiro 
secants, etc. We thus complete the fundamental 
inquiries relating to the simple concepts, aud 
proceed to treat them as combined in figures. 
The first inquiry now concerns the relative mag- 
nitudes of the sides and angles of a single figure; 
the second, the comparison of figures. Now, 
there are three ideas to be taken as bases of com- 
parison; namely, (1) equality, (2) similarity, and 



344 



GEOMETET 



(3) equivalence; out of the last of which grows 
the idea of area. Having treated these topics, 
we have exhausted the subject of elementary plane 
geometry. No other elementary inquiry can arise; 
and no subsequent inquiries can be carried for- 
ward except on the . basis of these. Thus we 
have hastily sketched the outlines of a scientific 
arrangement ; but our special purpose is to in- 
sist, that some logical order of sequence be im- 
pressed upon the mind of the student, whether 
it be this, or some better one. 

IV. Hints concerning class-room woi-Tc. — The 
order of arrangement in the treatment of a geo- 
metrical proposition should be early fixed in the 
student's mind ; namely, (1) The general state- 
ment of the proposition ; (2) The illustration of 
this statement by reference to a particular dia- 
gram ; (3) Any additional construction which 
may be necessary to the demonstration ; (4) The 
demonstration proper. The exact language of 
the text-book should always be used in the state- 
ment of propositions, and in quoting definitions 
and all fundamental principles, unless such lan- 
guage is changed by the instructor or student 
for a particular reason ; but the demonstration 
should not be memorized, although the general 
order of thought should necessarily be retained, 
and the spirit and style of the language be pre- 
served. The diagram should always be con- 
structed on the blackboard by the pupil, with- 
out prompting from any source. When the con- 
struction is complefp, he shoidd usually stand at 
the board, and trace the line of thought by point- 
ing to the figure, as he proceeds in the demonstra- 
tion. Some have thought it best to use the Arabic 
figures to designate points, lines, etc., instead of 
the capital letters, as ordinarily found in our 
text-books, the purpose being to prevent mere 
memorizing ; but in reference to this, it is to 
be said that, besides its exceeding inelegance, and 
the fact, moreover, that the capital letters are a 
part of the language of the science, the device is 
of little or no use as a preventive of memorizing. 
It is quite as easy for a pupil who is so disposed, 
to memorize by the mere position or appearance 
of the parts, with figures to designate them, or 
even without any characters attached, as by means 
of letters. The pupil can make as perfect a par- 
rot-like recitation, by merely memorizing every 
statement as referring to certain parts of the 
diagram, and by using the barbarous diction, "line 
this," " line that," etc., which may be heard in 
some class rooms, as he can in any other way. 
Our counsel is, use the language of the science 
(the letters) , and depend on something less su- 
perficial, to prevent all improper memorizing. 
In referring to antecedent propositions constitut- 
ing the basis of the argument, it is far more im- 
portant that the proposition be quoted, than that 
its number be given ; for the latter is of no sort 
of use except as a mere class-room convenience, 
while the former method is of essential service in 
bringing out the argument, and also in keeping 
the truths of the science fresh in the mind, and 
familiar on the tongue. Such methods should 
constitute the ordinary class-room drill; but there 



are others which must not be neglected, nor be 
unfrequent. — First among these is the giving 
of outlines of demonstrations without going 
through the details, and without reference to a 
diagram. This is one of the best tests of pro- 
ficiency which can be applied, and the whole 
subject should be repeatedly reviewed in this- 
way. Again frequent reviews of groups of 
theorems, without demonstrations, are essential. 
Thus, the teacher may call for the propositions 
concerning equality of triangles, the elementary 
propositions concerning the measurement of 
angles, the propositions concerning parallels, etc. 
When a student is assigned such a topic, he^ 
should give all the facts embraced under it (defi- 
nitions, propositions, corollaries, and scholiums), 
without being prompted. These three classes of 
exercises will form the staple of all class-room 
work. — For a final review, students may be set 
to tracing certain lines of thought running 
through the whole subject. Thus, given the sub- 
ject of equality, he will define it, distinguish it 
from nearly related notions, such as similarity 
and equivalence, show that the two latter notions 
make up the former, classify all the propositions 
of elementary geometry which relate to equality, 
and be able to give them with their demonstra- 
tions, pointing out any common principle which 
may seem to run through the demonstrations. 
In reference to the latter he will find that 
equality is always proved by the mere applica- 
tion of one figure to the other, with the modifi- 
cation, that in case of equality by symmetry the 
figures are divided into parts, which parts are 
then applied as before. In like manner, he can 
be set to study the subject of similarity. Such 
a study will not be merely a review of the sec- 
tion on equality, or that on similarity, since these 
ideas are the basis of the thought in many pro- 
positions where they do not constitute the main 
subject, or purpose. In fact, it will be found that 
nearly one-half of the propositions of geometry 
involve one or the other of these notions [equality 
and similarity) as the basis of thought. Again 
he may be set to select and study the proposi- 
tions relating to form, and then those in which 
magnitude is the object of inquiry ; these two 
ideas dividing between them the whole domain 
of geometrical truth. — Finally it is of the high- 
est importance, that, from first to last, the pupil 
be trained in the practical application of the ab- 
stract truths as fast as they are learned. No truth 
is well learned until it can be applied ; and it 
would be quite incredible to one who has not 
had large observation, how fully one may appear 
to understand a geometrical truth, and yet be 
totally unable to apply it. The writer has ex- 
amined in geometry hundreds of students desir- 
ing to enter college in " advanced standing," and 
has made this a matter of careful observation. 
For example, he has usually asked such students, 
" How do you find the area of a spherical tri- 
angle ?" Generally the answer has been promptly 
given, "By multiplying the spherical excess by the 
tri-rectangular triangle;'' and, quite generally, the. 
candidate has been found able to demonstrate 



GEOMETRY 



GEORGETOWN COLLEGE 345 



the proposition. But in no instance has the 
examiner ever found a student, who had not been 
trained in the practical application of the state- 
ment, able to compute the area of a triangle the 
angles of which are, say 110°, 94°, and 87 ,J , on a 
sphere, the radius of which is 2 feet. In fact, they 
could tell what a tri-reetangular triangle is. what 
part of the sphere it is, and what the spherical 
excess is ; but not one could actually find the 
number of square inches in the area of the tri- 
angle. A student may appear to have thoroughly 
mastered solid geometry, and yet be totally unable 
to solve such a problem as, To find how many bar- 
rels of water a cistern in the form of the frustum 
of a cone will contain. It is obvious, therefore, 
that the teacher of geometry should never allow 
his pupils to omit the practical examples. 

V. Geometrical In ceiition. — This term is used 
to designate the power to discover demonstra- 
tions of propositions or the solution of prob- 
lems. Many excellent teachers quite overrate the 
ordinary student's power in this direction. Some 
have even thought, that, from the first, a pupil can 
be led to discover the demonstrations of all the 
propositions. New classes may. indeed, make com- 
mendable progress in geometry, and have put 
into their hands only the. mere statement of prop- 
ositions ; but it will be found that they do not 
originate the demonstrations which they bring 
into the class ; they simply look them up in other 
text-books, and thus learn them. After a pupil 
has acquired a considerable stock of geometrical 
knowledge, any real test will show that original 
demonstrations are but slowly evolved, even of the 
simplest propositions. Many students have little 
or no capacity in this direction; and, therefore, to 
make it the staple of geometrical teaching would 
be supreme folly. Some exercise of this kind may, 
and should, be given from an early stage of the 
study; and students may be stimulated and helped 
in the work, so that all the ability for such exer- 
cise, which really exists in the class, may be brought 
out; but, after all, there is no reasonable ground 
to expect that any large amount of such ability 
can be developed in the majority of students of 
elementary geometry. Certainly, this is not the 
purpose for wliich geometry holds its eminent 
place in the curriculum of our colleges. It is, 
that students may learn what a logical argument 
is and how to frame it, from the study of such 
arguments, carefully elaborated and expressed by 
the ripest culture. What but the most clumsy 
work can be expected from the tyro in framing 
such arguments, if he has not had much study of 
the best models ? To put a demonstration in 
good form, as well as to evolve it, is the ripest 
fruit of scholarship, not the daily work of begin- 
ners ; the ability to do either is to be acquired, 
in the first instance, by a protracted and carefid 
study of the work of masters. It is not the pur- 
pose of these remarks to discourage all attempts 
to secure original demonstrations, but to guard 
against a serious error into which enthusiastic 
and ambitious teachers are in danger of falling ; 
and the conclusion is, that, for the most part, 
pupils must be furnished with the demonstrations 



of elementary geometry, either by a text-book, 
or by the hints of a competent and judicious 
teacher ; and that it is best that it should be so. 
But let not this topic, of geometrical invention 
be confounded with that of practical exercise in 
applying the truths learned. The latter is, as 
has been said, essential for all. but especially im- 
portant for those who are dull of apprehension. 

VI. Lastly, it is to be remarked that a great 
change has come about, within the last century, in 
reference to the kind of demonstration which is 
admissible in geometry. Formerly, geometricians 
were totally averse to admitting any conception 
of motion or lime into a geometrical argument. 
These were rigidly excluded as foreign to the 
subject and as defiling its purity. Both are now 
freely admitted. Again, the infinitesimal meth- 
od was formerly as rigidly excluded, but is now 
coming to be admitted. These methods greatly 
facilitate geometrical inquiry, and are now free- 
ly used by the best writers and teachers. (See 
Mathematics.) 

GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- 
, town, I). G, was founded in 1789, but was not 
chartered until 1815. It is a Roman Catholic 
institution, under the direction of members of 
the Society of Jesus: ami is supported by fees 
from students. In the classical department, the 
entire course, including the preparatory classes, 
is of seven years, the last four of which corre- 
spond generally with the classical course of most 
American colleges. The institution has a well- 
equipped astronomical observatory, philosophical 
and chemical apparatus, and a cabinet of minerals, 
shells, etc. The college library contains 30.000 
volumes, amongst which there are many rare and 
curious works. One hundred of these volumes 
were printed between the years 1460 and 1520; 
three manuscripts are anterior to the year 1400, 
and many others are of almost as early a date. 
The society libraries contain about 3,000 volumes. 
The charge for tuition, board, lodging, etc., is $325 
a year ; the regular charge for day scholars is 
SCO a year. In Washington, there is a medical 
department, established in 1851, and also a law 
department, established in 1870. In 1875-6, there 
were, in the classical department. 19 instructors 
and 215 students, of whom 54 were of the col- 
legiate grade ; in the medical department, there. 
were 1 3 instructors and 80 students ; in the law 
department. 4 instructors and 39 students. At the 
commencement in 1876, the degree of A. B. was 
conferred on 7 graduates. The presidents of the 
college, with the date of appointment, have been 
as follows : the Rev. Robert Flunket, 1791-3; 
the Rev. Robert Molyneux, 1793-6 ; the Rev. 
Louis W. Dubourg, 179G-9 ; the Rev. Leonard 
Neale, 1799-1806 ; the Rev. Robert Molyneux, 
1806-8; the Rev. Win. Matthews, 1S08-10; 
the Rev. Francis Neale, 1810-12; the Rev. 
John Grassi, 1812-17 ; the Rev. Benedict J. 
Fenwick, 1817-18; the Rev. Anthonv Ivohlmann, 
L818-20; the Rev. Enoch Fenwick, 1820-22; 
the Rev. Benedict J. Fenwick. 1822-25; the 
Rev. Stephen Dubuisson, 1825-6; the Rev. 
William Feiner, 1826-9 ; the Rev. John G. 



346 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE 



GEORGIA 



Beschter, March, 1829-Sep., 29; the Rev. Thomas 
Mulledy, 1829-37 ; the Rev. William McSherry, 
1837-9 ; the Rev. Joseph A. Lopez, Jan. 1840- 
April 1840; the Rev. James Ryder, 1840-45; the 
Rev. Samuel Mulledy, Jan., 1845- Aug., 45 ; the 
Rev. Thomas Mulledy, 1845-8; the Rev. James 
Ryder, 1848-51; the Rev. Charles H. Stonestreet, 
1851-2; the Rev. Bernard A. Maguire, 1852-8 ; 
the Rev. John Early, 1858-66; the Rev. Bernard 
A. Maguire, 1866-70; the Rev. John Early, 1870- 
73 ; the Rev. P. P. Healy, appointed in 1873 
and still (1876) in office. 

GEORGETOWN" COLLEGE, at George- 
town, Scott Co., Ky., chartered in 1829, is under 
the control of the Baptists. It is supported by 
■tuition fees and the income of an endowment of 
nearly $75,000. The real estate of the college is 
Talued at about $75,000. The library contains 
between 5,000 and 6,000 volumes. The institution 
las good philosophical and chemical apparatus, a 
cabinet of minerals, fossils, and shells, and a mu- 
seum of curiosities. It comprises an academic 
or preparatory course and a collegiate course. The 
curriculum is distributed into the following depart- 
ments of study: (1) English; (2) Latin; (3) 
Greek; (4) Modern languages; (5) Mathematics; 
(6) Physical Sciences; (7) History and Political 
Economy; (8) Mental and Moral Philosophy. Any 
.student who completes the course in any one de- 
partment receives the title of Proficient in that 
department. Other degrees are Bachelor of 
Sciences for the full English course; Bachelor of 
Arts, if Latin and Greek be added; Master of 
Arts for the complete course. The Western Bap- 
tist Theological Institute is connected with the 
college. The cost of tuition in the collegiate course 
is $50 per year, and in the academic course $40. 
Candidates for the ministry receive instruction 
free, and needy students who intend to teach are 
given credit for tuition until they are able to pay. 
In 1876, there were 8 instructors and 107 students 
(84 collegiate and 23 preparatory). The presi- 
dents of the college, with date of appointment, 
have been as follows : Wm. Staughton, D. D., 
1829; Joel S. Bacon, D. D., 1830; B. P. Farns- 
worth, 1836 ; Rockwood Giddings, D. D., 1838 ; 
Howard Malcom, D. D., 1840; J. L. Reynolds, 
D. D., 1850; Duncan R. Campbell, D. D., 1852 ; 
N. M. Crawford, D. D., 1865; B. Manly, Jr., 
D. D., 1871 (the present incumbent, 1876). 

GEORGIA, one of the thirteen original states 
of the American union, was first settled at 
Savannah, by colonists from England, under 
Gen. James Oglethorpe, in 1733. Its present 
area is 58,000 sq. m. ; and its population, accord- 
ing to the census of 1870, was 1.184,109, included 
in which were 545,142 colored persons, 40 In- 
dians, and 1 Chinaman. According to its entire 
population, it ranked as the 12th among the 
states ; and, as to colored population, as the 1st. 
Its gain in population, during the ten years 
preceding, was 12 per cent. 

Educational History. — The original constitu- 
tion of this state, adopted in 1777, contained a 
provision requiring schools to be "erected in each 
county, and supported at the general expense of 



the state" ; but this was omitted in the revision 
of 1789, educational affairs being left to the 
regulation of the general assembly. In 1783, the 
assembly donated 1,000 acres of land to each 
county for the support of free schools ; and, in 
1784, 40,000 acres were given for the endow- 
ment of a state university, which was chartered 
in 1785. In 1792. an act was passed appropriat- 
ing 1,000 acres for the endowment of an academy 
in each county of the state. In 1817, the sum 
of $250,000 was appropriated for the support of 
schools for the poor. According to the census 
of 1860, there were in the state 32 colleges and 
high schools, with 3,302 students; and 1752 
public schools, containing 56,087 pupils, the total 
income for the support of which was $449,966. 
Georgia was quite celebrated for the number and 
excellence of her female seminaries. There was, 
however, no regularly organized system of com- 
mon schools, supported by public taxation, and 
open to all classes; although efforts were made 
in 1845, and again in 1856, to establish such a 
system. In 1849, a law existed giving $20,000, 
to be divided among the several counties of the 
state to support schools for poor children ; but 
such was the general apathy in regard to educa- 
tion, that 32 counties failed to make any return 
so as to obtain their portion of the endowment. 
In 1850, there were 213,903 native white adults 
in the state, of whom 20 per cent were unable to 
read and write. In 1860, the number of illiterates 
had been reduced to 18 per cent. The state 
constitution of 1868 provided for the establish- 
ment of "a thorough system of general education, 
to be forever free to all children of the state," and 
created the office of state school commissioner, to 
be appointed by the governor, with the consent 
of the senate, and to hold his office for the same 
term as the governor. An act establishing such 
a system of public instruction was passed Oct. 
13., 1870, under which many schools were put in 
operation, under the supervision of the first 
school commissioner, J. R. Lewis. His report, 
made in 1871, showed that there were enrolled 
in the schools 42,914 white pupils, and 6,664 
colored, making a total of 49,578. Very great 
mismanagement and imprudence, however, char- 
acterized the operations of those who had the 
direction of the school system during that year ; 
the school fund was diverted from its legitimate 
object, a large debt was contracted, and many 
defects were found to exist in the school law. 
Prom these causes, the schools were closed dur- 
ing the year 1872. In that year, Gustavus J. Orr 
was appointed school commissioner ; and under 
his advice, a new law was passed (Jan. 19., 1872), 
in pursuance of which the system as it exists at 
present was organized. The year 1873 opened 
with brighter prospects. The school funds which 
had been accumulating from the regular sources 
had been faithfully kept ; and the law providing 
for the payment of the debt of 1871 had yielded 
$174,000, which sum was apportioned among the 
counties, and faithfully disbursed. The regular 
school fund had accumulated to the amount of 
$250,000, which also was properly apportioned. 



GEORGIA 



347 



Under these circumstances, the schools that year 
made considerable progress. The annual report 
of Commissioner Orr, for 1873, showed that 
there were in attendance at the schools 83,677 
pupils, of whom 63,922 were white children, and 
19,755 were colored. During the next year, the 
attendance increased to 135,541, — whites, 1)3,170, 
colored, 42,371. The amount of school funds 
apportioned in 1874, was $265,000. The report 
for the year 1875 showed a still further increase, 
the aggregate attendance being L56,349, — whites, 
L05,990; colored, 50,359. During 1874, rive 
school laws were enacted ; but no important 
change was made in the system, except the re- 
quirement that the enumeration of the school 
population should be made every four years in- 
stead of every year, as formerly. 

School System. — The common-school system 
of Georgia is under the direction of the following 
officers: ( 1 ) A state school comm issioner appointed 
by the governor, with the consent of the senate, 
for four years, who is charged with the adminis- 
tration of the school laws and the general super- 
vision of all the public cchools of the state, as 
well as the apportionment of the school revenue; 

(2) A state boardof education, comprising the 
governor, secretary of state, attorney -general, 
comptroller-general, and school commissioner. 
This is an advisory body, with whom the school 
commissioner has the right to consult in regard 
to any of his official duties ; and appeals may be 
made to it from his decisions touching the proper 
construction or administration of the school laws; 

(3) County, boards of education, each consisting 
of five freeholders, elected for four years by the 
grand jury, whose duties are to form school dis- 
tricts, establish schools, purchase grounds, build 
school-houses, prescribe text-books (all of which 
must be unsectarian), grant licenses to teachers, 
on the recommendation of the county school 
commissioners, and have a general supervision of 
all the schools in their respective counties; also to 
determine local controversies referred to them by 
appeal, subject to a still further appeal to the 
state commissioner ; (4) County school com- 
missioners, elected by the county boards of educa- 
tion, who examine applicants for licenses to 
teach, and revoke licenses for immorality, incom- 
petency, or cruelty to pupils, subject, however, 
to an appeal to the county boards of education. 
The county school commissioner is also required 
to visit each school in his county at least twice a 
year, to make an annual census of the children 
of school age (between 6 and 18), to apportion 
the school fund of the county among the sub-dis- 
tricts in proportion to the number of such chi Ldren 
iu each, to make such reports to the state com- 
missioner as he may require, and to act generally 
as the medium of communication between the 
state commissioner and the subordinate school 
officers. 

The county boards of education may establish 
evening schools for youths over 12 years of age. 
who are unable to attend the day schools ; and, 
under the direction of the state board, they may 
also establish self-sustaining manual labor schools. 



No county is entitled to a participation in the 
state school fund unless its board of education 
has provided, by taxation or otherwise, for keep- 
ing primary schools in operation at least three 
months in the year, or two months in the case of 
ambulatory schools, which may be organized in 
sparsely inhabited districts. Separate schools are 
prescribed for colored children, but these schools 
must afford equal advantages with those for 
whites. The law prohibits the exclusion of the 
Bible from the public schools, but does not per- 
mit any books of a sectarian character to be 
used. Public school sites and buildings, and the 
furniture of the latter, are exempt from taxation 
and from sale, on execution. 

The school revenue at present consists of the 
proceeds of the poll tax and of special taxes on 
shows and exhibitions, and on the sale of spiritu- 
ous and malt liquors, endowments, devises, gifts, 
and bequests made to the state for educational 
purposes, all educational funds and revenues due 
the state university, and one half of the rental 
of the Western and Atlantic railroad. From 
these resources there were received during the 
year ending June 30., 1875 : poll tax. 83,729.83; 
tax on shows and exhibitions. $2,069.50; and half 
rental of W. and A. railroad, $150,000; making 
a total of $155,799.33. This fund is apportioned 
among the several counties in proportion to the 
number of children from II to 1 8 years of age, and 
of confederate soldiers under 30 years of age res- 
ident in each. In four counties. — Bibb, Chatham. 
Glynn, and Richmond, and in three cities. — At- 
lanta, Columbia! and Griffin, the school systems 
are organized under local laws. 

Educational Condition. — According to the re- 
port of the state commissioner for 1 875. there were 
belonging to the general common-school system 
3,669 schools, of which 2,790 were for white and 
879 for colored pupils, all the counties in the 
State having common schools, except Early. 
Besides these, there were, in the counties and 
cities under special systems, 12s elementary 
schools and high schools. 58 of the former be- 
ing graded and 70 ungraded schools. There were 
also reported 820 private elementary schools. 
The studies pursued in the common schools are 
reading, orthography, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, and English grammar. 

The following are the principal items of the 

common-school statistics for 1875 : 

Number of pupils admitted, Whites. . .114,04s 
Colored ::, 9RR 



2i;s 



Total. .169,916 

Average daily attendance 105,7tiO' 

No. of children of school age, Whites. .218,733 

•' " " Colored. 17.5,304 

Total. .3114,037 
For the private elementary schools the follow- 
ing statistics were given in the report, for the 
same year : 

Number of Schools 820 

" "Teachers 903 

" Pupils taught, Whites 21,275 

" " Colored 4.17G 



Average monthly cost of tuition. 



Total. .25,451 
$1.88. 



348 



GEORGIA 



The whole amount of money received and ex- 
pended for the support of public schools, in 1875, 
was $435,319. Of this, 3291,319 was supplied 
by the state ; and 3144,000, raised by local tax- 
ation. The amount apportioned to the several 
counties was 3151,304. The Peabody Fund 
contributed 36,900 to the support of schools in 
Georgia, during the year. 

Normal Instruction. — No provision has been 
made in this state for the special training of 
teachers. In his annual report for 1875, State 
Commissioner Orr said, "The want of well-quali- 
fied teachers for our white schools has been much 
felt. The want of the white schools in this 
respect, however, is, small in comparison with 
that of the colored schools. It has been impracti- 
cable to put colored schools in operation at all, in 
some places, in consequence of the lack of com- 
petent instructors." He, therefore, recommended 
that an "annual appropriation of $10,000 be 
made for establishing two normal schools for 
whites, one to be located in the northern, and 
the other in the southern portion of the state ; 
and that the law making an appropriation of 
$8,000 to the Atlanta University be repealed, and 
that, in lieu thereof, $10,000 be annually appro- 
priated for establishing a normal school for colored 
pupils." Bowdon College has a normal class; 
and the Atlanta University (q. v.), a higher and 
a lower normal department, the former embrac- 
ing a four years' course, and the latter a shorter 
one for primary school teachers. And, besides 
these, there is the Haven Normal School, at 
Waynesboro, which, in 1874, had 162 students. 
The state appropriation to the Atlanta University 
is designed to encourage the training of colored 
teachers in that institution. 

Secondary Instruction. — The special systems 
above referred to comprise 9 high schools, — 2 in 
Bibb Comity, 2 in Chatham County, 2 in At- 
lanta, 1 in Columbus, and 2 in the city of 
Griffin. Macon also has 2 high schools ; and 
Savannah, 8 high-school classes. Besides these, 
there were reported 104 private high schools, 
having 171 instructors, and 5,379 students, of 
whom 3,087 were males, and 2,292 females. The 
studies pursued in these schools included the 
usual English, classical, mathematical, and scien- 
tific branches ; and the average monthly cost of 
tuition was $3.13 per pupil, ranging from $5 to 
$1.15. There are also sevei'al business colleges. 

Superior Instruction. — The University of 
Georgia (q. v.) , at Athens, is the principal in- 
stitution of this grade in the state. Others are 
contained in the following table, according to 
the annual report of the state commissioner for 
1875: 



NAME 


Location 


Religious 
denomination 


University of Georgia. . . . 
Atlanta University. .'.'.'.'.' 

Mercer University 

N. Georgia Agr.&Mech. Col. 


Athens 

Atlanta 

Macon 

Dahlonega 

Oxford 

Jefferson 

Macon 


Non-sect. 
Non-sect. 
Baptist 
Non-sect. 
M. E. South 






Pio Nono College 


E. C. 



Besides these, there are several institutions for 
the higher education of women, that claim the 
rank of colleges, having preparatory and collegiate 
courses of study. According to the report of the 
U. S. Commissioner for 1874, there were in. 
these institutions 102 instructors and 1,408 stu- 
dents. The following list contains those included 
in the report of the state commissioner for 1875: 



NAME 



Cherokee Baptist Fem. Col. 

Conyers Fem. Col 

Dalton Fem. Col 

Houston Fem. Col 

La Grange Fem. Col 

Le Vert Fem. Col 

Rome Fem. Col 

Southern Fem. Col 

SoutheruMasonicFem.Col. 

Wesleyan Fem. Col 

West Point Fem. Col 

Young Fem. Col 



Location 



Rome 

Conyers 

Dalton 

Perry 

La Grange 

Talbotton 

Rome 

La Grange 

Covington 

Macon 

West Point 

Thomasville 



Religious 
denomination 



Baptist 

Meth. Epis. 

Baptist 

M. E., South 

Methodist 

Presb. 

Non-sect. 

Non-sect. 

M. E., South 

Union 



'J 'he State College of Agriculture and the 
Mechanic Arts, endowed with the congressional 
land grant of 270,000 acres, is a department of 
the University of Georgia. The North Georgia 
Agricultural and Mechanical College became 
likewise a branch of the University in 1872. 
Atlanta University (q. v.) was organized, in 1867, 
by the Freedmen's Bureau and the American 
Missionary Association, and is largely supported 
by the latter body. It is designed especially for 
the education of colored youth. In pursuance 
of an act of the legislature, there is an annual 
state appropriation of $8,000 for its support. 
Objections have been urged against this institu- 
tion on the ground that such a "movement in 
favor of university education for the colored 
people is far in advance of the demands of the 
present condition of colored society" ; and that 
the money thus expended should be exclusively 
devoted to instructing and training teachers 
specially for the work of elementary schools. 
(Commissioner Orr's Report for 1875.) 

Special and Professional Instruction. — The 
institutions for special instruction are the Georgia 
Institution for the Education of the Deaf and 
Dumb, at Cave Spring, and the Georgia Academy 
for the Blind, at Macon. The former, in 1874, 
had 5 teachers and 51 pupils, of whom 25 were 
females ; the latter had 7 instructors and 51 
pupils — 30 females ; its receipts, which were al- 
most wholly from state appropriations, amounted 
to $15,115.37. There is a law school connected 
with the University of Georgia, in which the 
course is for one year, including the whole 
twelve months. The Medical College of Georgia, 
located at Augusta, constitutes the medical de- 
partment of the University of Georgia; the 
value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is 
estimated at .$60,000, and "its library contains 
5,000 volumes. Besides this, there are the 
Atlanta Medical College, founded in 1 854, which, 
in 1874, had a corps of 11 instructors, and 140 
students ; and the Savannah Medical College 
founded in 1838, which, in 1874, had 12 instruct- 
ors, and a graduating class of 16 students. 



GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF 



GERMAN-AMERICAN SCHOOLS 349 



GEORGIA, University of, at Athens, 
Georgia, was chartered in 17s."]. receiving 40,000 
acres of wild land, granted in 1784 by the legis- 
lature, for the endowment of ,'i college, or >eini- 
nary of learning. It did not go into operation 
for some years. In 1801, the first building was 
erected, and, in 1804, the first class graduated. 
The institution was suspended, from September 
18H3 to January 1866, in consequence of the 
civil war. The funds of the university, in 1870. 
amounted to §373,170 ; the value of it; build- 
ings and apparatus at Athens was $1x3,011(1. 
The campus contains 37 acres, and there is an ex- 
perimental farm of 16 acres. The college aud 
society libraries contain about 20,000 volumes. 
The medical department has a library of about 
5,000 volumes. The university comprises an 
academic department (known as Franklin Col- 
lege), the Georgia State College of Agriculture 
and the Mechanic Arts, a law department 
(established in I860), a medical department (the 
Medical College of Georgia, at Augusta, estab- 
lished in 1830), and the North Georgia Agri- 
cultural College (at Dahlonega). The State 
College and the North Georgia College were 
established in 1872, with the proceeds of the 
congressional land grant to Georgia. The 
Medical College became a department of the 
university in 1873. The following schools are 
embraced in the academic department: (1) Latin 
language and literature ; (2) Greek language 
and literature ; (3) modern languages; (4| belles- 
lettres, including rhetoric, criticism, and esthet- 
ics; (5) metaphysics and ethics: (6) mathe- 
matics; (7) natural philosophy and astronomy; 
(8) chemistry, geology, aud mineralogy: (9) his- 
tory and political science ; (10) English liter- 
ature. These separate schools are so arranged 
as to be combined into several departments, 
which thus offer systematic courses of educa- 
tion of different types of culture. Tlu'ee degrees 
are conferred in this department : Bachelor of 
Philosophy, Bachelor of Arts, aud Bachelor 
of Science. The State College has three de- 
partments : agriculture, engineering, and applied 
chemistry. Four degrees are conferred : Master 
of Agriculture, Bachelor of Agriculture, Bachelor 
of Engineering, and Bachelor of Science. There 
are five university degrees ; namely, Master of 
Arts (requiring certificates of proficiency in 
all the academic schools except the last), Civil 
Engineer, Civil and Mining Engineer. Bachelor 
of Law, and Doctor of Medicine. The cost of 
tuition in the academic department is $75 a 
year ; in the State College, S40. Fifty young 
men of limited means, residents of Georgia, are 
admitted to the academic department free of 
tuition, iu return for which they are expected to 
teach school in the state for a term of years equal 
to the time they have enjoyed the advantages of 
the university. Needy students intending to en- 
ter the ministry also receive tuition free. In the 
State College, state scholarships, exempting from 
tuition fees, are granted to as many students, 
residents of the state, as there are members of 
the House of Representatives and seuators in 



the General Assembly. — The North Georgia 
Agricultural College occupies the former United 
States mint, donated by Congress. It admits 
both sexes, and has a collegiate and an inferior 
department. Many of its students have become 
teachers. Tuition is free. — In 1875-6, the num- 
ber of instructors and students in the different 
departments of the university was as follows: 



Departments 




Number of 
instructors. 


Number of 
students. 


Academic 




12 


104 


State College 




8 


93 


Law 




4 


6 


North Georgia 


College 


5 


245 


Medical 




12 


124 



Total (deducting repetitions) 33 572 

At the commencement in 1875, 72 degrees 
were conferred. The 'whole number of alumni 
of the university, at that date, was 1,388 (of 
whom 980 were living), including 1,153 bachelors 
of arts, 141 of law, 41 doctors of medicine, and 
53 recipients of other degrees. The heads of the 
university bore the title of president till 1860; 
but since that time they have been styled chan- 
cellor. Their names are as follows: Josiah Meigs, 
LL.D., 1801-11 ; the Rev. John Brown, I). 1)., 
1811-10; the Rev. Robert Finlev, P.D., 1816- 
17; the Rev. Moses Waddell, D. I >., 1819-29 ; 
the Rev. Alonzo Church, D.D., 1829-59; the 
Rev. Andrew A. Lipscomb, D. D., LL. D., 1860- 
74 ; and the Rev. Henry H. Tucker, D. D., 
appointed in 1S74 and still in office (1876). 

GERANDO, Joseph Marie de, Baron, born 
in Lyons. Feb. 29., 1772, died in Paris, Nov. 11,, 
1842. Educated originally for the priesthood, 
he changed his purpose, and entered the army. 
with which he visited Germany, Switzerland, 
and Italy. While in garrison at Colmar, the 
Institute proposed the question, "What is the 
influence of signs on the formation of ideas'.''' 
De Gerando's dissertation on this subject took 
the prize, and caused his invitation by Lucien 
Bonaparte to Paris, where he entered the ministry 
of the interior. After filling various civil and 
military positions in France, Tuscany, and the 
Papal States, and lecturing in Paris before the 
faculty of law, he was, in 1837, raised to the 
peerage. His principal educational and philo- 
sophical works are : — Des signes et de Fart de 
penser, consideres dans leurs rapports mviuels 
(1800); De la generation des Oonnaissances 
Humaines (1802), Histoire Comparee des Si/s- 
tetnes de Philosopkie relaHvemeni aux Principes 
des Oonnaissances Humaines (1803); < 'ours Nor- 
mal des Tnslituteurs Primaires (1832); Educa- 
tion des Sourds-Muets deNaissance (1827); Du 
Perfectionnement Moral el de FEducation de 
Sut-meme (1824). This last is the work by which 
he is most favorably known. An English trans- 
lation of it (Self -Education) was published in 
Boston, in 1830. See Morel, Essal sur la rie 
de J. M. Baron de Gerando (184G) ; North 
American Review for April, 1861. 

GERMAN - AMERICAN SCHOOLS, a 
large class of schools in the United States, in 
which a part or most of the instruction, is given 



350 



GERMAN COLLEGE 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



in the German language. They consist of several 
classes: (1) The earliest and still the most 
numerous among these schools are the denomina- 
tional schools, connected with the German 
churches. These schools are chiefly supported 
from the wish to establish the greatest harmony 
between school, church, and family, and to induce 
the children of German church members to con- 
nect themselves with the congregations to which 
their parents belong. The greatest zeal for the 
establishment of denominational German- Amer- 
ican schools has been shown by the German 
Catholics and the German Lutherans. The 
schools of the former were, in 1869, attended by 
about 157,000 children. The Lutherans have 
about 3,000 German congregations, the majority 
of which support German-American schools. 
(2) A large number of private schools, in most 
cases consisting of only one or two classes, are 
patronized by parents, mostly Germans, but to 
some extent also by others, who regard the ability 
to speak German as a valuable acquisition from 
a business point of view. (3) Since 1843, a 
number of German- American schools of a higher 
grade have been founded, partly by societies. 
These are designed not only to teach their pupils 
to speak German fluently, but to transplant to 
American soil the developing method of instruc- 
tion, which prevails in Germany, and to realize 
the ideal of a German real school. With a num- 
ber of these schools, kindergartens are connected. 
Schools of this kind have been founded in Mil- 
waukee (1853), New York (1854), Brooklyn, 
Hoboken, Detroit, Baltimore, Philadelphia, St. 
Louis, and some other places. 

GERMAN COLLEGE, at Mount Pleasant, 
Iowa, under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, was incorporated in 1873. It is 
designed to be the theological institution of the 
German Methodists in the West, North-west, and 
South-west. It is intimately connected with the 
Iowa Wesleyan University, though independent 
in finances and control. All German students 
become members of German College ; and all not 
German, of the University. The students of the 
College are admitted free to all the classes of the 
University, in which most of the collegiate instruc- 
tion is given. The college has an endowment of 
$25,000. It includes a preparatory and a theolog- 
ical department. Instruction is given in music, 
and facilities are afforded for Americans to 
learn German. In 1875 — 6, there were 3 in- 
structors and 50 students. The Rev. H. Lalir- 
mann is (1876) the acting president. 

GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German 
language ranks, with the English and French, 
in value and importance, above all the other lan- 
guages of the civilized world. It is very exten- 
sively studied in the literary institutions of every 
civilized country, and as a department of school 
and college instruction, continues to assume, from 
year to year, greater prominence. The height to 
which German literature and science have at- 
tained in every department, and the great and 
rapid progress of German scholarship, are univer- 
sally recognized. Thomas de Quincey, in his Let- 



ters to a Young Man, thus refers to the compre- 
hensiveness and extent of German literature : 
"Dr. Johnson was accustomed to say of the 
French literature, that he valued it chiefly for this 
reason, that it had a book upon every subject. 
How far this might be a reasqnable opinion fifty 
years ago, and understood, as Dr. Johnson must 
have meant it, of the French literature as com- 
pared with the English of the same period, I will 
not pretend to say. It has certainly ceased to 
be true, even under these restrictions, and is in 
flagrant opposition to the truth, if extended to 
the French in its relation to the German. Un- 
doubtedly, the French literature holds out to the 
student some peculiar advantages, but all these 
are advantages of the French only in relation to 
the English, and not to the German literature, 
which, for vast compass, variety, and extent, far 
exceeds all others as a depository for the current 
accumulation of knowledge. The mere number 
of books published annually in Germany, com- 
pared with the annual product of France and 
England, is alone a satisfactory evidence of this 
assertion." The authors of the great educational 
ideas and reforms which, during the last two 
hundred years, have led to the creation of the 
modern systems of education, were nearly all 
Germans ; and, at the present time, German liter- 
ature, in every branch of educational science and 
art, is so much more copious and instructive than 
any other literature of the world, that the supe- 
rior advantages of German over other foreign 
languages for every one connected with educa- 
tional labors are, at the present time, hardly 
disputed. The progress of comparative linguistics 
has shown that a knowledge of the German 
grammar and of its history offers greater advan- 
tages for the complete understanding of the struc- 
ture and laws of the cognate EngEsh language 
than the study of any other language, ancient or 
modern. The influence which considerations like 
these have had upon the admission of German 
into the course of instruction of many English 
institutions from which it was formerly excluded, 
has been more recently strengthened by the 
restoration of a powerful German empire, and 
the steadily rising influence of this new empire 
in the commercial affairs of the world. In the 
United States, the presence of a numerous Ger- 
man-speaking population, numbering, according 
to. the smallest estimate, no less than five millions, 
has caused German to be looked upon by large 
classes of the population as an acquisition of 
great practical value. In the United States, 
therefore, German is now studied to a much 
larger extent than French. In some of the small- 
er countries, near or adjacent to Germany, and 
inhabited by kindred races, as Sweden, Norway, 
Denmark, and Holland, the study of German 
begins early, and receives so much attention, that 
the educated classes of these countries are gener- 
ally able to speak the language with fluency. In 
France, the study of G erman has greatly increased 
during the present century, and has generally 
been favored by the men who have done most 
for the educational progress of the country. Cou- 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



351 



sin. Jules Simon, and Waddington, were among 
its warmest friends. — Fur so much of the study 
of German as it has in common with French and 
other modern languages, we refer to the article 
Modern Languages, as we present under this 
head, exclusively, what is to be said of German 
and its value as a branch of instruction. 

The language of modern Germany is one of a 
cluster of languages which, collectively, are called 
the Germanic or Teutonic languages. They cm- 
brace, of living languages, the modern German, 
t he Swedish, I i an ish. Icelandic, English, Dutch and 
Flemish, and the Friesic; and. of the la nguages 
now extinct, the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon : and 
they constitute one of the branches of the Indo- 
Germanic or Indo-European group. Long before 
Germany had a literature, the divergence of the 
original Teutonic tongue into Low German and 
High German had begun. The language of 
modem Germany is the only one that sprung 
from the latter; all the others were the offspring 
of the former. The following table will fully 
illustrate the relation of the Teutonic languages 
to each other : 

Germanic or Teutonic languages 



Low German 
I 



High German 



Scandinavian — Low German — Gotliic 

I 

± 



Icelandic — Swedish — Danish | Old F riesic — Saxon 
Modern Friesic 



i 



Old High German 
Anglo-Saxon — Middle Dutch — Old Saxon 

i | Middle HighGerman 

English Dutch-Flemish Plattdcutsch I 

.Modern German. 

The most educated among the German tribes 
were the Gfoths. They showed themselves recep- 
tive of Greek and Roman art and science : and. in 
the third century, adopted the Christian religion. 
They had, at that time, a number of heroic songs 
and sententious poems, but no written alphabet. 
In the 4th century, bishop Ultilas translated the 
Latin Bible into the Gotliic language, adjusting 
with great skill the Greek alphabet to the sounds 
of the Gothic words, and supplementing it with 
Latin and Runic characters. The Gothic Bible 
was the beginning of an interesting Gotliic liter- 
ature, consisting of theological, historical, and 
geographical writings. Unfortunately, the larger 
portion of this literature, in which all the nations 
of the English. German. Dutch, and Scandinavian 
tongues are equally interested, has perished. All 
that is extant, embracing considerable portions 
of the New Testament, some portions of the ( >ld 
Testament, and a fragment of a paraphrased Gos- 
pel harmony, are given in the editii in of Ulfilas by 
Galielentza'nd Lobe (2 vols.. 1843-^-1846), as also 
in those of Stainm ( 1 858) and Bernhardt (1875); 
these editions contain a grammar and a diction- 
ary; a Gothic glossary has also been published by 
Schidze (1848). Though few, the fragments of the 
Gothic language and literature suffice to give us a 



clear idea of their many excellencies. The language 
appears endowed with the luxuriant abundance. 
of a primitive language, having a fullness of roots 
and a considerable but well regulated variety of 
inflections, derivations, and compositions. The 
short, original vowels a, i, and n still predominate, 
and the other vowel and consonantal sounds 
have mostly been preserved in unalloyed purity. 
Special ease-endings distinguish the nominative, 
accusative, and vocative: there are different forms 
for dual and plural, and inflections for the pass- 
ive, like all the other Germanic languages, the 
Gothic has only two simple tenses, the present 
and the preterit, but. as a kind of compensation, 
a wonderful, euphonious and well regulated sys- 
tem of vowel modifications, which not only con- 
trols the strong conjugation, but pervades all the 
inflections and derivations. It already has, like 
the other Germanic languages, the weak inflec- 
tion in nouns, adjectives, ami verbs, which, in 
the High German, has been extended to larger 
classes of words. A pliant readiness to receive 
foreign words, a weakness common to all Ger- 
manic languages, appears also in the Gothic, 
which admitted a number of words from the 
languages of the I Inns. Slaves, Greeks, and Ro- 
mans, with whom they became acquainted during 
their migrations. Simultaneously with the Goths, 
others of the principal German tribes invaded the 
provinces of the decaying Roman empire, which 
finally succumbed to them; and on its ruins they 
established a number of new kingdoms in the 
south-western part of Europe. T hey. in turn. 
found it necessary to recognize the superiority of 
Roman education; and as. after their conversion 
to I hristianity. the latin became the language of 
the churches and schools, their own native tongues 
gradually gave way to the Latin, not, however, 
without leaving conspicuous marks in the new 
Romanic languages (q. v.), which were gradually 
developed in all these countries. The Anr/lo- 
Saxons alone among all the tribes which, at that 
time, set out from their native land for foreign 
conquests. preserved their language. Outside of this 
newly conquered territory, the further develop- 
ment of the German language was chiefly con- 
fined to the countries which, at the time when 
the migration of nations began, were inhabited 
by Germanic races. The languages of all these 
countries gradually developed into literary lan- 
guages; and all of them are of interest to the 
English student, not only because they furnish 
the" key to valuable literatures, but especially be- 
cause they illustrate the growth of the English 
as a cognate language, and thus lead to a more 
comprehensive knowledge of it. By far the most 
important of them is the Herman. In Germany 
proper, the Low German and the High German 
co-existed side by side, but as a literary language 
the HighGerman soon secured an ascendency 
which was generally recognized. In the develop- 
ment of this language, three great periods are 
distinguished: (1) of the Old High Qentum,ex.- 
tending to the 11th century, in which the inflec- 
tional fullness of the language, in comparison with 
the Indo-Germanic languages of antiquity, and 



352 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



even with the Gothic, visibly declined; the voca- 
tive case, the dual number, and the inflected pas- 
sive voice disappeared; and the variety of vowel 
sounds increased ; (2) of the Middle High Ger- 
man, extending to the beginning of the 10th cent- 
ury, in which the decline of the inflections con- 
tinued, the full vowel-endings were generally 
weakened into e, and the auxiliary verbs, the 
article, and the umlaut (modification of the 
vowel) were introduced ; (3) of the New High 
German, in which the predominance of the vowel 
■e in the final syllables was completed, and the 
quantity of words accordingly changed. The 
translation of the Bible by Luther introduced 
this period, and established the exclusive use of 
the High German as the literary language of all 
Germany. Opitz (about 1630), several linguistic 
societies, and Gottsched (about 1730) contributed 
much to the further development of the language, 
which, in the writings of Lessing and Goethe, 
fully attained its present form. 

By the side of High German as a literary lan- 
guage, the Low German (Platldeutech) has main- 
tained itself as the language of a considerable 
portion of the people even to the present day. 
It is not altogether without a literature ; and, 
in the 16th century, even translations of the 
Bible into Low German were deemed necessary, 
in order to give to the entire population access 
to the Sacred Scriptures. The last edition of 
the Low German Bible appeared in 1622, show- 
ing that thereafter the entire German nation 
were sufficiently acquainted with the High Ger- 
man to regard it as the only literary medium of 
the country. In modern times, a literary culti- 
vation of the Low German has been attempted, 
chiefly in poems and novels, in order to reflect, 
by using the people's own language, in the most 
natural and impressive way, the sentiments of 
the Low German people. — The Germans have no 
national academy of science, such as exists in 
France, possessing supreme authority in deciding 
questions relating to their language. There is, 
therefore, in German, as in English, a considerable 
difference in the mode of writing a large number 
of words and classes of words; and the authority 
of standard grammarians and lexicographers is 
appealed to in doubtful questions. As, moreover, 
the desire for a thorough revision of the entire 
German orthography has long been expressed on 
many sides, the Prussian government, in Jan., 
1876, assembled a conference of 15 prominent 
German philologists to propose general rules, 
which are to be introduced, by order of the 
government, into the schools. 

The foundation of German philology was laid, 
soon after the wars against Napoleon, by Benecke, 
the brothers Grimm, and Lachmann. Benecke 
established the philological knowledge of the 
Middle High German; though his chief work, the 
Mittelhochdeutsclie Worterbuch (3 vols., Leips., 
1847 — 1864), was. only a sketch which was 
subsequently filled up' by W. Muller, jointly 
with Zarncke. The brothers Jakob and Wil- 
helm Grimm comprehended within the scope 
of their researches the whole of German philol- 



ogy. In accordance with the principles of com- 
parative linguistics, which at the same time were 
applied by Bopp to the Indo-Germanic languages 
in general, Jakob Grimm gave, in his German 
grammar (Deutsche Grammatik, 4 vols., 1810 — 
1837) a history of the changes of German words 
and of the simple sentence, through every period, 
in all the Germanic languages. The history of 
the German language ( Geschichle der deutschen 
Sprache, 2 vols., 1848) supplements the above 
work, and shows the relationship existing be- 
tween the different Germanic languages. The 
German dictionary by the two brothers Grimm 
(Deutsches Worterbuch) was begun in 1852; it has 
been continued by Heyne, Hildebrand, and Wei- 
gand, but will not be finished until about 1890. 
It is, in point of scholarship, unsurpassed by 
any other work in the entire literature of dic- 
tionaries. Lachmann applied the principles of 
philological criticism, as they were in use in clas- 
sical philology, to the study of German, restored 
the pure text of the master works of the Mid- 
dle High German, and shed entirely new light 
on the history of German prosody. On the 
foundation laid by Benecke, the Grimms, and 
Lachmann, numerous hands have reared the 
edifice of German philology, which is now the 
admiration of the literary world, and has served 
as a model for similar labors in every other 
literature, particularly in the English. (See En- 
gish, Study of.) We can mention only a few 
of the immense number of valuable works relat- 
ing to the German language which German 
scholarship has produced. A dictionary of the 
Old High German has been written by Graff 
(Allhochdeulscher Sprachschatz, 6 vols., 1834 — 
1842); a dictionaiy of the Middle High German, 
besides by Benecke, Muller, and Zarncke, who 
have already been mentioned, by Ziemann 
(Mittelhochdeutsches Worterbuch,lS37); diction- 
aries of New High German (the present German 
language), besides by the Grimms, by San- 
dere ( Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache,2 vols., 
1860 — 1865, besides several smaller works), and 
by Weigand (Deutsches Worterbuch, 3 vols., 
1857 — 1865) ; grammars, besides by the 
Grimms, by K. W. L. Heyse (Ausfuhrliches 
Lehrbuch der deutschen Sprache, 2 vols., 1838 — 
1849); Bumpelt, Deutsche Grammatik, 1860); 
Heyne (Kurze Grammatik dm- altgermanisehen 
Sprachstamme) ; Becker (Aus/uhrliche deutsche 
Grammatik, 3 parts, 1836—1839). The latter, 
viewing language as an organism regulated accor- 
ding to strictly logical laws, attempted to lay a 
new foundation for grammatical science, and 
found a number of followers, but also a veiy de- 
termined opposition to some of his ideas by the 
historical school. Periodicals devoted to German 
philology, are Haupt's Zeitschrift fur deutsches 
Atterfhum (established in 1841, continued by 
MuUenhoff and Steinmyer) ; Pfeiffer's Germania 
(established in 1856, continued by Bartsch); and 
the Zeitschrift fur Philologie by Hopfner and 
Zaches (established in 1870). Grammars of the 
Old High German and the Middle High Ger- 
man for the use of schools, embodying the 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



353 



results of the philological researches, have 
been written by Halm [AUhockdeut&che Ghram- 
matik, 4th edit., 1875; and Mitlelhochdeutsche 
Grammalih, 3d edit., 1875). A bibliography of 
German grammars, from the earliest times to 
1836, is given in Hoffmann's (von Fallersleben) 
Die devt&che Phitologie im Grundrisse (1836). 
Outlines of the history of the entire German 
literature, have been written by Koberstein 
(Gnuidriss der deuischen NaMonattiteratur, 
1827); Vilmar (Vorlesungen vberdie Qesch ichte 
der deutscheti Naiionattiteratur, 1847); Wacker- 
nagel, (Geschichte der dew/scJ/en Lil'-ratur, 1851), 
The history of German Literature by Kurz. 
(Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, 4 vols., 
Iy51 — 1872) gives well-selected specimens from 
all the prominent ( ierman writers. 

The German language is the mother-tongue 
of about 92 per cent of the population of the 
German empire (in 1871, 37, 800,000), the re- 
maining 8 per cent being Slaves, Danes, and 
French. In Switzerland, 14 out of 22 cantons 
are exclusively German ; in the large canton of 
Bern, they are in a great majority (83 per cent) ; 
and of the entire population of Switzerland, 
about 69 per cent speak German as their mother- 
tongue. In Austria proper, (ierman is the ruling 
language, although it is the mother-tongue of 
only 35 per cent of the population. In the lands 
of the Hungarian crown, (ierman is spoken by 
about 11 per cent. Russia has a German-speak- 
ing population of about 700,000 ; in the three 
Baltic provinces, the entire aristocracy are Ger- 
mane; and the (ierman language, although spoken 
by only a small minority of the population, also 
prevails in the churches and schools, as well as 
in the literature. The two small German states 
■of Luxemburg and fjchtenstein also speak tier- 
man. England still owns the German speaking 
island of Heligoland. In the United States of 
America, a population, estimated at from 5 to 6 
millions, to a great extent consisting of actual 
emigrants during the present century and of 
their children, and the remainder the descen- 
dants of emigrants of the 18th century, speak 
German as the family language, either equally 
with, or in preference to, English; but the use of 
German as the mother-tongue is steadily reced- 
ing before the advance of the English. The en- 
tire population of the world speaking ( ierman 
as the mother-tongue may be estimated at about 
60 millions, the German being, in respect to the 
number of those who speak it, only inferior, 
among the languages of civilized nations, to the 
English. 

The method of studying German, in English 
and American universities, colleges, seminaries, 
and academies is about the same as that pursued 
in the study of French. The statements made 
in the articles French Language and Modern 
Languages are, more or less, applicable to the 
German, in regard to the place which it occu- 
pies in the course of instruction, and to the 
mistakes which, in this respect, are very fre- 
quently committed. The most important feature 
which broadly distinguishes the German lan- 



guage from the French, and which an intelligent 
teacher will always keep in view from the very 
first lesson he gives, is the close resemblance be- 
tween German and English words, especially 
those used in common life. English j ihilologists 
have calculated that the English language, as 
commonly spoken and written, consists, to the 
extent of five-eighths, of Anglo-Saxon words, 
and that among these are found nearly all the 
terms of common life. Many of these words 
are spelled exactly alike ; large classes of other 
words show so slight a modification, that the 
pupils recognize them at once (as Voter, Mutter, 
Brvder, Buch, Haus), and still others present 
changes made according to certain laws which 
are easily understood, even at the earliest stage 
of instruction, and by the most youthful be- 
ginner (as Zi'hu. ten; Ziiin, tin; Tag, day; 
sagen, say). By a skillful use of this exten- 
sive resemblance of the two languages, the in- 
telligent teacher has it in his power to give to 
the beginner, in a few lessons, the command of 
a veiy large number of words. The strange 
letters which seem to surround the first lessons 
in < ierman with considerable difficulty, are quite 
easily learned by the aid of words which 
are substantially the same in German as in En- 
glish. Whole German sentences can, m tins 
way, be at once understood ; and when trans- 
lation forms a prominent object of the study, 
the pupil should begin to translate from (Ierman 
into English, as soon as he knows the letters. 
For exercise in the declensions and conjuga- 
tions, the selection of cognate words for the 
paradigms likewise facilitates the progress of the 
pupils. In this part of the grammar, German 
at once seems to the beginner to be more com- 
plicated than English, and presents to him the 
greatest difficulties he has to surmount ; among 
which may be enumerated the following: 
(1) The noun in German has four cases, and 
the plural is formed in four different ways 
as far as its termination is concerned, besides 
modifying the radical vowel; (2) Adjectives 
and adjective pronouns are declined in three 
different ways ; (.'!) The past participle generally 
adds the prefix ge, and, in compound verbs, this 
prefix, in many cases, is placed between the verb 
and the particle with which it is compounded, 
or the particle is detached and placed at the 
close of even a. long sentence. In constructing 
exercises for the study of these differences, it 
will again be found a help to choose for the par- 
adigms words similar to English words, or such 
as are common to both languages, so that the 
attention of the pupil may be concentrated upon 
the learning of the inflectional peculiarities. It 
is, however, not only the resemblance of German 
and English words, but also other points of 
similarity, in the etymology of the two languages, 
that should be made use of. Thus the possessive 
case of English nouns may be made to illustrate 
not only the German genitive, but the entire de- 
clension, of which the English possessive is a 
remnant. A reference to the plural forms men, 
women, feet, geese, mice, will explain the modi- 



354 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



fication of a large number of German nouns in 
the plural ; as will also such forms as children, 
brethren, and pence. The fact that the division of 
verbs into strong and weak is the same in both 
languages, that the formation of the principal 
parts of both is similar (see, saw, seen — seh-en, 
sail, ge-sehen ; love, loved, loved — lieb-en , liebte, 
ge-liebt), and that even, as a general rule, the 
same verbs belong, in both languages, to the one 
or to the other conjugation, is easily compre- 
hended even by beginners, and greatly assists 
them to understand the structure of the foreign 
language. 

The comparison of the German language with 
the English should not be limited to the points 
just mentioned ; but all the peculiar features of 
German should be noticed. In the study of any 
foreign language, a clear understanding of the 
most conspicuous characteristics helps to fix in the 
mind a clear conception of the language. Among 
the features of the German grammar to which 
special attention should be called, when they are 
met with for the first time, are the following : 
(1) The gender of nouns is arbitrary, and many 
nouns that are neuter in English are either mas- 
culine or feminine in German ; (2) One or more 
long qualifying adjuncts may intervene between 
the article and its noim ; (3) The order of se- 
quence of auxiliary verbs is entirely reversed in 
subjunctive propositions; (4) Prepositions and 
verbs govern three different cases of the noun ; 
(5) The object precedes the verb more frequent- 
ly than in English. 

The correct pronunciation of German, as of 
every foreign tongue, must be learned by imitat- 
ing the teacher. This is especially the case with 
the sounds that have no equivalent in English, 
as 8. il, ch, the guttural g, short o, r, and the com- 
binations of sp and St. Their number is compara- 
tively small ; and, if they are steadily practiced, it 
will require only a short time to learn to enunciate 
them correctly. After a rudimentary knowledge 
of the language has been attained, special atten- 
tion should be given to the laws according to which 
derivatives and compounds are formed. The Ger- 
man has greater freedom in forming compounds 
than almost any of the other modern languages ; 
and, as this is liberally used by many writers, no 
dictionary is so complete as to contain all the com- 
pounds to be met with in modern German writers. 
As the radical and component parts of these words 
are, however, easily recognized, and, as but few 
of the words in common use are of foreign ori- 
gin, it is easy for students of German to under- 
stand all such derivatives and compounds. This 
is still easier, when, as is the case with most 
compound verbs, each of the component parts 
has an equivalent in English ; as abhalten, to 
keep off; ausgehen, to go out, etc. If we con- 
sider that, for a conversation on every-day sub- 
jects, a knowledge of some 600 or 700 words is 
generally found to be sufficient, the close resem- 
blance of roots, derivatives, and compounds, in 
German and English, will be seen to afford ad- 
vantages for proficiency in German conversation 
of which no teacher can fail to make use. Progress 



in reading the language will also be greatly "pro- 
moted, if the teacher, besides calling attention to' 
the large number of common roots, derivatives, 
and compounds, traces words which appear to 
the beginner as entirely strange, to English 
words of the same root. Thus, if students learn 
that jener is etymologically related to yon, Knabe 
to knave, schon to shine, Blume to bloom, Hund 
to hound, though they translate them by that, 
boy, beautiful, flower, dog, they will remember 
their meaning more easily, and, by means of 
every new word of this class, get a clearer view 
of the near kinship between the two languages. 
It is safe to say, that the importance of an ety- 
mological comparison of German and English is. 
not yet sufficiently appreciated by teachers of 
German, and that greater attention should be 
paid to it in German classes of all grades. 

The rich and charming juvenile literature of 
Germany affords an abundance of suitable read- 
ing lessons, as soon as the pupil has sufficiently 
advanced in the knowledge of words and gram- 
matical forms, to take up a First German 
Reader. Anecdotes, fables, talcs, and pieces of 
didactic poetry present the smallest difficulties, 
to beginners. The readers published by Com- 
fort, Worman, Schlegel, Henn, and others, con- 
tain a large number of selections adapted to the 
wants of beginners. The attentive teacher will, 
however, find it necessary to select, especially 
during the first months, exercises with short sen- 
tences only ; since the length of the sentences in. 
many, even of the juvenile writers of Germany, 
presents difficulties which, at an early stage of the 
instruction, should be avoided. There are scarce- 
ly any German books which, like Telemaque 
and Charles XII in French, can be put into the 
hands of beginners; but First Beadeis, containing, 
selections from a number of writers, are for this 
purpose in general use. Advanced students should 
either use a fuller German reader, prepared 
for advanced classes, or take up the work of one 
of the classic writers. In the latter case, Schil- 
ler and Goethe are, for good reasons, invariably 
preferred. Annotated editions of some of the 
plays of both these poets have been specially 
prepared for the use of American and English 
schools. Special dictionaries for one or more 
plays are not only superfluous ; but, when a stu- 
dent has access to a general dictionary, the use 
of the latter is much to be preferred. When 
students are able to read authors like Schiller 
and Goethe, the teacher may properly use the 
reading lessons not only to improve the student's 
knowledge of the language, but also as an intro- 
duction to the history of German literature. 
The German readers for advanced classes might 
advantageously be so arranged as to afford to 
the teacher an opportunity to acquaint the pu- 
pils with the foremost writers in the different 
departments of German literature. In this re- 
spect there is room for great improvement in 
the readers now published. 

In the United States, German is not only gen- 
erally taught in universities, colleges, seminaries, 
and academies, but more recently the study has" 



GERMAN LANGUAGE 



355 



been introduced to a great extent into the pub- 
lic schools, in some extending to the lowest 
primary class. This is due to the fact that a 
large part of the population consists of Germans 
who are generally desirous that their children 
should be taught the German as well as the 
English language, besides to the desire of 
many school boards, to draw this class of chil- 
dren, as largely as possible, from private into 
public schools. This practice has been gradu- 
ally extended until, in 1876, a majority of the 
large cities of the Union, — among them New 
York, Rochester, Jersey City, Pittsburgh. < 'in- 
cinnati, Cleveland. Chicago, Milwaukee, St. 
Louis, Louisville, and a number of smaller ones, 
had made provision for it. In that year, the 
mayor of Brooklyn, in his message to the city 
council, strongly recommended the introduction 
of German as a branch of instruction in the 
public schools of that city. The greatest variety 
thus far exists in the courses of instruction that 
have been adopted for this study. In BOme 
places, especially in the smaller towns where the 
German-speaking people constitute a majority of 
the entire population, it has been made a part uf 
the regular course, in which all children must 
take part. In most places.it is optional with the 
children to pursue this study or not. In some 
cities (Cleveland, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and 
others), the school boards have arranged different 
courses for children who come to the public 
school with a speaking knowledge of the German 
language, and for those who have not this knowl- 
edge. The instruction of the former begins in 
the lowest class of the primary department, the 
time in the primary classes being equally divided 
between the two languages. Very many Amer- 
ican educators advocate the study of German by 
Anglo-American children of the common schools 
on the ground that the elements of English 
grammar will in this way be learned more easily 
and more thoroughly. That, from practical 
considerations, many parents desire an opportu- 
nity for their children to learn this language, 
seems to be proved by the large proportion of 
children who pursue the study, even when it is 
entirely optional. The testimony of some of 
the superintendents of schools in which this in- 
struction has been given for years is quite em- 
phatic in its favor. Thus, in his Annual Report, 
for 1874, the city superintendent of New York 
said : " No other consideration than its useful- 
ness as a branch of American education should 
have, in my judgment, any weight in continuing 
or extending German instruction ; and, within 
this limit, I believe sufficient reasons exist, not 
only to justify, but to recommend it strongly as 
a part of our course. In the schools in which it 
has received the most earnest attention, and in 
which, consequently, the best progress has been 
made, no indication has been presented that this 
branch of study has at all retarded the progress 
of the pupils in their English studies, but that 
it has rather facilitated intelligent advancement 
in English grammar and composition, increasing 
the pupils' fluency of expression by giving them 



a more precise knowledge of the meaning of the 
words of their own language, and aiding, in an 
important manner, in their mental training and 
development." A committee of the board of edu- 
cation of the city of New York, in Dec, 1874, 
remarked, in their report of that date : " The 
more effective this department of instruction is 
made, the more successful will our system be in 
this respect, and the more nearly shall we ap- 
proach to that desirable consummation of bring- 
ing under the influence of our common schools 
the children of all classes of our people, as well 
as of every nationality and creed. The impor- 
tance of this consideration will be obvious in 
view of the fact that at least 11,000 German 
pupils are in daily attendance at the Catholic Pa- 
rochial. Lutheran, and German private schools." 
The superintendent of the public schools in 
Cleveland, in a special report, dated Feb. 22., 
1 B75, said : "The study of German was intro- 
duced into the grammar and primary schools of 
Cleveland in the spring of 1870. since which 
time the number of pupils pursuing the study 
has increased from 600 to 5,000. Nor has this 
rapid increase in the study of ( Jerman had any 
effect to ' retard the general course of study,' or, 
in other words, the progress of the pupils in 
reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and the 
other English branches, as they are sometimes 
called." And he further remarked, that " the 
chances for promotion" were found to be equal 
among the pupils pursuing exclusively English 
studies and those who studied German as well, 
and added, " If now we take into account the 
fact that the latter goes from the school pos- 
sessed of a good knowledge of a language that 
opens to him the literature and scientific rec- 
ords of a great people, who can doubt but that 
the advantage lies on the side of the study of 
German?" In St. Louis, the study of the 
German language was introduced in 1864. on 
the report of a committee of the board of edu- 
cation, who reiommended its introduction on the 
following grounds: (1) "That by such intro- 
duction a homogeneousness of feeling would be 
created between the native and foreign born ;" 

(2) " That the study of German would naturally 
assist the study of the English language ;" 

(3) " That the knowledge of the German lan- 
guage pecuniarily benefits those who speak it." 
1 luring the ten years preceding the last report 
of the schools of that city (1874 — 5), the num- 
ber of pupils pursuing the study of German had 
increased from 450 to 17,197, of whom 5,670 
were Anglo-Americans. This was 73 per cent 
of all the pupils attending the public schools. 
In regard to this, the superintendent of schools, 
in his report for 1873 — 4, stated, "A perfect 
min-ling of the different classes of population 
in our schools has been the result, and the 
fact that one-third of the entire number who 
have taken up the study of German are Anglo- 
American children (i.e., children of Irish or na- 
tive American parents), shows how completely 
this feeling of caste has been broken down. The 
population has, in fact, grown homogeneous 



356 GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE 



GERMANY 



during the past eight years by means of the in- 
troduction of German into our public schools." 

On the other hand, the admission of German 
into the public schools has been opposed on the 
ground that the public school should exclusively 
teach the national language, and that the exclusion 
of all others will tend to promote the consolidation 
of all the people of the United States into one 
compact American nationality. In some of the 
large cities, the difference of opinion on this sub- 
ject, on the part of school officers, has led to 
vehement and protracted discussions, as well as 
to considerable vacillation in the school legisla- 
tion regarding it. In some of the western states, 
as Ohio and Indiana, the state law provides that, 
when in a school district a certain number of 
parents desire the intooduction of German into 
the course of study, it must be introduced. A 
considerable portion of the German-speaking 
population still prefer to send their children to 
schools in which the German language is either 
the exclusive medium of instruction, or shares 
this position with the English. (See German- 
American Schools.) 

GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE, at 
Berea, Ohio, under the control of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, was founded in 18C3. The 
professors are all native Germans, educated at 
German universities, and the instruction is given 
in German. It is patronized by many Americans 
for instruction in German. By agreement, the 
students have free access to all the classes of 
Baldwin University. The college is supported 
by tuition fees and partly by the interest of an 
endowment fund of $38,982. The scholarship 
funds amount to $19,455. The tuition fees vary 
from $13.50 to $27 per year. It has a prepar- 
atory and a collegiate department, with a clas- 
sical and a scientific course, a theological course, 
and special courses in English for Germans, and 
in German for Americans. In 1875 — 6, there 
were 4 professors and 117 students (103 males 
and 14 females), of whom 47 were in the pre- 
paratory department. The Rev. William Nast, 
D. D., has been the president from the opening 
of the college. 

GERMANY. Anterior to 843 A. D., Ger- 
many was a part of the great Frankish empire 
of Charlemagne and Ms immediate successor; 
but in that year, by virtue of the treaty of 
Verdun, it was separated from the remain- 
der of the great Prankish dominions, and was 
given to Liidmig (Louis), surnamed the German, 
a grandson of Charlemagne. Until 1806, Ger- 
many was an elective monarchy with the official 
title of the "Holy Roman Empire of the German 
Nation" (das Heilige JRomische Reich deutscher 
Nation). The French subjugation of the greater 
part of Germany put an end to the first Ger- 
man empire. After the dethronement of Napo- 
leon (1815), the Congress of Vienna re-established 
Germany as a loose conglomeration of sovereign 
states (Beidsclier Bund), under the permanent 
presidency of Austria in the federal diet. This 
feeble union of the German states was dissolved 
by the war, in 1866, between Prussia and Austria, 



and their allies, which ended with the complete 
discomfiture of Austria and her withdrawal from 
the Germanic confederation. Prussia then united 
all the states north of the Main river into a 
close political union, the North German Union, 
and formed treaties of alliance with the three 
states of southern Germany, by virtue of which 
the king of Prussia had supreme command of 
the united armies of all Germany in case of war, 
besides the permanent presidency in the federal 
councils of the North German Union. The 
successful war against France, in 1870 — 71, led 
to the formation of the present German empire. 
The south German states joined the Js'orth 
German Union, and the King of Prussia, as per- 
manent and hereditary president of the whole 
German confederation in all federal affairs, and as 
supreme commander in chief of all the state con- 
tingents in time of war, at the request of all 
the German princes and free towns, assumed the 
title of German Emperor. The official name of 
the confederation is the German Empire. The 
several states composing the confederation retain 
their autonomy in all internal civil affairs not 
regulated by federal legislation. Federal affairs 
are : Army and navy, foreign diplomacy and 
political representation, the tarif, the postal 
service, the mint, weights and measures, and the 
supreme commercial court (at Leipsic). Rail- 
roads, telegraphs, legal proceedings, and edu- 
cational interests, it is contemplated, will also 
be brought under the federal government, the 
measure being now under consideration (1876). 
Bavaria, however, has retained certain preroga- 
tives in regard to her army, her postal service, 
and her internal taxation. The federal parliament 
consists of two houses, — the upper house ; the 
federal council (Bundesrath), consisting of the 
federal commissioners appointed by the several 
state governments ; and the lower house (Reichs- 
tag), consisting of 383 members, elected by the 
direct suffrage of the people. In the federal 
council Prussia casts 17 votes, Bavaria 6, Saxony 
4, Wurtemberg 4, Baden 3, Hesse 3, Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin 2, Brunswick 2, and each of the 
lesser states 1 vote ; 58, in all. The chancellor 
of the empire is the chief executive and re- 
sponsible officer of the confederation. The em- 
peror is required to convene the parliament at 
least once every year. The German empire 
comprises 26 states; namely, 4 kingdoms, — 
Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg; 
6 grand duchies, — Baden, Oldenburg, Mecklen- 
burg - Schwerin, Mecklenburg -Strelitz, Hesse- 
Darmstadt, and Saxe-Weimar ; 5 duchies, — 
Brunswick, Anhalt, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Co- 
burg-Gotha, and Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghau- 
sen; 7 principalities, — Lippe, Schaumburg-Ljppe, 
Waldeck, 2 Schwarzburgs, and 2 Reusses ; 3 free 
towns, — Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck ; and 
1 federal district, — Alsace-Lorraine. The empire 
has an aggregate area of 208,745 square miles, 
and a population of 42,757,812, according to the 
census of Dec. 1., 1875. 

Educational History.' — Germany, which for 
several generations has held a very high, if not 



GERMANY 



357 



the leading, rank anions; all the eivilized nations 
of the world in regard to public education, has 
risen to its present high standard from an ex- 
eeeilingly rude condition, and can refer to a 
long and intricate history of the development of 
its educational institutions, extending over a 
period of more than a thousand years before the 
present time. The German tribes dwelling 
within the limits of the present German empire 
were successively converted to Christianity, from 
the 6th to the 9th century, irrespective of spo- 
radic conversions anterior to the beginning of 
that epoch, the Franks being the first, the Ale- 
mannians and Bavarians the next, followed by the 
Frisians, Hessians. Thuringians. and the Saxons, 
who were the last to adopt the Christian faith. 
Beyond the Elbe river, in a region inhabited at 
that time by Slavic tribes, now thoroughly Ger- 
man, Christianity did not gain a foot-hold pre- 
vious to the 9th and 10th centuries, and in some 
districts (Lithuania, for example), not until a 
still later period, — from the 11th and 12th to 
the end of the 14th and the beginning of thu 
15th century. Charlemagne, the mighty Frank- 
ish king, who had converted the sturdy Sax- 
ons to Christianity, by the aid of fire and sword, 
was the first to sow the seeds of education in 
Germany; and although without early instruction, 
manifested the greatest interest and energy in 
the establishment and furtherance of educational 
institutions within the limits of his empire, re- 
maining faithful to his purpose until his death, in 
814. With the assistance of Alcuin.whom he had 
invited from England, he established the first 
school in his empire, the Schola Palatini!, or 
court school, chiefly intended for the education 
of the royal children, of whom Charlemagne had 
fourteen; and the great monarch himself was not 
ashamed to acquire, in his ripe years, wdiat had 
been neglected in his earlier education. The 
great monarch spoke Latin, understood some 
Greek, and preferred social intercourse with 
the circle of learned men whom he had assem- 
bled at his court, to every other. He also evinced 
much interest in the introduction of the arts of 
architecture and music, and invited talented men, 
especially from Italy, to take up their residence in 
Germany near the imperial court. Other schools 
were established after the plan of the Schola Pa- 
kdina ; and the artex liberates, divided into a 
tririum (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics), and 
a qnadririum (geometry, arithmetic, music, and 
astronomy), constituted the principal subjects 
taught. Besides these, there were schools of a 
lower rank, in which the curriculum of study 
comprised only reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- 
mar, and music. Very soon a -distinction between 
ecclesiastical and secular schools was established, 
although Charlemagne endeavored to obliterate 
all differences of rank in educational matters. 
Those pupils who wished to study for the priest- 
hood, studied the trivium and the quadrivium, in 
scholis inirariis, spii cl/custris (convent schools), 
while the same studies were pursued by all others 
in scholis exterioribus,seu canonicis. The driest 
formalism was a characteristic feature of all these 



schools. The convents and the cities, as they 
sprang into existence all over the empire, be- 
came the originators of educational institutions ; 
the former being the founders of convent and 
cathedral schools; the latter, of Latin and city 
schools. (See Cathedral Schools, and Convent 
Schools.) Prominent among the convent schools, 
was the one founded by the famous Abbot Rha- 
banus Maurus at Fulda, 813, which is still in 
existence as a. gymnasium. Its founder was called 
primus preeceptor German ice. He was a pro- 
found scholar, and his name is handed down to 
posterity as one of the greatest educators of his 
age. His successor was the equally renowned 
Walafried Strabus. These schools, however, did 
not maintain their high standard of excellence for 
a long time, partly because their prosperity de- 
pended in too great a measure upon the imme- 
diate influence and energy of their founders, 
and partly because the pure and apostolic ardor 
of the earlier Christian church, from which they 
had received their life-breath, gradually relaxed 
and declined. Deprived of the strict and imme- 
diate supervision of the bishops, monastic learn- 
ing and discipline soon deteriorated; and. although 
the mendicant orders of the Franciscans and 
Dominicans largely increased the number of 
convent schools, their educational work did not 
compare favorably with the standard previously 
maintained. Secular Latin schools were estab- 
lished by the municipal authorities in cities at a 
somewhat later period; but. at first, they had to 
encounter man)' difficulties, arising from the op- 
position of the clergy, who claimed the sole right 
of establishing and conducting schools of a higher 
order, — those in which more than the mere rudi- 
ments of education was taught. Still, by persever- 
ance, a number of cities succeeded in founding 
their own schools of a higher order, independent 
of the immediate supervision of the church. 
Among the oldest of these city Latin schools, may 
be enumerated those at Breslau (Silesia), which 
were founded in 12(17 and 1293, and which still 
flourish as Gymnasia. As a matter of course, 
the teachers could only be taken from the ranks 
of the clergy; and the convent schools furnished, 
in general, the models for their course of studies 
and general government. These city schools 
were placed under the direction of a scholasticus, 
usually a clergyman, whose appointment was gen- 
erally for the term of one year, but could be re- 
newed. The scholasticus was assisted by a 
number of baccalaurei of his own appoint- 
ment. The course of studies consisted chiefly of 
Latin grammar, music, and, to a limited extent, 
rhetoric, dialectics, and scholastic philosophy. It 
is obvious that these city schools, as well as the 
convent and cathedral schools, were under the 
direct influence of the clergy, and that the stud- 
ies therein pursued had the closest relation to 
the immediate purposes of the church. Although 
Latin, and in some schools Greek also, was stud- 
ied with the greatest zeal, these studies did not 
disclose to the scholars the ever fresh and hu- 
manizing spirit of the Roman and Grecian clas- 
sics; but, under the driest conceivable formalism 



358 



GERMANY 



of instruction, merely served, especially the Latin, 
as the aid and support of a scholasticism, which, 
notwithstanding its depth and speculative in- 
genuity, was of little value, being unproductive 
of the best results of education, according to its 
true meaning. 

School education in Germany was so firmly 
held in subjection to church interests that its 
working was confined to a blending of dry scho- 
lasticism and religious mysticism, and devoid of 
all practical philosophy and true pedagogical 
principles. The conquest of the Byzantine em- 
pire by the Turks, the subsequent exodus of 
many Greek scholars from the centers of learn- 
ing in the Orient to the west, their infusion 
of new views and ideas into the decaying 
system of European scholasticism, revived the 
study of the ancient classics, and a just appreci- 
ation of their ever true and youthful spirit. 
Italy, first of all, received these fresh germs for 
the development of free and humanistic concep- 
tions, the further advance of which to western 
and northern Europe laid the first foundation 
for the subsequent reformation of the Church. 
This is especially true of Germany. The 
Netherlands, at that time a part of the body 
politic of the German empire, by means of the 
greater activity in political life, which brought 
the best minds of the people in conflict with one 
another, partly on political partly on church 
questions, became the nursery, so to say, of a new 
era in education. Gerard Groot (1340 — 1384) 
became the founder of a new school. Having 
studied scholastic philosophy for several years at 
Paris, and become deeply imbued with the ad- 
vanced ideas in matters of education, he gathered 
around himself a number of spirited men, whose 
aim was to combine with correct religious prin- 
ciples a practical and scientific activity. Of 
Groot's followers the most noted were Florence 
Eadewin, the celebrated Thomas a. Kempis, and 
Johann Wessel. They were the founders of the 
so-called Brilder-Bauser (brothers' houses), in 
which they taught, besides the traditional religious 
scholastic subjects, sciences and languages accord- 
ing to the new Italian plan. The new school 
spread its principles over the Netherlands and 
northern Germany generally. Rudolph Lauge, 
more especially, became a reformer of the pre- 
vailing educational system. He established or re- 
modeled existing schools, after the plan of those 
of Deventer and Amsterdam, throughout northern 
and north-western Germany. Other reformers 
in the same work were Count Moritz Spiegel- 
berg, Rudolph Agricola, Ludwig Dringenberg, 
Ludwig Wimpfeling, Conrad Celtes, Johann von 
Dalberg, but above all Johann Reuchlin (1455 — 
1522) and Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467—1536). 
The study of Greek and Hebrew, more partic- 
ularly advocated by Reuchlin, found a stanch 
supporter in Erasmus, and prepared the edu- 
cated and scientific classes of the German na- 
tion to receive and ripen the germs of the great 
reformation of the Church which was inau- 
gurated at that time. The Reformation im- 
parted a new and vigorous spirit to educa- 



tion. The great reformers advocated strongly 
the study of classic antiquity, not only for 
the development of rhetoric and a taste for 
scientific subjects generally, but also, and princi- 
pally, as important aids in the establishment of 
true evangelical faith. The necessity of founding 
schools for the maintenance and propagation 
of the new faith was strongly pressed by Luther 
in several of his writings. The course of instruc- 
tion followed in these Latin schools comprised, 
mainly : reading, writing, vocal music, Latin, 
dialectics, rhetoric, and religion. These schools 
were generally divided into three classes, in 
which the gradation of studies was as follows : 
reading, learning of Latin vocables, and reading 
of Donatus and Cato's Sententice, in the lowest 
class ; religion, grammar, prosody, music, and 
selections from -42sop, Mosellan's Pcedologia, 
Erasmus's Colloquia, Terence, Plautus, and the 
Holy Scriptures, in the second class ; Virgil, 
Ovid, Cicero's Be Ojffciis and Epistdlc? adfami- 
liares, metrics, dialectics, and rhetoric, in the 
highest class. Latin composition and colloquial 
exercises formed an essential part of the curricu- 
lum of the higher grades. The school hours were, 
on every week-day, from 5 or 6 o'clock to 9 o'clock 
in the forenoon, and from noon to 3 o'clock in 
the afternoon. Christian catechism was taught 
twice a week during week-days, and every Sun- 
day. The maxim Repetiiio mater studiorum 
was exacted with great rigidity. The singing 
classes of these schools were obliged to sing, 
under the direction of the music-teacher, before 
the houses of wealthy citizens on high church 
days, for the purpose of collecting alms. The 
city schools, at the time of the Reformation, were 
either of a lower or a higher order ; the latter 
were, however, almost exclusively in the more 
important cities of the country. Reading, writ- 
ing, Latin, and religion formed the principal 
subjects of instruction in the former, to which 
were added Greek, Hebrew, mathematics, and 
philosophy in the latter, or higher order of city 
schools. Both orders of schools commenced on 
the same basis, the principal difference between 
them consisting in extra courses for special 
studies, introduced in the higher order of these 
schools, which besides the studies enumerated 
above, also taught rhetoric, logic, and, as a matter 
of course, music. In some schools, Hebrew, and 
mathematics were omitted in the course of 
studies. These higher city schools, and a con- 
siderable number of convent and cathedral 
schools, the latter especially during the period of 
the Reformation, were transformed into so-called 
Gymnasia. The Gymnasium consisted origi- 
nally of four classes, which number was subse- 
quently increased to five, and in some instances 
even to eight classes. The number of school 
hours for each class varied from 20 to 22 per 
week. Some of these institutions, in course of 
time, rose to the dignity of universities. 

We find, throughout the middle ages, in most 
of the city schools, four hours of daily instruc- 
tion. However, there were some schools with 
five, some with three (Spires, 14th century) 



GERMANY 



359 



one with only two (Halle, 1526) ; while, on 
the other hand, we find as many as eight hours 
per diem for the upper classes of the Latin 
school at Esslingen (1548). The recitations 
were generally divided equally between the fore- 
noon and the afternoon. The number of classes 
in the schools varied from two to four and up- 
ward, with proper subdivisions. The school year 
commenced, in a number of cities, regularly on 
March 12., the day of St. Gregory, the patron- 
saint of schools. In other cities, admissions were 
allowed twice a year, — at Easter and Michael- 
mas. The schools were not free schools ; pupils, 
except the children of paupers, were requested 
to pay a certain fee per quarter, varying in 
amount according to time and locality. In some 
places, the school money was fixed according to 
an agreement between teacher and parents. 
Teachers received, most generally, a salary from 
the municipality, besides the pupils' fees, and 
enjoyed other emoluments, for assisting at divine 
service, funeral processions, &c. Presents to 
teachers from pupils were very customary, and 
in some cities were even prescribed and regulated 
by the authorities. Of school examinations, in 
the proper sense of the term, there is no trace, 
although we read of occasional visits to the 
schools by prelates ; nor is there any trace of va- 
cations. The earliest ordinance instituting va- 
cations is found at Freiburg (1558), which limits 
the fall vacation to two weeks. School was kept 
throughout the year, in some cities not even ex- 
cepting holidays, f. 7. i i Nuremberg, Landau, etc.; 
but teachers and pupils could agree upon one or 
more holidays, mostly in consideration of a fee 
to be paid to the former. School festivals were 
not frequent. The day of St. Gregory was 
very generally observed as a holiday. A peculiar 
festival was the Virgalum-gehen, the gathering 
of birches in the woods by the pupils, for their 
own corporal punishment at school, amid general 
frolic, including procession, singing and in- 
strumental music. The application of the rod 
was the principal means of maintaining dis- 
cipline in the schools, the more necessary, as 
large numbers of vagrant scholars [fahrende 
Schiller), who went, sometimes begging, from 
place to place to attend school, and who were 
addicted to all manner of vices and irregular 
habits, infested the whole of Germany through- 
out the middle ages, and rendered strict school 
discipline a very difficult task. ( 'orporal pun- 
ishment with the rod was not only officially re- 
cognized but minutely regulated by municipal 
legislation, even designating upon which part of 
the body, excluding head. Hack, and hands, (lie 
chastisement should be administered. We find 
that, in Heidelberg, the teacher of a Latin school 
was dismissed, in 1507, because he refused to flog 
his pupils on the ground that some of them were 
19 years of age, and, therefore, in his opinion, 
too old for such punishment. Another peculiar 
mode of punishment was that of the asinus, a 
wooden frame in the shape of a donkey, which 
the culprit was obliged to mount in face of the 
■class, as a punishment for minor offenses. There 



were several kinds of asini, according to the 
character of the offence : an asinus morttm, gar- 
rulitatis, et slrepitiis, for disorderly conduct ; an 
asinus Germanismi, for pupils who spoke Ger- 
man instead of Latin; and an asinus sokecismi, 
for offenders against good Latin grammar. 
There are perceptible, at this period, many serious 
defects in the system of instruction, more espe- 
cially a great want of uniformity, of harmony 
in the intellectual anil moral training, of rational 
methods, suitable text-books, and of competent 
instructors. Many of the school-men of that 
time rose to great distinction. Neander, Fried- 
land (Trotzendorf ) , Bugenhagen, Spalatin, Lin- 
lemann, Wolf, Fabricius, Khodomann, Boetius, 
t'aselius, Calixtus, Camerarius, Hessus, Heyden, 
Hehvig, Nigubus, Goclenius, .Tungmann, and 
others, but especially .lohann Sturm, are noted 
as prominent educators in their time. Sturm not 
only gained wide-spread renown as an author of 
many Latin works on pedagogics, but also as a 
practical educator. His famous school at 
Strasburg (1578) contained several thousand 
scholars, including the best elements of society, 
many being scions of the high nobility, and even 
princes. This school had not only a German 
national fame, for representatives of all the 
European nations flocked thither to sit at the 
feet of the celebrated educator. Besides the 
school at Strasburg, Sturm established many 
others, either personally or by means of his 
scholar's. Christianity, a good knowledge of the 
sciences, and eloquence, were the principal aims 
of his education. He laid down a system of edu- 
cation for youths from the seventh to the twenty- 
first year of age. From the seventh to the 
sixteenth year, he ordained a strict school educa- 
tion, after which he permitted a somewhat 
freer course of instruction by lectures. His 
established curriculum of studies was very 
carefully carried out. from the very foundation 
to the perfect mastery of pure Latin speech. Still, 
every thing considered, his system was only a one- 
sided formalism, devoid of that harmony of intel- 
lect and heart, which is the aim of true education. 
The academy, connected with the gymnasium., 
after Sturm's plan, approached, but did not en- 
tirely reach the standard of a university. While 
the Reformation planted and developed many 
educational institutions of a superior character, 
the Jesuits, aiming to keep the schools sub- 
servient to the interests of the Roman Catholic 
• hurch, did not relax in their endeavors to build 
up rival institutions. In this special branch 
(if their general purpose to encounter and combat 
Protestantism, they have been successful in a 
remarkable degree. The founder of the Jesuitic 
system of school education was Claudio de Ac- 
quaviva (died in 1615). Occupying the high posi- 
tion of general of his order, he exerted the greatest 
influence in the erection of Jesuit schools, which, 
through the energetic activity of the order, 
spread rapidly over the whole European conti- 
nent, but were solely guided by hierarchical 
interests. Their educational aims were chiefly 
confined to the pursuit of scientific and human- 



360 



GERMANY 



istic studies ; but, at the same time, an almost 
absolute want of individual freedom of thought, 
and ablind subserviency to established authority, 
were their most prominent general characteris- 
tics. These institutions were divided into two 
classes, — a higher and a lower order. The 
latter were divided into five subdivisions, and 
principally taught reading and writing, in Latin. 
Other studies, commonly comprised in a gym- 
nasium course, were greatly neglected, although 
mentioned in the plan of studies ; such as 
mathematics, natural philosophy, geography, 
and history. Rhetoric and logic were taught 
in the driest possible manner ; and even the 
favorite Latin was wanting in thoroughness of 
grammatical instruction, and in a historical or 
critical explanation of the classic authors. The 
memorizing of disjointed phrases from Cicero's 
writing's, and of Virgil's and other poets' works, 
formed a prominent part of the scholar's pensum. 
Implicit obedience to superiors, the fear of God, 
and virtue, were the chief aims of Jesuitic edu- 
cation. The speaking of German was prohibited, 
the denunciation of offenses against the estab- 
lished rules was invited and encouraged, the love 
of country and of family was gradually extin- 
guished in the hearts of the scholars, and nothing 
remained but the love of the established church, 
and the strictest obedience to the superiors of 
the order. — The maxims of Sturm and other 
prominent educators of the Protestant school 
remained the acknowledged models for the gov- 
ernment of secular schools, for a long period of 
time, especially in "Wtirtcmberg. Saxony, and 
Hesse. Bebel (died 1516) in Tubingen, and 
Reuchlin (died 1522), devoted great attention 
to the promotion of the study of the ancient 
languages ; the former especially in regard 
to Latin, the latter in regard to Hebrew and 
Greek. The study of the mother tongue was 
officially ignored, if not suppressed. 1 he ordi- 
nances of Duke Christopher of Wurtcmberg 
(1559) encouraged the establishment of Latin 
schools within his dominions. With the exception 
of the positive neglect of the German language, 
the general course of instruction was excellent ; 
and, in its general characteristics, has been main- 
tained until quite recent times. The prescribed 
curriculum of studies pursued, is still extant 
in every detail, commencing with the rudi- 
ments of Latin instruction, and terminating 
with Cicero's orations, Sallust, Livy, and Virgils 
JEneid; dialectics and rhetoric according to 
Melanchthon's plan ; Greek grammar and Xen- 
ophon's Cyropcedia. Music was, and remained, 
a favorite study in all the grades. With slightly 
varied modifications, this general plan of studies, 
as established in Wurtemberg for secondary 
institutions of learning, was adopted, toward 
the close of the 16th century, as the standard in 
Saxony, with the only exception that more at- 
tention was given to arithmetic. The celebrated 
princes' schools (Fv/ntensohuleo) at Meissen, 
Grimma, and Schulpforta, were of a somewhat 
higher order. They each had three classes with a 
two years' course in each, and prepared scholars 



for all the academic studies. The highest class: 
comprised the following studies : Melanchthon's- 
Latin grammar ; Cicero's De Officiis, De Senec- 
tute, and De AmicUia ; Tusctdance Qucestiones ; 
Virgil's Georgics andA^hieid; Horace's Odes; Isoc- 
rates ; Pythagoras's Aurea Carmina; Plutarch's 
De Liberorum Educrdicme; the Iliad; the rudi- 
ments of Hebrew; dialectics and rhetoric ; the 
rudiments of astronomy, etc. Terence's and Plau- 
tus's comedies were acted annually to accustom 
pupils to Latin speaking. This course of studies 
was also introduced in several other German 
states. Erasmus of Rotterdam and Melanch- 
thon had, both, strongly advocated a certain at- 
tention to realistic studies, — mathematics, astron- 
omy, and the natural sciences in general. Luther 
also favored this view. Still, these studies re- 
mained much neglected, and did not receive due 
attention until the following century, when the 
climax of one-sided formalism had been reached, 
and a counter-current made itself felt in the 
educational world. Francis Bacon (q. v.) was. 
the originator of the realistic principle in edu- 
cation ; and he found enthusiastic disciples in 
AVolfgang Ratich (1571 — 1635) and John. 
Amos Comenius (1592 — 1671), who became the 
founders of a new realistic method fo edu- 
cation in Germany. They principally aimed at 
a development of the reasoning power of the 
mind ; but, in their zeal, they carried their aim 
too far, by almost entirely ignoring fancy and the 
appreciation of the beautiful. They failed to find 
the proper blending of mere instruction and gen- 
eral culture ; but, notwithstanding their want of 
appreciation of classic antiquity and historic 
study, they are entitled to a grateful recogni- 
tion as the founders of a realistic school which 
exercised a very beneficial influence upon the 
educational principles of their country. — Soon 
afterward, the whole German nation was shaken 
to its very foundation by the great denomina- 
tional feuds between the Protestants and the 
Catholics, in which the schools also participated. 
Theological disputations were the order of the 
day; and the Latin schools, every -where in Ger- 
many, were diverted from their original pursuits, 
winch were merely educational, to become cen- 
ters of public disputations and declamations for 
or against Rome and the papacy. The religious 
dissensions finally culminated in the Thirty 
Years' War, which rent the German nation 
into two bitterly hostile parties, and with fire 
and sword, during an entire generation, devas- 
tated and depopulated the country, and almost 
entirely destroyed what civilization, and mental, 
moral, and material culture, had built up in 
centuries. Germany, which, before the war, 
had been in a most prosperous condition, with a 
population of about twenty million inhabitants, 
was reduced to a vast desert with scarcely over 
five million people. The war had swept away 
the very flower of the nation, leaving, at its. 
termination, the once mighty empire in an im- 
poverished, helpless condition, an easy prey to. 
the schemes and aggressions of foreign powers- 
In the general state of exhaustion and demoral- 



GERMANY 



361 



ization, during, and at the close of, the war, 
the educational institutions of the country 
were almost entirely annihilated. A great 
number of the schools were closed for want 
of teachers and pupils, very many of them 
were destroyed, teachers and pupils were scat- 
tered, and an enormous increase of immorality 
was perceptible among the students of the few 
schools winch survived. The peace of West- 
phalia (1648) found the educational institutions 
of Germany in a most forlorn and demoralized 
condition. Gradually, however, they regained 
their former standard ; but the course of studies 
formerly prevailing had, in the mean time, un- 
dergone veiy material changes. Latin, which 
had almost become the ruling speech in the 
higher schools, began to lose its pre-eminence. 
It was still studied.with great attention ; but the 
national language began to assert its importance, 
and even at the universities, the German tongue 
was gradually permitted to become the medium 
of scientific instruction. This reaction from 
the former principles of education continued 
throughout the following epoch. The study 
of Greek, at some noted schools, became en- 
tirely neglected. At this period, a marked 
difference was manifested in regard to the edu- 
cation of scholars of noble birth and others. The 
so-called knights' academies (Ilitterakademien) 
were established, in which pupils were instructed 
in history, genealogy, and heraldry, and in which 
dancing and courtly manners were special 
branches of instruction. Other studies, such as 
military and civil engineering, astronomy, botany, 
and theoretical and practical philosophy, found 
their way into the regular curriculum. Generally 
speaking, there was, however, no true advance- 
ment in the educational standard ; on the con- 
trary, the selection of studies manifested great 
arbitrariness on the part of the patrons and 
directors of schools of an advanced order. In 
some of the German states, the special interest 
of highly cultured princes in matters of educa- 
tion tended to elevate the standard by not only 
grounding the scholars well in the mechanism 
of the classic languages, according to the old 
maxim of dry scholasticism, but also by making 
them thoroughly acquainted with the spirit of 
classic authors. The study of the Greek classics 
was rehabilitated, together with Hebrew, and 
other more liberal kinds of culture. Duke Ernest 
of Gotha (1675) took a leading part in this refor- 
mation of the higher schools, and his example 
found many imitators in other German states. 
Still, there prevailed a great diversity in educa- 
tional principles throughout the country. Hu- 
manism, rigid formalism, and rationalism con- 
tended with each other, and were each fostered, 
and advocated, according to local and personal 
influences. At this time, Locke's ideas on 
education commenced to exert a great influ- 
ence on educational principles in Germany. 
His maxim of imparting knowledge mainly 
through the senses, in opposition to idealism, 
although not always carried out consistently, 
opened a new view of the principles of ration- 



al education. (See Locke.) Another system was 
founded by August Hermann Francke (q. v.). 
His principal aim was to implant true piety in 
the hearts of the young. Francke is the founder 
of the renowned institutions at Halle, in which 
a most decided realistic tendency became appar- 
ent, from the very beginning, in opposition 
to one-sided formalism. Among the studies 
pursued at Halle were chronology, astronomy, 
music, painting, anatomy, botany, and even the 
rudiments of medicine, together with other sci- 
ences properly belonging to technical schools. 
Greek and French were much neglected. Real- 
ism was the foundation of the whole educational 
structure. The so-called Pcedagogium at Halle 
became a model school for the whole of Germany. 
It possessed a botanic garden, a museum of nat- 
ural history, philosophical apparatus, a chemical 
laboratory, and a dissecting room. It was con- 
sidered a normal school for the education of 
teachers ; and its pupils subsequently became the 
propagators of realistic principles throughout the 
country. Francke 's system laid the foundation 
to the so-called real schools. .1. S. Sender, in 
Halle, was the first who used this term in an- 
nouncing his establishment of " a mechanical 
and mathematical real school" in 1706, which', 
however, was of short existence. John Julius 
Itecker, also a disciple of the Halle school, 
established a real school in Berlin (1747). which, 
properly speaking, consisted of three different 
departments: namely, a German, a Latin, and a 
real school, but with arrangements to allow 
pupils of the two former to participate in the 
studies of the latter department. In many 
respects this real school carried its aims too far 
by taking up purely technical studies ; however, 
it became the model for many similar insti- 
tutions. The Pcedagogium, or Latin school, 
was afterwards completely separated from the 
real school, and still exists under the name of 
Friedrich WUhelm's Gymnasium. The demor- 
alizing effects of the Thirty Years' War upon 
the national spirit of the German people were 
not effaced for a long period of time. The 
higher classes of society had, to a remarkable de- 
gree, lost all national individuality. They imi- 
tated foreign, mostly French, models, aiming at 
outward polish and elegance, but losing all ap- 
preciation of thoroughness, breadth, and har- 
mony of culture, while the lower classes devoted 
their attention almost exclusively to the prac- 
tical affairs of life and to useful knowl- 
edge. Pedantry on the part of the teachers, 
and immorality on the part of the students ; 
superficiality on the one hand, and one-sided 
utilitarianism on the other, in educational prin- 
ciples, were the characteristics of the time. New 
pedagogical principles were propagated by Base- 
dow (1723 — 00) and his followers, of whom 
Salzmann and Campe are the most, noted, who- 
are known to the educational world as the 
school of the Philanthropists. Their principal aim 
was to educate a youth to become a man in the 
best sense of the word, — to guide the natural im- 
pulses and the will by reason. Some of the schools. 



362 



GERMANY 



established by the Philanthropists attained con- 
siderable renown, more especially the one 
founded by Salzmann at Schnepfenthal, near 
Gotha, which is still in a flourishing condition. 
The method of the Philanthropists, however, 
soon fell into disuse, owing principally to their dis- 
regard for the classic authors, whose educational 
value they underrated, and in the study of 
whom they were completely outstripped by 
rival schools. Although the general current of 
the time favored utilitarianism, a tendency 
encouraged by Frederick the Great, still there 
remained in the German nation too much la- 
tent love for the ideal to allow the realistic 
school to become all-absorbing. Just then, the 
first dawn of the great golden era of German 
•classic literature broke upon the nation, and re- 
vived the love for ancient classic beauty. 
Winckelmann and Lessing revealed, the splendor 
■of ancient art and the eternal laws of the beau- 
tiful. They were followed by hosts of others. 
The love of the ancient classics, which was 
awakened even in the masses of the people by 
•excellent translations of ancient authors into 
German, inaugurated by J. H. Voss's admi- 
rable translation of Homer's works, and the de- 
velopment of the German language, which had 
been greatly neglected for ages, during the fol- 
lowing classic period of national literature, were 
brought into happy harmony, and their union 
became fruitful of the best results in the whole 
intellectual, moral, and esthetical life of the 
nation. As a matter of course, the cause of 
education also participated in the general ad- 
vancement of the mental and moral culture of 
the nation; its aims became broader and loftier. 
The new philosophical school of modern human- 
ists, in the sphere of education, comprehended 
many names thankfully remembered by subse- 
quent generations. J. M. Gesner (1691 — 1761), 
rector of the Thomas School in Leipsic, and sub- 
sequently professor of ancient literature and 
founder of the philological seminary at G5ttin- 
gen, became a stanch supporter and propagator 
of the new humanistic school. J. A. Ernesti 
1781), at Leipsic, and C. G. Heyne (1812), at 
Gottingen, were also enthusiastic advocates of the 
study of the ancient classics. They, and many 
others, introduced their students to the beauties 
of the classics without wearying them with dry 
grammatical study, as had been the custom be- 
fore. The chief representatives of the human- 
istic school are Friedrich August Wolf, August 
Bockh, Gottfried Hermann, Karl Reissig, and 
Karl Otfried Miiller. At first, a close connec- 
tion between the study of the ancient classics and 
of German literature was strictly observed; but, 
subsequently, when the latter had gained suffi- 
cient strength and classic character, this connec- 
tion was gradually loosened. Although one- 
sided Latinism repeatedly asserted its opposi- 
tion to the study of the German language and 
literature, it could never regain its former 
undisputed prerogative ; while, on the other 
hand, Greek had recovered all the territory for- 
merly lost. Wolf, Hermann, and Bockh form 



a triumvirate of educators who knew how to 
awaken a deep interest in the study of the an- 
cients, — to introduce their scholars to the beau- 
ties of classic philosophy and literature, each 
according to his own individual predilections, 
without losing sight of the special requirements 
of their own time, or of the general harmony in 
the purposes of a really liberal education. In 
elementary education, the principles of Pestalozzi 
(174C — 1827), commenced to be more widely 
known and appreciated in Germany, where the 
great educator s aim to elevate the lower classes 
of the people through a well-adapted domestic 
education, and his invention of a rational system 
of primary instruction, founded upon teaching 
from the object, and upon a gradual progres- 
sion from the simple to the complicated, were 
rapidly adopted, and whence great numbers of 
teachers flocked to Pestalozzi's home to acquaint 
themselves more thoroughly with his methods. 
The downfall of the German nation before the 
victorious arms of the French emperor, in the 
beginning of the present century, far from curb- 
ing the national ambition, gave a new impetus 
to national life, which, in its turn, awakened the 
spirit of the nation to new exertions in the 
cause of education. New universities, gymnasia, 
and innumerable elementary schools were estab- 
lished. Though under the sway of a foreign op- 
pressor, Germany doubled her efforts to elevate 
her educational institutions. The philosopher 
Fichte (1807 — 8), in his Addresses to the Ger- 
man Nation {Reden an die deutsche Nation) 
demanded a thorough reconstruction of the 
schools, and a universal public education of the 
nation. A fresh breath of life was inspired in- 
to the whole intellectual and moral being of the 
nation; and, in the darkest hours of her misfor- 
tunes and humiliation, Germany sowed the seed 
of future greatness, mainly by elevating the na- 
tional spirit through her institutions of educa- 
tion, by the reformation of the old, and by the 
establishment of new schools, in which earnest- 
ness of purpose, thoroughness, morality, and 
harmony in the general development of mind 
and heart became, and are to this day, charac- 
teristic traits. During the first half of the pres- 
ent century, a constant extension, combined with 
greater depth, in the treatment of all the sciences, 
became every-where perceptible. In former 
centuries, the schools of a higher order had 
almost exclusively served the interests of the 
church. The Bible and the ancient languages, 
as far as they could be used as handmaids m 
the service of the church, had formed the most 
important elements of education. Every thing 
was brought into close relation to theology and 
its auxiliaries. When, in the course of time, 
the development of intellectual freedom gained 
ground and strength, and when purely religious 
instruction lost its supremacy and was limited 
to its proper sphere, other sciences could raise 
their claims to be admitted as important educa- 
tional elements. The proper classification of 
studies to attain a complete humanistic, and, at 
the same time, scientific, education of the rising 



GERMANY 



363 



is a difficult problem, which still awaits a satis- 
factory solution. Of noted representatives of 
more modern German pedagogy, mention should 
be made of Joliann M. Sailer, who gained con- 
siderable influence in the Catholic districts of 
Germany, of F. A. W. Diesterweg (q. v.), and of 
Priedrioh Froebel (q. v.). 

Primary Instruction. — The development of 
purely elementary instruction by means of pub- 
lic schools, in Germany, is, comparatively, of 
recent date. Elementary schools in cities {Deut- 
sche Sckiden) are traceable to a very remote 
period, their foundation being contemporaneous 
with the establishment of the earliest city 
Jjatin schools. These schools were quite nu- 
merous. In Hesse alone, there were, in the 13th 
century, 14 cities, which supported their own ele- 
mentary schools. All official documents relating 
to elementary education, which have come down 
to our time, make reference to city schools only. 
In the country, in villages or hamlets, schools for 
•elementary education, worthy of the name, were 
almost unknown/The sextons of country churches 
were required, in a general way. to instruct the 
children in the catechism; and it is from this 
primitive foundation that public elementary edu- 
cation has been built up to its present condition. 
In the electorate of Brandenburg, the first regular 
country schools, for children of both sexes, were 
established after the Thirty Years' War. in the 
17th century, under the reign of the Great 
Elector, Frederick William; but we know very 
little of the condition of these schools. With the 
aggrandizement of the electorate, denominational 
differences commenced to manifest themselves. 
Thus we find, at an early period, a recognized 
distinction between Lutheran and Reformed 
schools. At Wesel, we find, as early as 1 (i87, a 
seminary for the education of school-masters. — 
An ordinance, emanating from the church 
authorities in Pomerania, in 1563, relating to 
elementary instruction, makes no mention at all 
of village schools, but has reference to city 
schools only, subordinating them in every respect 
to the authority of the Church, and prescribing 
especially the study of reading, writing, and 
arithmetic, besides the catechism and choral 
singing. — The general condition of elementary 
instruction throughout the majority of the 
German states was about the same. — Even in 
the electorate of Brandenburg, a school ordi- 
nance of 1().")S plainly shows that village schools, 
although their establishment was strongly urged, 
had not as yet become a living reality. When, 
in the beginning of the 18th century, the elect- 
orate of Brandenburg and the duchy of Prussia 
became a kingdom, feeble attempts were again 
made to establish public elementary schools 
throughout the royal dominions; but. as there 
was no supply of trained teachers, and the efforts 
where neither persistent, nor well directed, the 
general condition of elementary education in the 
rural districts remained pretty nearly unchanged. 
The elementary teachers, in those times, were 
.generally forlorn and discarded students of the 
higher schools ; and in villages, mostly me- 



chanics, dismissed servants of noble families, or 
invalid and discharged soldiers. King Frederick 
William I., the second king of Prussia, paid 
especial attention to elementary schools for the 
mass of his people, with the design of educat- 
ing them to a strict obedience to secular and 
church authority, and to habits of industry and 
frugality. He is reported to have established 
within his states about 1,800 elementary schools. 
Frederick William I. was the protector of the 
pietistic school of educators, at Halle ; and, 
through the exertions of Francke and his fol- 
lowers, Prussia received the first trained pro- 
fessional instructors. Teaching, for the first time, 
became a recognized science ; and the theory of 
pedagogy, and practical methods of instruction, 
were made indispensable requirements for the 
office of a public teacher. A royal decree, regu- 
lating educational affairs in the monarchy, and 
relating to institutions of all grades — in fact, the 

1 first general school law for the Prussian mon- 
archy — was issued October, 1713. A few years 
afterward, in a number of royal decrees, the 
first initiatory steps were taken toward obli- 
gatory education throughout the kingdom. The 
directing and supervising power was placed en- 
tirely in the hands of the church authorities. 
The founding of teachers' seminaries by the 
state was not then thought of. By private enter- 
prise, a teachers' seminary was established in 
Stettin, Pomerania, in 1735; and, in the fol- 
lowing year, another was founded, by order of 
the king, at the convent of Bergen, near Magde- 
burg. — Although the number of schools increased 
very considerably during the reign of the ener- 
getic second king of Prussia, still, the qualifica- 
tions of the teachers and the general condition 

i of the elementary schools remained in quite a 
primitive state ; and the oidy important progress 
made was the gradual development of the idea, 
among all classes of the people, that education, 
to some extent, had become an absolute neces- 
sity. — Frederick II. (the Great), although him- 
self a highly cultured monarch, had very little 
time to devote to the advancement of elementary 
education, until after the close of the Seven 
Years' War, when he promulgated a code of 
"general school regulations", which contained 
all the leading features of the later Prus- 
sian school laws, prescribing the general obliga- 
tion to attend school, fixing the obligatory 
school age of the pupils, the payment of school 
money, and fines for non-attendance, and char- 
ging the church authorities with the duty of 
supervising public schools. This code of school 
regulations emanated from the pen of Johann 
Julius Hecker (q. v.); and the king, after many 
consultations with other recognized authorities, 
gave it his sanction. The execution of these laws, 
however, met with many serious difficulties in 
several parts of the monarchy, partly on account 
of religious differences between Catholics and 
Protestants, in regard to the supervisory author- 
ity intrusted to the church; partly on account of 

j the obstinacy of the peasantry in refusing the pay- 

J ment of school money; partly from various other 



364 



GERMANY 



causes, arising from local differences, which, in 
the end, necessitated many modifications of the 
original general plan, for certain districts of the 
kingdom. Soon afterward, the necessity was 
felt of regulating the system of city school edu- 
cation in a manner similar to that prescribed for 
the country schools. The exceedingly meager 
remuneration of teachers throughout the country 
was one of the greatest obstacles to the securing 
of well-qualified instructors, and led to the 
establishment of a state-aid fund, from the 
interest of which a small subsidy was granted 
to meritorious teachers. The king never re- 
laxed his interest in common-school education. 
The newly acquired province of Silesia, with 
its majority of Catholic inhabitants, enjoyed his 
special care. A Catholic teachers' seminary was 
founded at Breslau, in 1765 ; where, two years 
afterward, a Protestant teachers' seminary was 
also founded, the latter dependent mainly upon 
private support. Under the reign of Frederick 
William II., the successor of Frederick the Great, 
the care of the government for popular educa- 
tion was undiminished. — In 1787, an Ober-Sch id- 
Collegium (High School Commission), consisting 
of professional members only, was established 
at Berlin, for the examination of teachers, with 
the design of appointing only well-qualified 
persons as teachers, without, on the other hand, 
interfering with the established rights of school 
patrons to fill vacancies. In the Prussian Com- 
mon Law of 1794, all educational institutions, 
including universities, were declared state insti- 
tutions ; and a foundation was laid for a legally- 
recognized educational system for the entire mon- 
archy, which, in its fundamental principles, has 
remained intact to the present day. During the 
first years of the reign of Frederick William III., 
no material changes were made in the elementary 
school system of the kingdom. Great difficulties, 
however, impeded the general progress of ele- 
mentary school education throughout the king- 
dom ; and the education of females was even 
more backward than that of males. Ernestine 
von Krosigk was the first who had sufficient 
courage to establish a seminary for female teach- 
ers, — in Berlin, in 1804. The great national ca- 
lamity which befell Prussia, and Germany in gen- 
eral, shortly afterward, brought all the various 
efforts for the advancement of public education 
to a stand-still for some time. King Frederick 
William III., however, declared, "although we 
have lost territory, power, and prestige, still we 
must strive to regain what we have lost by ac- 
quiring intellectual and moral power; and, there- 
fore, it is my earnest desire and will, to rehabil- 
itate the nation by devoting a most earnest at- 
tention to the education of the masses of my 
people." National education, which had, hither- 
to, been intrusted to the care of a subordinate 
committee, under the state ministry of justice, 
became a distinct and important branch of the 
state administration, as a separate department 
of the ministry of the interior, and so remained 
until the close of 1811, under the immediate 
charge of the celebrated Wilhelm von Humboldt; 



afterward, until 1817, under Yon Schuckmann, 
who was very efficiently assisted by Nicolovius 
and Silvern. The laws regulating national and 
popular education, hitherto a dead letter in many 
respects, became, for the first time, a reality, 
and commenced to show their beneficial influence 
upon the advancement of national culture. Re- 
newed and energetic efforts were made to edu- 
cate teachers in accordance with the most ap- 
proved system of the time. Many instructors 
were invited from other states to accept engage- 
ments in Prussia ; others were trained under 
the immediate supervision of Pestalozzi. A new 
spirit commenced to pervade all classes of the 
people, now a homogeneous nation. In 1818, 
Von Altenstein was appointed to the newly 
established ministry of educational affairs, be- 
ing still assisted by Nicolovius and Stivern. 
National education soon attained a high degree 
of development, considering the scanty appropria- 
tions, both state and municipal, for the support 
of educational institutions of all grades. At the 
time of Altenstein 's death, there were, in Prussia 
(including then only the eight old provinces), 6 
universities, 120 colleges, and a still larger number 
of real schools, 38 teachers' seminaries, and about 
30,000 public schools, in a tolerably flourishing 
condition. Every sixth inhabitant of the king- 
dom was attending school. In 1840, Minister 
Eichhorn was appointed to the department of 
educational affairs. Two decrees of this minister 
especially stigmatize his administration, — the 
closing of the Protestant seminary at Breslau, 
and the discharge of Diesterweg (q.v.); but the 
revolutionary year 1848 swept away Eichhorn 
and his system. It is the merit of Friedrich 
Stiehl, a modified Pestalozzian, who entered the 
state ministry of educational affairs as a col- 
laborator, not only to have maintained the orig- 
inal great principles of national education, but 
to have developed the same under the adminis- 
trations of all the successors of Eichhorn, down 
to Von Mulder. At the close of 1861, there 
were, in the eight old Prussian provinces, with 
a population of 18,476,500 (of whom 3,090,294 
were within the obligatory school age, from 6 to 
14 years), 2,875,836 children actually attending 
school. The number of schools was 24,763 (2,935 
in cities, 21,828 in villages, etc.) , with 36,783 
classes (10,290 in city schools, 26,493 in coun- 
try schools), and 35,372 teachers (33,615 males 
and 1,755 females). Two-thirds of these schools 
(16,540) were Protestant; about one-third (8,082), 
Catholic, and 141, Jewish. Of licensed private 
schools, there were, in 1861, 1,434, with 2,944 
classes and 84,021 pupils. Thus the aggregate 
of registered elementary-school children, in 1861, 
amounted to 2,959,857, leaving 130,437, who, 
either received no education at all, or were com- 
prised in the number of pupils attending 
higher educational institutions. Of the children 
attending public schools, there were, in 1861, 
Protestants, 1,775,888; Catholics, 1,063,805; 
Jews, 30,053 ; miscellaneous, 6,090. The sum 
total of public elementary-school teachers' salaries, 
in 1861, amounted to 7,449,224 thaiers (1 thaler 



GERMANY 



565 



= $0,714) (excluding the principality of Ilohen- 
zollern, which had an independent school 
budget), which sura was raised as follows: 
2,320,968 thalers, school money paid by pupils ; 
4,799,958 thalers, raised by the communities ; 
328,298 thalers, state appropriation. Other re- 
quirements of public elementary school education 
demanded a further disbursement of 2,453,472 
thalers, swelling the aggregate of expenditures for 
the eight old provinces of Prussia, in 1861, to 
9,902,696 thalers. The little principality of Hohen- 
zollern had a separate budget of 60,462 florins 
(1 florin=80.385). Thus, of the total expenditure 
for public elementary education, in Prussia, 
31. IK per cent was raised from the pupils ; 04.4 1 
per cent, by the taxation of communities, and 
only 4.40 per cent, by appropriations on the part 
of the state. The prevailing principle, at pres- 
ent, in Prussia, for the support of public schools, 
is, that all the schools must be made, as far as 
possible, self-sustaining, by the payment of school 
money, and by local taxation, the state granting 
aid only in cases of the inability of communities 
to maintain the schools in the legally-prescribed 
manner. The city of Berlin, with a free-school 
system, in 1874, supported 77 common element- 
ary schools, with an aggregate of 950 classes 
(488 for boys, with 484 male and 4 female teach- 
ers ; and 4(12 classes for girls, with 284 male and 
178 female teachers). The whole force of teach- 
ers, including assistant and special teachers, 
amounted to 1,279. The average number of 
classes to each school was 1 2 ; the averages-number 
of pupils to each class, 51; to a school. 640. The 
average number of pupils in free schools was 
48,420 ; besides 10,500 children in corporate or 
private institutions aided by the city; making a 
grand total of 59,000 children enjoying free ele- 
mentary education at the expense of the city. 
The cost of elementary free schools supported by 
the city amounted to 800,000 thalers ; whereas 
the aid granted to hie/her city schools, besides 
the school money paid by pupils, required an 
extra expense of 25 thalers per pupil. The aver- 
age yearly salary of a principal of a common ele- 
mentary school, in Berlin, is 1,180 thalers ; of a 
class teacher, 745 thalers; of a female teacher, 
487 thalers ; of female teachers of needle- work, 
109 thalers. — In Prussia, a fund has been es- 
tablished for the pensioning of teachers' widows 
and orphans, which, in 1861, amounted to 
1,682,158 thalers, with a yearly revenue of 
139,331 thalers, from which 6,017 teachers, or 
their widows and orphans, were pensioned. Sim- 
ilar pensioning funds for teachers and their 
widows and orphans are founded in all the Ger- 
man states. — The following are the principal 
items of school statistics for the other German 
states : Bavaria, in 1874, supported 7,016 public 
elementary schools (4,893 Catholic, 1,938 Prot- 
estant, 124 Jewish, 61 miscellaneous) , with 9,431 
male and 890 female teachers. Total number of 
pupils, 632,599 (310,713 male, 321,886 female; 
438,945 Catholic, 187.387 Protestant, 5,883 
Jewish, 384 miscellaneous). Of the 7,016 public 
elementary schools, 5,764 levied school money on 



• their pupils, amounting to 1 ,025,443 florins a year. 
Baden, in 1874, had 1.765 elementary public 
schools, with an attendance of 213,278 pupils 
{109,860 males and 103.418 females). The min- 
imum salary of teachers ranged from 920 to 1.380 
marks (1 mark=$ 0.238). with dwelling house, or 
extra compensation instead. Hesse Darmstadt 
employed 6,460 public elementary teachers. Saxe 
Weimar employed 701 teachers, who instructed 
46,683 pupils. The kingdom of Saxony, in 1871. 
supported 2,143 elementary schools, with 4,067 
teachers and 429.679 pupils. The Saxon schools 
are reckoned among the very best in Germany. 
The kingdom of Wurtembenj maintained 2,240 
i common elementary schools, with about 285,000 
pupils, of whom oue-third were Roman Catholic. — 
| For the entire German Empire. we find the follow- 
| ing statistics (1872): Total number of public 
1 elementary schools (estimated) about 60,000 ; 
teachers, about 110,000 ; pupils, about 6,500,000, 
I or more than 15 per cent of the entire popula- 
j tion. The proportion of pupils to the entire pop- 
ulation, in the several German states, varies as 
follows : of every 1000 of the population, there 
are school attendants, in Saxony, 184, in Prus- 
sia, 155, in Wiirtemberg. 132, in Bavaria, 126, 
in Mecklenburg, 120 ; while in Brunswick, An- 
halt, Oldenburg, and the Thuringian principal- 
ities, the proportion varies from 1611 to 1>4. 

School Administration. — Prussia. — All edu- 
cational institutions of the monarchy are govern- 
ed, primarily, by the state ministry of ecclesias- 
tical, educational, and medical affairs, in Berlin. 
Every province has its own provincial school 
commission for the general administration of 
schools, and a scientific commission, with proper 
subdivisions, for the examination of teachers. 
The provincial state school authorities are as- 
sisted, in the larger cities, by committees elected 
for this purpose by the administrative bodies of 
the municipalities [Scltul-Deputationen); and in 
villages, by other officials. The law of March 1 1 ., 
1872, confers the right of supervising all educa- 
tional institutions, public and private, upon the 
I state. Consequently, all supervisory power is 
[ derived from the state, and exercised under its 
authority. The co-operation of local authorities, 
I as established by law, is recognized by the state. 
Is. Bavaria, educational institutions are subordi- 
nate to the ministry of the interior, through the 
department of church and school affairs ( Oberster 
Schul-Rath) and a committee for examinations, 
appointed annually. Saxony, Wiirtemberg, and 
the minor German states, administer their school 
affairs in a similar manner. — A federal school 
commission has lately been established in Berlin. 

Secondary Instruction. — Secondary school in- 
struction, in Germany, aims to give a sound basis 
for general scientific and literary education. 
This grade of education is directed to two clearly 
distinct ends, — that of a general philosophical 
and liberal education, as represented in the 
gymnasium or pro-gymnasium ; and that of a 
more practical education, as represented in the 
real schools, of the first or second order, and the 
higher burgher schools. A complete gymnasium 



366 



GERMANY 



has at least six grades (sexta being the lowest. 
prima, the highest). The upper grades, from 
the third to the first, are mostly subdivided into 
two divisions — a lower and a higher. The course 
of instruction comprises 9 years, of which the 
lower grades generally require one year each; the 
higher, one year for each division. A pro-gym- 
nasium comprises the gymnasium classes from 
the lowest to the third or second grade of a 
full gymnasium, with a course of five or six 
years. A complete real school of the first order 
has six grades and a nine years' course ; one of 
the second order, six grades and a seven years' 
course. The higher burgher schools have only 
the five lower classes of a real school. With 
most of these secondary schools, preparatory de- 
partments, comprising one, two, or more grades, 
are connected. Candidates for the lowest class 
of secondary institutions are generally required 
to have completed their 9th year of age, and to 
pass a satisfactory examination in the elementary 
branches of a common-school education. — In 
Bavaria, there are Studien-Anstalten, or clas- 
sical gymnasia, with 9 grades and a course of 9 
years, the ft lower of which constitute the Latin 
school, and the 4 higher, the gymnasium proper. 
The so-called Latin schools are frequently sepa- 
rated from the higher grades, and form distinct 
institutions. Real gymnasia, which, in Bavaria, 
consist of a real school and a gymnasium, have a 
six years' course of instruction. In Wurtemberg, 
there are full gymnasia, founded upon nearly the 
same basis as those in Prussia; or lyceums, anal- 
ogous to the Prussian pro-gymnasia ; or Latin 
schools, as preparatory schools for institutions of 
a higher order. In Saxony, Baden, and the other 
German states, secondary institutions of learning 
are generally established upon the same basis as in 
Prussia. The following schedule presents, in a 
general way, the course of study followed in a 
Prussian gymnasium (I. designating the highest 
grade ; VI., the lowest) : 
Number of Weekly Recitations in each Grade. 
Studies. VI. V. IV. III. II. I. 

Religion 3 3 2 2 2 2 

German 2 2 2 2 2 3 

Latin 10 10 10 10 10 8 

Greek — — 6 6 6 6 

French — 3 2 2 2 2 

History and Geog- 
raphy 2. 2 3 3 3 3 

Geometry and Arith- 
metic 4 3 3 3 4 4 

Physics — — — — 1 2 

Natural history 2 2 — 2 — — 

Drawing 2 2 2 — — — 

Penmanship 3 3 — — — — 

Total . . 7w 30 30 30 30 30 

This does not include Hebrew, singing, or gym- 
nastics (Turnen), these being taught out of the 
regular school-hours. 

In 1874, there were in Germany, 547 gym- 
nasia, pro-gymnasia, and real-gymnasia, with 
6,751 instructors and 108,212 pupils; and 426 
real and higher burgher schools, with 4,422 in- 
structors and 79,828 pupils. — In the German 
Empire, one pupil in every 377 of the aggregate 
population receives a classical, and one in every 
468, a non-classical, secondary education. — For 



the higher education of females, there were in 
Germany (in 1873) 278 schools of the secondary 
order,— in Prussia and Alsace-Lorraine, 207; 
Bavaria, 7; Saxony, 6; Baden, 10; Hesse, 9; An- 
halt. 5 ; the Mecklenburgs, 4. — There are also 
many private institutions of great excellence not 
included in this enumeration. 

The salaries of instructors vary greatly, the 
lowest salary of an assistant teacher being about 
1,500 marks, that of an ordinary teacher from 
3,000 to 6,000 marks, and that of a director sel- 
dom exceeding 9,000 marks. In October, 1873, a 
conference was held in Berlin, convened by the 
Prussian minister of public instruction, to discuss 
questions of secondary instruction. The old 
dualism in this grade of education formed an im- 
portant subject of debate, and both the classical 
and the realistic courses were fully discussed. The 
unanimous opinion of the conference was, that 
neither gymnasia nor real schools should be con- 
sidered special schools, but that their common 
object should be the advancement of general 
education. The majority of the meeting seemed 
to think that the gymnasium and the real school 
should each pursue its own way, without inter- 
fering with the other. On the question of bi- 
furcation, opinions were much divided, but the 
opinion generally prevailed that none of the 
existing secondary schools could be considered 
superfluous. — In regard to the question whether 
real-school graduates should be admitted to the 
universities, the prevailing opinion was, that 
such graduates should be admitted according 
to the existing regulations, but only to those 
state examinations (Staats-Examina) which were 
required for obtaining the position of teacher 
of mathematics, natural sciences, or modern lan- 
guages. Many other points of importance re- 
lating to secondary education were exhaustively 
discussed; and Minister Palk, in closing the con- 
ference, said that the discussions of the meeting 
would be taken into careful consideration by the 
ministry of public instruction. 

Teachers' Seminaries. — No class of the edu- 
cational institutions of Germany has won more 
general admiration than the teachers' seminaries. 
Gradually developed in Prussia, through the 
efforts of Francke, Hecker, and their successors, 
they have now become the training schools in 
which nearly all the teachers of the elementary 
schools receive their education. All political 
and even all religious parties, in Germany, agree 
in attributing the highest importance to the 
professional training of elementary teachers in 
these seminaries ; and the appreciation in which 
they are held abroad, is best attested by the 
fact that the system has spread from Prussia 
over the greater part of Europe and the civil- 
ized world. (See Teachers' Seminaries.) The 
age required for admission to these schools now 
varies from the 1 4th to the 16th year. Admis- 
sion is every-where made contingent upon the 
result of a rigid examination, at which, in many 
cases, a school councilor (Sclmlrath) is present. 
The candidates receive the preparation needed 
for the examination either by private instruc- 



GERMANY 



36T 



tion, or in special preparatory schools, called 
Proseminarien or Praparandien. Iu the king- 
dom of Saxony, these preparatory schools were, 
in 1874, organically united with the seminaries, 
which now have six classes. In Prussia, the 
course of instruction, as well as the examination 
of candidates, has been re-organized by the Gen- 
eral Regulations (Allr/emeine Bestimmungen) of 
Oct. 15., 1872. According to these regulations, 
the royal seminaries have three classes, each with 
an annual course of instruction. The two lower 
classes are instructed in pedagogics (2 hours a 
week), religion (4 h.). German language (5 h.), 
arithmetic (3 h.), geometry (2 h.), natural sci- 
ence (4 h.), geography (2 h.), history (2 h.), mu- 
sic (5 h.), drawing (2 h.), penmanship (2 h. in 
the lowest, 1 h. in the middle class), gymnastic 
exercises (2 h.), either French or Latin, accord- 
ing to the option of the pupils (3 h.). The 
course of studies in the highest class drops pen- 
manship, and devotes the same amount of time to 
pedagogics, history, music, and gymnastic ex- 
ercises, but reduces the time allowed for other 
subjects (religion, 2 h. ; mother-tongue, 2 h. ; 
arithmetic and geometry, 1 h.; natural science, 
2 h.; geography, 1 h.; drawing, 1 h.; French or 
Latin, 2 h.). In some of these subjects, the 
course of studies is now more comprehensive 
than formerly. Thus, the instruction required iu 
pedagogics, is henceforth, to embrace the most 
important points of psychology. Instruction iu 
German must illustrate the divisions of lyric, 
epic, didactic, and dramatic poetry. The pri- 
vate reading of the pupils must especially be 
devoted to the classic writers of the last three 
centuries. In addition to the history of Ger- 
many and Prussia, the pupils receive a course of 
Greek and Roman history. — The course of in- 
struction in the seminaries, in the other German 
states (aLso in Austria), is, substantially, the 
same. In the kingdom of Saxony, a new course 
of studies was introduced in 1874, which makes 
the study of Latin a part of the regular course. 
The other German states provide for no in- 
struction in a foreign language ; and Austria 
provides for French only. — The number of 
teachers' seminaries, in 1875, was (according to 
Brachelli, Die Stuulen Europa's, 1875), iu 
Prussia, 101, and in the other states, 73. The 
total number of pupils in the Prussian semi- 
naries, in May, 1 875, was 6,456, being 1,670 more 
than iu 1874. 

The Universities. — The following list gives 
the names of all the universities of Germany, and 
of the German part of Austria, arranged ac- 
cording to the chronological order of their foun- 
dation : Prague (1348), Vienna (1365), Heidel- 
berg (1386), Cologne (1388, discontinued in 
1798), Erfurt (1302—1816), Leipsic (1409), Ro- 
stock (1419), Greifswald (1456), Freiburg (1457), 
Ingolstadt (1472, transferred to Landshut, in 
1802, and to Munich, in 1826), Treves (1472 
—1798), Tubingen (1477), Mayence (1477— 
1790), Wittenberg (1502, transferred to Halle, in 
1817), Frankfort on the Oder (1506, transferred 
to Breslau, in 1811), Marburg (1527), Konigsberg 



(1544), Dillingen (1549—1804), Jena (1558), 
Helmstadt (1576 — 1809), Altorf, near Nurem- 
berg (1578— 1809), Olmiitz (15s 1—1 855),"Wurtz- 
burg (1582), Herborn (1584— 1817), Gratz (1586), 
Giessen (1607), Paderborn (1615—1803), Stadt- 
hagen (1619—21), Rinteln (1621—1810), Salz- 
burg (1622—1811), Osnabruck (1630—1633), 
Munster (1631, in 1818 transferred to Bonn), 
Bamberg (1648—1804), Buisburg (1655—1802 
Kiel (1665), Innspruck (1672), Lingen (1685— 
1819), Halle (1694), Breslau (1702),Fulda (1734 
—1805), GSttdngen (1737), Erlangen (1743), 
Butzow (1760—1789), Berlin (1809), Bonn 
(1818), Munich (1826), Strasbourg (1872). The 
early history of the German universities agrees, 
in its essential features, with that of the uni- 
versities of other nations. (See University.) At 
first, a papal decree was regarded as indispen- 
sable for their establishment ; but, later, they 
were established upon imperial authority, with 
or without papal sanction; and. in 1495. the 
emperor Maximilian granted to every elector 
the right to establish one in his dominions. 
The original classification of the students was 
according to nationalities, each of which elected 
a procurator; but, simultaneously, there existed 
an organization according to the four facul- 
ties. The rector of the university was, at first, 
elected from the philosophical facidty, but. 
soon after, in turn from each of the four 
faculties. Every faculty elected a dean from 
the lecturing magistri, who, in their turn, 
formed the faculty council. — The students of 
Germany, like those of other countries, for- 
merly gave a great deal of trouble by their riot- 
ous and humoral conduct, as well as by some 
abuses to which the younger students were 
subjected by the older. The student was intro- 
duced to university life by a singular ceremony, 
called the beania, or deposition, which con- 
sisted of a series of painful castigations. This 
habit gave way to the still more absurd pennal- 
ism, which kept the freshman in a state of hu- 
miliating servitude to the senior students. The 
final suppression of pennalism and of the large 
students' associations, by the united action of 
the universities and governments, was attended 
with considerable public disturbances, and led to 
the formation of secret orders or associations 
(Landsman nschaften or Corps), which tried to 
perpetuate pennalism, or the dependence of the 
younger upon the older students in a modified 
form. Each association elected, for the term of 
one year, a senior, and the convention of seniors 
(Senioreneonreni) represented the common in- 
terests of these associations. A strong esprit de 
corps was, in this way, created and fostered 
among the students, and many habits peculiar 
to these German institutions were developed. 
Among the worst of these habits was dueling, 
which, in spite of all the laws against it. has main- 
tained itself, though not to the same extent as 
formerly, to the present day. The awakening of the 
German people, which attended and followed the 
national war against Napoleon, led, in 1815, to 
the establishment of the Burschenschaft, an as- 



368 



GERMANY 



sociation of students, for promoting the moral 
and intellectual condition of their country. 

The modern German universities have main- 
tained many of the characteristics of the earlier 
times, at least in their general organization and 
administration, while, as a matter of course, the 
number and quality of the studies pursued 
■widely differ from the original standard. The 
leading characteristics of a larger German uni 
versity are represented in the following account. 
A university consists of the corporation of ordi- 
nary and extraordinary professors, licensed pri- 
vate lecturers (Privat-Docenten), and the im- 
matriculated students, besides the necessary 
officials and their adjuncts. The studies pur- 
sued are generally classified into four grand sub- 
divisions, or faculties: the theological, the juris- 
tical, the medical, and the philosophical ; the last 
embracing, besides mental philosophy, mathemat- 
ics, the natural sciences, philology, history, and 
cameralistics, or political and international econ- 
omy. Bach faculty forms an independent sub- 
division of the university. The general adminis- 
tration of a university is intrusted to a select 
body of professors, called the Senate, presided 
over by the rector. The relative rank of the 
professors is determined according to seniority 
in office, like that of an ordinary professor at any 
university. The several faculties are officially 
represented by the body of ordinary professors of 
each discipline. In a wider sense, the extra- 
ordinary professors and privation docentes are 
also considered members of their respective 
faculties. The faculties are obliged to exercise 
a certain supervision over the attendance and 
conduct of the students inscribed upon their 
respective faculty rolls. Each faculty is respon- 
sible for the completeness of the instruction 
offered to students, within the limits of the 
faculty studies, inasmuch as three (for students 
of medicine, four) years must comprise a full 
curriculum of the main studies pertaining to 
each discipline. — -Each faculty annually elects 
a dean for the administration of its special 
affairs. The dean is the president and chief 
executive officer of his faculty. The rector and 
the senate are elected annually by a plenum 
(full meeting) of the ordinary professors. The 
senate usually consists of the rector, his im- 
mediate predecessor iu office, the faculty deans, 
and five members elected from the number of 
ordinary professors. This body, under the pres- 
idency of the rector, exercises supreme author- 
ity in all matters concerning the university as a 
whole, and the highest disciplinary power rel- 
ative to students. The rector is the highest 
functionary, and the foremost representative, 
of a university in all its external relations. 
In the discharge of academic jurisdiction, a 
syndic is added to the senate, who has the rank 
of an ordinary professor. The syndic is the 
professional adviser to rector and senate in all 
questions relating to statute law or to the state 
constitution. Academic jurisdiction is vested 
in the rector, the syndic, or the full meet- 
ing of the senate, according to the character of 



the offense. Students are admitted to the uni- 
versity and academic rights by the act of matric- 
ulation. If a native, the student must produce 
a certificate of graduation from a gymnasium; 
if he is a foreigner, a certificate is required tes- 
tifying to his good moral character. By the act 
of matriculation, the student acquires all the 
academic rights and privileges granted to stu- 
dents by statute law. Disciplinary measures and 
punishments, according to the nature of the 
offense, are a private reprimand by the rector, 
a public reprimand before the senate, incarcera- 
tion, warning of the consilium abeundi (advice 
to leave), the consilium abeundi proper (tem- 
porary removal, mostly for one term, or six 
months), and, lastly, the relegatio (expulsion), or 
the relegatio cum infamia (dishonorable expul- 
sion). Students expelled cum infamia cannot be 
admitted to any other university. The right to 
lecture is granted only to the appointed profess- 
ors, ordinary or extraordinary, and authorized 
private lecturers {Privat-Docenten), who must 
have attained the degree of Doctor ; or, in the 
theological faculty, the degree of Licentiate. All 
are carefully excluded from the privilege of 
hearing lectures, who have not attained the 
necessary degree of mental or moral maturity, 
more especially under-graduates of gymnasia, and 
all who have forfeited their matriculation. Lect- 
ures for the succeeding semester are publicly 
announced before the termination of the current 
semester. The first course of lectures commences 
in the fall of the year, at about the middle of 
October, and terminates towards the latter part 
of March ; the second course commences in the 
beginning of April, and terminates in the latter 
part of August. At the beginning of 1877, the 
German Empire had 20 complete universities, of 
which 9 were in Prussia, 3, in Bavaria, 2 in 
Baden, 1 each in Saxony, Wurtemberg, Hesse, 
Mecklenburg, Saxe Weimar, and Alsace-Lorraine. 
The number of professors and students at each 
of these universities, in 187b', was as follows : 



NAME 



Berlin (Prussia) 197 4,105 

Bonn " 100 73G 

Breslau " 107 1,141 

Erlangen (Bavaria) 54 428 

Freiburg (Baden) 53 294 

Giessen (Hesse) 54 352 

Gottingen (Prussia) 115 1,005 

Greifswald " 57 452 

Halle " 90 838 

Heidelberg (Baden) 104 488 

Jena (Saxe Weimar) 73 459 

Kiel (Prussia) 61 215 

Kbnigsberg (Prussia) 83 G15 

Leipsic iSaxony) 150 3,032 

Marburg (Prussia) 65 411 

Munich (Bavaria) HO 1,232 

Rostock (Mecklenburg) 39 153 

Strasbourg (Alsace-Lorraine).. 90 707 

Tubingen ( Wurtemberg) 84 830 

Wurtzburg (Bavaria, | 67 1,019 

Each of these universities has the four time- 
honored faculties. Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen 
have each two theological faculties, one Catholic 
and one Protestant. Munich, Wurtzburg, and 



Students 
find, of non- 
matriculated 

hearers) 



GERMANY 



369 



Freiburg have only a faculty of Catholic theol- 
ogy; and each of the others, one of Protestant 
theology. In addition to the four usual faculties, 
there is, in Munich, Wiirtzburg, and Tubingen, 
one of political economy; and in Tubingen, one 
of natural sciences. The academy of Munster, 
■which has only two faculties ( Catholic theology 
and philosophy) is also classed among the uni- 
versities. At the Swiss universities of Bern, 
Basel, and Zurich, at the Russian university of 
Dorpat, and at the Austrian universities of 
Ozernowitz, Gratz, Innspruck, Prague, and 
Vienna, the German language is exclusively or 
predominantly in use. 

Professional and Technical Instruction. — In 
1875, there were, in Germany, 10 technical, or 
polytechnic, high schools; namely, (1) Berlin, the 
Ban- Akademie (high school for architecture); 
(2) Berlin, the Geioerbe-Akademie (departments 
of machines and engineering, chemistry, mining, 
and naval construction) ; (3) Hanover, prepara- 
tory and polytechnic school, with 2-t ordinary, 3 
extraordinary instructors, G assistants, and 633 
students) ; (4) Aix-la-Chapelle, general prepara- 
tory school and special departments of architect- 
ure, engineering, machines and mechanical tech- 
nics, chemical technics, and mining, with 20 or- 
dinary, 2 extraordinary, 15 assistant instructors, 
and 407 students; (5) Munich, general introduc- 
tory school, and departments for engineering, 
architecture, mechanical technics, chemical tech- 
nics, and agriculture, with 21 ordinary, 5 extra- 
ordinary, 32 assistant instructors, 9 private lect- 
urers, and 1053 students; ((i) Dresden, general in- 
troductory school; departments of engineering, 
mechanics, architecture; chemical technics, math- 
ematics, and natural sciences, with 20 ordinary, 
5 extraordinary, 9 assistant instructors, 3 private 
lecturers, and 3G6 students ; (7) Stuttgart, de- 
partments of architecture, engineering, machine 
building, chemical technics, mathematics, natural 
sciences, with 23 ordinary, 25 assistant. 11 private 
instructors, and 537 students; (8) Carlsruhe, de- 
partments of mathematics, engineering, machine 
building mechanical technics, architecture, chem- 
istry and chemical technics, and forestry, with 
35 ordinary, 1 extraordinary, 10 assistant in- 
structors, 1 private lecturer, and G10 students; 
(9) -Darmstadt, a general preparatory school and 
departments of architecture, engineering, ma- 
chine building, chemical technics, mathematics, 
and natural sciences, with 28 ordinary and 4 as- 
sistant instructors, and 179 students; (10) Bruns- 
wick, a general preparatory school of arts and sci- 
ences; departments of architecture, engineering, 
machine building, chemical technics, pharmacy, 
and forestry, with 24 ordinary and 5 assistant 
instructors, and 1 53 students. There are also tech- 
nical academies at Cassel, Nienburg, and other 
places. Of technical schools, there were, in 1875, in 
Prussia, 32 provincial technical schools ( Gewerbe- 
Schulen) ; in Bavaria, 36 (including commercial 
and agricultural schools); in Saxony, 9; and in 
Saxe Coburg-Gotha, 3. 

Scientific Instruction. — Military Academies. — 
There are schools of military science, especially 



for the education of general-staff officers, at Ber- 
lin and Munich; the imperial naval academy and 
school at Kiel ; and, for the education of army 
officers, the combined artillery and military en- 
gineering schools at Berlin and Munich, the war 
schools at Potsdam, Erfurt, IS'eisse.Engers.l 'assel, 
Hanover, Auclam, Metz, and Munich, and the 
several cadet corps in different states ; also the 
military surgical institute, and veterinary school 
at Berlin. There are numerous military schools for 
non-commissioned officers throughout the Ger- 
man states. — Veterinary academies are estab- 
lished at Berlin, Munich, and Hanover ; acad- 
emies of forestry, at Neustadt-Ebeiswalde, Mu- 
nich, Tharandt, Hohenheim, and Aschaffeuburg; 
mining academies, &t Freiberg and Clausthal, be- 
sides departments for mining engineering at the 
polytechnic schools at Berlin and Aix-la-Chapelle; 
agricultural academics, at Berlin, Hofgeisberg, 
Gottingen, Eldena (near Greifswald), I'roskau 
(near Oppeln), Poppelsdorf (near Bonn), Tha- 
randt, Hohenheim (near Stuttgart), and Weihen- 
stephan ; and penological institutes at Troskau 
and Geisenheim. Schools of navigation exist at 
Memel, Pillau, Dantzic, Grabow (.Stettin), Barth, 
Stralsund, Altona, Flensburg, Apenrade, Geeste- 
miind, Leer, Papeuburg, Emden, and Tmunel; 
also 7 preparatory nautical schools. There are con- 
servatories of music, at Berlin. Munich, and nu- 
merous other cities; and commercial colleges (15) 
at Dantzic, Berlin, Breslau, Dresden, Leipsic (2), 
Chemnitz, Zwickau, Gera, Liibeck, Osnabriick, 
Hildeshcim, Hanover, Munich, and Nuremberg. 
— The institutions for special instruction are the 
following: (1) for the tteaf and. dumb: in Prus- 
sia, 37; Bavaria, 12; Saxony, 3; Wiirtembcrg, 4; 
Baden, 2 ; Hesse, 2 ; Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, 
Saxe Weimar, Anhalt, Brunswick, Saxe Coburg- 
Gotha, Saxe Meiningen, Reuss, and Hamburg, 
each 1; (2) for the blind: in Prussia, 1 5; Bavaria, 
3; Saxony, 2 ; Wiirtemberg, 2; Baden, Hesse, 
Mecklenburg, each 1 ; other states, G; in all, 31. 

Educational Publications. — In 1873, there 
were published in the German empire 84 papers 
devoted to education (Prussia, 41; other German 
states, 43). — See Scii.mid, Encyclopddie. articles 
Preussen, Bayern,Sachscn, Wurtembrrg, Han- 
nover, Baden, etc.; Raumer, Geschichte der 
Pudagogik (Engl, trans, by Barnard); Schmidt, 
Geschichte der Padagogik; Barnard, National 
Education, vol. i.; Circulars of Information of 
the Bureau of Education. No. 2 (Washington, 
1874); WlESE, Ycnn-diningrn und Gesetzefur 
die hd'hern Schiden in Preussen. The Pdda- 
gogischer Jahresbericht, edited by Dittes (vol. 
xxvni.. Leipsic, 1S7G, embracing the year 1875), 
and the Chronik desVo/ksschidtcesens, edited by 
Seyffartu (vol. XL, Gotlia, 1 876, embracing the 
year 1875), give, from year to year, a very full 
account of the progress of education in all the 
German states. The fullest statistical account 
of secondary instruction is given in Misiiacke, 
Deutscher Sdnd-Kalender (vol. xxv., I^eipsic, 
1876; edited by Jenne); and the fullest account 
of the German universities, in Deutsches akade- 
■misches Jahrbuch (vol. n., Leips., 187G). 



3T0 



GESNER 



GIFTS 



GESNER, Johann Matthias, a German 
educator, born April 9., 1691 ; died Aug. 3., 
1761. He studied at Jena, and after holding 
several minor positions, became, in 1730, rector 
of the celebrated Thomas School, in Leipsic. 
This he found in a very low condition, both in 
respect to studies and discipline ; but, in a few 
years, he succeeded in restoring its former repu- 
tation. In 1734, he accepted a call to the new 
university of Uottingen, where, in the position of 
professor of ancient literature, he exerted great 
influence upon the progress of philosophy in 
Germany, and contributed to a thorough reform 
of the literary institutions of a higher grade. He 
was intrusted with the establishment of the first 
philological seminary, and was appointed in- 
spector of all the Hanoverian schools, — two 
offices for which his former labors eminently fitted 
him. In 1757, he drew up the new school reg- 
ulations, in which he embodied the experiences of 
his life as a teacher, and the results of a mature 
study of the proper organization of classical 
schools. He favored the views of Ratich (q. v.), 
Comenius (q. v.) , and Locke (q. v.) , as to the 
best method of facilitating the study of languages 
and making it attractive. Notwithstanding his 
great official industry, he wrote a large number 
of important works on pedagogy and philology, 
besides publishing valuable editions of the clas- 
sics. — See J. M. Gbsner, Educational Views, in 
Barnard's Journal of Education. 

GIFTS, Kindergarten, the term used by 
Froebel to designate the apparatus devised by 
him for kindergarten instruction, inasmuch as 
they are not used by the teacher but given to the 
children, as the material for interesting and in- 
structive occupation, by the manipulation of 
which their faculties are unfolded in accordance 
with the developing method (q. v.). These gifts 
are grouped in sets, numbered from 1 to 20, and 
include the following, of which, however, Xos. 8 
to 20 did not originate with Froebel directly : 
(1) Six soft balls of various colors, the object of 
the use of which is to teach color (primary and 
secondary) , and direction (forward and backward, 
right and left, up and down); also to train the 
eye, and to exercise the hands, arms, and feet in 
various plays. (2) Sphere, cube, and cylinder, 
designed to teach form, by directing the atten- 
tion of the child to resemblances and differ- 
ences in objects. This is done by pointing out, 
explaining, and counting the sides, edges, and 
corners of the cube, and by showing how it dif- 
fers, in these respects, from the sphere and cylin- 
der. The manipulation by the child should, of 
course, precede this demonstration by the teacher. 
The child's self-activity will prompt it to place 
these forms in various positions and combina- 
tions, so as to realize in its conceptions every thing 
that is analogous or dissimilar in them. (3) A 
large cube divided into eight equal cubes, the ob- 
ject being to teach both form and number, also 
to give a rudimental idea of fractions. (4) A large 
cube divided into eight oblong blocks, designed 
to teach number and a simple variety of form 
(cube and parallelopiped). (5) A large cube 



divided into 27 equal cubes, three of the latter 
being subdivided into half cubes, and three others, 
into quarter cubes (forming triangular prisms) .- 
This is a further continuation and complement- 
of (3), but affording much ampler means of 
combination both as to form and number. 

(6) A large cube so divided as to consist of 18 
whole oblong blocks, three similar blocks divided 
lengthwise, and six divided breadthwise, — a still 
further continuation of the ideas involved in (3). 

(7) Triangular and quadrangular tablets of 
polished wood, affording the means of further 
exercise in reversing the position of forms and 
combining them ; and presenting, in addition, 
illustrations of plane surfaces, instead of solids,. 
as in the previous gifts. This arrangement, 
placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes 
an important principle of education, — that we 
should pass from the concrete to the abstract 
(see Form), the square being a side of the cube, 
and a triangle deduced from the prism. (8) Slides 
for laying, — wooden sticks about 13 inches long, 
to be cut into various lengths by the teacher or 
pupil, as occasion may require. These sticks, 
like most of the previous gifts, are designed to 

i teach numerical proportions. The multiplication 
j table may be practically learned by means of 
! this gift. The forms of the letters of the alpha- 
j bet, and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may 
! also be learned. (9) Rings for ring-laying, 
' consisting of whole and half rings of various. 
j sizes, in wire, for forming figures ; designed to 
i develop further ideas of form, also to afford a 
means for developing the constructiveness of the 
pupils, and practice in composing simple de- 
signs. (10) Drawing slates and paper, consist- 
ing of slates ruled in squares, and paper ruled 
I in squares, for the purpose of enabling the 
! pupil to draw or copy simple figures, in a 
methodical manner, the ruling aiding them in 
the adjustment of proportions. (11) Perforat- 
ing papa-, ruled in squares on one side only, 
with perforating needles, affording more ad- 
vanced practice in producing forms, and execut- 
ing simple designs. (12) Embroidering maten-iul, 
to be used for transferring the designs executed 
on the perforating paper, by embroidering them 
with colored worsted or silk on card board. 
(13) Paper for cutting: squares of paper are 
| folded, cut according to certain rules, and formed 
I into figures. The child's inclination for using 
j the scissors is thus ingeniously turned to account, 
and made to produce very gratifying results. 
I (14) Weaving paper: strips of colored paper 
I are, by means of a steel or wooden needle of 
; peculiar construction, woven into a differently 
colored sheet of paper, which is cut into strips 
throughout its entire surface, except a margin at 
each end to keep the strips in their places. A 
very great variety of figures is thus produced, 
and the inventive powers of the child are con- 
stantly brought into requisition. (15) Plaiting 
material, including sets of flats for interlacing 
; so as to form geometrical and fancy figures. 
j (16) Jointed slats (gonigraphs), for forming 
I angles and geometrical figures. (SeeGoNioRAPH). 



GIRARD 



GLOBE 



371 



(17) Paper far intertwining: paper strips of 
various colors, eight or ten inches long, folded 
lengthwise, used to represent a variety of geo- 
metrical and fancy figures, by plaiting them ac- 
cording to certain rules, (18) Paper far fold- 
ing, consisting of square, rectangular, and tri- 
angular pieces, with which variously shaped ob- 
jects may be formed. (19) Material far peas 
work, consisting of wires of various lengths 
pointed at the ends, which are passed through 
peas, that have been soaked in water for -;ix or 
eight hours; these are then used to imitate 
various objects and geometrical figures. Cork 
cubes are sometimes used instead of the peas, as 
being more convenient. (2(1) Material for 
modeling: modeling knives, of wood, and model- 
ing boards, by means of which various forms are 
modeled in bees-wax, clay, putty, or some other 
soft substance. — These gifts thus represent every 
kind of technical activity, from the mere collec- 
tion of the law material to the delicate processes 
of design as well as plastic art. They are designed 
to develop not only the constructive ability of 
the pupil, through his natural impulse to activ- 
ity, and by the exercise of the faculty of con- 
ception, so characteristic of childhood, but by 
their countless combinations of color and form 
to lay the foundation for a complete develop- 
ment of the esthetic nature. They address, at 
once, his intellect, his emotions, and his physical 
activities ; while, as the child works out the re- 
sults himself, he gains confidence in his own 
ability to surmount obstacles, and thus learns an 
enduring lesson of self-reliance. Kindergarten 
gifts and occupation material suitable for schools 
or families, are put up in sets and sold in 
boxes, convenient for use. — See A. DotJAl, The. 
Kindergarten (New York) ; E. P. Peabody, 
Kindergarten 6-uide (New York, 1869) ; H. 
Hoffmann, Kindergarten Toys, and haw in use 
them (New York) ; Aug. Kcehler, Der Kinder- 
garten in seinem IVesen dargestellt (X. Y.): and 
Die Praxis den Kindergartens (Weimar) ; M. 
H. Kkiege, Friedrich Froebel (N. Y., 1870). 

GIRARD, Gregoire, a Swiss educator, 
born Dec. 17., 1763;died March 6., 1850. He 
entered the Franciscan order in his sixteenth 
year, studied theology in YVurtzburg, and after 
being ordained as priest, held several positions as 
a teacher. lie paid special attention to the 
common-school system, which in his native canton 
of Fribourg was in a poor condition ; and he 
drew up a plan for the re-organization of the 
public-school system of all Switzerland, which, 
however, was not adopted by the federal authori- 
ties. In 1804, he returned to Fribourg to take 
charge of the schools of that city. He remained 
in that position up to 1823, when he resigned 
in consequence of a quarrel with the church 
authorities. From 1827 to 1834, he was pro- 
fessor of philosophy in Lucerne ; but, after the 
latter date, lie lived in retirement in his monastery 
in Fribourg. His administration of the schools 
of Fribourg attracted the attention of many of 
the friends of education throughout Europe. He 
paid particular attention to the teaching of re- 



ligion and language. In the former, he ignored 

the doctrines of particular denominations, and 
favored general instruction in the fundamental 
principles of the Christian religion. His views 
on this subject are laid down in the Premieres 
notions de religion, which he declared was not 
a catechism, but an introduction to a catechism. 
He also embraced PestaJpzzi's views on the 
teaching of languages, making the study of the 
mother-tongue the basis of all instruction. Father 
Girard favored very much the system of mutual 
instruction as practiced by Dr. Bell (q. v.) and 
Joseph Lancaster (q. v.) ; indeed, he is regarded 
as the founder of that system in Switzerland. 
As an illustration of its efficacy, he said that 
"when he met with difficulty in explaining any 
word or subject to a child, he often called in a 
boy more advanced to aid him, and usually found 
him to succeed entirely, even when all his own 
efforts had failed." See Naville, Notice biogra* 
phique surle P. (Jirarrf (Geneva, 1850); Girard, 
The Mother Tongue, Engl, trans. (Loud., 1847). 

GIRLS, Education of. See Female Edu- 
cation. 

GLOBE, Artificial (Latin, globus), a hoi- 
low sphere, made of metal, plaster, or pasteboard, 
used as a model of the earth, and having deline- 
ated upon it all the various natural and political 
divisions of the terrestrial surface, together with 
the circles, etc., used in mathematical geography. 
Through its center, runs an iron axis the two 
ends of which project , and are fastened to a circle, 
or ring, of brass, within which the globe can be 
turned around. This ring, called the brazen 
■meridian, Is graduated so as to indicate degrees 
of latitude, and by rotating the globe can be 
made to represent the meridian of any place. 
The artificial globe is also usually surrounded 
with a broad horizontal ring of wood, called the 
wooden liorizon, which has two slots in which 
the meridian, and with it the globe move, so that 
either pole may be elevated or depressed, and the 
liorizon adapted to any place. The upper surface 
of the wooden horizon is divided into several 
concentric circles, representing degrees of ampli- 
tude and azimuth, signs of the zodiac, the points 
of the compass, the divisions of the year into 
months and days, etc. Such a globe is called a 
terrestrial globe. A celestial globe differs from it 
in representing the appearance of the starry 
heavens, constellations, etc., as if seen from the 
center of the globe. Globes of much simpler 
construction are made for elementary instruction. 

The artificial globe is supposed to have been 
invented by Anaximander, about 580 B. 0. 
Rules for the use of the terrestrial globe were 
first given by Ptolemy, 150 A. D. The two old- 
est globes now extant (both celestial globes) are 
of Arabic construction. One made in 1225, is 
preserved in the museum of Cardinal Borgia at 
Yelletri ; the other, made in 1289, is preserved in 
the mathematical hall of Dresden. In the 15th 
century, the use of globes in schools rapidly in- 
creased, and among those who distinguished 
themselves in their construction, are mentioned 
Martin Belicius, Gerhard Mercator, and Tycho 



3Y2 



GLOBE 



GOETHE 



Brahe. The most celebrated globe is the so-called 
Gottorp globe, which was constructed, by order 
of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by Olearius and 
Busch, in 1664. it was 11 feet in diameter, and 
was at first set up in Gottorp, near Schleswig, 
whence it was, in 171 3-, transferred to St. Peters- 
burg. The national library in Paris has two 
globes over 14 feet in diameter ; and the Mazarin 
library and the museum of the Louvre have each 
a magnificent copper globe. The georama is a 
peculiar and colossal kind of globe which bears 
the delineation of places, etc., on the inner sur- 
face. A globe of this kind, 51 feet in diameter, 
was constructed in 1851 by'Mr. Wyld, in Lon- 
don. An attempt to combine the terrestrial and 
the celestial globe was made by Lohse, in Ham- 
burg, in 1829, the terrestrial globe being inclosed 
in a glass sphere bearing on its surface delineations 
of the constellations. A similar globe was con- 
structed and patented in New York in 1867. 
Globes have also been made of india rubber, to 
be inflated for use ; others of thin card-paper, 
made in sections, so as to be folded up and laid 
away when not needed. Embossed globes show, 
in exaggerated relief, the elevations and depres- 
sions of the earth's surface. The hand hemi- 
sphere globe is very useful for elementary instruc- 
tion ; it consists of two half-globes, or hemi- 
spheres, connected by a hinge, each flat surface 
containing a planisphere map of the correspond- 
ing convex surface. This arrangement shows the 
learner at once the relation of map to globe, also 
why the lines on the map which represent the 
circles must be curved. It is usually made so 
small that it can be passed from hand to hand 
while the teacher is explaining the lesson. The 
wall hemisphere globe is designed to afford a 
similar illustration. It is so constructed that the 
two hemispheres can be hung up side by side, 
against a wall, ani contrasted with hemisphere 
maps, suspended above. Globes without any 
auxiliary appendages, such as stand, meridian, etc. 
are often constructed so as to rest on brackets, 
and thus form part of the esthetic decoration of 
the school room, when not in use. Globes having 
a black slate surface — slated globes ■ — are very 
useful for many kinds of instruction. In using 
these globes, the pupil draws the circles — merid- 
ians, equator, and parallels, and delineates the 
countries, etc., with chalk, either from a map or 
from memory. The knowledge of geography 
thus acquired is more practical, and is more per- 
manently based on the intelligent conceptions of 
the pupil. These globes are of great use in the 
study of advanced geography, as well as in that 
of spherical geometry, trigonometry, navigation, 
etc. Excellent globes, of every pattern and de- 
scription, are made by Schedler, of New York, 
who has invented a method of manufacture, 
which renders them quite cheap and exceedingly 
durable. They are also remarkable for the scien- 
tific accuracy of their delineations. 
■ The globe has many advantages over the map, 
as an apparatus for teaching geography, because 
(1) it represents the earth in its natural form, 
and shows clearly the relation of each and every 



part of its surface to the whole ; hence, its use 
should always precede that of the map ; (2) it 
affords a better means of explaining those points 
and mathematical lines a clear conception of the 
use of which forms the very groundwork of geo- 
graphical science ; (3) by means of it the teacher 
can illustrate the earth's motions, the causes of 
the seasons, day and night, etc. ; and (4) many 
useful problems may be solved by means of it, 
as finding the longitude and latitude of places, 
the difference of time, the time of sunrise and 
sunset, and the length of the day at particular 
places, etc. Pupils in geography and astronomy 
should be thoroughly practiced in the working 
out of these problems on the globe, since they 
not only gain thereby much useful information, 
but acquire clear and durable conceptions of the 
elementary principles involved. 

GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, an 
illustrious German poet, critic, and thinker, born 
in Frankfort on the Main, Aug. 28., 1749 ; died 
in Weimar, March 22., 1832. He was educated 
at the universities of Leipsic and Strasburg, and, 
in 1775, at the solicitation of the Grand Duke of 
Saxe- Weimar, whose interest in him had been 
aroused by his novel, The Sorrous of Werther, he 
visited Weimar, which he afterwards made his 
permanent residence. Philosophy, history, sci- 
ence, art, almost every subject of inquiry, in fact, 
claimed his attention, and led to frequent publica- 
tions in the shape of novels, histories, plays, and 
poems. It is to Goethe that botany owes one of its 
fundamental conceptions, now generally admitted, 
that the various parts of a flower are modified 
leaves. With regard to education, Goethe's idea 
was, that its great .aim should be the development 
and preservation of individuality. Every child is 
different from every other, and has special powers 
of its own; and the value of education consists in 
maintaining and developing these individual 
differences, and not in producing a dead level of 
character. The necessity of education lies in the 
fact that the child is undeveloped ; and educa- 
tional efforts must all be based on the principle 
that the germs of knowledge are in the soul. 
Hence, all true development must be from within 
outward. Education is not a pouring of knowl- 
edge into the mind, as into an empty vessel, 
but the development of faculties which are 
already there, as the growth of a plant from the 
seed. This development, too, must be general, in 
all directions. To cultivate any one faculty at 
the expense of others, produces monsters, not 
men. Nothing was more repulsive to Goethe 
than the mechanical, atheistic conception of the 
world. He insisted upon finding an ever-present 
Divinity in both nature and life. The recogni- 
tion of this constitutes religion, and should be the 
aim of all education. This feeling' should be so 
cultivated, that no circumstances can disturb in 
us a conscious sense of the Divine. Religious teach- 
ing should begin in the earliest childhood ; not, 
however, by means of the catechism, or any other 
form of dogmatic instruction; but the child's 
imagination must be made familiar with the 
conception of a Divine Spirit underlying and 



GONIGRAPH 



GOVERNMENT 



373 



interfusing every form of life. Ethics refer to i 
moral conduct; hence, ethical culture must chiefly 
consist in practicing the good. Merely forbidding j 
the bad is useless. Activity is a condition of | 
moral as well as of physical health. Of all schools 
of morals ami religion, the family is the most 
important. A low groveling home Hie will 
render all other teaching worthless. Next to the 
Bible, familiarity with the history of the great 
and good is the most important means of moral 
and religious culture. Instruction in the narrower 
sense of imparting knowledge must be rather 
synthetic than analytic. Building up teaches 
more than tearing down. Classical study is 
practically worthless so long as it is conducted 
solely by grammar and dictionary. We must 
work ourselves into the life of classical times in 
order to understand them. The study of Greek 
literature he regarded as far superior, for 
purposes of culture, to Latin literature ; because 
the Greeks were far broader men. They saw 
nature and life in all their aspects ; while the 
Romans saw only man ; and him they regarde 1 
only as a warrior or a slave. Goethe did nothing 
for the systematic development of pedagogy. 
His views in regard to teaching are scattered 
through his works, and consist of hints rather 
than formulated rules. The great endeavor of 
his philosophy is to mediate between individual- 
ism and the stern necessities of society. — See 
Schmidt, Gesckichte der Padagogik. 

GONIGRAPH (Or. yuvia, an angle, and 
ypditeiv, to write), an instrument used in kinder- 
garten exercises and in object-teaching, to illus- 
trate the nature and formation of angles and 
polygons. It consists of a series of narrow 
jointed slats of equal length, by the different 
combinations of which, figures of various shapes 
may be formed. The number of slats, or links, 
varies from 3 to as many as 10, or even more. 
As a piece of kindergarten apparatus ((lift), the 
gonigraph may he made the means of much 
instructive entertainment to a young child, who 
from its manipulation will acquire ideas of a 
great variety of figures. In the more advanced 
object-teaching, in connection with the subject 
oiform, it will be found very useful, as well as 
attractive. Gonigraphs are usually sold in sets 
as a part of the apparatus necessary for kinder- 
garten work. (See Gifts.) 

GONZAGA COLLEGE, at Washington, 
D. 0., was incorporated in 1858. It was for- 
merly known as the Washington Seminary. It 
is conducted by the Fathers of the Society of 
Jesus. The college is intended for day scholars 
only, irrespective of creed or religious profession. 
The entire course covers seven years, comprising 
a preparatory and a collegiate department, with 
a classical and a non-classical course of study. 
In 1875 — (>, there were 5' instructors and 107 
students. The library contains 10,000 volumes. 
The cost of tuition is $10 per quarter in either 
course. The Rev. Charles K. Jenkins, S. J., is 
(187<>) the president. 

GOODRICH, Samuel Griswold, better 
known as Peter Parley, was born in Ridgefield, 



Ct, Aug. 19., 1793, and died in New York, 
May 9., 1860. He was a voluminous writer; 
more especially of juvenile books, comprising his- 
tories, books of travel, geographies, and illustra- 
tive works on the arts and sciences. Some of 
his books, especially the histories, are still used 
as text-books in schools, and Spanish and Por- 
tuguese translations of some of them have found 
their way into South American institutions. In 
1841, he established Merry's Museum, and Par- 
ley's Magazine, a periodical for youth, which he 
conducted for thirteen years. His principal edu- 
cational works are Fireside Education (1841) and 
Illustrated Natural History of the Animal King- 
dom (1859). In 1851, he was appointed United 
States Consul at Paris. 

GOVERNESS, or Governante (Fr. Gou- 
oernante), a woman employed as a resident 
tutoress in a family, to conduct the education of 
children or young women. The employment of 
governesses began in the second half of the 1 7th 
century, when the French language and manners 
came into use among the upper classes of society 
throughout Europe. When a young lady who 
w. s not able to speak French fluently, and was 
not fully conversant with Paris fashions, came to 
be looked upon as lacking in refinement, it was 
natural that mothers should be anxious to secure 
the services of French teachers, especially Paris- 
ians, to give to their daughters the requisite 
training. The practice of employing governesses 
became, in a short time, equally common iu 
England, Germany, and Russia. When this 
mode of educating young girls became popular, 
governesses were no longer exclusively taken 
from France, especially after the social ascend- 
ency of the French, in consequence of the revolu- 
tion, had begun to decline. Then native gover- 
nesses came into demand ; and Germany and 
Switzerland began to compete with France in 
the sending of young women of education to 
England and Russia to seek a livelihood in this 
manner. The development which female educa- 
tion has since reached, has very considerably 
diminished the number and influence of gover- 
nesses in Germany, and to some extent, also in 
Russia, since in both countries a steadily increasing 
number of girls and young women receive their 
education in seminaries and high schools estab- 
lished for the purpose. In France itself, where a 
governess is usually called instilulrice, the num- 
ber of governesses has always been comparatively 
smaller than in England, Germany, or Russia. In 
the United States, a larger proportion of young 
women than in any European country, finish their 
education in female academies and high schools, 
and more recently in colleges to which both sexes 
are admitted. Only in England has the employ- 
ment of governesses, to any considerable extent, 
been maintained. (Jovernesses are generally pro- 
fessional teachers who have received their educa- 
tion in training schools ; and in French Switzer- 
land, there are special schools for the instruction 
of governesses. 

GOVERNMENT, School, like the govern- 
ment of a state, must be based upon the estab- 



374 



GOVERNMENT 



lishment of authority (q. v.), which includes not 
only the right to make laws, but the power, as 
well as the right, to execute them. These power's, 
in every civilized state and community, are dis- 
tributed among different persons, so as to pre- 
vent centralized authority leading to despotism ; 
but, in the little community of the school room, 
they must, to a greater or less extent, be possessed 
by one person. General rules for the manage- 
ment of a school, it is true, may be prescribed by 
the school officers to whom the teacher is ame- 
nable ; but the actual government of the school, 
that which converts it from a chaotic, disorder- 
ly crowd of children into a regular organization, 
under control and discipline, must be exclusively 
the work of the teacher, hence called the school- 
master. Formerly, the powers of a school-master 
were much less limited than they are at present ; 
indeed, they were almost absolute, the law, as in 
the case of parental government, only stepping 
in to protect the child from injury to life or 
limb. At the present time, the teacher's author- 
ity is carefully hedged around not only by the 
law, but by the rules of school boards and super- 
intendents, so that the complaint is sometimes 
made by the teacher that he has scarcely enough 
authority left to enable him to govern his school. 
The policy of circumscribing the authority of 
the teacher to so great an extent is an unwise 
one, and endangers not only the efficiency of the 
school as an organization, but destroys its effi- 
cacy as an instrument of education. Besides, 
it implies that the teacher is unfit to exercise 
authority, either by lack of competency or of 
conscientiousness, which is equivalent to pro- 
nouncing him unfit to be a teacher at all. 

The character of the school government de- 
pends upon the manner as well as the degree in 
which the teacher's authority is established ; and 
the influence of the school upon the intellectual 
and moral character of its pupils will depend 
upon the kind of government maintained. No 
school can be efficient without order (q. v.), and 
order can only result from judicious and effective 
government. The latter must, in all cases, depend 
upon (1) the rules or requirements laid down, 
and (2) the manner in which they are enforced. 
Government is often impaired by unwise legis- 
lation — unwise in the kind of laws enacted, or in 
their number. The rules made for the govern- 
ment of a school should be as few and as simple 
as possible. A multiplicity of set regulations 
confuses the pupils, and tends to multiply 
offenses. Besides, the children, by the habit of 
complying with a kind of written law, are apt 
to think every thing right that is not specifically 
forbidden, and thus fail to exercise their con- 
science ; that is, in their attention to the mala 
prokibita, they lose sight of the mala per se. 
" If a school," says D. P. Page, " is to be governed 
by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the 
principle that whatever is not proscribed is 
admissible. Consequently, without inquiring 
whether an act is right, their only inquiry will 
be, is it forbidden ? Now, no teacher was ever 
yet so wise as to make laws for every case ; the 



consequence is, he is daily perplexed with un- 
foreseen troubles, or with some ingenious evasions 
of his inflexible code. In all this matter, the 
worst feature is the fact that the child judges 
of his acts by the law of the teacher rather than 
by the law of his conscience, and is thus in 
danger of perverting and blunting the moral 
sense." Government by positive enactments is, 
therefore, to be dispensed with as much as 
possible ; but such rules as are made should be 
strictly and uniformly enforced. These rules con- 
stitute what may be called school legislation, 
and are not to be confounded with requirements 
of a less formal character, which the pupil's own 
intelligence and sense of right are to be trained 
to recognize without particular enunciation, nor 
with those moral precepts which are addressed 
rather to the pupil as an individual, and there- 
fore do not directly concern the organization of 
the school. We here treat of school govern- 
ment in the strict sense of the term. In the 
enforcement of school legislation, however, we 
are to keep in view the good of the pupil as 
well as the good of the school, but primarily 
the latter. The principle is this : The school 
is an organization designed to be the means 
of affording an education to a large number 
of pupils, and the school laws are made to 
protect that organization, and render it effective 
in the carrying out of its proper object ; hence, 
the welfare of the school must be paramount 
to that of any individual pupil. The violation 
of a rule may, indeed, be sometimes overlooked 
without injury to the offender, perhaps to his 
benefit; but, as such a course tends to weaken 
or destroy the school government, the law must 
be uniformly enforced. No enforcement of law 
can be accomplished without the punishment of 
the offender ; hence, the kind of school punish- 
ments that are suitable under the various cir- 
cumstances that arise becomes a matter for the 
j careful consideration of the teacher. Whether 
! in enforcing obedience to wholesome regulations, 
corporal punishment should be resorted to, and, 
if so, to what extent and in what manner, forms 
also an important part of the general discussion 
of school government. (See Corporal Punish- 
ment.) But there must be prevention as well as 
correction — rewards, as incentives to obedience 
and good conduct, as well as punishments to 
chastise the wrong-doer, and deter others from 
wrong-doing. A system of rewards has a very 
important bearing upon school government when 
they are dispensed with uniformity and equity. 
Under this head are included merit marks, certif- 
icates and diplomas of proficiency and good con- 
duct, and prizes. Many questions arise in connec- 
tion with the administration of school government 
in this respect. (See Prizes.) The general efficacy 
and propriety of rewards cannot be doubted. 
They appeal to a principle of human nature uni- 
versally operative. "Whatever," says Jewell, "may 
be possible in the mature man, in the line of that 
sublime abstraction, 'Virtue is its own reward,' 
the child is neither equal to such abstractions, 
nor are they demanded of him." (See Eewards.) 



GOVERNMENT 



GRADED SCHOOLS 



375 



The efficacy of school government must depend 
very much on the manner in which the teacher 
exercises the authority conferred upon him in 
virtue of his office. If he bases it upon force, if 
the language he addresses to his pupils be uni- 
formly that of command, threatening, or angry 
rebuke, there will be engendered in their minds a 
feeling of antagonism, from which will result 
disobedience, and occasionally open rebellion. On 
the other hand, if he is kind and considerate, 
but at the same time firm and resolute, he will 
gain first the respect of his pupils and then 
their affection. When that is accomplished, tha 
government of his school will be quite easy. (See 
Authority.) The following are wise suggestions 
in regard to the proper course of the teacher in 
obtaining and preserving the control of his 
school: "(1) Endeavor to convince your scholars 
that you are their friend, — that you aim at their 
improvement, and desire their good. It will not 
take long to satisfy them of this, if you are so in 
reality. (2) Never give a command w hich you 
.are not resolved to see obeyed. (3) Try to 
■create throughout the school a popular senti- 
ment in favor of order and virtue. It is next to 
impossible to carry into effect, for any length of 
time, a regulation, however important, which is 
oppose! to public opinion." Fellenberg strongly 
insists upon this as the most efficient means of 
school government. " The pupil," he says, " can 
seldom resist the force of truth when he finds 
himself condemned by the common voice of 
his companions, and is often more humbled by 
censure from his equals, than by any of the ad- 
monitions of his superiors." To the above im- 
portant injunctions for the teacher should be 
added the following : Observe in your conduit 
toward your pupils a strict impartiality. ( 'hil- 
dren are keen observers, and at once detect the 
slightest indications of favoritism ; and nothing 
more effectually than this destroys their respect 
for the teacher, and undermines his authority. 
Tact and self-control will enable the teacher to 
dispense, to a very great extent, with any decided 
demonstration of authority. "There is," says 
Page, " such a tiling as keeping a school too still 
by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, 
by keeping up a constant constraint both in him- 
self and pupils, force a death-like silence upon his 
school. You can hear a pin drop at any time, 
and the figure of every child is as if moulded 
in cast-iron. But be it remembered, this is the 
stillness of constraint, not the stillness of activity. 
There should be silence in school, a serene 
and soothing quiet ; but it should, if possible, 
be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable devo- 
tion to study, rather than the 'palsy of fear.'" 
(See Pear.) One of the most important means 
of effective school government is to keep the pu- 
pils constantly busy, to awaken in their minds 
an interest in their studies, to vary the exercises 
so as to prevent tedious monotony, to have spe- 
cial methods of relief, after their minds have be- 
come wearied by close attention. For this pur- 
pose, in primary schools, in which very young 
children are taught, movement exercises of a 



simple character may be resorted to ; and. in all 
schools, vocal music, which always exerts the 
most pleasing and satisfactory influence. Calis- 
thenics and gymnastics may be employed with 
good effect. In short, if the school is conducted 
in such a way as to recognize the peculiar nature, 
disposition, and wants of children, the school 
government will be found to involve but little 
difficulty. — See Jewell, School Government 
(New York, 1 *(>(>); Page, Theory and Practice 
of Teaching (N.Y.. 1847); Wickersham, School 
Economy (Phila., 1864); Dunn, Tlie School- 
Teacher's manual (Hartford, 1839) ; Northend, 
The Teacher's Assistant (Boston, 1859); Mor- 
rison, Manual of School Management (London); 
Le Vaux, The Science and Art of Teaching 
(Toronto, 1875). 

GRADE (Lat. gradus, a step), the relative 
standing of schools, classes, or pupils, in a system 
of education. Thus education, or instruction, is 
designated, according to its grade, primary or 
elementary, secondary, and superior or higher. 
A course of study is divided into grades for 
convenience in classification, all the pupils in 
each class being supposed to be nearly of the 
same degree of proficiency. The number of 
grades into which a course of study should be 
divided is dictated by considerations of expedi- 
ency and convenience. The grades, however, 
should be arranged so as to assign proper pro- 
portions of work for the several portions of time 
into which the school year, or the period of the 
entire curriculum, is divided. The arrangement 
of grades is also beneficial in definitely marking 
the progress of the pupil, and thus affording him 
encouragement to proceed by regular promotion 
from grade to grade. (See Class.) 

GRADED "SCHOOLS are usually defined 
as schools in which the pupils are classified 
according to their progress in scholarship as 
compared with a course of study divided into 
grades, pupils of the same or a similar degree of 
proficiency being placed in the same class. An 
ungraded school, on the other hand, is one in 
which the pupils are taught individually, each 
one being advanced as far, and as fast, as circum- 
stances permit, without regard to the progress of 
other pupils. The graded system is thus based 
upon classification ; and its efficacy as a system 
must depend very greatly upon the accuracy 
with which the classification has been made. 
Grades, however, are not to be confounded with 
classes : the former are divisions of the course of 
study based upon various considerations, the 
latter are divisions of the school based upon uni- 
formity of attainments. In a small school, the 
same number of grades may be needed as in a 
large school, the course of study being the same, 
and the promotions being made with equal fre- 
quency : hence, as the number of classes must 
be smaller, it will be necessary that each class 
should pursue two or more grades simultaneous- 
ly or in succession ; that is to say, the promo- 
tions from grade to grade will be more frequent 
than from class to class. On the other hand, in 
a large school, the number of classes may be 



376 



URADED SCHOOLS 



greater than that of the grades, which will ne- 
cessitate the forming of two or more classes, un- 
der separate teachers, in the same grade. In the 
management of a large school, this will be found 
to be better than a subdivision of the grades, re- 
quiring either an extension of the time for com- 
pleting the course, or greater frequency in the 
promotions. In the small district schools of the 
United States, the ungraded system prevails, be- 
cause each school is taught by a single teacher, 
and sometimes there is a want of uniformity in 
text-books ; but in the cities the graded system 
prevails. The advantages of the graded system 
have been thus enumerated : (1) They economize 
the labor of instruction ; (2) They reduce the 
cost of instruction, since a smaller number of 
teachers are required for effective work in a clas- 
sified or graded school ; (3) They make the in- 
struction more effective, inasmuch as the teacher 
can more readily hear the lessons of an entire 
class than of the pupils separately, and thus there 
will be better opportunity for actual teaching, 
explanation, drill, etc.; (4) They facilitate good 
government and discipline, because all the pu- 
pils are kept constantly under the direct con- 
trol and instruction of the teacher, and, besides, 
are kept constantly busy ; (5) They afford a 
better means of inciting pupils to industry, by 
promoting their ambition to excel, inasmuch as 
there is a constant competition among the pu- 
pils of a class, which cannot exist when the pu- 
pils are instructed separately. On the other 
hand, many objections have been urged against 
the system of graded schools, chief among which 
is, that the interests of the individual pupil are 
often sacrificed to those of the many, the indi- 
vidual being merged in the mass. " As a mech- 
anism," says E. E. White, in Problems in Graded 
School Management, a paper read before the 
National Educational Association, Aug. 4., 1874, 
" it [the graded system] demands that pupils of 
the same grade attend school with regularity, 
and that they possess equal attainments, equal 
mental capacity, equal vigor, equal home assist- 
ance and opportunity, and that they be instructed 
by teachers possessing equal ability and skill. 
But this uniformity does not exist. Teachers 
possess unequal skill and power. Pupils do not 
enter school at the same age ; some attend only 
a portion of each year ; others attend irregularly; 
and the members of the same class possess un- 
equal ability, and have unequal assistance and 
opportunity. This want of uniformity in con- 
ditions makes the mechanical operation of the 
system imperfect, and hence, its tendency is to 
force uniformity , thus sacrificing its true function 
as a means of education to its perfect action as a 
mechanism." There is no doubt that this diffi- 
culty is inherent in the system, and that no ad- 
ministration, however excellent, can wholly elim- 
inate it. Various methods of procedure have, 
however, been suggested to diminish its injurious 
effects. That proposed by Superintendent W. 
T. Harris, of St. Louis, and carried out in the 
public schools of that city is frequent discrimi- 
native promotions. The following are the points 



on which the system is based : (1) The different 
rate of progress in study on the part of pupils- 
of the same class, due to a difference in age, 
capacity, regularity of attendance, and op- 
portunity ; and (2) The continual diminution 
of the size of classes, particularly of the higher 
grades. " Provision," he says, " must be made 
for this difference in rates of progress by fre- 
quent reclassification ; otherwise the school will 
become a lifeless machine." This arrangement, 
however, was a reaction against the system of 
annual promotions, which necessarily require 
wide grades and unfrequent changes in clas- 
sification. The other extreme, according to the 
views of many educators experienced in school 
management and supervision, was approached 
in the recommendation by Superintendent Har- 
ris to require promotions as often as every ten 
weeks, and, besides that, to permit pupils " to- 
move forward as fast as their abilities might 
permit." The objections to incidental discrim- 
inative promotion are the following : (1) It en- 
courages precocity in the pupils ; (2) It pro- 
duces a tendency in the teacher to give an 
exclusive attention to the bright, intelligent 
pupils to the neglect of the dull ones, because 
in this way promotions are secured, which re- 
dound to the teacher's credit; (3) It deprives the 
pupils thus promoted out of the regular course, 
of the means of properly pursuing certain grades, 
or parts of grades, inasmuch as, if placed from a 
lower grade into a class of pupils already ad- 
vanced in the next higher one, they must take 
up the studies of that grade at the advanced 
point, without acquaintance with the preceding 
part of the grade, thus confusing the classification 
and embarrassing the teacher. Semi-annual pro- 
motions seem to be approved by the majority of 
educators, with such an adjustment of the num- 
ber of the grades of the course of study and the: 
requirements of each, as will enable pupils of an 
average capacity to complete the amount of 
study prescribed in the half year. There is an- 
other danger connected with the graded-school 
system, as sometimes administered, to which al- 
lusion is often made. It prescribes too much, 
leaving to the teacher too little scope for the ex- 
ercise of individual skill, judgment, and intel- 
ligence. " It is not important," says Mr. White, 
" that the several teachers accomplish the sama 
result day by day, or week by week. Nothing 
is more ridiculous than the attempt to parcel 
out primary instruction, and tie it up in daily 
or weekly prescriptions, like a doctor's doses. 
This week the class is to take certain facts in 
geography ; to count by twos to fifty (to sixty- 
would be a fearful sin !) ; to draw the vertical 
lines of a cube ; to learn to respect the aged, 
etc.!" This, however, with many other objections, 
which are urged against the system of graded 
schools, is only a fault in administration. A 
system of this kind requires intelligent, earnest,, 
and judicious direction and supervision ; with 
this, ably seconded by well-trained and expe- 
rienced teachers, it will approximate to individ- 
ual teaching, and, in the powerful, and whole.- 



GRADUATE 



GRAMMAR 



371 



some stimulus which it constantly applies to the 
pupil, prove much more effective. 

Graded schools are far more numerous in the 
United States than in England, or in most of 
the countries of continental Europe. The system 
is, however, beginning to be introduced. "The plan 
of teaching classes or grades in separate school- 
rooms has been adopted," says Adams (Free 
School System of the United States, 1875), "in 
some of the Birmingham Hoard schools, and also 
in London, I believe, and has given great satis- 
faction." So essential has it been considered in 
the United States to the efficiency of a school 
that it should be graded, that no aid is given 
from the Peabody Fund except to graded 
schools. — See Wells, The Graded School (New 
York, 1862) ; Wickersham, School Economy 
(Phil., 1868); Kiddle, etc., How to Teach (N.Y., 
1874). (See also Class, and Grade.) 

GRADUATE (Lat. graduare, from gradus, 
a step or degree), to confer an academic degree, 
thus advancing to a higher rank in scholarship ; 
also, to receive a degree from a college or uni- 
versity. A person is said to graduate when he 
takes a degree, and the college or university is 
said to graduate a student when it admits him 
to an honorable standing as a scholar by con- 
ferring a degree. The person who thus takes a 
degree, is called a graduate. (See Degrkes.) 

GRAEFE, Heinrich, a German educa- 
tor, born March 3., 1802 ; die I July 22., I860. 
He was successively rector of the real school 
and professor at the university of Jena, rector 
of the burgher school in CaSsel, principal of an 
educational institution at Geneva, and director 
of the industrial school at Bremen. He was 
also an influential writer upon educational topics. 
His discussions of the methods of German jDublic- 
school instruction are his most important pro- 
ductions. His general theory of education is 
similar to that of Graser. Like him, he was 
strongly opposed to merely general culture, be- 
cause the idea of education is not only to develop 
the faculties, but to fit one for the duties of 
life. The true end of man, according to Graefe, 
is self-surrender to the Divine will ; and the aim 
of education is to bring the individual into active 
and conscious self-abnegation. Not to develop 
ourselves, but to do the will of God by filling 
the place in society which belongs to us, this is 
the end of our being. Graefe made very 
valuable suggestions for the modification of 
public-school instruction in the direction of 
securing a more natural arrangement of study, 
and better physical culture. — See Schmidt, Ge- 
schichte der Pddagogik, vol. iv. 

GRAHAM, Isabella, celebrated for her ef- 
forts for the relief and education of the poor, and 
in behalf of other philanthropic objects, was born 
in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1742, and died in 
New York, in 1814. She was the wife of Dr. 
John Graham, an army surgeon, after whose 
death, in the West Indies, in 1774, she taught 
school in Paisley and in Edinburgh. In 1 789, she 
came to New York, and opened a seminary for 
young ladies. Her active, benevolent disposition 



had shown itself in her native country in the 
formation of the Penny Society, now the Society 
for the Relief of Destitute Sick. In New York, 
mainly through her efforts, were established 
the Society for the Belief of Poor Widows, the 
Orphan Asylum Society, the Society for Pro- 
moting Industry among the Poor, and a Sunday 
School for Ignorant Adults, — the first of its 
kind in the United States. Her benevolent 
labors in almost every field of philanthropic 
enterprise were very extensive. Her memoirs 
were published by Dr. Mason (1816), and her 
correspondence, by her daughter, Mrs. Bethune, 
mother of G. W. Bethune, D. D. (1838). 

GRAMMAR (Gr. ypaflta,' that which is 
graven or written, a written character, a letter) 
means, in the widest sense of the word, the science 
of language in general, and specially an exposi- 
tion of the organism of language and the laws 
of its structure. The first scientific investigations 
in language are met with in the writings of the 
• •reek philosophers; they are, however, not of a 
strictly grammatical nature, but discuss the rela- 
tion of thinking to speaking, and the origin of 
Jangiiage. Such speculations are found in Plato, 
Aristotle, and the Stoics. 'I he first attempt to 
construct a grammar, in the present sense of the 
word, was made in the second century, B. C, at 
Alexandria. 'I he Greek grammarians, at that 
time, explained the works of the classic authors, 
and such explanations embraced the definition 
and analysis of words. Dionysius '1 hrax divided 
grammar into six parts : delivery, explanation of 
the contents of the classics, definitions, etymology, 
analogy, and criticism. The Roman grammarians 
explained the works both of Latin and Greek 
authors, paying special attention to the expla- 
nation of archaic and obscure expressions; but 
they made no real progress in the development 
of grammatical science. Nothing at all was 
done during the middle-ages, the schools content- 
ing themselves with teaching I atin from the 
works of the later Roman grammarians. 'I he 
revival of classical studies and the Reformation, 
in the sixteenth century, led to a more thorough 
study of the Latin and Greek languages, and en- 
larged the views of grammarians by adding the 
knowledge of Hebrew to their stock of linguistic 
attainments, which were formerly limited to- 
Latin and Greek. Several Latin, (ireek, and He- 
brew grammars were published, and a beginning 
was made in the preparation of grammatical 
works on some of the modern languages. The 
first attempts at general and comparative gram- 
mars were made in the 17th century. A new 
impulse was given to grammatical studies, after 
the Sanskrit language and literature had become 
more generally known among philologists. A 
solid basis for comparative grammar was laid 
by Bopp, who, in his first comparative work 
(1816) on the Indo-European languages, com- 
pared the inflections of Sanskrit words with 
those of the Greek, Latin, Persian, and Germanic 
languages ; and, in the great work of his life, the 
Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, 
Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, and Ger- 



378 



GRAMMAR 



man (Vergleichende Grammatik, 5 vols., 1833 
— 52; 3d ed., 1868— 71; translated into English 
and French) traced back the Indo-European lan- 
guages to their origin, and pointed out their pres- 
ent relations to each other. The idea of a historical 
grammar was fully developed by Grimm in his 
German Grammar {Deutsche Grammatik. 4 vols., 
1819 — 37), which traces the history of all gram- 
matical forms in the Germanic dialects through 
the different periods of the language. Other mas- 
ter-works in the literature of comparative gram- 
mars are those by Diez on the Romanic languages 
( Vergleichende Grammatik del- romanischen 
Sprachen, 3 vols., 1836 — 42), by Miklosich on 
the Slavic languages ( Vergleichende Grammalik 
der slavischen Sprachen, 1852 — 71), and by 
Schleicher, on the Indo-Germanic languages 
(Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik, 
3d ed., 1871). Comparative grammars on Indo- 
European Languages by English authors are : 
Clark, Student's Handbook of Comparative 
Grammar, applied to the Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, 
Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and English Lan- 
guages (London, 1862); Ferrar, Grammar of 
Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin (vol. i., Lond., 1869) ; 
Helfenstein, A Comparative Gh-ammar of the 
Teutonic Languages (London. 1870); Beames, 
Comparative Grammar of the Modem Aryan 
Languages of India: Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, 
Gujarati, Maraihi, Urija, and Bengali. But 
iew comparative grammars have as yet been 
"written on other than Indo-European languages. 
The more important of them are : Bleek, 
A Comparative Grammar of the South African 
Languages (vol. I., London, 1869) ; Caldwell, 
Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Lan- 
guages (London, 1861)/ Pimentel, Cuadro de- 
scripiivo y comparativo de las lenguas indige- 
nas de Mexico — Descriptive and comparative 
table of the native languages of Mexico (Mexico, 
1874) ,■ and Epstein, Cuadro sinoptico de las 
lenguas indigenas de Mexico (Mexico, 1874). 
The most important work on the philosophy 
of language is still the classic work by 
AVilhelm von Humboldt, Ueber die Verschie- 
denheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues (1836), 
which originally appeared as an introduction 
to his work on the Kavi language. Among 
other important works for the study of gen- 
eral grammar, are : Heyse. System der Sprach- 
wissenschaft (Berlin, 1856), and Steinthal, 
Characte>-islik der haupisdchlichsten Typen des 
Sprachbaues (2d edit., 1S60) ; also, for an excel- 
lent and familiar exposition of linguistic science 
and history, Max Mueller, Lectures on the 
Science of Language (2 vols., London, 1861 — 4)/ 
and Whitney, The Life and Growth of Lan- 
guage (New York 1876). — The study of gram- 
mar now constitutes, in every civilized country, 
an essential part of the learning of languages, 
both the vernacular and foreign. Opinions, 
however, still widely differ as to the place 
which grammar should occupy in the study of 
language, the method by which it should be 
taught, the point of time at which it should be 
begun, and the amount of time which should 



be devoted to it. There is at present a more 
general agreement among educators than at any 
previous time, that not only is a grammatical 
knowledge necessary for a good command of any 
language.but that thorough training in the rules of 
grammar is one of the best means to develop the 
faculties of the mind, and is especially calculated 
to promote correct and logical thinking. (See 
Grammar, English ; English, Study op ; Clas- 
sical Studies ; Modern Languages ; and the spe- 
cial articles on Greek, Latin, Hebrew, French, 
German, etc.) 

GRAMMAR, English, has for its special 
function, an exposition of the specific organism 
and the structural peculiarities of the English 
language. There are certain relations existing 
between thought and language which must un- 
derlie every form of human speech; these consti- 
tute the basis of general grammar. Every lan- 
guage has its peculiarities of (1) literal represen- 
tation and combination (letters and words — 
orthography), (2) inflectional forms (etymology), 
(3) sentential structure (syntax), and (4) vocal 
utterance (prosody). These peculiarities it is the 
office of specific grammar to explain, so that they 
may not only b3 grasped by the understanding but 
worked into the habitual use of the language, in 
speaking and writing. English grammar has 
been defined as " the art of speaking and writing 
the English language correctly;" and as an art, 
doubtless, this states correctly its practical ob- 
ject, for it can have no other. This was the view 
taken by the early grammarians. "The principal 
design of a grammar of any language," says 
Bishop Lowth, " is to teach us to express our- 
selves with propriety in that language ; and to 
enable us to judge of every phrase and form of 
construction, whether it be right or not." Those 
who teach grammar, as well as those who com- 
pile grammatical text-books, should constantly 
keep this practical aim in view, eliminating from 
their systems of instruction every thing that 
does not directly bear upon it. " To explain." 
says Mulligan (Grammatical Structure of the 
English Language, N. T., 1852), "the laws of 
artificial language is the particular province of 
him who proposes to teach the science of gram- 
mar ; to guide to the proper use of the signs of 
artificial language, and to the correct interpreta- 
tion of the thoughts of others embodied in lan- 
guage, so far as this can be effected by reference 
to the laws and usages of language, is the prov- 
ince of him who proposes to teach grammar as 
an art." Processes of analysis and rules of syntax 
are entirely useless, except so far as they contrib- 
ute to this end. Viewed from this stand-point, 
very much of the machinery of English grammar, 
so called, as taught in schools, is of no practical 
value to the pupil, but, on the contrary, serves to 
waste his time and intellectual energies. This 
has arisen from the application of a traditional 
nomenclature and system of definitions and 
rules to the English language, which belonged to 
the Latin. " The manuals, by which grammar 
was first taught in English," says Goold Brown, 
were not properly English grammars. They were 



GRAMMAR 



379 



translations of the Latin accidence ; and were 
designed to aid British youth in acquiring a 
knowledge of the Latin language, rawer than 
accuracy in the use of their own. The two lan- 
guages were often combined in one book, for the 
purpose of teaching sometimes both together, 
and sometimes one through the medium of the 
other." Richard Grant White, in Words owl (heir 
Uses (N.T., 1870), also says, in this connection, 
"It was not until English had cast itself firmly 
and sharply into its present simple mould that 
scholars undertook to furnish it with a grammar, 
the nomenclature and the rules of which they 
took from a language — the Latin — with which 
it had no formal likeness, and by the laws of 
which it could not be bound, except so far as 
they were the universal laws of thought." This 
circumstance, it has been frequently asserted, 
has led to a complexity in English grammar 
which is not found in the language itself ; and 
hence also it has been claimed that the practical 
results of teaching English grammar can be 
reached by a much shorter and more effective 
process. Without doubt, according to the modes 
of instruction long prevalent, too much time has 
been given to impressing upon the memory mere 
theory. — technical definitions and rules, without 
a corresponding amount of practice in the actual 
use of language. This also has been traditional, 
■emanating from the practice of teaching Latin. 
The more recent methods adopted by practical 
teachers, as welt as embodied in text-books, have 
introduced considerable reform in this respect. 
(See English, the Study of.) 

The first attempt at an English grammar was 
Paul's Accidence, an English introduction to 
Lily's Latin grammar, written by Dr. John ( olet, 
•dean of St. Paul's, for the use of the school 
founded by him. and dedicated to William Lily 
(q. v.), the first high master of that school (1510). 
Lily's grammar was the exclusive grammatical 
standard in England for more than 300 years, hav- 
ing received the sanction of royal authority ; but 
the first book exclusively treating of English 
grammar was that of William Bullokar (A Bref 
Grammar for English, London, 1586). This 
was followed by John Stockwood's English Ac- 
cidence (4to, London, 1590). During the next 
century, several works of the kind appeared. 
among which may be mentioned, Den Jonson's 
English Grammar for Que benefit of all strangers, 
out of his observation of the English Language, 
/urn' spoken and. in use (London, 1634); 
Charles Butler's English Grammar (4to, Ox- 
ford, 1633), which we find quoted by Dr. John- 
son in the Introduction to his Dictionary ; and 
the Rev. Alex. Gill's English grammar written 
in Latin (Logonomia Anglica Grammaticalis, 
London, 1G19 — 21); also an English grammar 
written in Latin for the use of foreigners, by Rev. 
John Wallis, D. D. (London. 1653), from which, 
it is said, Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of 
their rules. The Treatise of English Particles 
(1681), by William Walker, the preceptor of Sir 
Isaac Newton, was a work of great learning and 
merit. This was also written in Latin. Besides 



these, there were several others of lesser note. 
During the 18th century, many grammars ap- 
peared previous to the more noted ones of Lowth 
and Murray. The latter enumerates, as the 
authors to whom he was chiefly indebted in the 
compilation of his work. Harris. Johnson, Lowth, 
Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan. Walker, and Coote. 
Many of these writers appreciated the grammat- 
ical simplicity of the English language, and to 
some extent adapted their grammars to it. Bish- 
op Lowth remarked in his preface, " the con- 
struction of this language is so easy and obvious, 
that our grammarians have thought it hardly 
worth while to give us any thing like a regular 
and systematic syntax. The English grammar, 
which hath been late presented to the public, and 
by the person [Dr. Johnson] best qualified to 
have given us a perfect one, comprises the whole 
syntax in ten lines, — for this reason : ' because 
our language has so little inflection, that its con- 
struction neither requires nor admits many rules.' " 
Brighlland's Grammar of tin- English Tongue, 
a- ilh /he Arts if Log irk, Rhetorick, Poetry, etc. 
i (London. 1711), was a valuable and celebrated 
j work, said to have been composed by some of the 
most prominent literary men of C'ueen Anne's 
reign. It was not. however, extensively adopted. 
Bishop Lowth's Short Introduction to English 
Grammar was published in 1758. "It was cal- 
culated," he states in his preface, " for the use of 
the learner, even of the lowest class"; and for 
fuller information he refers to the Hermes (A 
Philosophical Inquiry concerning Language and 
Universal Grammar, 1751) of James Harris, 
which he styles " the most beautiful and perfect 
example of analysis, that has been exhibited since 
the days of Aristotle." The learned Dr. Priest- 
ley's Rudiments of English Grammar (London, 
1762) was designed only as a brief introduction 
1 to the subject ; indeed, he considered that the 
forms and usages of the language were not 
sufficiently settled and uniform to admit of a 
complete grammar of the language. Lindley 
Murray published his first Grammar in 1795 
[English Grammar, York), soon followed by 
various other auxiliary works, all of which, al- 
most immediately, secured an introduction into 
schools. Of the Abridgment (12mo, 1797), very 
many editions have been issued, both in England 
and the United States. The annual sale of the 
book in England has been estimated at 50,000 
copies. The most valuable part of the materials 
of which this work is composed, was taken from 
Ijowth, as well as its general plan. Dr. C'heever 
(in X. Amer. Rev., xxxi., 377) calls it "an en- 
larged copy of Lowth," and says of the latter. 
" Although Lowth's treatise was written so early 
as the year 1758, yet we doubt whether there is 
at the present day a single work of equal excel- 
lence in the same compass." Murray also copied 
extensively from Priestley ; "with several of the 
best English Grammars published previously to 
his own," says Goold Brown, "he appears to have 
been totally unacquainted." This laborious writer 
who, in his Grammar of English Grammars 
(New York, 1851), so mercilessly reviews and 



380 



GRAMMAR 



criticises the works of his predecessors and con- 
temporaries in grammatical authorship, exposes 
and condemns with unmeasured severity the 
plagiarism and defects of Murray's grammar. 
"There is no part of the volume," he says, "more 
accurate than that which he literally copied 
from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, 
he was indebted for more than a hundred and 
twenty paragraphs; and even in these there are 
many things obviously erroneous. Many of the 
best practical notes were taken from Priestley, 
etc." (Gram, of Eng. Gram., ch. m.) And, in 
the same critical invective, he pronounces the 
following wholesale condemnation : " It might 
easily be shown that almost every rule laid down 
in the book for the observance of the learner, 
was repeatedly violated by the hand of the mas- 
ter. Nor is there among all who have since 
abridged or modified the work an abler gramma- 
rian than he who compiled it." But whatever 
the merits or demerits of Murray's grammar, and 
whatever may be the source of its materials, it 
doubtless owed its extraordinary success as a 
school book to its practical adaptation to the 
purposes of school instruction, and to the demand 
which previous publications had created for such 
a work. Since its publication, the number of 
English grammars published is " legion," among 
which those of Goold Brown may, without doubt, 
claim precedence for popularity and extensive- 
ness of sale in the United States. This author 
laid down a canon in regard to grammatical 
authorship which, while it is perhaps alleging too 
much to say that he has strictly obeyed it, it is to 
be wished, might receive a more general atten- 
tion : " He who makes a new grammar does 
nothing for the advancement of learning, unless 
his performance excel all earlier ones designed 
for the same purpose ; and nothing for his own 
honor, unless such excellence result from the 
exercise of his own ingenuity and taste." The 
earliest of Brown's grammars was The Institutes 
of English Grammar (New York, 1823, revised 
ed., 1854), which was followed, the same year, 
by The First Lines of English Grammar, an 
abridgment of the former. These books have 
had an immense circulation, and are still (1876) 
very extensively used in all parts of the United 
States. The Grammar of English Grammars, 
the most comprehensive work on the subject yet 
published, was completed in 1851. Many other 
text-books upon English grammar, of great merit, 
have been published both in England and this 
country, for the titles of which, see English, the 
Study op, and Text-Books. 

The methods of instruction embodied in Mur- 
ray's and Brown's grammars, and in those of 
most of their competitors for public favor, con- 
sisted mainly in committing to memory defini- 
tions and rules, in applying these, for the purpose 
of practice, to various styles of composition by 
parsing, and in the correction of false syntax. 
Most of the later grammars vary or precede these 
exercises with the analysts of sentences, afford- 
ing practice in the principles of general grammar, 
as preliminary to special rules. (See Analysis, 



Grammatical.) Still more recently, a different 
class of elementary grammatical text-books have 
appeared, under the name of Language Lessons, 
the special design of which appears to be, to sup- 
ply considerable practice in the actual use of 
language, as a substitute, to some extent, for anal- 
ysis and parsing. Probably ; there is no subject 
that has been taught with so great a disregard of 
the fundamental principles of teaching as English 
grammar ; and there is certainly none that has 
so imperfectly attained its practical aim — cor- 
rectness in the use of language. This has arisen 
from two errors of procedure : (1) an attempt 
to teach definitions without developing in the 
minds of the pupils the ideas underlying them, 
and rides previous to an illustration of their ne- 
cessity ; and (2) confining the instruction to 
merely theoretical and critical work, without 
sufficient practice in the application of principles 
and rules to the actual use of language. The intro- 
duction of analysis was the result of an effort to 
reform the first of these errors ; and the language- 
lesson system, a reaction against the second. 
Grammar being, distinctively, the science of the 
sentence, the preliminary step in all grammatical 
instruction must be, to give to the pupil. a clear 
and correct idea of what constitutes a sentence, 
by presenting for his examination and analysis 
examples of sentences of a simple structure, by 
analyzing which he will easily be made to see 
what principal parts must enter into their com- 
position, and how other parts are used as ad- 
juncts. (See Analysis, Grammatical.) The 
outline of a complete scheme of teaching gram- 
mar in all its stages is presented in the following 
points : (1) Principles, definitions, and rules 
should be progressively taught by requiring the 
pupil to analyze, and also to construct, classified 
sentences commencing with those of the simplest 
construction, and passing gradually to such as 
are of the most complex structure ; (2). No defi- 
nition or rule should be committed to memory 
and formally recited until the pupil, by sufficient 
practice, has obtained a clear conception of the 
office of the word defined, and the nature of the 
usage which the rule is intended to guide. For 
example, it is absurd to try to teach a child the 
meaning of a participle or a relative pronoun at 
an elementary stage of the instruction, because 
the structures in which alone they can occur are 
too complex to be understood at that stage. And 
it is equally absurd to require a child to commit 
to memory the rule, "A verb must agree with its 
subject or nominative in person and number," 
until by the comparison of a number of sentences 
illustrating this usage, he is made to understand 
what is meant by agreement in grammar, and 
how expressions may be incorrect by a failure to 
observe this rule. According to this method, the 
pupil is first made acquainted with the distinc- 
tion of subject and predicate, as being the essen- 
tial parts of every sentence. This forms the basis 
for teaching him the two parts of speech, — the 
verb and the noun. From this point, the sentence 
may be complicated by the successive insertion 
of modifying words, phrases, or clauses, so as to 



GRAMMAR 



381 



illustrate not only the nature and use of each 
of the parts of speech, but every peculiar struct- 
ure. This may be illustrated by the following 
example of a sentence thus expanded : (1) Boys 
learn. (2) The boys learn. (3) The studious 
boys learn. (4) The studious boys learn nqi- 
idly. (5) The studious boys learn their lessons. 
(6) The studious boys learn their lessons in 
school. (7) The boys and girls learn. (8) The 
boys learn, but the girls do not learn. (9) The 
boys who study will learn. Of course, each 
sentence here given is only a specimen of what 
may be used at each step ; and when these 
several steps have been taken, the pupil will 
have acquired a knowledge of the functions of 
the different parts of speech. Thus, in ('),he 



learns the noun and the verb ; in 



the article 



is added; in (3), the adjective; in (4), the ad- 
verb; in (5), the pronoun ; in (6), the preposi- 
tion; in (7), the conjunction, as a connective of 
words; in (8), the conjunction, as a connective 
of sentences ; in (9), the relative pronoun. After 
much preliminary oral instruction of this kind, 
the pupil may be required to learn simple defi- 
nitions. Underlying the whole process, it will 
be perceived, is the analysis of the sentence, 
pen-sing coming in at a later stage, as the appli- 
cation to particular sentences, according to a 
given praxis, of the definitions and rules learned. 
This is the method recommended by prominent 
educators of the present day. " The analysis of 
a sentence," says VVickersham, " consists in find- 
ing its elements, or in reducing it to the parts of 
speech, of which it is composed. Parsing con- 
sists in finding out these parts of speech and de- 
termining their properties anil relations. Both 
should be combined, as is the case in similar 
operations in other sciences. The botanist ana- 
lyzes a plant, and then names and describes its 
several parts. The anatomist dissects a subject, 
and then characterizes the organs thus brought 
to his notice. Grammar can be studied success- 
fully in no other way. Parsing, without a pre- 
ceding analysis, can lead but to a very imperfect 
knowledge of the organic structure of sentences." 
To the value of the analytical method, Prof. 
AVhitney thus bears witness : "Give me a man 
who can. with full intelligence, take to pieces an 
English sentence, brief and not too complicated 
even, and I will welcome him as better prepared 
for further study in other languages than if he 
had read both Cuesar and Virgil, and could parse 
them in the routine style in winch they are often 
parsed." Parsing should not be made a routine ; 
when it becomes such, it is worse than useless. 
The constant application of complicated defini- 
tions and rules derived from a language of in- 
flections, to English words and sentences having 
scarcely an inflection, is to the pupil a senseless 
process, and must only tend to dull, instead of 
cultivating and sharpening, his intellectual fac- 
ulties. It makes him, as has been said, a " pars- 
ing machine." The definitions and rules of En- 
glish grammar should be simplified, recognizing 
the fact that English is not an inflectional lan- 
guage, except in a very few particulars ; and 



hence, that the principles of agreement and gov- 
ernment have scarcely any application. The mul- 
tiplying of rules that regulate nothing is idle. 
Thus, of what use is it to cause a child to repeat, 
in parsing, twenty times perhaps in a single les- 
son, the so-called syntactical rule, " Adjectives 
relate to nouns and pronouns," when he has al- 
I ready learned as a definition that " Adjectives 
are words added to nouns and pronouns V" The 
editor of the last edition of Brown's Institutes of 
( English Grammar remarks, in an Observation 
\ on the treatment of Syntax in that work, 
" Nearly one half of the twenty-six rules of 
syntax laid down in this work are rather a rep- 
etition of the definitions comprehended in ety- 
mology than separate rules necessary to guide us 
in the construction of sentences"; and the same 
may probably be said of most grammars. All 
such needless macliinery should be eliminated. 
The application of the terms case, gender, per- 
son, and all other designations of inflectional 
variations of words, should be kept within the 
narrow limits prescribed by the simplicity of the 
language. In most systems of grammar, how- 
ever, we find these terms used in so ambiguous 
a way as almost hopelessly to obscure the sub- 
ject and perplex the learner. Sometimes, for 
example, case is used to indicate a form or in- 
flection, at others, a mere relation without 
change of form ; while the fact to be taught is, 
that where there is no inflection there is no case. 
The ride that " a noun which is the subject of a 
verb must be in the nominative case " is, in En- 
glish, useless and absurd. The senseless machin- 
ery of English grammar, as it has been generally 
taught, has brought the whole subject under rep- 
robation, as being useless in an elementary school 
curriculum, and as superseded in that of the 
high school and college, by the study of Latin ; 
while there is no doubt that college graduates, in 
the United States, are generally in nothing so 
deficient as in a practical and critical knowledge 
of their own language. While it is very true 
that the use of every language is a matter of 
habit rather than of rule; every writer and 
speaker knows, that there are myriads of in- 
stances in which the ear and the memory, how- 
ever trained by habit, will not serve as a guide, 
and that a knowledge of the principles and 
usages of language in regard to nice points of 
construction, is indispensable. " Since language," 
says Currie, " is the instrument of all thought, a 
more commanding knowledge of it than habit 
alone can give must be deemed a necessity of 
education, and particularly of all education 
which pretends to cultivate the mind." — See 
Ccbrie, Principles and Practice of Common- 
School Education (Edin. and Lond.); Wells, 
The Graded School (N. Y., 1862); Wickkr- 
sham, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 1865) ; 
Kiddle &c, How to Teach (N. Y., 1874) ; 
Brown, Grammar of English Grammars 
(N. Y., 1851); White, Words and Their Uses 
N.Y., 1870); Marcel, Tlie Study of Languages 
(N. Y., 1876). (See also English, The Study 
of, and Grammar, English.'' 



382 



GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 



GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, so called, not be- 
cause they gave instruction in English grammar, 
but from the fact of their making the teaching 
of Latin and Greek — particularly, and some- 
times exclusively, the former — their especial aim, 
existed in England from the earliest times. They 
discharged the same function as the old cathe- 
dral schools (q. v.), or the cloister schools of the 
monasteries, and were established and supported 
either by the endowments of benevolent individ- 
uals, or by governmental aprpopriations. In Eng- 
land, the endowed grammar schools are very 
numerous and many of quite ancient foundation. 
Quite a number of Royal Grammar Schools were 
established during the reigns of Henry VIIL, 
Edward VI., and Klizabeth, from funds obtained 
out of the spoils of the religious houses of the 
Catholics, broken up at that time. To a certain 
extent, they were free schools. "A few of the 
poor," says Barnard, " who were unable to pay 
for their education were to be selected — some 
according to the parish in which they were born 
or lived, some on account of the name they bore, 
— - and to receive instruction in the learned lan- 
guages, and, under certain conditions, to be sup- 
ported through the university. These Public 
Grammar Schools were thus the nurseries of 
the scholars of England, in them the poor and 
the rich, to some extent, enjoyed equal advantages 
of learning, and, through them, the way to the 
highest honors in the state, and the largest use- 
fulness in the church was opened to the humblest 
in the land." Endowed grammar schools whose 
foundation dates back to quite early times exist 
in almost all the principal towns of England. 
They are generally both day and boarding 
schools, Of these the Grammar School of King 
Edward VI., at Bromsgrove, is an example, of 
which the tercentenary commemoration of the 
foundation was celebrated March 31., 1853. 
(See Proceedinga, 8vo, Bromsgrove, 1853.) As 
a curious old book on this subject see Brinsley's 
Lucius Literarius, or the Grammar Schoole 
(London, 1612). The course of instruction is 
about the same as in the Public Schools, such as 
Eton, Harrow, etc., I^atin and Greek being quite 
prominent; and, in both classes of schools, 
pupils are prepared for admission into the uni- 
versities. These grammar schools are, therefore, 
the same as what have been called classical 
schools, belonging to the class of middle schools, 
and representing secondary instruction. They 
correspond to the gymnasia of Germany and 
the lycees of Prance ; in the latter, however, 
there is a course of instruction in modern lan- 
guages, running parallel with the ancient course, 
for all pupils beyond a certain age. Long before 
the Reformation, there were grammar schools in 
all the principal towns of Scotland, in which 
the Latin language was taught. In the lecture 
schools children were also taught to read the 
vernacular language. In Glasgow, a grammar 
school was in operation in the 15th century ; and 
the Edinburgh High School, in the early part of 
the 16th century. An act of James IV. — the 
earliest Scottish legislation on the subject of 



education (1494) — refers to the grammar schooL 
especially : 

"Item, It is statute and ordained through all the 
Realme that all Barronnes and Freeholders that are of 
substance put their eldest sonnes and aires to the 
schules fra they be sex or nine yeires of age, and till 
they remain at the Grammar Schules quhill they be 
oompetentlie founded aud have perfect Latine". 

Grammar schools, in the United States, were 
originally of the same character as in England 
and Scotland. "Tijfree school and free gram- 
mar school," says Barnard, "in the early records- 
both of towns and of the General Court of Con- 
necticut and Massachusetts, was not intended the 
common or public school, as afterwards devel- 
oped, particularly in Massachusetts, supported by 
tax and free of all charge to all scholars rich and 
poor ; neither was it a charity school, exclusively 
for the poor. The term was applied here, as well 
as in the early acts of Virginia and other states, 
in the same sense in which it was used in England, 
at the same and much earlier dates, to characterize 
a grammar school unrestricted as to a class of 
children or scholars specified in the instrument 
by which it was founded, and so supported as. 
not to depend on the fluctuating attendance and 
tuition of scholars for the maintenance of a 
master. In every instance in which we have 
traced their history, the free schools of New 
England were endowed by grants of land, by 
gifts and bequests of individuals, or by 'allow- 
ance out of the common stock of the town', were 
designed especially for instruction in Latin and 
Greek, and were supported in part by payments 
of tuition or rates by parents. These schools 
were the well-springs of classical education in 
this country, and were the predecessors of the 
incorporated academies, which do not appear 
under that name until a comparatively recent 
period." The gradual development of the com- 
mon-school system in the United States, joined 
with the partial decline of Latin and Greek as 
instruments of education, and the demand for 
studies of a more practical character, that is, 
more in demand as a preparation for the ordinary 
duties of life, have led to a different application 
of the term grammar schools. The study of 
English grammar having taken the place of Latin 
grammar in schools of an elementary grade, such 
schools came to be designated grammar schools, 
and the former grammar or classical schools re- 
ceived the name of high schools or academies. In 
most of the public-school systems of the cities of 
the Union, grammar schools are schools of a grade 
between the primary schools in which the first 
rudiments of instruction are imparted, and the 
high schools. Some of the grammar schools, so 
called, have a primary, an intermediate, and a 
grammar department. In these cases, the term 
grammar schools has been used with no definite 
idea of its propriety, except as designating a 
somewhat higher grade of schools than those in 
which the simplest rudiments of an English edu- 
cation are afforded ; since even in these English 
grammar is taught in only the higher grades or 
classes. — See Barnard, Education in Europe ; 
and American Biography, s. v. Ezekiel Cheever. 



GRASER 



GREECE 



383 



GRASER, Johann Baptist, a Catholic 
priest and educator, born in Eltmann, Germany, 
iu 1766; died in 1841. He aroused consider- 
able opposition, especially among the Catholic 
clergy, by his educational theories. He insisted 
that education should not aim at general culture, 
but at a preparation for life. Class education was 
particularly favored in his doctrine. His general 
theory of education was derived from Schelling's 
philosophy. The essence of man is reason ; and 
the aim of reason is to reproduce the divine 
likeness. A knowledge of human life, in its re- 
lation to nature and God, is necessary to every 
one ; anil no power should deprive any one of it. 
The aim of this general culture should be to 
produce a feeling of solidarity. Every one 
should be made to feel that he lives not for or 
in himself alone. Specific education must be 
individual, since it aims to prepare each one for 
his future position in life. The idea of general 
culture is contradictory to nature, and is dan- 
gerous withal. It is apt to produce restless, dis- 
satisfied people, rather than useful members of 
society. With Graser, as with Caesar, men who 
think too much were considered dangerous. In im- 
parting knowledge, the teacher should strive to 
develop the student's powers. All teachers of what- 
ever subject, should consider themselves as teachers 
of religion, for no knowledge is complete until 
its object is seen in its relation to God. Graser s 
theory, like that of Fichte, subordinates the in- 
dividual to the state in so despotic a fashion as 
to reduce the former to a mere tool. It was 
largely a reaction, in the interest of government, 
from the individualism which was at that time 
leavening all Europe. It was due. therefore, less 
to an insight into human nature than to the 
political exigencies of his time. His polemic 
against general culture is due to the same cause. 
His class education fits well in a despotic system 
of government, but overlooks the fact that man 
is, first of all, called to be a man, and not a 
tradesmau or a mechanic. His leading idea, though 
by no means originating with him, was, that edu- 
cation is properly a self-culture, — an unfolding 
from within. His philosophy had a marked 
effect upon his theory of religious views. As a 
follower of Schelling, he believed in an im- 
manent God, and was impatient, therefore, of 
catechetical instruction in religion. God must 
be found every-where, according to him, — in 
man, in the world, and not alone outside of them. 
Catechism he considered as having a tendency 
to irreligion and rationalism. A one-sided mys- 
ticism characterizes his theory, which gave rise to 
the charges of heterodoxy, which were brought 
against him. — See Schmidt, Gesckickte der 
Pddaqoaik, vol. iv. 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 
the United Kingdom of. This is the official 
title of the British empire, Great Britain 
being properly the name of the island which 
comprises England, Scotland, and Wales. In 
current language, however, the name Great 
Britain alone is generally used to designate the 
whole imperial power. At present, the British 



empire, in point of extent, is the largest in the 
world, its area being estimated at 8,700,000 sq. 
m. Its aggregate population exceeds 283,000,000. 
This work contains special articles on England, 

j Scotland, Ireland, also on each of the provinces 
of British North America, on British India, and 
on Australia (q. v.). 

GREECE, a country of south-eastern Europe, 
having an area of 19,353 sq. m. and, according to 
the census of 1870, 1, 457.894 inhabitants, nearly 
all of whom speak the Greek language, and are 
connected with the Greek Church. The number 
of thosa who speak other languages is only 
68,000, and the number belonging to other relig- 
ious denominations, only 12,600. Greece, an- 
ciently called Hellas, is the earliest of all the 
European countries, that appeal- upon the stage 
of the world's history ; and though the Greek 
states have, for many centuries, ceased to exist, 
the language and literature of the Greek nation 
have, in uninterrupted continuation, been instru- 
ments in the education of mankind. The limits 
of ancient Greece were not well defined, as the 
northern boundary line considerably varied at 
different periods. Of territories now subject to 
Turkish rule, the Sporades, Crete, Rhodes, and 

1 parts of Thessaly and Epirus are generally in- 
cluded in ancient Greece, and are inhabited by 

| Greeks at the present day. Numerous and 
flourishing colonics were established by the an- 
cient Greeks, or Hellenes, in many countries, 
especially in Sicily, southern Italy, and Asia 
Minor, and. for a longtime, took an active part in 
the literary and educational development of the 
race. In 146 B. ('., Greece became a Roman 
province ; and for more than four centuries the 
Hellenic nation remained subject to foreign rule. 
The division of the Roman Empire, in 395, cre- 
ated the Greek Empire, of which Constantinople 
was the capital, and which embraced, for a long 
time. not only theGreek territory now belonging to 
the kingdom of Greece, but both the European 
and Asiatic portions of the Turkish empire. The 
empire was destroyed, in 1453, by the Ottomans, 
or Turks; and the Greeks continued for centuries 
without national sovereignty, until, in 1829, the 
establishment of the kingdom of Greece restored 
to them a place among the independent nations 
of the earth. We shall treat, in this article, of (I) 
Ancient Greece, (II) the Greek Empire, and 
(III) Modern Greece. 

I. Ancient Greece. — In the history of edu- 
cation, the ancient ( ..eks hold a more promi- 
nent position than any other people of antiquity. 
They attained a far higher degree of intellectual 
development than existed in the Asiatic or 
African monarchies which preceded them ; or 
in the Roman republic, the Roman empire, and 
the rising monarchies of the middle ages, which 
came after them. It needed the revival of clas- 
sical learning, in the 15th century, to raise the 
intellectual culture of Europe again to the level 
of ancient Greece. Since then, the Greek language 
and literature have had a prominent part in the 
development of modern eivization. The progress 
of modern literature, especially of history, mathe- 



384 



GREECE 



matics, philosophy, the fine arts, natural science, 
and geography, is largely due to the writings of 
the Greek scholars who were the first notable 
teachers of these subjects, and who, during the 
last four centuries, have been studied by so large 
a number of the young students of the civilized 
world. The great orators of ancient Greece have 
not yet ceased to be admired ; and the greatest 
poets of the English language and of other modern 
tongues have not only derived from the master- 
pieces of the Greeks, inspiration and the laws of 
literary composition of every kind, but in many 
cases, modern poets have borrowed from them 
even the subjects of their poems. 

The earliest feature of education in ancient 
Greece, as we infer from the Homeric poems 
and other writings of that period, was the im- 
planting of a strongly filial attachment in the 
minds of children, and the ennobling influence 
of parental discipline and example. Reverence 
and obedience toward parents, respect for old 
age, and habits of modesty, chastity, and silence 
in the presence of elders and superiors were re- 
garded as the chief ornaments of children. The 
principle was generally recognized, that he who 
is to be called upon to command, must first learn 
to obey. Plainly and artlessly, sons and daughters 
were brought up to be the images of their par- 
ents. The son found in his father his model 
and his teacher, who instructed him in the use 
of arms, in gymnastic exercises, and in the wor- 
ship and fear of the gods. The daughter was 
expected to grow up, under the watchful in- 
struction of Qie mother, a skillful, prudent, and 
Virtuous woman. However uncertain the his- 
torical background of the heroic age may be, 
we know that the ideal of a hero in ancient 
Greece, which was held up to the rising youth 
to be copied, awakened more lofty aspirations, 
and exerted an educational influence far supe- 
rior to any thing that is to be met with in the 
early history of the oriental monarchies. A re- 
liance on self -activity, a longing for fame, an 
earnest effort to subject physical nature to the 
ride of the mind ; and a devotion to music and 
gymnastics, are some of the features which fore- 
shadowed the eminent position which Greece 
was to attain in the annals of education. In the 
historic age of the Greek republics, we notice a 
passionate ambition, on the part of the noblest 
minds, for distinction in political life, in art, and 
in science. A nobler view was taken, than ever 
before, of the functions of the state ; and educa- 
tion was recognized as the most important sub- 
ject to which state legislation could be directed. 
The good of the state was au object constantly 
held in view, and the individual and private 
interests of the pupils were subjects of secondary 
consideration. No other country ever had an 
educational legislation like that which is ascribed 
to Lycurgus (q. v.), and Solon (q. v.) ; and no- 
where do we find such attempts to develop and 
test new educational ideas, as those made by 
Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Xeno- 
phon, Epicurus, Zeno, and a host of others. A 
characteristic feature of the educational system 



of the Greeks, from the earliest period of 
their history to the downfall of their country, is 
the attempt at a harmonious development of the 
powers of the mind as well as of the body. Gym- 
nastics (q. v.) constituted an essential part of 
Greek education, and was taught and practiced 
in the gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercise. 
All that part of education which related more 
especially to the cultivation of the mind, was 
called by some, Plato and Plutarch for instance, 
music ; while others separated grammar from 
music, and divided education into three parts : 
grammar, music, and gymnastics. The centers 
of Greek education were the two rival capitals, 
Athens and Sparta. Their educational systems, 
though both embraced gymnastics and music, 
differed in many and important respects. Sparta, 
the representative of the Doric tribes, laid greater 
stress on the subordination of the individual 
to the state and preferred physical to intellectual 
culture ; while Athens, the representative of the 
more highly civilized Ionians, was the birthplace 
of those grand theories which, in the history of 
education, are set down as the chief characteris- 
tics of ancient Greece. (See Athens, and 
Sparta.) Though we know but little of the 
schools and educational systems of other Grecian 
cities, there can be no doubt that all of them, as 
well as the colonies, took a greater or less part in 
the educational ideas which were developed and 
carried out in Athens and Sparta. One of the 
greatest of all Greek teachers, Pythagoras, was 
a native of the island of Samos, and established 
the famous school, which has immortalized him 
in the history of education, in Croton, one of the 
Greek colonies in southern Italy. (See Pythag- 
oras.) With the subjection of Greece to the 
rule of Macedonia, its achievements in the work 
of education began to decline. Of considerable 
influence, in the later history of Greece as well 
as in that of the Roman empire, were, however, 
the principles of the Epicureans and the Stoics. 
The founder of the former was Epicurus, who 
died at Athens, in 270, B. G, after having taxight 
there with great success for 35 years. He regarded 
a happy life, a quiet and cheerful mind, and 
an undisturbed enjoyment of pleasure, as the 
highest attainable good. Intellectual pleasures 
were valued by him more highly than sensual 
ones, and friendship, tranquillity, patience in 
suffering unavoidable pain, and a temperate and 
natural mode of life, were called by him the car- 
dinal virtues. Epicurus and his first followers 
were entirely free from the licentiousness which, 
during the times of the Roman emperors, was 
considered the chief characteristic of that school. 
The Stoics were founded by Zeno, who died 
at Athens, in 260, B. C, after teaching there for 
50 years with as great success as his contempo- 
rary, Epicurus. The name Stoics was given to 
his school because he used to assemble his pupils 
in a GToa, or porch. Zeno regarded virtue as the 
highest good, and he defined it as the firm ad- 
hesion to established principles of rectitude. 
Vice was, in his opinion, the only evil. He, 
therefore, laid greater stress than Epicurus upon 



GREECE 



385 



the control of passions and emotions, upon the 
subordination of the body to the mind, upon re- 
fraining from sensual pleasures, and upon every 
kind of abstinence and self-denial, liven life 
•itself should be relinquished, if it hindered the 
exercise of conscience. In opposition to Epicu- 
rism, Stoicism, in later times, was the symbol of 
an austere morality. While Greece proper, at 
this time, presented more and more a picture of 
continual decay, the educational institutions of 
Athens and Sparta perishing with the total loss 
of their independence, the city of Alexandria, in 
Egypt, became the seat of Greek science and 
literature, and its teachers and schools obtained 
a world-wide reputation. (See ALEXANDRIA N 
School.) After the rise of Christianity, the 
Alexandrian school of philosophers developed the 
system of Neoplatonism, which endeavored to 
harmonize oriental theology with Greek dialec- 
tics, and to dislodge Christianity by a new uni- 
versal philosophy. The fame of the Greek 
teachers in Alexandria also gave rise to the for- 
mation of the first school of Christian theolo- 
gians, some of whom endeavored to keep alive 
in the church au intimate acquaintance with the 
greatest representatives Of ancient Greek litera- 
ture. These efforts, however, were not success- 
ful ; but the fact that the earliest literature of 
the Christian church is, like the New Testament, 
itself, written in the language of ancient ( treece, 
has secured to the latter, at all times, au impor- 
tant educational influence in the Christian world. 
— See Guote, History of Greece; Hochheimee, 
System der griechischen Erziehung (1785) ; 
Goess, Die Erziehungswissenschqft nach den 
Gruridsatzen der Griechen und RSmer (1808); 
Krause, GescAichte der Erziehung und des 
Unterrickts bei d>-n Griechen. Etruskern und 
RSmern (1851); Jacobs, Ueber die Erziehung 
der Griecken zur SiUlichkeit, in vol. in. of his 
PermischteSchri/ten, commenced in 1 B33 : trans, 
by Felton. in Classical studies, by Sears, Fel- 
tox, and Edwards (1843). A selection of maxims 
on education from the Greek classics is given in 
Xikmeyer. OriginaMeUen griechischer undrO- 
mischer Glassiker iiher die Theorie der Erzie- 
hung und des Unterrickts (1813) ; Schmidt, 
History of Education (New York, 1842); Wn> 
kixs. National Education in Greece in the 
Fourtk Century before Christ (London, 1872). 
II. The Greek Empire. — When, in the 
4th century, A. I)., Constantine transferred the 
capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, 
which from him received the name of Con- 
stantinople, the predominance of the Greek 
language and literature in the educational insti- 
tutions of the empire was firmly established. 
About 70 years later, in 395, Theodosius, at his 
death, divided the empire into the Western Em- 
pire which remained under the influence of 
Latin or Roman culture, and the Eastern or 
Byzantine Empire, which, in language and civili- 
zation, was almost exclusively Greek : and which, 
therefore, is sometimes called the Greek Em- 
pire. It dragged out a wretched existence, until, 
in 1453, it was conquered by the Turks. Though 



thus existing through a period of more than a 
thousand years, and spreading over a vast extent 
of territory, this empire presents in the history 

I of education little more than a blank. A general 
stagnation became early the chief characteristic 
of the intellectual condition of the empire. No- 
thing at all was done for the instruction of 

i the masses; the few schools ill which the Greek 
classics were taught proved unable to produce a 
single great educator. "The Greeks of Constan- 
tinople held in their lifeless hands," Bays Gibbon, 
"the riches of their fathers, without inheriting the 
spirit which had created and improved that sa- 
cred patrimony: they read, they praised, they 
compiled, but their languid souls seemed alike 
incapable of thought and action. In the revolu- 
tion of ten centuries, not a single discovery was 
made to exalt the dignity or promote the hap- 
piness of mankind." The expulsion of the last 
Xeoplatonists from Constantinople, under Jus- 
tinian (527 — 565), had' a disastrous effect: and. 

j for some time, a few convents on the islands of 
the archipelago and on Mount Athos offered the 
only refuge to science and education. A few of 
the long list of emperors deserve credit for having 

! at least attempted a general reform. The most 
noted among these was Bardas (850). He founded 
in Constantinople a free univeratty, with a free 
O institution, making it independent of the church 
and the clergy. Distinguished teachers of philos- 
sophy, geometry, astronomy, and higher gram- 
mar were appointed, and the emperor himself at- 
tended their lectures. He established special 
schools for different sciences, paid the teachers 
from the public treasury, and intrusted the 
superintendence of this entire system of educa- 
tional institutions to the philosopher Leo. During 
the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, which be- 
gan in 867, Byzantine literature entered upon its 
most brilliant period. and Constantinople became 
the central seat of philological and encyclopaedic 
erudition. Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913- 

l 959), established four special schools for philos- 
ophy, rhetoric, geometry, and astronomy, and 
required in every public officer of a higher grade 
a knowledge of philosophy and rhetoric. Among 
the succeeding emperors, Constantine Ducas 
especially encouraged education; but no impor- 
tant or lasting results were, at any time, ob- 
tained. The decay steadily advanced, aud the 
empire was, from an intellectual no less than 
from a political point of view, a complete ruin 
when it fell a prey to the conquering arms of 
the Turks.' — See Schmidt, Geschichte der Pd- 
dagogik. 

111. Modem Greece. — The wars which the 
Sultans waged against the Byzautine empire 
being not only directed against a hostile nation, 
but against a hostile religion, were particularly 
disastrous to Greek learning. The few scholars 
who succeeded in saving their lives, were either 
forced to fly to foreign lands or to hide in 
cloisters. The establishment of schools of an 
advanced grade for the instruction of Greek 
youth was even more strictly forbidden than the 
erection of churches. In consequence of these 



386 



GREECE 



measures, schools and all other means of culture 
fell into entire neglect ; and the ignorance of the 
Greek population became, from year to year, more 
dense and extensive. After a long period, and 
particularly during the eighteenth century, the 
Turks, believing their authority to be beyond 
danger of overthrow, began to be less suspicious 
of their Greek subjects; and, in consequence, 
the condition of the latter grew more tolerable. 
Gradually, a more frequent intercourse with 
other Christian nations of Europe awakened 
among the Greeks a stronger desire for learning, 
which was easily gratified by their growing- 
wealth. Public schools, before so rare, began to 
increase in number ; while there also sprang up, 
in some of the cities, schools of a higher grade, 
in which was taught ancient Greek history, and, 
in some cases, the elements of philosophy, mathe- 
matics, rhetoric, and natural philosophy. The 
most efficient and best known of these schools 
were those situated upon the islands of Patmos 
and Scio, at Cydonia, Smyrna, Zagora (with a 
second one at Melia, on Mt. Pelion in Thessaly), 
two in Yanina in Epirus, one on Mount Athos, 
two in the Peloponnesus, one at Kumtchisnie 
on the Bosporus, and two in the Danubian 
Principalities, — at Bucharest and Jassy. These 
schools which were mostly supported by the en- 
dowments of patriotic citizens, and by voluntary 
contributions, were, in most cases, under the 
direction of excellent scholars, who had received 
their education in Italy, Prance, or Germany, 
and who devoted their time to the instruction of 
youth at a merely nominal salary. The condition 
of the elementary schools of that period was 
extremely miserable ; and not until a few years 
before the insurrection, did any improvement 
take place. A learned Greek, Georgios Kleo- 
bulos, having become acquainted with the moni- 
torial system of instruction, introduced it into 
Greece. This was the condition of public instruc- 
tion at the outbreak of the revolution. During 
the struggles that followed, this condition gradu- 
ally deteriorated. In the neighboring Ionian 
Islands, which were under the protectorate of 
Great Britain, there had been, in the meanwhile, 
a decided improvement in the condition of liter- 
ary institutions. Several Hellenic schools and 
a gymnasium had been established by the govern- 
ment; and a university had been endowed by 
the liberality of Lord Guilford, which, although 
imperfect in many respects, had educated many 
Grecian youths, who, upon the establishment of 
a regular government in the new kingdom of 
Greece, became its leading statesmen. Count 
Capo d'Istria, upon being elected president, by 
the national convention, in 1828, erected, besides 
numerous public schools, a gymnasium on the 
island of iEgiiia, which soon became of great 
benefit to Greece. Under King Otho, the entire 
system of public education was reorganized; and 
the relations of the schools and of the depart- 
ment of education were carefully regulated. 

Primary Instruction. — The common schools 
of Greece are regulated by the law of 1833, which 
makes school attendance obligatory upon all 



children between the ages of 5 and 12 years.- 
This requirement is, however, far from being 
enforced, as is shown by the fact that, in 1870, 
but 33 per cent of adult males, and but 7 
per cent of adult females, were able to 
read and write. There were 55 communes, in 
1870, in which not one woman was able to read 
or write. In the army, the proportion of totally 
illiterate men was 48 \ per cent, and in the navy, 
it was 53 i per cent. Every parish is required 
to have at least one school ; and, in case its 
means do not suffice to support a school, aid is 
afforded by the government. There are also 
"irregular schools" in towns which cannot sup- 
port the regular government school. In the 
irregular schools, the old method of individual 
instruction is still followed. Separate schools 
for girls are found in large cities only. A rule 
adopted by the educational department, without 
any authority of law. however, provides that, in 
every school in which the number of scholars 
exceeds 150 or 250, there shall be one or two 
assistant teachers respectively. Owing to a want 
of funds, this ride has not been fully carried out 
except in the chief towns of the nomarchies 
(provinces) and eparchies (districts). The 
schools of each parish are governed by a local 
board of inspectors, called the epliory. This 
board is composed of the burgomaster as presi- 
dent, one of the priests of the place, and from 
two to four private citizens. Where the inhabi- 
tants of the districts belong to different faiths, 
a priest from each of the denominations is. 
chosen. The ephory have the care, oversight, and 
management of all the schools in the parish, and 
may exempt poor families from taxation for 
school purposes. They must visit the schools 
at least once a month, and report to the eparch 
or the nomarch the defects in the schools, as well 
as the improvements which they may consider 
necessary. They also present a report on the 
financial condition of the school. Committees, 
similar in their composition to the ephories, were 
provided for the eparchies and nomarchies by 
the law of 1833. The eparchs are required to 
visit the schools under their charge semi-annu- 
ally, and the nomarchs the schools of the nom- 
archy annually ; and they report to the depart- 
ment on the condition of the schools, and the 
conduct of the teachers and of the local inspec- 
tors. The principal of the school at the cap- 
ital of the eparchy has the supervision of 
all the schools in that district, as respects the 
professional skill and capacity of the teachers ; 
and the principal of the school at the capital of 
a nomarchy has a similar supervision of all the 
schools in his province. It is the duty of these 
principals to visit the schools under their charge 
every six months, and report on them to the 
director of the teachers' seminary at Athens, 
who is the chief superintendent of all the schools. 
The schools are divided into two grades : the 
lower or monitorial, including eight classes, in 
each of which the scholars spend from one to 
two years ; and the higher, syndidactic or simul- 
taneous, composed of two (in the cities three) 



GREECE 



387 



annual classes. All the scholars are instructed 
iu reading', writing, arithmetic, the rudiments of 
modern Greek grammar, and religion. To these 
studies are added, in the higher schools, the 
elements of geography. Biblical and ( li-eek his- 
tory, and the grammar of the ancient Greek 
language. Religious instruction is generally im- 
parted by the teacher : but, in a few cases, 
where the scholars are of different religion, the 
parents of that denomination which is in a 
minority, provide separate religious instruction 
at their own expense. The scholars are also 
required to furnish short compositions. Music 
and drawing are taught in but very few schools, 
owing to the scarcity of teachers. The teachers 
are required to keep a general register of the 
scholars, a record of school delinquencies, a rec- 
ord of the visits of inspectors and other persons. 
a register of children who. through want of 
room, have been refused admission, a roll of 
honor, a record of reprimands and punishments, 
a book for each scholar, in which his conduct is 
noted twice a month by the teacher and the 
parents, registers of the different classes, and a 

monthly exhibit of the condition of the scl 1, 

not only with respect to the scholars and their 
studies, but also in regard to the school-building 
etc. A quarterly report is sent to the epareh or 
nomarch, drawn up from these monthly exhibits, 
and signed by the teacher and the local inspector. 
Two general examinations are held annually, — 
at the end of February.and at the end of August. 
of which the latter only is open to the public. 
The final examinations of the highest, classes 
take place at the end of the year, and are i on- 
ducted by a special examining committee. The 
school laws are read to the scholars and are 
affixed to the walls of the school rooms, where 
they remain during the year. Corporal punish- 
ment is strictly forbidden: the usual punishments 
being the loss of credit marks, detention, re- 
primands, and expulsion. Pupils are rewarded 
by certificates of merit, admission to the roll of 
honor, and premiums at the closing examination 
of the year. A teachers' seminary has ex- 
isted in Athens since the first year of the 
kingdom, to which a model school is attached. 
Upon passing an examination teachers receive 
diplomas of the first, second, or third grade, ac- 
cording to their degree of proficiency. This 
seminary also furnishes the Christian population 
of the Turkish provinces with teachers. Female 
teachers are educated in the higher female 
schools, particularly in the one founded by the 
Association of the Friends of Education, in 
Athens. The minimum monthly salary is 100 
drachmas 1 1 draeluna=?0.19.3) for teachers iu 
the capital of a nomarchy, 90 drachmas for 
teachers in the chief towns of eparchies. 80 
drachmas for second-class teachers, and 50 drach- 
mas for third-class teachers. The salaries of 
teachers at the capitals of the nomarchies and 
eparchies are increased 10 drachmas a month. 
but cannot exceed 140 drachmas. Besides the 
salary, the teachers of all classes are provided 
with free lodging, and receive from the parish 



treasury a monthly apportionment of 22 lepia 
(100 lepta equal to 1 drachma) for each pupil. 
As, with the exception of the islands of Syra, 
Tino, Xaxia, and Santorini, the inhabitants of 
which are Roman Catholics, almost the entire 
population of the kingdom belong to the I heck 

Church, no provision has been made forde a- 

inational schools ; and hence the members of 
both churches, in these islands, send their children 
to the same school. In some places. schools have 
been established by the Catholic clergy for the 
children belonging to that church : but these are 
supported entirely by private means. The in- 
fluence of the clergy in the government schools 
is very limited not extending beyond the super- 
vision of the religious instruction and the ap- 
proval of the religious books to be used. The in- 
crease in the number of schools, as well as in the 
school attendance, during the present century, 
has been very marked. While, in 1830, there 
were only 71 schools, with 672] scholars, and. in 
1858, 7-">4 schools, with 51,596 pupils, there 

were, in 1872, 991 primary scl Is for boys, and 

L86 schools for girls, with 1713 male and 560 
female teachers, and 7.'S..">so pupils, of whom 
61,885 were boys, and 11,695, girls. In 1874, 
there where 1227 schools, with 81,449 pupils. 

Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
tion is imparted in the Hellenic schools and the 
gymnasia'. The Hellenic schools correspond to 
what in Germany are called Latin schools, and 
also to the higher burgher schools, as they are 
intended not only to prepare boys for the gym- 
nasia, but also to provide a higher education 
for those who intend to follow a business or 
trade. The gymnasia correspond to the higher 
classes of the German gymnasia, and prepare 
l hose for the university who look forward to a 
learned profession. Each one of the eparchies 
is required to have, at least, one Hellenics! hooJ ; 
and each one of the nomarchies. a gymnasium. 
The secondary schools are governed by the royal 
ordinance of 1837. In order to receive support 
from the state, they must have no denomina- 
tional character. The Hellenic schools of each 
province are under the supervision of the prin- 
cipal of the nearest gymnasium, who visits them 
and reports on their condition annually. The 
Hellenic schools comprise three, and the gym- 
nasia, four annual classes. The course of study 
in the Hellenic schools is as follows: religion 
and penmanship (2 hours each per week in all 
three classes), history and mathematics (3 hours 
each), French language (4 hours), the Creek 
language (12 hours), geography (3 hours in the 
first class, and 2 in each of the others), and Latin 
(3 hours, in the third class only). In the gym- 
nasia, the course of study is as follows: religion 
and natural philosophy (2 hours each in all four 
classes), mathematics, history, and French (each 
3 hours), Latin (5 hours), Greek (9 hours), geog- 
raphy (3 hours in the first two classes, and 2 in 
the two highest classes); the elements of philos- 
ophy are taught 2 hours per week. Religious 
instruction is given in the Hellenic schools by 
one of the teachers, and in the gymnasia by 



388 



GREECE 



GREEK CHURCH 



regularly appointed priests. In the Hellenic 
schools, chrestoinathies are used ; and the classic 
authors in Greek and Latin are generally read 
in the gymnasia. Text-books have been pre- 
pared for all the various branches of study, and 
nave steadily improved. The system of class 
teachers prevails in lhe Hellenic schools ; but, in 
the gymnasia, all the branches, with the excep- 
tion of Greek, geography, and history, are taught 
by special professors. The law also provides for 
a library for the use of the teachers and. students 
in each Hellenic school and gymnasium ; but 
very little has, as yet, been accomplished in this 
direction. The final examination, is conducted 
by the professors of the gymnasium, in the pres- 
ence of the ephory, and is both oral and written. 
The instructors are styled professors, tutors, and 
assistants. The title of professor is given to those 
only who teach the above-mentioned branches in 
the gymnasia ; all others who hold permanent 
positions as instructors in the gymnasia and 
Hellenic schools, are styled tutors ; but those 
who are not permanently engaged are called 
assistants. The royal ordinance of 1850 makes 
it obligatory on a candidate for a position as 
teacher in a Hellenic school to have attended, 
besides a full course in the gymnasium, at least • 
two years the philosophical and philological 
course in the university, and to have taken part 
in the exercises of the philological seminary. In 
the Hellenic schools, the teachers are divided 
into three classes in regard to salaries, receiving 
respectively 100, 130, and 150 drachmas per 
month ; while the principals receive 200 drach- 
mas. In the gymnasia, the principal receives 300 
drachmas, and the professors 250. These salaries 
may be increased one-fifth after five years' 
service. Hellenic schools and gymnasia may 
also be established by private persons, upon re- 
ceiving permission from the government. Higher 
schools for girls have been established in the 
larger cities ; but they are, with one exception, 
private institutions The course of study in the 
private institutions is of three years, and does not 
differ from that pursued in the Hellenic schools, 
except that French and English are taught instead 
of Latin. Instruction is given by both male and 
female teachers ; but there must be, in all cases, 
a female principal. These schools are subject to 
■governmental supervision, under a special ephory. 
The exception mentioned above is the Central 
School of the Society of the Friends of Education, 
at Athens. This school, which is specially in- 
tended to train female teachers, has four classes. 
The fourth class is obligatory for those only who 
wish to become teachers in the higher schools. 
In 1870, there were 15 gymnasia, and 144 Hel- 
lenic schools, with 7780 pupils ; and 23 private 
institutions, with 1589 pupils of both sexes. The 
number of gymnasia, in 1872, was 17. According 
to the latest accounts, the number of higher 
schools for girls was 10, with about 900 pupils ; 
and the Central School has over 100 pupils. 

Superior Instruction. — The Otho University, 
in Athens, was founded in 1837, and is organized 
on the plan of the German universities. It has 



made rapid progress during the short period of its 
existence. From 35 students that entered at the 
time of its foundation, it has risen to 1,205 stu- 
dents, in 18G9. The total number of students that 
attended from 1837 to 18G9 was 5,245. The num- 
ber of professors, in 1 874, was 43 ; that of students, 
1,352. It is composed of four faculties. — theol- 
ogy, law and political economy, medicine and 
pharmacy, and philosophy. Each faculty elects its 
own rector and a representative ; and these, with 
the president appointed by the king, constitute 
the academic council. The professors elect a repre- 
sentative to the national legislature. A philo- 
logical and pedagogical seminary for the training 
of professors and teachers for the gymnasia 
and sjsecial schools, is connected with the uni- 
versity. There are also connected with the uni- 
versity a library, a botanical garden, a museum 
of natural history, an observatory, a collection 
of coins and antiquities, and a hospital for prac- 
tice and demonstration in medicine and phar- 
macy. Instruction is free, the salaries of the 
professors being paid by the government. The 
endowments, of which there are quite a large 
number, are used for incidental expenses. The 
university of Corfu was abolished in 1865. 

Special Instruction. — The following special 
schools were in operation in 1872 : five com- 
mercial schools, four theological schools, four 
nautical schools, one polytechnic school, and one 
school of agriculture. Of the theological schools, 
three were of a lower, and one of a higher grade. 
The course of study in the lower schools, which 
are intended to educate village priests, is essen- 
tially the same as that pursued in the Hellenic 
schools, the principal difference being, that the 
writings of the church fathers are used in con- 
nection with the pagan classics, These three 
schools had about SO students. The higher sem- 
inary, known as the Rhizarian School, was 
established, about 1845, by endowments from 
two brothers, named Rhizaris. It has five an- 
nual classes, in which the students receive a 
thorough theological training ; and, upon gradu- 
ating, they are eligible to all the church offices. 
It has about 40 students. Orphan asylums 
were not established until quite recently. There 
are two in Athens, — one founded by Queen 
Amelia, for girls ; and another, by two liberal 
Greeks, for boys. A third one, in Syra, is sup- 
ported by the parish. These three asylums had, 
in 1869, 158 pupils. — See Schmid, Encyclopddie, 
vol. in ; Barnard, National Education in Eu- 
rope, vol. II. 

GREEK CHURCH (also called Greek 
Catholic, Orthodox Gi'eek, and Eastern 
Church,) is the name generally used in English 
to designate that part of the Christian Church 
which recognizes only the first seven of the so- 
called oecumenical councils, and, in addition to 
them, the so-called Quini-sexlum of Constanti- 
nople, held in 692, and the council of Constanti- 
nople, held under Photius in 879 and 880. The 
chief dogmatic difference between the Greek 
Church and the Roman Catholic Church relates 
to the doctrine concerning the procession of the 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



389 



Holy Ghost, the former charging the latter with 
altering the faith of the undivided church on 
this subject, as it hail been defined by one of the 
oecumenical councils. This church is the state 
church io Russia, Greece, Montenegro, Servia. 
and Roumania; and it predominates in European 
Turkey, and in the Servian and Roumanian dis- 
tricts of Hungary. The population connected 
with the church numbers about 70 millions. 
The church organizations in the countries named 
are all, in point of government, independent of 
each other; though honorary primacy is con- 
oeded to the see of Constantinople. The virtual 
separation of the < Jreek < Ihurch from the churches 
of western Europe began in the 9th century, 
under Patriarch Photius, and was fully con- 
summated in the 11th. As the state church of 
the Eastern or Greek Empire, this church had a 
controlling influence upon the educational affairs 
of south-eastern Europe (see Greece) ; and 
since, through its instrumentality, the larger por- 
tion of the Slavic race were converted to Chris- 
tianity, it has been no less influential in the edu- 
cational history of Russia and other Slavic 
countries. The lethargy into which the Greek 
Church appeal's to have, sunk, is reflected in the 
slowness of educational progress in all the coun- 
tries of the Creek faith. This lethargy is now 
on the wane. An active intercourse has, for some 
time, existed between Greek and Anglican the- 
ologians, and at union conferences held at Bonn, 
in 1K74 and 1 S 7 ~> , between prominent represen- 
tatives of the Greek, Anglican, and ( lld-( latholic 
communions, the unity of these three churches 
in all essential doctrines was declared. The. 
strenuous efforts which, for some time, have been 
made, in all the countries of the Greek faith, to 
bring their educational systems to the highest 
state of perfection, will be greatly strengthened 
by these church movements. Already, the church ] 
has theological faculties, modeled after those in j 
Germany, connected with all the universities of 
Russia (except Dorpat), Greece, Servia. and Rou- 
mania, as well as with the Austrian university of 
Czernowitz. The condition of the ecclesiastical 
seminaries has likewise greatly improved. Many 
of the theological professors have received their 
education at the German universities ; and their 
efforts to raise the educational standard of the 
young clergy have met with considerable success, i 
As the institutions for secondary and primary 
instruction, in all the countries professing the 
Greek religion, have a denominational character, j 
religious instruction being either given or super- 
intended by the clergy, the improvement of 
theological education exerts an influence upon 
the schools of every grade, and greatly aids the 
progress of education in general. 

GREEK LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- 
sical languages, which, as such, constitute an im- 
portant part of the course of study in all the 
higher literary institutions of the civilized world. 
As the original language of the New Testament, 
and of the early fathers of the Christian church, it 
has a special importance for Christian theologi- 
ans, aud for all who desire to study the Script- 



ures in the original tongue. In the middle ages, 
the Greek language was but rarely studied; 
although Bede, Alcuin, Erigena, Abelard, and 
many other scholars are said to have understood 
it. Toward the close of the 14th century, several 
Greek scholars, who came as fugitives to Italy, 
awakened in the learned institutions an interest 
in their language. Florence and Rome were the 
first centers of the new study ; but, in Italy, the 
study of the Latin classics gradually super- 
seded, to some extent, that of the (Jreek lan- 
guage, which found its most enthusiastic admir- 
ers and students in Germany and the Netherlands. 
Erasmus. Reuchlin. and Melanchfhon were the 
greatest Greek scholars in western Europe ; and 
they also introduced the study of the Creek 
classics, though to a limited extent, into many of 
the institutions of learning. The appeal of the 
reformed churches from the Latin Vulgate to 
the Creek original of the New Testament greatly 
increased the demand for a knowledge of the 
Creek. In the 17th century, there was a general 
decline of the study throughout Europe; but, in 
the 18th century, it was resumed with new vigor; 
and it was especially the I hitch school of Hem- 
sterhuis and Yalrkenaar that promoted the 
philosophical study of the language. At the be- 
ginning of the 19th century, Gottfried Hermann 
greatly improved the method of teaching Greek; 
and. more recently, the study of Greek, like that 
of Latin and all the modern languages, has been 
greatly benefited by the result of comparative 
philology. Creek is one of the most important 
branches of the Indo-European languages. Its 
relation to the other branches of this family has 
not yet been definitely determined; and opin- 
ions still differ as to whether Greek and Latin 
(particularly the latter) are entirely indepen- 
dent branches, or whether they spring from a 
single branch, now lost, which was co-ordinate 
with the Sanskrit, the German, the Slavic, and 
other branches. Greek was probably spoken as 
long ago as fifteen centuries before the ( Ihristian 
era. 'anil appears, in the most ancient traces 
which are left of it. split into a Dumber of dia- 
lects, the two principal of which were the Doric 
and the Ionic. The largest and most important 
portion of Creek literature was written in the 
Ionic dialect, in the history of which different 
periods may be distinguished : the old Ionic or 
epic dialect, which appears in the poems of 
Homer, and remained the dialect of epic poetry; 
the new Ionic, in which the history of Herod- 
otus is written ; and the Attic, which is the 
language of the larger portion of Grecian liter- 
ature. Greek was spoken, in the earliest times 
to which we can trace it. in I J recce as well as in 
parts of Asia Minor; subsequently, the establish- 
ment of Creek colonies carried it as a living lan- 
guage to Sicily, southern Italy, and southern 
Gaul. Through the conquests of Philip and 
Alexander of Macedon, the languages of Creeco 
and Macedon gradually mingled ; and new dia- 
lects were produced, the most important of 
which was that spoken at Alexandria, and used 
in the Creek translation of the Old Testament, 



390 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



in the New Testament, and in the early litera- 
ture of the Christian Church. During the first 
three centuries of the Christian era, Greek held 
a position similar to that subsequently occupied 
for a long time in Europe by the French lan- 
guage, being the favorite language of literature 
and of the educated classes, it continued to 
exist as a spoken language in southern France 
during several centuries after the introduction 
of Christianity; and in Sicily and southern Italy, 
until the 11th century. Through the influence 
of the Romans, and subsequently of other nations 
that conquered south-eastern Europe, the Greek 
language, as spoken by the people, was consider- 
ably modified ; and gradually the modern Greek, 
or Romaic, arose, at present the language of the 
entire population of the kingdom of Greece, a-nd 
of the numerous Greek population of Turkey. 

The Creek alphabet was derived from the 
Phoenicians, though the time when, and the 
manner in which, it was introduced, are still sub- 
jects of learned controversies. Accentuation, as 
well as the signs of aspiration, are supposed by 
many to have been invented by Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, and to have been introduced about 
200 B. G, for the purpose of teaching the lan- 
guage to foreigners. The pronunciation of an- 
cient Greek is still a matter of discussion. The 
Greek scholm-s who revived the study of the lan- 
guage in western Europe, pronounced it like the 
modern Greek of their time; and this system is 
called iotacism, or Reiichlhiism, after Reuchlin, 
who was its chief advocate in western Europe. 
In opposition to it, Erasmus maintained that each 
vowel and diphthong had its own proper sound, 
a like the Italian a, i. like the Italian i, v like the 
French it, c and ;/ like the Italian long and short 
e, respectively, and that /?, y, tS, f, -, it, and % had 
respectively the sounds of the German b, g, d, z, 
I, p, and cli. This system was called etrtcism. The 
controversy between the two systems is not yet 
ended, but distinguished scholars, like Gladstone, 
Eichthal, Groves, and Felton, recommend the 
introduction of the modern Greek pronunciation 
into the English, French, and American schools. 
The development of the Greek language has been 
of an exclusively national character, no influence 
having been exerted upon it by any foreign lan- 
guage. The few words which it received from 
any foreign language (Persian) , it thoroughly as- 
similated with its own. It is rich in radical words, 
and in compounds and derivatives. It also pos- 
sesses an abundance of grammatical forms ; 
though, in this respect, it is inferior to some of 
the older branches of the Indo-European family, 
as the Sanskrit and the Zend. But it is not ex- 
ceeded by any language in the number of its par- 
ticles, and in the ability to exprese, by means of 
them, the most varied relations and modifications 
of ideas. It is also distinguished for its euphony: 
and neither the Latin nor any modern language 
can compare with it in regard to rhythmical 
beauty. "More than any of its sister languages," 
says Curtius, "the Greek language must be re- 
garded as a work of art, on account of its sense 
for symmetry and perfection of sounds, for clear- 



ness of form, for law and organism. Its syntax 
has never been equaled by that of any language 
in the world." — Ever since the introduction of 
the study of Greek into classical schools, it has 
been a general rule to begin it later than Latin. 
Robert and Henry Stephens strongly advised 
the opposite course ; and many of the most dis- 
tinguished scholars, as Hemsterhuis, Ruhnken, 
Gedike, Herbart, and Passow, expressed a con- 
currence in these views. The vast majority of 
educators have, however, been so decidedly in 
favor of Latin as the first classical language to 
be studied, that only in exceptional cases has a 
practical attempt to begin with Greek been made. 
As a general rule, less time also is devoted to 
Greek than to Latin ; though some distinguished 
educators, like Raumer (in his Geschickte der 
Padagogik), who do not dispute the claim of 
Latin to be taken up first, demand an equal or 
a superior position for Greek in the higher clas- 
ses of classical schools. In the animated conflict 
concerning the claim of the classical studies to 
a place in all educational institutions of a higher 
grade, Greek has had to bear the brunt of the 
battle. On many sides concessions have been 
made to Latin, because of its closer affinity 
with modern languages, and particularly on ac- 
count of its importance for an etymological 
knowledge of these languages ; and a readiness 
has been expressed to provide instruction for it 
even where Greek has been entirely excluded. 
Thus we find that, in the United States, in con- 
sequence of the progress of optional studies in 
our colleges and universities, and with the ad- 
vancing establishment of scientific and other 
courses differing from the classical, the study of 
Greek has been dropped in a great many cases, 
while the Latin has been retained. In Germany, 
where the opponents of the predominance of 
classical studies have concentrated their strength 
in organizing real schools in opposition to the 
classic gymnasia, the existence of a large number 
of "real schools with Latin" is sufficient to indi- 
cate the different estimate in which the two clas- 
sical languages are held by the opponents of 
their present ascendency. 

In regard to the method to be pursued in 
teaching Greek, there is a greater agreement 
among leading educators, than in respect to many 
other studies. It is generally admitted that the 
comparative difficulty of Greek grammar, even 
of its first or etymological part, makes it desir- 
able that all whose education is to comprehend 
a knowledge of this language, should begin the 
study at an early age, when the vigor of memory 
is still fresh, and its function still prevails in the 
course of instruction. Hamilton's and Jacotot's 
methods find now-a-days few followers in the 
teaching of Greek ; and the study of grammar, 
with translation from Greek into English and 
English into Greek, chiefly occupies the attention 
of the beginner. It has been proposed, and some- 
times attempted, to begin the teaching of the lan- 
guage, in accordance with the development of 
Greek literature, with the study of the epic and 
old Ionic dialects ; but the old practice to make 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



391 



t h<> Attic dialect the basis has victoriously main- 
tained its traditional ascendency. Exercises in 
translating from the native language into Greek 

should not be omitted, as is frequently done; 
though it is well understood that, on account of 
the greater difficulties presented by the Greek, 
and the shorter time allowed for the study of it, 
the same proficiency in writing Greek is hardly 
ever or anywhere attained as in Latin. The first 
exercises in translating Greek into Knglish. or 
any other native tongue, arc now generally pro- 
vided in the grammars. Where grammars are 
used which exclude exercises in translation, the 
use of a < Ireek reader is at once begun. In 
general, the use of a reader before the taking up 
of a particular author, is continued longer in 
Greek than in Latin, because of the longer time 
required to obtain a good knowledge of the 
grammatical rules in the former. When the pupil 
is far enough advanced to take up the reading 
of Greek authors, the teacher, in making the 
selection, should not only be careful to proceed 
from the easier to the more difficult writers, and 
to prefer the classic authors, but also to read 
enough of the selected work to give to the 
students an adequate idea of the spirit of (ireek 
literature. The orations, philosophical dialogues, 
and dramas are particularly suited for advanced 
classes in Greek. Of course, instruction in ( Ireek 
is not considered complete without the reading 
of, at least, one of the Homeric poems; and it is 
fortunate that the easy flow of the language of 
these poems fits them for an early stage of classic 
reading. Among the Greek historians, Xenophon 
and Herodotus fully deserve the favor of teach- 
ers and students, which they have enjoyed for 
centuries. In regard to Herodotus it is. however, 
desirable to wait until the pupils are well 
grounded in the Attic dialect. To include Thu- 
cydides in a regular course appears to many 
classical scholars objectionable, as the language 
is too difficult for the majority of college stu- 
dents, and as tin gloomy period which he de- 
scribes is not calculated to increase the Students' 
interest in ancient Greece, < >f the dramatic poets, 
xEschylus and Aristophanes are not suited for 
schools ; and, therefore, only Sophocles and 
Euripides can be recommended. 

The beginning of a grammatical treatment of 
the language can be traced back to the Sophists, 
Plato, and Aristotle. Considerable progress is 
visible in the works of the Stoics, who created 
most of the technical terms used in Greek gram- 
mar. The idea of a systematic grammar was 
developed by the Alexandrian school of gram- 
marians, some of whom wrote upon the subject 
of grammar in the most limited sense ; others, 
upon different specific topics included in it, as 
syntax, meter, dialects, and the like. As the 
author of the first systematic grammar, Dionysius 
the Thracian is mentioned, whose work remained 
a standard for a long time. The first lexico- 
graphic attempts were likewise made at Alex- 
andria. The central seat of (ireek philology was, 
at a later period, transferred from Alexandria to 
Constantinople, where a number of scholars dis- 



tinguished themselves as authors of dictionaries 
of Greek literature, while their grammatical la- 
bore consisted chiefly of commentaries upon the 
work of 1 lionysius. The first grammar in western 
Europe, in which (ireek type was used, was that. 
by Constantino Lascaris ; it was published in 
Milan in 1476, and remained for centuries the 
basis of all other grammatical works. A new 
epoch in the history of (ireek grammars dates 
from Hermann's classical work De emendan- 
<lti ralicme Graecae grammatical (Leipsic 1801). 
Since that time, a number of excellent grammars, 
fully superseding previous works, have appeared. 
Nearly all of them are by German authors: but. 
by means of translations, they have been exten- 
sively introduced into Knglish. American, and 
other schools. Among the most noted of these 
grammars, are those by Buttinann. Schidgramr 
maiik (lsted., 1H24, 17th ed.. 1874). translated by 
Edward Everett (Boston, 1822) ; Ausfuhrliche 
GHech. Sprachlehre (2 vols.. 1819—27. 2d ed., 
with valuable additions from I.obeek. 2 volumes, 
1830 — 39), trans, by Edward Robinson (An- 
dover, 1833) ; Mattbiae (1807). trans, by Ed. V. 
Bloomfield (London, 1832); Host (1816, 7th ed., 
1854), Engl. translation (I.ond.. 1827) ; Runner, 
Schulgrammatik, trans, by B. B. Edwards and 
S. II. Taylor (Andover, 1843); and Ausfuhr- 
liche Grammatik def Griechischen Sprache 
(2vols.. 1834, revised ed., L869- 1871); Westphal 
|2 vols.. Is7(i — 72); Curtius, Schulgrammatik 
| 1 852, 1 1 th ed., 1875); English trans', by Smith. 
The grammar of Curtius, which numerous trans 
rations have extensively introduced into the 
learned institutions of the countries of Europe 
and America, has. to a larger extent than any of 
its predecessors, mad.' use of the results of com- 
parative philology, and adopted a number of the 
technical terms which have first been brought hit' i 
use by Grimm's German grammar. In England 
and tin' United States, Greek grammars have 
been published, among others, by Anthoii, Boise, 
Brooks, Bullions, < Irosby, Fisk, Goodrich, Green- 
wood, Hadley, Jelf, Jones, Kendrick, M'Clintock, 
Mayor, Moore, Morris, Popkin, Silber, Smith, 
Sophocles, Taylor. Valpy, Waddell, Wettenhall. 
Wordsworth, and Wright. Some of these works 
arc only primers for beginners. Among the lat- 
est ami best of the complete grammars, is that 
by Hadley {Greek grammar, 1860; chiefly based 
on the German work of Curtius). 

The basis of all Greek lexicons in modern times 
is Henry Stephens's Thesaurus I/inguai Graecat 
(1572; a new edition, embodying all the Greek 
learning of the age, was brought out by ETa 
L. ami W. Dindorf, 8 vols., Paris, 1831-63). 
The first real improvement over Stephens was 
made by Passow, whose work (Handioifrterbwh 
der Griechisclien Sprache, 2 vols., 1819 — 24) ap- 
peared, at first, as a revised edition of Schneider's 
(ireek Dictionary ; but, in the 4th edit. (2 vols., 
1831), as Ids own work. The plan of Passow 
was, in each successive edition, to make the lex- 
icon complete for the interpretation of some 
additional authors, until it should become a full 
thesaurus of the (ireek language. After the death 



392 



GREEK LANGUAGE 



GRIMM 



of Passow, a new edition, carrying out the plan 
of the author, was prepared by the joint labors 
of Rnst, Palm, Kreussler, Keil, Peter, and Ben- 
seler (2 vols., 1841—57). The work of Pas- 
sow was the basis of the Greek-English lexicon 
of Liddell and Scott (Oxford, 1845; New York, 
edited by Henry Drisler, 1848 ; large 4to ed., 
London, 1870.). Other large Greek dictionaries 
have been edited by Jacobitz and Seiler (2 vols., 
1839—46), and Pape (3 vols., 1850-63; the 
3d vol., containing proper names, by Benseler). 
School dictionaries have been prepared by Rost, 
Benseler, Schenkl, Liddell and Scott, and others. 
Among English and American authors, who have 
brought out Greek dictionaries, besides those 
already mentioned, are Jones, Pickering, Oliver, 
Groves, Donnegan, and Dunbar. (See Dictionary.) 
There is also a very rich literature of special 
lexicons for those Greek authors who are com- 
monly read in schools. A comparative grammar 
of Greek and Latin was written by Leo Meyer 
(2 vols., Berlin, 1861 — 5), and an etymological 
root-dictionary on the basis of comparative phi- 
lology by Benfey (Griechisches Wurzellexicon, 
2 vols., 1839—42). 

Among the Greek readers which afford selec- 
tions from all, or nearly all, the authors who are 
suited for school reading, none have been so ex- 
tensively used as those of Jacobs and Dalzel. 
The work of Jacobs (Elemeniarb itch der Griechi- 
schen Sprache, begun in 1824) consists of four 
parts, the first of which is designed for beginners, 
the second gives extracts from historians or ora- 
tors relating to the history of Athens, the third 
is composed of philosophical, and the fourth of 
poetical, extracts. Several American translations 
of parts of this work have been published (one 
by Prof. Anthon), and have been used by many 
American schools. Dalzel's two readers (Col- 
lectanea Graeca Minora, and Collectanea Gfraeca 
Majora) first appeared in Edinburgh (1789), 
where the author was professor of Greek in the 
university. New editions were brought out in 
England by Dunbar and 0. J. Bloomfield, and 
in the United States by Popkin and Wheeler. 
Other Greek readers have been published by 
Abbott, Arnold, Boise, Colton, Felton, Good- 
win, Merry, and Wyttenbach. Of late, the use 
of readers has. to some extent, given place to the 
works of particular authors, of which many an- 
notated editions have appeared. Thus there are 
editions of works of jEsehines, by Champlin 
and Simcox; of yEschylus, by Drake, Edwards, 
Felton, Sachtleben, Weale, and Woolsey; of Aris- 
totle, by Poste; of Aristophanes, by Felton, 
Greene, and Weale; of Demosthenes, by Ohamp- 
lin, D'Ooge, Drake, Heslop, Holmes, fcendrick, 
Simcox, Smead, and Tyler; of Euripides, by Al- 
len, AVeale, and Woolsey ; of Homer, by Anthon, 
Boise, Felton. Mayor, Merry, Owen, Searing, and 
Smith; of Herodotus, by Johnson, Mather, and 
Weale ; of Isocrates, by Felton ; of Lucian, by 
Weale ; of Lysias, by Huntingdon, Stephens, 
and Whiton ; of Pindar, by Myers; of Plato, by 
Tyler, Wagner, Weale, White, 'and Woolsey ; of 
Plutarch, by Hackett and Tyler; of Sophocles, by 



Campbell, Crosby, Jebb, Jones, Smead, White, 
Weale, and Woolsey ; of Theocritus, by Snow; 
of Theophrastus, by Jebb ; of Thucydides, by 
Bigg, Frost, Owen, and Weale; of Xenophon. by 
Anthon, Boise, Crosby, Kendrick, Owen, Phil- 
potts, Bobbins, and Weale. Histories of Greek 
literature have been written by Bernhardy, K. 0. 
Miiner (2 vols., with continuation by Donald- 
son), Mure (A critical history of the language 
and literature of ancient Greece, 5 vols.), Munk, 
(2 vols., 1849—50), Nicolai (2 vols., 1866—7),. 
Burnouf (Histoire de la litter ■ature grecque, 2 vols., 
1869), Bergk (vol. i., 1872). The standard gram- 
matical work on the Greek language of the. 
New Testament is Winer (Grammatik des neu- 
testamentlichen Sprachidioms, Engl, trans, by 
Stuart and Robinson) ; and other grammars, 
have been written by Greene and Stuart. 
Lexicons to the Greek New Testament have 
been published by Wahl (1822), translated by 
Robinson; Bretschneider (1824); Wilke (1841); 
and a second work by the same author (1858); 
Schirlitz (1851) ; Robinson (Greek and English 
Lexicon of the New Testament, 1836); Grimm 
(1868). — For an account of the Greek Church 
writers, see Classics, Christian. 

GREENEVILLE AND TUSCULUM 
COLLEGE, at Home, Greene Co., Tenn., near 
Greeneville, was organized in 1868, by the union 
of Greeneville College and Tusculum College, 
founded in 1794 and 1847, respectively. It is 
under Presbyterian control. It has a primary, 
a preparatory, and a collegiate department, with 
a classical and a scientific course. The libraries 
contain 7,000 volumes. In 1S74 — 5, there were 
9 instructors and 112 students (senior class, 2; 
regular course, 45 ; scientific course, 24; primary 
department, 41). Both sexes are admitted. The 
cost of tuition in the preparatory department is 
•?20 per year ; in the collegiate department, $30. 
The Rev. W. S. Doak, A. M, is (1876) the 
president. 

GRIMM, Jakob Lad-wig, the greatest of 
all German philologists, was born at Hanau,. 
Jan. 4., 1785, and died in Berlin, Sept. 20., 1863. 
He was appointed, in 1816, second librarian at 
Cassel, and in 1830 professor and librarian at the. 
university of Gottingen. He was deposed, in 
1837, for having signed, with six other professors, 
a protest against the abolition of the state eon- ' 
stitution by the king. In 1841, the Prussian 
government called him to Berlin as professor and 
member of the Academy, which position he re- 
tained until his death. In 1846 and 1847, he 
presided over the meetings of the German phi- 
lologists, who universally recognized him as their 
chief. His work on German grammar (Deutsche 
Grammatik, 3 vols., 1819 — 37) established a 
new branch of literature, that of historical gram- 
mar ; and while it has called forth a number of 
similar works in other languages, it is still unsur- 
passed. The German dictionary, which he began, 
in 1852, jointly with his brother Wilhelm, occu- 
pies an equally high rank in the history of dic- 
tionaries (Beutsches Worterbuch, 1st vol., 1852; 
4th vol., 1874). This work was designed by him 



GRIMM 



GUIZOT 



393 



to contain every German word from the time of 
Luther to ( ioethe; and the volumes which he pub- 
lished exceeded, in comprehensiveness of plan, 
every other modern dictionary. The continuation 
of the work has been intrusted to M. Ilevnc. R. 
[Iiklebrand, and CWeigand; but it is not ex- 
pected that it will be completed until 1890. The 
historical treatment of the vernacular tongue, 
which ( Irimm's German grammar and dictionary 
have introduced into the literature of modern 
languages, has also greatly improved the method 
of teaching modern languages, both foreign and 
vernacular. The more extensive and accurate 
knowledge of the growth and structure of lan- 
guages, which is now generally possessed by in- 
telligent teachers, is reflected in the instruction 
of millions of children ; and the vast superiority 
of recent school grammars, reading books, etc. 
is, to a considerable extent, due to the influence 
which has been exerted by the works of Grimm. 

GRIMM, Wilhelm Karl, a brother of Jakol > 
Grimm, and like him, a prominent German phi- 
lologist, was born at Hanau, Feb. 24., 1786, and 
died at Berlin, Dec. 16., 1859. In his life ami 
literary labors, he was very intimately associated 
with his brother. Like him, he was librarian at 
Cassel (1811— 3!)), librarian (1830) and professor 
(1835) at Gottingen; and, finally, after having 
lost his offices in Gottingen for joining tlic pro- 
test against the abolition of the state constitu- 
tion, he accompanied his brother, in 1841, to 
Berlin. Besides writing a large number of works 
on the earlier literature of Germany, he was 
the co-editor, with his brother, of the German 
dictionary. 

GRI3COM, John, an American educator, 
born at Hancock's Bridge, N. J., Sept. 27., 1774; 
died at Burlington, NJ, Feb. 26., 1852. lie 
was of Quaker extraction, and. for a time, 
studied at the Friends' Academy in Philadelphia. 
Afterwards, lie took charge of the Friends' 
Monthly Meeting School, at Burlington. lie 
removed to New York in 1 8117, where he taught 
for twenty-five years, during which time he as- 
sisted in founding the Society for the Prevention 
of Pauperism, and established a private semi- 
nary, called the New York High School. In 
182.'!, he published .1 Year in Europe (2 vols.), 
the result of his travels and visits to the prin- 
cipal institutions of learning and charity, prisons, 
factories, etc.. on the European continent. From 
1831 to 1835, he was principal of a boarding- 
school in Providence, R. I., after which he re- 
moved to Burlington. One of his last acts was 
the reorganization of the common-school system 
of New Jersey. His son, John H. Griscom, 
published his biography (Xew York, 1859), 

GRISCOM, John Haskins, a physician, 
son of the preceding, born in New York, Aug. 
13., 1809;died there April 28.. 1S74. In 1833, 
he was appointed assistant physician to the Xew 
York dispensary, and, in 1834, chief physician. 
!Ie was also professor of chemistry in the New 
York College of Pharmacy, from 1836 to 184(1. 
In 1843, he was appointed physician to the New 
York Hospital, where he remained till 1867. 



His principal works relate to physiology, hygiene, 
and ventilation; but some of them have an im- 
portant bearing on education, and others have 
been extensively used for school instruction. 
They include : Animal Mechanism mi, I Physi- 
ology (1839); Sun Hurt/ ( 'urn Hi it hi of the Laboring 
Classes of Ifeio York (1844); Uses ami Abuses 
of Air, and the Means for the Ventilation of 
Buildings (1850); litis/,,/,,/ Hygiene (1853); 
First Lessons in Physiology, with Brief Rules 
of Health, for the Use of Schools (I860); Sani- 
tary Legislation, [, ust, /in ■sent. and future [ 1861). 
l>r. Griscom also rendered an important service 
to education by his lectures on physiology. 

GROOT, Gerard. See Hiekoxymians. 

GROUNDS, School. See School Grounds. 

GUATEMALA. See ( 'entrai. America. 

GUIZOT, Frangois Pierre Guillaume, 
a French statesman, who, as prime minister and 
minister of public instruction, exerted a con- 
siderable influence upon the progress of educa- 
tion in France, was born Oct. 4.. 17*7. and died 
Sept. 13., 1874. Lie was of Huguenot descent; 
and after the death of his father, an eminent 
lawyer of Paris, who perished by the guillotine 
during the Reign of Terror, he was educated by 
his mother at Geneva, where his whole nature. 
became permeated with the spirit and influence 
of John Calvin, whom he accepted as his master 
and model until his dying day. 1 laving returned 
to Paris, at the age of eighteen, he was. for a 
time, tutor in a distinguished family; but he 
soon became connected with the periodical press 
and the literary circles of Paris, and. in 1*12. 
received the appointment of professor of modern 
history in the Sorbohne. His political career 
began immediately after the fall of Napoleon 1.; 
and, from that time until the overthrow of 
royalty, in 1 SIS, his influence in the government 
of fiance was quite marked. He drew up, in 
1830. the protest of the deputies, which led to 
the dethronement of Charles X.; and. after the 
success of the revolution, was appointed pro- 
visional minister of public instruction. He ex- 
changed this position, after a few days, with that 
of minister of the interior, but resumed it in 
1832, when he entered the new cabinet under 
the presidency of Soult. He prepared an ex- 
eelleiit code of laws for promoting primary edu- 
cation, and attended personally to their enforce- 
ment. In the cabinet of 1836, under the pres- 
ident Mole, he resumed the same post; but, be- 
coming dissatisfied with the plans of his col- 
leagues, he abandoned it in 1837. From 1840 
to 1847, he was minister of foreign affairs, and 
from 1847 to 1848, president of the French min- 
istry. After the revolution of 1848. he retired 
from public life, and devoted himself wholly to 
literary labors. He was a member of the Acad- 
emy of Moral and Political Sciences, of the 
Lcademy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres, and 
of the French Academy. Though a zealous 
Protestant, he knew how to gain the esteem of 
the 1 Ionian Catholics, even as minister of public 
instruction. llis indefatigable zeal and his 
great merits in behalf of the promotion and 



394 



GUTSMUTHS 



GYMNASIUM 



organization of primary instruction in France, 
were generally recognized. Guizot was one of 
the most prolific writers of France during the 
present century. Most of his works have been 
translated into English; and the more important 
of them, into nearly all the languages of Europe. 
Some of them, especially the History of Civiliza- 
tion in Europe, have been extensively intro- 
duced as text-books into very many institutions 
of learning. 

GUTSMUTHS, Johann Christoph Fried- 
rich, celebrated for his efforts in behalf of 
physical education, and particularly as one of the 
founders of the German system of gymnastic 
training (Tarnunterrickt), was born in Quedlin- 
burg, a town of Prussian Saxony, in 1759, and 
died at Ibenhain, near Schnepfenthal, in 1839. 
He studied theology at Halle for three years, 
after which he was employed to superintend 
the gymnastic exercises at Salzmann's Institute, 
at Schnepfenthal (1786). Here he devoted him- 
self to the study and elaboration of gymnastics 
as a branch of education, and was the means of 
introducing it into many other institutions of 
Germany. He also wrote several works on gym- 
nastics, among which his G i/mnastik f'tir dieju- 
gend (1793) became a classic work, and the basis 
of most other German treatises on the subject. 
Among others are Erholung des KSrpers und 
Geistes filr die Jugeiul (1796), and Kleines 
Lehrbutih der Schwimmkunsl (1798). His ser- 
vices in behalf of geographical instruction were 
also of great value. He was not only an able 
teacher of geography, but a distinguished writer 
on the subject. The celebrated Karl Bitter was 
one of his pupils in the institute at Schnepfen- 
thal. The centennial celebration of the birth- 
day of Gutsmuths was held at Schnepfenthal, in 
18o9,with groat festivity and pomp. — See Dittes, 
Schule der Padagogik (Leipsic, 1876). (See also 
Gymnastics.) 

GUYOT, Arnold Henry, a distinguished 
scientist, particularly in the department of phys- 
ical geography, and the author of a series of 
school text-books on geography, widely used in 
the United States, was born near Neufchatel, in 
Switzerland, Sept. 28., 1807. He studied at 
various institutions, at Carlsruhe making the ac- 
quaintance of Agassiz, with whom he began the 
study of natural science. Subsequently, he 
passed through a course of study in theology at 
Neufchatel and Berlin ; but afterwards gave his 
attention exclusively to natural science. In 1835, 
he went to Paris, where he resided till 1839, 
making summer scientific excursions through 
France, Italy, Belgium, and Holland. From 
1839 to 1848, he was professor of history and 
physical geography in the academy of Neuf- 
chatel ; and during this period made some im- 
portant researches and discoveries in regard to 
the movement of glaciers and the transportation 
of bowlders, the details of which it was proposed 
to publish as the second volume of the Systems 
glaciaire, by Agassiz, Guyot, and Desor.the first 
volume of which was printed in Paris in 1848. 
He emigrated to the United States in 1848, and 



took up his residence at Cambridge, Mass. In 
the winter of 1848 — 9, he delivered, in Boston, 
a course of lectures on the science of physical 
geography, which were afterwards translated by 
Prof. Felton, and coDected into a volume, which 
was published under the title of Earth and Man. 
This work introduced important improvements 
in the methods of studying and teaching geog- 
raphy in the schools of the United States, as 
well as in the construction of school text-books 
on that subject. Prof. Guyot was employed, for 
some time, by the Massachusetts board of edu- 
cation to deliver lectures in the normal schools 
of the state and before the teachers' institutes. 
In 1855, he accepted the appointment of pro- 
fessor of physical geography in the College of 
New Jersey, at Princeton, which position he 
still continues to occupy. His school series of 
geographies, the first volume of which was pub- 
lished in 1866 (The Earth and its Inhabitants ; 
Common-School Geography), has attained a 
high degree of popularity. Its distinguishing 
feature is the prominence given to physical geog- 
raphy, and the treatment of the whole subject on 
the basis of a scientific generalization. Ihe un- 
derlying principle he thus expressed in the pre- 
liminary section of the above work, on Geo- 
graphlcal Teaching : " It was not until the first 
quarter of the present century, when Bitter's 
great mind made its power felt in his remark- 
able generalizations on the facts given to the 
world by Humboldt, that it began to be sus- 
jiected that geographical facts could be reduced 
to a science, in which hold good the same laws 
of mutual dependence of cause and effect that 
prevail in all the other physical sciences." The 
introduction of this philosophical method of 
teaching geography, the principle of which has 
been adopted by most other authors of school 
text-books on this subject, has exerted an im- 
portant influence upon the general methods of 
instruction in schools; and, in this way, Prof. 
Guyot has done an important service to the 
cause of education. (See Geography.) 

GYMNASIUM: (Gr. yvfiviaLov, a place for 
bodily exercises, from yvfivdc, naked), a term 
applied, in ancient Greece and Borne, to schools 
for physical education, but in modern Germany 
and some other countries of continental Europe, 
to a class of secondary schools which hold a 
middle place between elementary schools and 
the universities. In England and the United 
States, in which the colleges correspond to the 
German gymnasia, the term gymnasium is lim- 
ited to places for physical exercises. We treat 
here (1) of the ancient gymnasium of the Greeks 
and Romans, and (2) of the schools designated 
by this name in Germany and other parts of 
continental Europe. 

(1) Gymnasia were first introduced in Sparta 
and Crete ; they afterwards became common in 
the Greek cities, and were, to a limited extent, 
adopted among the Romans. Bi the most an- 
cient times, the gymnasia were leveled and in- 
closed places, with divisions for the several 
games. For the purpose of shade, rows of plane- 



GYMNASIUM 



395 



trees were planted, to which afterwards porti- 
coes with sitting rooms (e^idpai), having stone 
benches around the walls, were added. At last, 
the gymnasia consisted of several tmildiugs, which 
were joined together, and thus often funned 
very spacious structures, capable of holding 
many thousand persons. A detailed description 
of the ancient gymnasium is given by Yitruvius. 
The free youths were instructed in gymnastics, 
by a paidotribes [iratdoTpiftw), while the pro- 
fessional athletes were trained by a gymnast 
(yvfivaart/c). The whole institution was super- 
intended by the gymnasiarch [yv/ivaaiapxvc)- 
While, originally, gymnasia were only places for 
bodily exercises, they were afterwards used by 
philosophers, rhetoricians, am 1 teachers of various 
sciences as places for instructing their pupils. 
Thus Plato taught in the Academy and Aristotle 
in the Lyceum of Athens. — The Roman republic 
had no special buildings which could be com- 
pared with the Greek gymnasia : during the 
reign of the emperors, the public baths (thermce) 
served for the same purpose, and may be said 
to have gradually absorbed the gymnasia. (See 
Petersen, -Das Gymnasium derGriechen,W58.) 
(2) In modern times, the name gymnasium 
has been commonly applied in Germany, since 
the time of J. A. Wolf, to those schools which 
prepare students for the universities. Some 
of these institutions, while holding the rank of 
a gymnasium, have different names, as posda- 
gogium, lyceum, Gelekrtensckule, Landesschule, 
FiLrstenschule. This class of schools has gradu- 
ally developed from the cathedral and convent 
schools (q. v.) of the middle ages, which were 
designed to impart to the youth of. the country 
the highest instruction accessible in those times, 
especially that needed for the priesthood. After 
the establishment of the universities, the cath- 
edral and convent school assumed the character 
of preparatory schools. Their number increased 
rapidly, and the course of studies was steadily 
enlarged. In addition to the schools attached 
to cathedral chapters and convents, a number 
of schools of a similar rank were founded by the 
municipal authorities of many of the larger 
towns, as well as by many princes. The revival 
of classical studies, in the 1 5th century, greatly 
added to the reputation and social position of 
, these schools. At the time of the Reformation. 
Melanchthon introduced more exalted views of 
classical Studies as the basis of the classical 
school ; and the educational efforts made by the 
Jesuits provoked a rivalry which, in many re- 
spects, had a beneficent influence. The civil 
wars and religious conflicts of the 17th and 18th 
centuries caused a stand-still for a time, and 
progress was not resumed until the end of the 
18th century. A. II. Francke fq. v.) the founder 
of the celebrated institutions at Halle, favored. 
like all the Pietists, the realistic, in preference 
to the humanistic, studies and secured the in- 
troduction of geography and history as branches 
of instruction, and the appointment of special 
teachers of mathematics. But Gesner (q. v.), 
Heyne, (q. v.), and other champions of classical 



studies, fully secured their preponderance. The 
opposition made to the classics by the Philan- 
thropists strengthened rather than weakened 
their position. At the beginning of the 19th 
century, a thorough reform of the gymnasia was 
inaugurated in Prussia, and gradually carried 
into effect in all the German states. The new 
arrangement sanctioned the predominance of 
classical studies, but. at the same time, provided 
for an improved plan of teaching the realistic 
branches; such as the natural sciences, geography, 
and mathematics. The supervisory right of the 
churches was restricted to religious instruction ; 
and the supreme control of all the institutions 
of learning passed into the hands of the state 
government. The gymnasia now hold in the Ger- 
man states a privileged position, since no young 
man can be matriculated for any faculty of the 
university without having passed a final examina- 
tion at the gymnasium. Violent attacks have been 
made upon this privileged position, anil specially 
upon the important place which the course of 
studies of the gymnasia assigns to the classical 
languages; and. in some countries, the government 
has so far yielded to the growing opposition as to 
organize real gymnasia, in which the Greek lan- 
guage is altogether dropped, and the I. at in at least 
greatly reduced. (See Rf.ai. Schools.) Hut the 
organization of the real gymnasia is far from l>e- 
i 1 1 - completed, ami governments and legislatures 
appear to be inclined to uphold, in the mam, the 
rights of the classical gymnasium. The defenders 
of the course of instruction as pursued in the 
gymnasia chiefly rest their pleas upon the argu- 
ment that the present course, in its entirety, is 
best suited to elevate the pupils of these institu- 
tions to the level of our modern civilization, and 
to tit them to become intelligent members of 
modern society. The superintendence of the gym- 
nasia is exercised either by the ministry of 
educational and ecclesiastical affairs, or. in some 
state.,, by a supreme educational council. They 
are, at stated times, examined by school coun- 
cilors. At the head of a gymnasium, is a rector. 
or director, and the number of teachers varies 
with the number of the classes. No one can be 
appointed a teacher who has not studied at a 
university, and passed an examination before a 
commission appointed by the government. In 
Prussia, a gymnasium is generally divided into 
six classes, called prima, secunda, leriia, quarta, 
i/iii/iln. and sexta. The three higher classes are 
generally subdivided into two divisions, the upper 
ami the lower. The time usually spent in a class, 
or in a division of one of the higher classes, is 
one year: and, a full course, at a Prussian gym- 
nasium, generally requires nine years. In Bava- 
ria, a gymnasium has four classes, and a prepar- 
atory school (called a Latin school), which com- 
prises five classes. In Austria, the gymnasia 
were thoroughly reorganized in 1849, and now 
resemble, in their essential features, in Austria. 
proper as well as in Hungary, the institutions of 
Germany. In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 
the gymnasia have the same characteristics as 
those of Germany. In Italy, the gymnasium 



396 



GYMNASTICS 



consists of five classes which correspond to the 
lower classes of a German gymnasium. It serves 
as a preparatory school to the lyceum, which has 
three classes. In Russia, the gymnasium has seven 
classes, besides a preparatory class. The German 
gymnasia resemble the Scotch grammar and 
high schools, and only differ from the English 
public schools for the upper and middle classes 
in being day schools, instead of the centers of 
large boarding establishments. The literature 
relating to gymnasiums is very numerous. — See, 
on the German gymnasium, the model of the 
others, Wiss, Emyclopiidie und Mefhodologie 
der Gymnasialstudien (1830) ; Roth, Gymna- 
sial-Pddagogik (1865); Laas, Gymnasium und 
Realschule (1875) ; Barnard, Public Education 
in Europe (1854). 

GYMNASTICS (Gr. yu/ivaan^fiomyv/ivdc, 
naked), a system of bodily exercises designed 
to develop muscular strength, and to promote 
general physical culture and health. In the 
article on Calisthenics, this subject has already 
been treated as far as it comprehends those 
light physical exercises which are especially 
adapted for females, although frequently used 
in the education of persons of the other sex. The 
term gymnastics was anciently used to denote 
the bodily exercises exclusively of boy's and men, 
because those who performed them, in public or 
in private, were either entirely naked, or only 
wore a short tunic, called x lT ^ v - Among the an- 
cients, particularly the Greeks, gymnastics con- 
stituted the most essential part of education ; 
and there was not a Greek town of any impor- 
tance that did not have its gymnasium, or place 
for the regular physical training of youth, which 
was supplied with baths, accommodations for 
athletic contests, and conveniences also for the 
philosophers, sophists, and teachers, with their 
pupils, and all others who attended for intellect- 
ual instruction or amusement- The laws of 
Solon regulated the management of these gym- 
nasia among the Athenians. One of these laws 
forbade all adults to enter a gymnasium while 
the boys were engaged in their exercises ; but it 
was the practice for adults to attend for exercise 
at other times of the day, or in other portions 
of the building, specially -set apart for men. Un- 
til boys reached the age of sixteen, gymnastics 
constituted but a part of their education ; but, 
from sixteen to eighteen, it seems to have ab- 
sorbed nearly their whole attention. At Athens, 
and in all the Ionian states, females were never 
permitted to attend the gymnasium ; but at 
Sparta, and in some of the other Doric states, 
unmarried women attended, and took part in, the 
exercises, dressed in the %it£>v. Instruction was 
given by regular teachers who were supposed 
to understand the physiological effects of each 
exercise, and thus to be able to assign to every 
youth such . exercises as were best suited to his 
particular case. Gymnastics, at first, compre- 
hended agonistics (the exercises of the public 
games) and athletics, or professional gymnastics 
as practiced by the athletes ; but, in later times, 
these were entirely separated ; and the gymnasia 



became places exclusively for physical education 
and training. (See Athens and Gymnasium.) 
There was almost entire, uniformity in the exer- 
cises of the different gymnasia in various parts 
of Greece ; the Dorians, however, made the hard- 
ening of the body, as a preparation for military 
life, a paramount aim ; while the Athenians, and 
the lonians in general, sought to impart grace 
and beauty, as well as strength, to the body and 
its movements, and to make physical health the 
basis of a sound and vigorous mind. These 
exercises partook largely of the nature of games, 
among which we find mentioned (1) that of the 
ball (crto'pfovc), played in various ways; (2) that of 
the rope, a boy holding each end, and one trying 
to pull the other across a line ; (3) that of the top, 
played very much as in our own time ; (4) the 
game of five stones (■ncvra/.n^oc), like the jack- 
stones of our day ; (5) that of a rope drawn over 
a post on the opposite sides of which two boys 
stood and tried to pull each other up off the 
ground. Besides these, the more important 
exercises were swimming, riding, throwing the 
quoit and javelin, jumping and leaping, wrest- 
ling, boxing, running, and dancing. Among the 
Greeks, gymnastics was closely allied to the med- 
ical art, because systematic bodily exercise was 
considered to constitute not only an important 
means of preserving health, but a certain cure 
for a large class of diseases. They thus recog- 
nized the principle on which Ling has based his 
system of kinesipathy, or movement-cure. To 
the curative effects of exercise, Galen, Celsus, 
and some other ancient physicians refer in works 
still extant. — In the middle ages, there was no 
use of gymnastics, strictly speaking ; the exer- 
cises employed in education partaking rather 
of the nature of athletics, and being almost ex- 
clusively for military training or drill, or the 
knightly amusement of the tournament. Among 
the lower orders, archery, foot-racing, wrestling, 
the use of the quarter-staff, etc., were common 
athletic sports ; but there was no such thing as 
a systematic series of exercises for muscular 
development, until Basedow (q. v.) introduced 
gymnastics, as a part of education, in the Phi- 
lanihropin at Dessau ; and subsequently (1784) 
Salzmann adopted the same system for his in- 
stitute. Gutsmuths extensively introduced the 
practice of gymnastics into Prussian schools, and 
wrote several works on the subject (Gymnastik 
fur die Jugend, 1793 ; and Turnbuch fur die 
Sohne des Valerlandes, 1817). A still more 
valuable work was Encyclopadie del- Leibes- 
ubungen (1804 — 18), by Vieth, a pupil of the 
Philanthropin at Dessau. Pestalozzi also favored 
gymnastic training as an important instrumental- 
ity in the general culture of man. In 1810, 
Jahn still further extended the system ; and the 
next year, under his direction, was opened at 
Berlin the first public Turnplatz, the object of 
which was not only to encourage physical deveh 
opment but patriotic fervor among the young 
men, in opposition to the aggressive schemes of 
Napoleon I. After serving in the army in de- 
fense of his country, Jahn resumed the manage- 



HABIT 



397 



ment of his gymnastic schools ; but the govern- 
ment, finding their influence favorable to the 
spread of liberal ideas, suppressed them (1818). 
The system was. however, adopted in England, 
Switzerland. Sweden, Denmark, and some other 
countries, and became widely popular ; and, in 
1842, the king of Prussia ordered the intro- 
duction of these exercises, as a part of the 
school system. The turn-vereine also spread 
from Germany to the United States, where they 
are now very numerous, 

As a department of education, gymnastics re- 
quires very careful regulation, having reference 
to the age and physical constitution of the pupil. 
Much injury may be done by requiring all the 
members of a school or of a class to perform the 
same exercises, especially if they are of a violent 
character ; indeed, it may be doubted whether, 
up to the age of 16, for the ordinary purpose 
of physical development and health, boys need 
any thing more than abundant opportunity and 
time for the out-door sports and recreations in 
which their natural activity will generally prompt 
them to engage. Beyond that age. gymnastic 
exercises, properly regulated, may be made the 
means of laying the foundation of permanent 
strength and health. .Military drill is often in- 
troduced into schools and colleges, and is found 
an efficient substitute for gymnastic exercises, or 
an excellent auxiliary to them. The testimony 
of educators is uniformly favorable to this kind 
of exercise in boys' schools, not only as an effect- 
ive means of physical culture, but as imparting 
habits of attention, order, subordination, and 
prompt obedience. For schools of most grades, 
and for either sex, light gymnastics has been 
found to supply appropriate and efficient exer- 
cise. Of this character is the raeio system of 
gymnastics by Dio Lewis and others, the dis- 
tinguishing peculiarity of which is its complete 
adaptation to every physical constitution and 
degree of strength. It dispenses with all fixed 
and cumbrous apparatus, and only employs such 
implements as bags of beans, light poles, or 
wands, rings, india-rubber straps with handles, 
etc. The exercises, being light and simple, can 
be performed in any room or hall ; and yet their 
endless variety is such as to bring into healthful 
exercise every part of the muscular system and, 



at the same time, to give a pleasing, recreative 
occupation to the mind. This is especially the 
case when they are regulated by the rhythm of 
music. (See Calisthenics.) Those violent exercises 
ordinarily called athletics, such as boat-racing, 
jumping, putting the weight, throwing the ham- 
mer, etc.. have, during the last 30 or 411 years, 
been very popular, particularly in the English 
universities. Boat-racing, in particular, both in 
British and American universities and colleges, 
has absorbed very much of the attention of the stu- 
dents, and excited much inter-collegiate rivalry. 
These sports have been, for some time, encouraged 
as favorable to physical culture; but their desir- 
ability lias been recently called in question, and 
many educators are, at present, strongly disposed 
to repress all such inter-collegiate contests. (1) as 
leading to many vices, such as drinking, betting, 
gambling, etc.; (2) as dangerous to health, in 
consequence of the excessive strain upon the 
physical strength which they require; (3) as 
making mere bodily strength and its triumphs 
almost exclusively the aim of the college student. 
or, at any rate, secondary to intellectual ami 
moral culture ; and (4) as absorbing too much 
of the time, attention, and efforts of the students, 
and thus preventing the successful prosecution 
of their studies. Of course, all these evils result, 
from that excessive spirit of rivalry or emulation, 
which is too often encouraged by injudicious 
parents and teachers, by unduly exaggerating 
the value of success in these athletic contests. 
Let these exercises be commended and encour- 
aged as of intrinsic value, not as the means of 
attaining a. useless, barren victory in a boat-race 
or other contest, but as the necessary means of 
cultivating those powers and virtues which are 
to enable the student to run a brave, manly, and 
Christian course through life, meeting all its 
emergencies not only with courage but physical 
endurance, and no objection can possibly be 
made to them. — See Markby, Practical Essays 
tm Education, s. v. Athletics (London, 1868); 
Schrebbe, Kinesiatrik (Leipsic, 1852); Nahl, 
Instructions in Gymnastics (San Francisco, 
1803); Wood, Manual of Physical Exercises 
(N. Y., 1867); Ravenstein and Hulley, Gym- 
nastics and Athletics (London, 1867). (See also 
Calisthenics.) 



HABIT, a tendency to repeat the same 
action, more or less unconsciously, or an inclina- 
tion for the pursuits, occupations, or states to 
which the body or the mind has become familiar 
by use. Habit, as an automatic tendency, takes 
a wide range, not only extending over all our 
mental and bodily acts, but including likewise 
our moods of mind, our sources of indulgence, 
pleasure, ease, and recreation, and comprehend- 
ing also, either by improvement or debasement, 
our entire moral and spiritual nature. The 
singular facility which is acquired by repeated 
action, in accomplishing what at first w T as either 



difficult or impossible, has never been satisfac- 
torily explained. The fact, however, is univer- 
sally recognized in the old saying, " Habit is 
second nature.'' as also in the useful educa- 
tional maxim, " Practice makes perfect." " It 
conditions," says Rosenkranz [Pedagogics as a 
Si/stem), "formally all progress ; for that which is 
not yet become habit, but which we perform with 
design and an exercise of our will, is not yet a 
part of ourselves." Physiologists profess to find 
a reason for this power of habit, in the sym- 
pathetic nerves ; and some psychologists trace 
mental habits to the association of ideas. The 



398 



HABIT 



extent to which habit influences the daily life of 
every one — even the youngest child, can scarcely 
be realized. Consciously or unconsciously, it 
enters, in some shape, into every effort at con- 
tinuous action, physical or mental, and more or 
less controls it. From the dawn of intelligence, 
when the child first takes cognizance of material 
tilings, all through the period of self-education, 
which precedes systematic instruction, it is form- 
ing, of itself, habits of observation, comparison, 
and generalization, which are to constitute the 
basis of all subsequent intellectual activity. So 
is it also forming those habits which, taken to- 
gether, make up what is called disposition, tem- 
per, etc. It is this tendency to contract habits 
which gives such plasticity to the minds and 
characters of youth, and which really underlies 
the power and office of education ; for what we 
call training is nothing more than guiding and 
regulating the formation of habit. This relation 
of habit to education has never been more clearly 
or forcibly illustrated than by Dr. Johnson in 
his beautiful allegory called the Vision of Theo- 
dore : " As Education led her troop up the 
mountain, nothing was more observable than 
that she was frequently giving them cautions to 
beware of Habits ; and was calling out to one 
or another at every step, that a Habit was en- 
snaring them ; that they would be under the 
dominion of Habit before, they perceived their 
danger ; and that those whom Habit should once 
subdue, had little hope of regaining their liber- 
ty." While it is the period of formal education, 
at which the child especially needs to be pro- 
tected from the influence of habit, to some ex- 
tent and in some respects, the watchful care of 
the educator is required even from the earliest 
infancy to prevent the formation of injurious 
and almost ineradicable habits ; indeed, there is 
scarcely a child who, on being sent to school for 
the first time, will not be found to have con- 
tracted habits, both physical and mental, which 
the teacher will find it necessary to strive to 
correct. One of his most important functions 
will be to detect and eradicate bad habits, as a 
kind of morbid growth ; for, like weeds, these 
habits not only cumber the ground themselves, 
but render it sterile for any other productions. 
For example, what can be done with that most 
troublesome of all cases, — a " spoiled child," un- 
til the habits of self-indulgence, self-will, way- 
ward caprice, and despotic control of others, 
which characterize it, are eradicated, or super- 
seded by other dispositions? So, too, with 
habits of deceit, falsehood, cruelty, and many 
others that are apt to spring up in even very 
young minds. In regard to the intellect, the 
same principle holds true ; for that natural de- 
velopment which precedes formal instruction 
may, indeed.be luxuriant, but cannot be regular. 
The mind of the most active child, under cir- 
cumstances that present the very best opportu- 
nities for development, if it has been left entirely 
to itself, will be found to have acquired settled 
ways of observing, thinking, and speaking which 
it will be necessary to correct ; and, besides, it 



will, generally have become impulsive, impatient 
of any continuous attention, and prone to pass 
rapidly from one thing to another, in obedience 
to a mere momentary fancy or impulse. It will, 
therefore, be generally found that children, on 
| being first subjected to regular instruction, need 
to have habits of attention formed, in place of 
those of inattention, which have been implanted 
' by their own unconscious and unregulated activ- 
ity. (See Attention.) There are others, how- 
i ever, of a less general character which will de- 
1 mand special effort. As an instance, one of the 
earliest of these objectionable habits, and per- 
haps one of the most common, is the unconscious 
substitution in the child's mind of the symbol 
I for the tiling symbolized. This will be mani- 
fested by most children when shown, for exam- 
ple, the picture of a horse, and asked to state 
what it is. Usually the answer will be, " It is a 
horse ;" from the habit of confounding tilings 
with their representatives. Hence, the unre- 
sisting facility with which children yield their 
minds to mere memorizing and rote-learning, 
the effect of which is to confirm the bad habit 
referred to, and, in its final result, to extinguish 
intelligence and destroy mental activity. While 
some of the habits which demand the teacher's 
attention at this early stage, are common to all 
children, in a greater or a less degree, there are 
others of great variety, dependent upon either 
peculiar traits of character or peculiar circum- 
stances of early life. The law of the formation 
of habit is repetition or exercise. This is recog- 
nized in many departments of instruction, as an 
indispensable means of imparting facility, readi- 
ness, and promptitude, without which certain ac- 
complishments could not be made, or if made, 
would be comparatively useless. For example, 
of what value would the multiplication table be 
if its use required a conscious effort of mind at 
every application of any of its details? The 
same principle is illustrated by the playing of a 
musical instrument, by the use of language in 
speaking and writing, and by the varied bodily 
movements needed in daily life. Good habits 
should be formed at as early a period as possible; 
because experience shows that, when thoroughly 
established in childhood or youth, they generally 
continue, with more or less strength, through 
life. Hence the importance of making those 
qualities and observances habitual, which con- 
stitute the elements of practical success in every 
walk of life ; such as punctuality, order, regular- 
ity, and perseverance ; to which may be added 
neatness, courtesy, attention to the wants of 
others, forbearance, and self-control. For the 
same reason, bad habits shoidd be eradicated be- 
fore they have reached that mature state, after 
which they scarcely ever entirely disappear. It 
is, indeed, rarely the case that thoroughly fixed 
habits are wholly removed ; hence, the teacher 
shoidd strive to counteract their evil influence, 
or neutralize their activity, by implanting those 
of a contrary nature. In dealing with the bad 
habits of children, the teacher should appreciate, 
and make due allowance for, the force of habit. 



HADLEY 



HALF-TIME SCHOOLS 



39» 



He cannot uproot them at once and by violence. 
As time is an important element in their forma- 
tion.so is it also in their eradication ; and. there- 
fore, the child is to be led along a divergent 
path which, by degrees, will conduct him away 
from the vicious impulse which, all the while, 
tends to overpower his best resolutions. " Either 
we should not attempt the conquest of habit," 
says Miss Edgeworth, in Practical Education, 
" or we should persist till we have vanquished. 
The confidence which the sense of success will 
give the pupil will probably, in his own opinion. 
be thought well worthy of the price. Neither 
his reason nor his will was in fault ; all he 
wanted was strength to break the diminutive 
chains of habit, which, it seems, have power to 
enfeeble the captives exactly in proportion to 
the length of time they are worn.'' Whatever 
force or coercion may be found necessary for 
this purpose should be gradually relaxed, till the 
child has formed, to some extent the habit of self- 
control ; which will become the foundation of 
most other good habits. The implanting of 
particular habits must uot, however, be deemed 
the whole of moral training ; there must be the 
culture of conscientiousness, of intelligence, of 
self-respect, of a constant impression and recog- 
nition of the Divine presence, and of all the 
other principles of human nature, by means of 
which it rises to the higher plane of moral re- 
sponsibility, consciously exercising its own facul- 
ties, not blindly obeying habitual tendencies re- 
ceived from others. Properly educated, the 
human being, in the exercise of his own will and 
conscience, enlists the power of habit in support 
of his owu moral conclusions, making a useful 
servant of that by which so many others are 
hopelessly enslaved. In this connection, Rosen- 
kranz says, " Education must procure for th - 
pupil the power of being able to free himself 
from one habit and to adopt another. Through 
his freedom, he must be able not only to re- 
nounce any habit formed, but to form a new 
one ; and he must so govern his system of habits 
that it shall exhibit a constant progress of de- 
velopment into greater freedom. We must dis- 
cipline ourselves, as a means toward the ever- 
changing realization of the good in us, constantly 
to form and to break habits." And it is in the 
attainment of this grand object of self-culture, 
that habit may render the important aid referred 
to, in making the exercise of self-criticism, con- 
scientious watchfulness of our own conduct, ami 
obedience to the dictates of reason and religion, 
easy and continuous by becoming habitual. 
Thus it is that the man for whom education has 
done all that it can do, within the utmost scope 
of its power, truly finds habit not his master 
but his most useful servant and friend. 

HADLEY, Javnes, a distinguished American 
scholar and educator, was born in Fairfield, 
Herkimer ( V, X Y.. March 30.. 1821. and died 
in Xew Haven. Ct., Xov. 14., 1ST'-. At the age 
of 21, he graduated at Yale College. at the head 
of his class ; and in 1845, completed a course of 
study at the Theological Seminary in Xew Haven. 



The same year, he commenced his career as a 
teacher of the Creek language in Vale College, 
filling successively the positions of tutor, assistant 
professor, and, in 1851, professor, succeeding 
President Woolsey in the latter position. He 
was a man of profound and varied scholarship, 
including linguistic, philological, and mathemat- 
ical attainments, lie was versed not only in 
the classical languages, but in most of the oriental, 
including Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, and Ar- 
menian; also in the Gothic, and in many of 
the modern languages. He was a leading mem- 
ber of the American Oriental Society, ani 1 1 luring 
the last two years of his life, its president. He 
wrote the 1 listen/ if tin' Ehi/HhIi Lunguagi' for 
the introduction of Webster's Iu'ctionary. and 
published a Greek grammar ( I860), and i?/i meats 
of the Greek Language (1869; His essay on 
the Greek accents was translated into German, 
and republished in Curtius *s Studien eur grte- 
chischen und lateinischen Grammatik. He was 
also the author of Lectures on Roman Lair, and 
Essays Philological and Critical, which were 
edited by Prof. W. D. Whitney, and published 
after his death (1873). 

HAEHN, Johann Friedrich, a German 
educator, born in HlOidied in 1789. After being 
for a time teacher and inspector of the school 
connected with the monastery at Bergen, he went 
to Berlin, where he became acquainted with 
I leeker (q. v.). and, in 1753, was appointed in- 
spector of the hitter's real school, in which posi- 
tion he perfected his method of instruction. He 
wrote, besides other text-books for his pupils, a 
compendium of geometry, trigonometry, and 
military art. in synopses. In the arrangement 
of these synopses, lies the peculiarity of his meth- 
od, called the tubular or literal method, accord- 
ing to which the first letters of the principal 
subjects of instruction were written on the board, 
with the principal sentences contained in the 
lesson, which were put down in tabular form. 
I!y these means, lie designed to facilitate not only 
the memorizing of the lessons, but to produce 
thoroughness and thoughtfulness in the study of 
each subject. In ever)' lesson, he illustrated his 
instruction as much as possible by means of ob- 
jects, of which he had a large collection. His 
method was copied and perfected by Felbiger 
(q. v.), but gradually fell into disuse as being 
sowewhat impracticable. In the latter part of 
his life, he was appointed director of the gym- 
nasium in Aurich, which position he retained 
until his death. 

HALF-TIME SCHOOLS, a class of schools 
which, as the name denotes, hold their sessions 
during only one half of each day, thus affording 
an opportunity to a numerous class of children, 
employed in workshops, factories, stores, etc., to 
attend school without giving up their employ- 
ments. They are thus kindred, in object, with 
evening schools, which in a certain sense, may be 
considered as half-time schools. The half-time 
system is encouraged in England by a special 
government grant, and is said to work well ; espe- 
cially where, by the co-operation of the employers. 



400 



HALL 



HAMILTON COLLEGE 



the pupils (half-timers) are made to attend school 
with regularity. These half-time schools are ex- 
amined according to the same standards as full- 
time schools ; but the amount paid for half-time 
regular attendance is only half of that paid for 
full time. In other parts of Europe, and in some 
of the cities of the United States, the half-time 
system is said to have met with encouraging 
results. This plan originates in the effort to 
adapt the public schools to the circumstances and 
needs of all classes of the community; and thus, 
in a measure at least, supersedes the necessity of 
compulsory laws. The principle, however, ad- 
mits of an application without the organization 
of separate schools, which might be objectionable 
in American communities, as establishing a class 
system of education. The same object may be 
carried out, it has been suggested, by a half- 
time course of study, with grades and subjects 
adapted to the purpose of giving the half-time 
pupils a good elementary education in a reduced 
time. Of course, some degree of uniformity 
would be sacrificed by such an arrangement; but 
it is claimed that no real efficiency would be lost 
in the actual working of the school system, or in 
the education received. On the contrary, it is 
urged that the union of labor and schooling has 
many advantages, the one assisting the other ; and 
that the half-time pupils prove, as a rule, as apt 
scholars as their full-time class-mates, if not so far 
advanced. Besides, it affords an encouragement 
to manual labor, and gives it an honorable rec- 
ognition, which is of great importance in every 
community, especially where the boy who has 
had even an ordinary school education is prone 
to look down upon all mechanical trades and 
artisanship as unworthy, fixing his ambition 
rather upon mercantile or literary pursuits. The 
true interests of a community depend in a great 
measure upon the productive industry of edu- 
cated, skillful, and self-respecting artisans ; and 
if the half-time system can foster, in any degree, 
this important class of occupations, it deserves 
the attention and support of statesmen and 
educators. 

HALL, Samuel Head, a noted American 
teacher, the first principal of the first teachers' 
seminary established in the United States, was 
born in Croydon, N. H., Oct. 27., 1795. His 
parents having removed to Vermont, he received 
his early education in that state ; but subse- 
quently attended an academy in New Hamp- 
shire. He afterwards studied theology, and 
entered the ministry, during the whole time, 
however, teaching school. In 1823, he opened 
a seminary, the special object of which was to 
educate teachers. This school was composed 
chiefly of advanced students, but a class of 
younger pupils was formed to serve as a model 
school. He wrote and delivered a course of 
Lectures on School-keeping, and compiled, in 
1827, the Geography and History of Vermont, 
which met with much success. In 1829, his 
Lectures were published ; and, about the same 
time, he was appointed principal of the English 
department of Philips Academy, at Andover. 



While there, he founded the American School 
Agents' Society, the object of which was to em- 
ploy agents to visit different parts of the coun- 
try, for the purpose, by lectures and otherwise, 
of awakening an interest in the cause of educa- 
tion. Mr. Hall was one of the original founders 
of the American Institute of Instruction, and, in 
1833, read before it a lecture on the Necessity 
of Educiting Teachers, in which he said, "In 
this thirty-third year of the 19th century, there 
is not, iu our whole country, one seminary where 
the educator of children can be thoroughly quali- 
fied for his important work." (See Normal 
Schools.) Between 1830 and 1838, he published 
a number of educational works, and also con- 
tributed quite largely to the Annals of Educa- 
tion. In 1837, he was appointed principal of a 
teachers' seminary in Plymouth, N. H, and sub- 
sequently filled the office of county superintend- 
ent in Vermont. His efforts in behalf of normal 
school instruction were of the most earnest and 
devoted character, and did much to awaken 
public opinion in its behalf. — See Barnard. 
American Teachers and Educators. 

HAMILTON, James, an English merchant, 
was born about 1709, and died in Dublin, in 1831. 
He removed to Hamburg in 1798, where he 
learned the German language after a method of 
his own, which he afterwards advocated and put 
into practice under the name of the Hamiltonian 
System. His method consisted in discarding the 
grammar of a language entirely, and teaching it 
practically by placing in the pupil s hands a book 
of the foreign language with a literal interlinear • 
translation, giving always the primitive signifi- 
cation of each word, and never varying it. By 
translating thus, word for word, from the foreign 
language into the pupil's own, and then back 
again, a good general idea of the language was 
obtained — a sort of rough-cast for practical use. 
By this method, of course, all idiomatic and fig- 
urative expressions, secondary meanings of 
words, etc., remained to a certain extent unintel- 
ligible, the learner getting only a general idea of 
the meaning of the sentence. To go further 
than this, however, was beyond Hamilton's plan. 
The Hamiltonian method has had the good effect 
of inducing teachers of modern languages to dis- 
card the old pedantic method of requiring the stu- 
dent to commit to memory a full set of para- 
digms and grammatical rules before commencing 
the actual translation of a single sentence, and 
has led to the adoption of a system which com- 
bines the advantages of the Hamiltonian method 
with that formerly pursued. (See Modern 
Languages.) 

HAMILTON COLLEGE, at Clinton, Onei- 
da Co., New York, was founded in 1812. It 
is not under the control of any religious de- 
nomination, but a majority of its board of trust- 
ees are Presbyterians, or in general sympathy 
with that denomination. The college buildings 
stand in a park of 15 acres. The institution has 
endowments amounting to about $300,000. It 
possesses a fine chemical laboratory, improved 
philosophical apparatus, geological and mineral- 



HAMILTONIAN METHOD 



HARMONY 



401 



ogical cabinets, collections in natural history, an 
herbarium, and a well-equipped astronomical ob- 
servatory, at which 25 asteroids and 2 variable 
stars have been discovered, by its director. Dr. ( '. 
II. F. Peters. The college and society libraries 
contain 12,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is 
$75 per year. There are 2(1 permanent scholar- 
ships of from 860 to $100 a year for the benefit 
of needy and deserving students. The interest 
of beneficiary funds, amounting to about $3000 
a year, is also distributed among needy students. 
The curriculum is the ordinary four years' course 
•of American colleges. A law department was 
opened in 1855. In 1875 — li, there were con- 
nected with the college, 12 instructors and 171 
students (20 law, 150 collegiate, and 1 special). 
The whole number of alumni was 1,532, of 
whom 1,054 were living; of graduates of the 
law school, 07. The presidents of the college 
have been as follows : the Rev. Azel Backus, 
S. T D., 1812—10; the Rev. Henry Davis, S.T.D., 
1817 — 33; the Rev. Sereno Edwards Dwight, 
S. T. 1>„ 1833—5; the Rev. Joseph Penney, 
S. T. D„ 1*35— 9; the Rev. Simeon North, 
LL. D., S. T. D., 1839—57 ; the Rev. Samuel 
Ware Fisher, S. T. D.. LL. D., 1858—66; and 
the Rev. Samuel Oilman Brown, S.T. D., LL. 1)., 
the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 

HAMILTONIAN METHOD. See Ham- 
ilton, James. 

HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE, in 
Prince Edward Co., Va., 7 miles south of Farm- 
ville, founded in 1776, is under Presbyterian con- 
trol. The name of the post-office is the same as 
that of the institution. The college is supported 
by tuition fees and the interest on an endow- 
ment of $95,000. It adheres to the old college 
curriculum. The cost of tuition is $60 per year, 
with French, German, and civil engineering as 
extras. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
and 77 students. The libraries contain about 
7,000 volumes. The presidents have been as fol- 
lows : the Rev. Stanhope Smith, D. D., 1776 — 9; 
the Rev. J\ Blair Smith, I). D., 1779—89 ; the 
Rev. Dury Lacy, 1789 — 97 ; the Rev. Archibald 
Alexander, 1797— 1806; the Rev. Win. S. Reid, 
1806; the Rev. Moses Hoge, 1807 — 20; Jo- 
nathan P. Gushing. A. M., 1821—35 ; the Rev. 
Geo. Baxter, D. D., 1835—6 ; the Rev. D. L. 
Carroll, D. D., 1836—8; the Hon. Wm. Max- 
well, 1838—44; the Rev. P. J. Sparrow. D. D., 
1845—7; the Rev. S. B. Wilson, D. D., 1847 
—8; the Rev. L. W. Green, D. D., 1848 — 56; 
the Rev. A. L. Holladay, 1856; and the Rev. J. 
M. P. Atkinson, D. D., the present incumbent, 
appointed in 1857. 

HANNIBAL COLLEGE, at Hannibal, Mo., 
under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, South, was founded, in 1869. for the 
education of both sexes. It has an endowment 
of 35 acres of land, and possesses chemical, 
physiological, astronomical, aud other scientific 
and philosophical apparatus. It is supported by 
tuition fees. The college is divided into 3 depart- 
ments : preparatory, high-school, and collegiate. 
These three departments are sub-divided into six 



] schools, as follows: (1) School of English litera- 
ture; (2) School of physics; (.'!) School of lan- 
guages, including Hebrew, Greek, Latin, German. 
ami French, ti pgether with lectures on c< nnparative 
philology; (4) School of mathematics; (5) School 
(if metaphysics; and (6) School of fine arts, in- 
eluding vocal and instrumental music, painting, 
drawing, wax-work, and worsted work. A com- 
mercial course and an evening school have been 
organized. The cost of tuition, in the preparatory 
department, is $10.50 per quarter ; in the aca- 
demic and collegiate, §12.5(1. In 1875 — 6, there 
were 11 instructors ami 14(1 students. The Rev. 
J. F. Hamilton was president from 1869 — 1871, 
when the preseut incumbent, the Rev. Leo Baier, 
was appointed. 

HANOVEK COLLEGE, at Hanover, Ind., 
organized in 1827, and chartered in 1833, is 
under the control of the Presbyterians. It has 
a campus of 16 acres and a fine college build- 
ing. Its entire grounds embrace over 200 acres. 
The libraries contain about 7,500 volumes. The 
value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
$145,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
$100,000. Tuition is free. The institution has 
a preparatory and a collegiate department, the 
latter comprising a classical and a scientific course. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 10 instructor's and 135 
students (74 collegiate and 61 preparatory). The 
Rev. Geo. C. Hickman, D. D., is (1876) the pres- 
ident. 

HARMONY in Development, as regards 
both the mental and bodily faculties, is now 
viewed by educationists as the most important 
aim of education. " One part of instruction.'' 
says Dittes (Schule der Padagogik, 1876), "must 
not contradict another ; nothing should be neg- 
lected, nothing exaggerated ; all the faculties of 
the pupil should be cultivated as much as pos- 
sible, and all the different objects and depart- 
ments of education should receive attention, 
without interruption, and in due proportion. 
The intellect should not be favored at the ex- 
pense of the moral and physical nature ; and 
hygienic considerations should not be left out of 
view. The teacher should be especially careful 
not to accord too much time and attention to 
favorite branches of study." The latter is a very 
important admonition. F>ery course of study 
should be arranged with a view to the average 
condition of the growing mind and its needs ; 
and, therefore, should comprise such a variety of 
subjects as will call into exercise the different 
mental powers, and thus become instruments 
in their culture and development. The scientific 
teacher will, however, watch for decided peculi- 
arities of character, — special aptitudes, traits of 
genius, etc., and will modify his course of pro- 
ceeding so as, while giving scope for the unfold- 
ing of these particular powers, or talents, not 
to permit them to repress the growth of other 
indispensable faculties. Thus, a pupil may show 
a special inclination and talent for drawing, 
which may very properly be allowed its full 
development ; but, in doing this, the educator 
is not to permit all other mental or manual oc- 



402 



HARMONY 



HARNISCH 



cupations to be neglected. Indeed, this special 
gift may be kept in abeyance, and stimulus ap- 
plied, for a time at least, to penmanship, and to 
the study of language, science, or other impor- 
tant subjects. Some pupils, as a further example, 
may be too prone to the exercise of the imagina- 
tion ; in which case, they should be required to 
study science or mathematics. Others may show 
an almost exclusive bent for calculation or 
mathematical reasoning, which must, of course, 
be corrected by the pursuit of studies calling 
into exercise other powers of the mind ; such as 
history, general literature, mental philosophy, 
etc. Knowledge is sometimes called the food of 
the mind, by the assimilation of which its various 
powers are nourished ; hence, to continue the 
metaphor, there ' should be a due variety of this 
food, and the different kinds should be selected 
with a view to the particular condition and 
needs of the system which is to be supplied with 
nutriment. As in physical education, if a pupil 
manifests any signs of abnormal development or 
morbid growth, such, for example, as distortion 
of the limbs or curvature of the spine, continu- 
ous exercises and postures are prescribed to 
correct this tendency ; so, in every department 
of education, a harmonious development can 
only result from a discriminative application of 
those agencies which call into active and habitual 
exercise the powers of mind and body. Such a 
development implies, too, a full recognition of 
all the relations and powers of the human being, 
embracing not only the cultivation of those 
capacities which concern him as an individual, 
but also those on which his happiness and use- 
fulness as a social and moral being depend. How 
miserable is the mere student, the solitary genius, 
cut off from the exercise of the social sympathies 
and deprived of social enjoyments by a one-sided 
development ! It is no answer to this, that the 
world may be benefited by his brilliant thoughts 
and his deep intuitions ; for the interests of the 
individual, as such, claim consideration ; and be- 
sides that, the best creations of genius have been 
often impaired or marred by the effects of this 
morbid development. Of this Byron, Shelley, 
and Poe are examples. The educator must 
recognize that there is a body, a mind, and a 
soul to be addressed and cultivated ; and that 
man has social, moral, and religious faculties, 
without the harmonious development of which 
he cannot properly fulfil his destiny, nor attain 
happiness. The special claims of particular vo- 
cations, it is said, demand one-sided culture. Of 
this there is no doubt ; but preceding it, and 
hence underlying it, there should be such gene- 
ral culture as the circumstances of man, as man, 
require. Profession or business comprehends, 
in general, but one relation ; and unfortunate, 
therefore, is he who can meet the demands of 
only that relation, unable to perform aright, the 
domestic, social, political, and religious duties 
which are inseparably connected with the -posi- 
tion of every person in this life. In order to 
perform these duties, every person is endowed 
with special faculties, which, by the want of 



proper cultivation in early life, or by disuse,, 
may be so enfeebled as to be unfit for exercise ; 
and the harmonious development of these is the 
only true aim of education. If all these facul- 
ties do not, at an early age. receive their due 
share of training, self-education, at a later period, 
cannot, but within very narrow limits, supply 
the deficiency. The individual will always find 
himself more or less crippled, because no self-cult- 
ure can entirely supply the place of early habits. 
To the doctrine of harmonious development, 
it has been objected that special innate endow- 
ments cannot be repressed by education ; and to 
address other faculties will only result in bestow- 
ing superficial accomplishments of no practical 
value. Thus a youth of decided mathematical 
genius could never become more than an im- 
perfect linguist ; and one with special talent for 
language would be likely to make but indifferent 
attainments in science. Harmonious develop- 
ment, however, does not require the repression 
of special endowments, but the cultivation of 
what may be called the general powers, in such 
a way as to give support to each particular 
endowment. A wise educational training, com- 
menced at the earliest childhood, and continued 
through each successive period of the formative 
state of human character, will not only fit for 
any particular vocation for which there may be a 
special bent, but will also prepare the individual 
for general usefulness, and render him able to 
enjoy the wonders of science, and the beauties 
of nature and art, as well as to participate in all 
other pleasures incident to his existence as a 
social and rational being. (See Genius.) 

HARNISCH, Christian Wilhelm, a Ger- 
man educator and writer, born Aug. 28., 1786, 
died Aug. 18., 1866. After studying at the uni- 
versities of Halle and Frankfort on the Oder, and 
acquainting himself, in Berlin, with Pestalozzi's 
method, he was appointed, in 1812, teacher in 
the training school of Breslau ; and, in 1822, 
director of the training school of Weissenfels. 
In 1847, he became pastor of a church in a small 
town, and remained in that position until 1861. 
Soon afterwards, he was seized with insanity, from 
which he never recovered. In his writings, as 
well as in all his teachings, he gave a prominent 
place to religion, and to bodily exercises, such as 
bathing, gymnastics, etc. He also took great 
interest in the education of deaf-mutes. The 
influence which he exerted on the development 
of the common-school system of Prussia, was 
very considerable. Among his most important 
works are, Die deutschen Volkssclmlen (1812), 
which appeared in a revised form under the title 
of Handbuchfur das deutsche Volksschidwesen 
(1820, 4th edit., 1839); Darstettung mid Beur- 
theilung des BeU-La?icaster'schen Sclmlwesens 
(1819); Derjetzige Standpunkt des gesammten 
p>reussisclien Yolksschulwesens (1844), and Die 
kiinflige Stellung der Schule, vorziiglicli der 
Volksschide, zu Kirche, Staal mid Hans (1848). 
The autobiography of Harnisch was published 
after his death by Schmieder (Mein Lebeiis- 
morgen, 1868). 



HARTLIB 



HARVARD UNIVERSITY 403 



HARTLIB, Samuel, was the son of a Polish 
merchant of Elbing, Prussia. His mother, be- 
ing an English woman, removed him, at an early 
age, to London (1636), where he afterwards be- 
came the friend of Milton, and labored with him 
tor the advancement of learning. It was to Hart- 
lib that Milton adrcssed his Tractate on Educa- 
tion. His attention was turned specially to agri- 
culture, for the improvement of which he gave 
freely of his time and income, making experi- 
ments in husbandry, and publishing treatises on 
the subject, with such assiduity and success, that 
the parliament of Cromwell voted him an an- 
nuity of £100, which the succeeding parliament. 
however, revoked, lie rendered important ser- 
vice to the time in which he lived by his publica- 
tion of Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on 
Flanders Husbandry, in 1652 ; and, probably, 
our own time may trace a direct indebtedness 
to him. inasmuch as the germ of the modern 
agricultural college may be found in his Pro- 
positions for erecting a College of Husbandry 
(London, 1651). Notwithstanding his unselfish 
life and great public services, acknowledged by 
the annuity above mentioned, he is thought to 
have died in want. — See Barnard's Journal of 
Education, vols. xr. and xn. 

HARTSVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Harts- 
ville, Ind.. under the control of the United 
Brethren in Christ, was chartered in 18.il. It 
grew out of the Ilartsville Academy, which was 
transferred by its trustees to the church, in 1848. 
It is supported chiefly by donations and tuition 
fees. The available endowment amounts to 
$20,000 ; the entire endowment is $54,0(10. The 
college has a good achromatic telescope, philosoph- 
ical and chemical apparatus, and an increas- 
ing cabinet. The library contains between 700 
and 800 volumes. The regular tuition fees vary 
from $15 to §21 per year. It has a preparatory 
and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
a scientific course ; also a theological department. 
Facilities are afforded for instruction in the com- 
mercial branches and in music. In 1874 — 5, there 
were instructors and 159 students, of whom 71 
were of the collegiate grade. The principals and 
presidents have been as follows : James Mc. D. 
Miller, 1849—52; David Shuck, 1852—64; 
John W. Scribner, 1864 — 73; David Shuck, 
1873—4 ; and the Rev. William J. Pruner, the 
present incumbent, appointed in 1 874. 

HARVARD, John, an English non-con- 
formist divine, who graduated at the university 
of Cambridge, in 1631, and emigrated to Charles- 
town, Mass., where he died Sept. 24., 1638. Few 
particulars of his life are known. He appears, 
however, to have been active outside of his pro- 
fession, as we find him appointed, in 1638, "to 
consider of some things tending toward a body 
of laws." At his death, he bequeathed £700 and 
about 300 volumes for the founding of a college. 
the present Harvard University of Cambridge. 
The alumni of the university, in 1828, erected 
a granite monument to his memory in the burial 
ground of Charlestown. The address on this oc- 
casion was delivered by Edward Everett, who 



was afterwards president of the university. (See 
Harvard University.) 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest 
institution of learning in the United States, com- 
prehends Harvard ('allege, the Divinity School, 
the Law School, the Medical School, the Denial 
School, the Lawrence Scientific School, the Bus- 
sey Institution (a school of agriculture and horti- 
culture), the Observatory, the Botanic Uarilm 
and Herbarium, the Library, the Peabody 
Museum of American Archaology and Ethnol- 
ogy (a constituent part of the University, though 
its relations to it are affected by certain peculiar 
provisions) , and the Museum of Comparative 
ZoSlogy. These are all in Cambridge. Massachu- 
setts, except the Medical School, which is on 
North Grove street, Boston ; the Dental School, 
at No. 50 Allen street, Boston ; and the BuEsey 
Institution, at Jamaica Plain, now within the 
limits of Boston. The Episcopal Theological 
School at Cambridge appears in the catalogue, 
but has no connection with the University. Stu- 
dents in regular standing in any one department 
of the University are admitted free to the in- 
struction given in any other department, with 
the exceiitii.n of exercises carried on in the spe- 
cial laboratories. No one is excluded from any 
department on account of color. 

In 1636, the colonial legislature agreed to give 
£400 toward a school or college, but whether this 
sum was ever actually paid is doubtful. In 1639, it 
was "ordered, that the colledge agreed upon for- 
merly to bee built at Cambridg shal bee called 
Harvard Colledge.'' in honor of the Rev. John 
Harvard of < harlestown, who, dying in 1638. had 
left to the institution about £700 and a library of 
over 300 volumes. The college was opened in 1638, 
and the first class (9) graduated in 1 642. The same 
year a board of overseers was constituted; and. in 
1650, a charter was granted, under which the 
institution became a corporation, with the title of 
the "President and Fellows of Harvard College.'' 
In early times, it received much legislative aid, 
and was intimately connected with the govern- 
ment, but its connection with the Commonwealth 
was dissolved in 1865. The corporation consists 
of the president, five fellows, and the treasurer, 
who, subject to the confirmation of the overseers, 
fill their own vacancies. The board of overseers 
is composed of the president and treasurer, ex 
officio, and 30 members, elected by the graduates 
of five years' standing, and holding office six years, 
five being chosen each year. The corporation 
nominates the professors and other officers of in- 
struction constituting the different facidties of 
the University, who must be confirmed by the 
board of overseers. The Medical School was 
established in 1782, the Botanic Garden in 1 S 7 , 
the Law School in 1817, the Divinity School in 
1819, and the Observatory in 1839. The Law-, 
rence Scientific School was founded, in 1847, by 
Abbott Lawrence, by a gift of $50,000, subse- 
quently increased. The Museum of Comparative 
Zoology was established, in 1859. by a grant from 
the state and the gifts of individuals through the 
influence of Agassiz, who was its director till his 



404 



HARVARD UNIVERSITY 



death, and whosj invaluable collections are here 
deposited. The Peabody Museum was founded by 
George Peabody, who gave $150,000 in 1866. 
The Dental School was organized in 1868. The 
Bussey Institution was endowed by the will of 
Benjamin Bussey, in 1842. The lands belonging 
to the University in Cambridge, comprise about 
60 acres. The college yard contains a,bout 22 
acres, tastefully laid out and adorned with many 
stately elms. In the yard, are 21 buildings, in- 
cluding the president's house, four professors' 
houses, the chapel, library, law school, and seven 
dormitories, the remaining six buildings being 
"used for offices, recitation rooms, laboratories, etc. 
The oldest of these is Massachusetts Hall, erected 
in 1720, and occupied by Continental troops in 
17*75 — 6. Adjacent to the yard, are two other 
dormitories, the Gymnasium, Memorial Hall, and 
the Lawrence Scientific school. A little north, and 
near each other, are the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology and the Divinity School; and about three 
fourths of a mile N. AV.,and also near each other, 
the Observatory, and the Botanic Garden and 
Herbarium. The most magnificent building is 
the Memorial Hall, erected at a cost of $420,000 
by the alumni and friends of the college in com- 
memoration of the students and graduates of the 
University who died in the national service dur- 
ing the civil war of 1861 — 5. It is built of red and 
black brick, with copings and window tracery of 
Nova Scotia stone, and is 310 ft. long by 115 ft. 
wide. The interior comprises three grand apart- 
ments : a dining hall, 164 by 60 ft., and 80 ft. high, 
capable of seating 1000 persons ; memorial ves- 
tibule, 112 by 30 ft., and 60 ft. high; and the San- 
ders theater, for commencement exercises, etc., 
arranged, on the plan of classic theaters, and ac- 
commodating 1,500 spectators. The dining hall, 
said to be the grandest college hall in the world, 
is used for college festivals, and by the Dining 
Hall Association, an organization supported and 
managed by students for the purpose of supply- 
ing board at cost. Its walls are hung with the 
portraits of former college worthies, and its 
windows are intended to be memorial. Between 
the dining hall and the theater is the memorial 
vestibule, surmounted by a tower 200 ft. high. 
The interior is surrounded by an arcade of black 
walnut, with marble tablets inscribed with the 
names of 140 students commemorated, and the 
dates and places of their death. The walls above 
are simply decorated, in color, with Latin inscrip- 
tions concerning patriotism, duty, and immor- 
tality. The property of the University, in 1876, 
(not including the buildings, collections, and pub- 
lic grounds) amounted to$3,139,218. The income 
of the University, in 1874—5, was $473,305. The 
libraries of the University contain, in the aggre- 
gate, 211,000 volumes. They include the follow- 
ing: (1) College Library (in Gore Hall), 155,000 
vols.; (2) Library of the Botanic Garden, 4,000 
vols.; (3) Of the Divinity School, 17,000 vols.; 
(4) Of the Medical School, 2,000 vols.; (5) Of the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, 12,000 vols.; 
(6) Law Library, 15,000 vols.; (7) Libraries in 
the Lawrence Scientific School, 3,000 vols.; 



(8) Phillips Library at the Observatory, 3,000 vols. 
There are also 15,000 or 20,000 volumes in the 
society libraries of the students. There are two 
physical and three chemical laboratories, a zo51og- 
ical, a physiological, and a geological and pakeon- 
tological laboratory at the Museum of Com- 
parative Zoology, a mineralogical collection in 
Boylston Hall, and extensive natural history col- 
lections at the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 
The large collections of the Peabody Museum are 
exhibited in Boylston Hall. The Gray collec- 
tion of engravings in Gore Hall holds a high 
rank. The Observatory is admirably equipped 
with astronomical instruments, including one of 
the best equatorials in the world. The instruc- 
tion of the College and Scientific School, in prac- 
tical astronomy and geodesy, is given at the Ob- 
servatory ; in Botany, at the Botanic Garden ; 
and in zoology, geology, and palaeontology, at the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology. The course of 
studies in the College leads to the degree of 
Bachelor of Arts, and covers four years. The cur- 
riculum is extended and varied, beingso arranged 
that the old prescribed college course may be 
pursued, or other courses, according to the taste 
or purposes of the student. The studies of the 
freshman year are prescribed. The prescribed 
studies of the sophomore year fill four hours a 
week in history and rhetoric; and those of the 
junior year, two hours a week in philosophy, be- 
sides certain written exercises. In the senior 
year only certain written exercises are prescribed; 
sophomores are required to take ten hours a 
week of elective studies ; and juniors and seniors, 
twelve hours. The attendance by seniors upon 
recitations is voluntary. Several of the fresh- 
man studies may be anticipated at the entrance 
examination ; and the prescribed sophomore and 
junior studies may be anticipated at the same 
time, or by examinations at the beginning of the 
respective years. Written examinations form a 
marked feature of the method of instruction, oc- 
curring frequently, during term time, in the dif- 
ferent branches, and at the close of each year, 
in the studies of the year. Special honors 
are given at graduation for excellence in the 
following departments : ancient languages, clas- 
sics, modern languages, philosophy, history, math- 
ematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, music. 
For honors in modern languages, the candidate 
must present himself for examination in Italian, 
Spanish, or English, as well as in French and 
German. One of the ancient languages must be 
Hebrew or Sanskrit, in addition to Latin and 
Greek. A grade of second-year honors in clas- 
sics and mathematics has been established, open 
to sophomores and juniors, and to seniors who 
intend to be candidates for final honors after 
graduation. For final honors in ancient lan- 
guages and classics, second-year honors in classics 
must have been taken ; and, for final honors in 
mathematics, second-year honors in the same 
department. The requisitions for admission at 
Harvard are higher than in any other college in 
the country. Instead of passing the entire en- 
trance examination at the time of admission to 



HARVARD UNIVERSITY 



405 



college, candidates for the freshman class may 
be examined upon rive or more subjects the year 
previous, thus dividing the examination into two. 

In IsTii. the system was inaugurated of holding 
an examination for admission in Cincinnati, con- 
temporaneously with the examination in ( lam- 
bridge, to accommodate Western students. In 
1870 — 7, the elective courses were thrown open 
to students 21 years old and upward, not candi- 
dates for the degree of A. B., who are not re- 
quired to pass the general entrance examination, 
but must satisfy the faculty of their fitness to 
pursue the particular courses which they elect. 
A certificate of proficiency will be given to such 
as pursue their studies for a year, and pass satis- 
factory examinations. (For additional details 
respecting the requisitions for admission and the 
curriculum, see College.) — The cost of tuition 
in the college is $150 per year. One hundred 
and four scholarships have been established, 
varying in annual income from $40 to $300, for 
the aid of needy and deserving students. There 
are also beneficiary funds having an annual in- 
come of about $750, which is usually distributed 
in gratuities of from $5(1 to $100 ; a loan fund, 
the interest of which, amounting to more than 
$2.00(1 annually, is lent in sums of from $50 to 
.$150 ; monitorships &c, amounting to about 
41200 a year; and a number of prizes. Accord- 
ing to the University catalogue, " (lie experience 
of the past warrants the statement that good 
scholars of high character but slender means arc 
seldom or never obliged to leave college for want 
of money." In the Lawrence Scientific School, 
five regular courses, of 4 yeara each, are offered : 
civil and topographical engineering, leading to 
the degree of Civil Engineer; mining engineer- 
ing, of which the first three years are identical 
with the first three years of the preceding course, 
leading to the degree, of Mining Engineer ; chem- 
istry, Bachelor of Science; natural history. S. 1'..; 
mathematics, physics, and astronomy. S. B. ( 'an- 
didates for these courses are required to pass an 
entrance examination, and the degrees are eon- 
ferred only after examination. There is a one year's 
course in the elements of natural history, chemis- 
try, and physics, for teachers. The cost of tuition 
is $150 per year. Four scholarships, of the annual 
value of $150 each, have been established. The 
School of Mining and Practical Geology, founded 
by Samuel Hooper in 1865 by the gift of $50,0(10, 
was, in 1874 — 5, merged in the Lawrence Scien- 
tific School. The Bussey Institution has a superb 
estate of 360 acres, containing a fine building, a 
farm, greenhouses, propagating-houses, etc. The 
Arnold Arboretum, founded by James Arnold of 
New Bedford, is established here. The institu- 
tion is designed to give thorough instruction in 
agriculture, useful and ornamental gardening, and 
stock-raising, and to this end affords courses in 
physical geography, meteorology, geology, chemis- 
try, physics, botany, zoology, entomology. French, 
and German. Instruction is given by lectures and 
recitations, and by practical exercises in the labo- 
ratory, greenhouse, and field. Frequent examina- 
tions are held. The regular course for a degree 



occupies three years; the instruction of the first 
year is given at the Lawrence Scientific School. 
Candidates for admission to this course are re- 
quired to pass-an examination. Special courses 
may. however, be taken by persons qualified to 
pursue them. The regular tuition fee is s| 50, but 
all tuition fees are freely remitted to poor and 
meritorious students. Harvard is the pioneer 
among American institutions in raising the 
standard of professional education, in reforming 
the methods of instruction and in requiring ex- 
aminations for admission in law and medicine. 
The full course in the Divinity School is three 
years. Candidates not Bachelors of Arts are re- 
quired to pass an examination for admission to 
this course. Its satisfactory completion entitles 
the student to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity. 
Students may be admitted to partial courses 
without examination. The cost of tuition is $50 
per year. Nine scholarships have been established, 
varying in annual income from $125 to $260; and 
there are other funds for the assistance of needy 
students. The course in the Law School is three 
years, upon the completion of which and the pass- 
ing of satisfactory examinations, the degree of 
Bachelor of Laws is conferred. In 1S77 — Sand 
thereafter, candidates for admission not Bachelors 
of Arts will be required to pass an examination, 
though persons not candidates for a degree will 
be admitted without examination. The cost of 
tuition is $150 per year. Eight scholarships, of the 
annual value of $150 each, have been established. 
The plan of study in the Medical School was rad- 
ically changed, in 1871, from that previously pre- 
vailing there and still pursued in other medical 
institutions in this country. Instruction is now 
given by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching, and 
practical exercises uniformly distributed through- 
! out the academic year. The regular course ex- 
tends over three years, through which written 
examinations on all the main subjects of medical 
instruction are distributed. Upon the completion 
of this course and upon passing satisfactorily the 
required examinations, the degree of Doctor of 
Medicine is conferred. In ls77 — 8 and thereafter, 
! candidates for admission to the regular course 
must present a degree in letters or science from 
a recognized college or scientific school, or pass 
an examination ; but persons not candidates for 
a degree may be admitted to partial courses 
without examination. The Massachusetts General 
Hospital, adjacent to the School, and the City 
Hospital, with other similar institutions in or 
near Boston, afford admirable advantages for 
clinical instruction, for the study of practical 
anatomy, and for witnessing operative surgery. 
The cost of tuition is $200 per year. Four scholar- 
ships, of the annual value of $200 each, have been 
established. Instruction in the Dental School is 
given by lectures, recitations, clinical teaching, and 
practical exercises, uniformly distributed through- 
out the academic year. The regular course is of 
two years, and examinations are held at the close 
of each. The degree of Doctor of Dental Medi- 
cine is conferred upon candidates 21 years old 
ami upward, who have studied medicine or den 



406 



HABVAED UNIVBESITT 



tistry three full years (at least one continuous 
year at this school), upon presenting a satisfac- 
tory thesis, and passing the required examinations. 
The infirmary, a department of the Massachusetts 
General Hospital, affords opportunity for prac- 
tical instruction. The cost of tuition is -$200 for 
the first year, $150 for the second, and $50 for any 
subsequent year. The degrees of Master of Arts, 
Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science, 
imply a post-graduate course of study, and are 
conferred upon examination only. The degree of 
A. M. was conferred in course without examina- 
tion for the last time in 1872. The degree of 
Doctor of Science is open to Bachelors of Science 
or Philosophy, who are required to reside at least 
two years at the University and pursue, during 
three years, a course of scientific study, embra- 
cing at least two subjects, and pass an examination 
in the same. The other two degrees are open to 
Bachelors of Arts. Candidates for the degree of 
Master of Arts are required to pursue, for at least 
one year at the University, an approved course of 
liberal study, and pass an examination in the 
same. Candidates for the degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy are required to pursue, at the Uni- 
versity for two years, a course of liberal study 
(and pass an examination in the same) in one of 
the following departments ; namely, philology, 
philosophy, history, political science, mathemat- 
ics, physics, natviral history, or music. The degree 
of Master of Arts is also conferred upon candi- 
dates who pursue, at the University, at least one 
year after taking the degree of Bachelor of 
Laws, Bachelor of Divinity, or Doctor of Medi- 
cine in Harvard University, an approved course 
of study in law, theology, or medicine, and pass an 
examination in the same. Post-graduate courses 
of study have, accordingly, been established in 
the three professional schools, as well as in the 
College and Scientific School. The fees for 
these courses range from $50 to $150 per year, 
which, however, are remitted to needy and meri- 
torious students. The examination fees, $30 for 
A. M. and $60 for each of the other two degrees, 
are not remitted. Six fellowships have been es- 
tablished, with an annual income of from $600 
to $1000 each, to aid graduates of the University 
in pursuing a post-graduate course of liberal 
study. Summer courses of instruction, especially 
designed for teachers, are given in chemistry and 
mineralogy, botany, and geology. The first is 
given in Boylston Hall. The course in pheno- 
gamic botany is given at the Botanic Garden; 
that in cryptogamic botany, at some point on the 
sea-shore; and that in geology, at present, at Cum- 
berland Gap, Ky., in connection, with the state 
geological survey. The fee for the geological 
course is $50; for the others $25. In 1875, these 
courses were attended "by 98 persons, as follows : 
chemistry 40 ; botany, 27 ; geology 31. Among 
those in chemistry and botany were women, 'who 
are excluded from the regular courses in the va- 
rious departments of the University. In 1874, 
examinations for women were established, of two 
grades: (1) A general or preliminary examination 
for young women not less than 1 7 years of age, 



in English, French, physical geography, elemen- 
tary botany or elementary physics, arithmetic, 
algebra through quadratic equations, plane geom- 
etry, history, and German, Latin, or Greek ; 
(2) An advanced examination for young women, 
not less than 18 years old, who have passed the 
preceding, in one or more of the following depart- 
ments : languages, natural science, mathematics, 
history, and philosophy. Certificates are granted 
to those who pass satisfactorily. The fee for the 
preliminary examination is $1 5 ; for the advanced, 
$10. Two preliminary and three advanced cer- 
tificates were granted in 1875. — In 1875 — 6, 
besides 26 proctors, librarians, and other officers 
there were 128 teachers of various grades as fol- 
lows : 



Departments. 



18 



C K *l 
til 

ps'i 



44 

24 

13 

6 

5 

34 
14 

11 

2 



College 

Scientific School. . . 
Bussey Institution. . 

Divinity School 

Law School 

Medical School 

Dental School 

Museum of Compar 
ative Zoology. . . . i 
Observatory 

Total, deducting I 

repetitions ' 41) 21 2 11 27 ' 18 128 

In the College, there are professorships of Ger- 
man ; Christian morals ; astronomy and mathe- 
matics ; natural religion, moral philosophy, and 
civil polity ; mathematics and natural philosophy; 
ancient, Byzantine, and modern Greek ; ancient 
and modern history ; anatomy ; the French and 
Spanish languages and literatures ; belles-let- 
tres ; rhetoric and oratory ; Latin ; the history 
of art ; chemistry and mineralogy ; political 
economy ; Greek literature ; modern languages ; 
history ; mathematics ; and music. In the other 
departments of the University, besides those 
strictly professional, there are professorships of 
natural history; engineering ; geology ; elocution; 
entomology; the application of science to the use- 
ful arts; applied zoology; astronomy and geodesy; 
Hebrew and other oriental languages ; zoology ; 
agricultural chemistry ; topographical engineer- 
ing ; and palaeontology. The whole number of 
different students, in 1875—6, deducting repeti- 
tions, was 1,263, distributed as follows : 

Departments. Number. Departments. Number 

Eesident Graduates 54 Scientifio School 34 



College Students 
Divinity School 
Law " 



776 

19 

161 



Medical " 192 

Dental " 33 

Bussey Institution 5 



Of the resident graduates, 35 were candidates 
for higher degrees, and 6, holders of fellowships ; 
of the college under-graduates, 148 were seniors, 
194 juniors, 182 sophomores, and 252 fresh- 
men. The following - degrees were conferred at 
the commencement in 1876 : A.B., 136; S. B., 3; 

C. E., 4 ; D. M. D., 10 ; M. D., 36 ; LL. B., 49 ; 

D. B., 5 ; A. M., 7 ; Ph. D., 5 ; S. D., 1 ; accord- 



HAUY 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



407 



ing to the triennial catalogue of 1 875, the whole 
number of alumni of the college was 8.741. of 
whom 8,298 were living ; of bachelors and doctors 
of medicine, 2,1*28 ; doctors of dental medicine, 
57 ; bachelors of laws. I,,s."i7: bachelors of science, 
196 ; alumni of Hie Divinity School, 439. The 
presidents of the University have been as fol- 
lows : Henry I (mister, 1640 — 54; Charles 
Chauncy, UiJ4 — 72; Leonard Hoar, 1672 — 5; 
Uriah Oakes, 1675—81 ; .John Rogers, 1682 — 1 ; 
Increase Mather, 1685 — 1701 ; Samuel Willard 
(vice-president), 1701 — 7; John Leverett, 1708 
— 24 : Benjamin Wadsworth. 1725 — 37 ; Edward 
Holyoke, 1737 — 69; Samuel Locke, 1770 — 73; 
Samuel Langdon, 1774 — 80; Joseph Willard, 
1781—1804; Samuel Webber, 1806 — 10 ; John 
Thornton Kirkland. 1810 — 28 : Josiah Quincy, 
1829 — 15; Edward Everett, 1846 — 19; Jared 
Sparks. 1849—53; James Walker, 1853—6(1; 
Cornelius Conway Felton, 1860 — 62; Thomas 
Hill, 1862—68 ; and Charles William Eliot, the 
present incumbent, appointed in 1869. 

HATJY, Valentin, distinguished for his phil- 
anthropic efforts in behalf of the blind, and as the 
inventor of an apparatus for their instruction, 
was born at Saint-Just, in France, in 1745, and 
died in 1822. He was brotfier to the distin- 
guished French mineralogist. Abbe (Rene Just) 
Hatty. His remarkable zeal and success in the 
cause to which he devoted his life, fully entitled 
him to the appellation conferred upon him in 
France, — the Apostle of the Blind. His interest 
was first excited in this cause by hearing a blind 
lady play on the piano before the French king, 
which circumstance led him to believe that the 
blind might be educated. Learning that she had 
instructed herself by means of raised notes and 
lines, and. moreover, that she had also made use 
of raised letters in her correspondence, he took 
so deep an interest in the matter that) in order 
to be able to study the subject experimentally, 
lie became an instructor of blind persons. He 
taught them to read by means of carved letters. 
which could be moved, in the grooves of a board, 
and combined into words like type. The need 
of books led him to invent the raised print. His 
school was established in 1784, partly by means 
supplied by the Philanthropic Society of Paris; 
and. in 1786, he published an essay on the educa- 
tion of the blind, in which he explained his plan 
of instruction. The Academy in Paris declared 
it to be the best that had been proposed, and 
fully endorsed it. This led to the adoption of 
his institution by the government, in 1S(I0 : upon 
which he ceased to be its director, but received. 
as an acknowledgment of his services, a pension 
of 21100 francs. In 1806. he received, from the 
emperor Alexander, a call to St. Petersburg, 
where he founded a similar institution; but his 
labors were interrupted by the war which broke 
out, in 1812, between France and Russia, and 
he returned to Paris, where he spent the re- 
mainder of his life in retirement. — See F. Haiti/ 
awl the Instruction of the Blind, in Barnard's 
Journal of Education. (See also Blind, Edu- 
cation of THE.) 



HAVEN, Erastus Otis, an American 
clergyman and educator, born in Boston. Mass., 
Nov. 1., 1820. After graduating at Wesleyan 
University, Middletown, Ct., in 1842, he taught 
for some years in Amenia Seminary, New York: 
after which he entered the ministry of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church, and was pastor several 
years in New York. In 1853, he was appointed 
professor of Creek and Latin in the University 
of Michigan : but. in 1856, assumed the editor- 
ship of /.ion's Herald in Boston, where he re- 
sided until 1863. During this period, he served 
as a member of the Massachusetts board of edu- 
cation; and. in other respects, took an active in- 
terest in education. In 1863, he became presi- 
dent of the University of Michigan, which under 
his administration greatly increased in numbers, 
resources, and efficiency. In 1869. he accepted 
the presidency of the North-western University, 
at Evanston, 111.; and, in 1872, was ejected hist 
corresponding secretary of the Methodist Epis- 
copal board of education. In June. 1S74, he 
was appointed chancellor of the Syracuse Uni- 
versity, in New York. His chief publications 
arc Tin- Young Man 'Advised (N.V., 1855), Pit 
lars of Truth (i860), and Ehetoric.a Text-Jin,,/, 
for Schools (1869). 

HAVEKFOBD COLLEGE, in Montgom- 
ery Co.. Pa., 9 miles from Philadelphia, was 
founded in 1832, and is under the control of the 
Si ieiety of Friends. The name of the post-office 
is the same as that of the institution. It is sup- 
ported by tuition fees, contributions, and an en- 
dowment fund of about $120,000. It has I'm,. 
college building's and grounds. The libraries 
contain about 11,000 volumes. It includes a 
full collegiate course and a scientific course. In 
1874 — 5. there were 5 instructors and 49 stu- 
dents. The president of the college is Thomas 
Chase (1876). 

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, or Sandwich 
Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific ocean, 
forming an independent kingdom; area 7,629 sip 
miles ; population, in 1*72. 56,877. Of these. 
49.044 were natives: 889, Americans; 2,521, Eu- 
ropeans ; 2,485. half-breeds ; and 1,938, Chinese. 
The total ( 'atholie population, in 1 873. was about 
23.000; the remainder were Protestants. The 
native race is rapidly dying out, having been 
estimated, in 1*22. as high as 142.000. These 
islands were known to the Spaniards about a 
century before their discovery by Captain Cook. 
in 177.^. Towards the close of the last century, 
they were united, by conquest, under one king, 
and have thus remained ever since. The first 
schools on these islands were established between 
the years 1823 and 1827, by the native chiefs, 
who. through the persuasive power of the "Amer- 
ican missionaries, were induced to place them- 
selves under instruction. In the course of time. 
the accomplishment of reading became so popular, 
that the adherents of the chiefs were sent to every 
island of the group for the purpose of introduc- 
ing it. The schools grew rapidly, being at one 
time 900 in number, with about 52,000 pupils, 
most of whom were adults. Besides reading and 



408 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



HAZING 



writing, arithmetic and geography were taught, 
of which two studies the Hawaiians are very 
fond. The instruction, however, was necessarily 
of a very primitive character. The American 
Board of Foreign Missions sustained, from 1830 
to 1840, schools at each of their stations, intended 
as models for the native schools. When, in 1839, 
the French Roman Catholic mission had been 
firmly settled, it established its own schools, 
which, although not so numerous as the others, 
have always been prominent in the educational 
history of these islands. The first written con- 
stitution and laws were promulgated in 1840 ; 
and among the latter was one for the establish- 
ment of schools, which was amended in 1841. 
This law had for its model the school law of 
Massachusetts. In 1846, a minister of public in- 
struction was appointed, which office was after- 
wards changed to that of president of the board 
of education. In 1805, a new school law was 
promulgated, which, with few changes, is in 
operation at the present time. 

School System. — There is a board of edu- 
cation of five members, appointed by the king. 
The duties of the former minister of public 
instruction, which were transferred to the pres- 
ident of the board of education, are exercised 
by the inspector general. This official is appointed 
by the board, and is required to visit all the 
schools, to direct what studies are to be pursued, to 
grant certificates of qualification to teachers, and 
to revoke the same for proper cause. No clergy- 
man of any denomination can hold this position. 
The board appoints a school agent in each of 
the twenty-five districts into which the islands 
are divided, who is the local executive officer of 
the board. The agent, the district judge, and 
an elective member, yearly balloted for by the 
parents of the district, together form a district 
school board. This board has the power to ap- 
point and remove teachers, subject to an appeal to 
the board of education. The school sessions are 
held from 9 A. M. to 2 P. M., with two inter- 
missions, one of 15 minutes and the other of 30 
minutes. Every teacher is required to have a 
certificate of competency from the inspector 
general, and must attend the quarterly 
teachers' institutes, of which there are three in 
Hawaii, and one in each of the other islands. 
There is no normal school, but most of the 
teachers receive their education in the Lahaina- 
luna seminary. The usual salary of teachers is 
50 cents a day. The Hawaiian language is the 
only medium of instruction in the schools, in 
which tuition is free, with the exception of the 
Union school at Hilo, which is the first attempt 
at a graded school on the islands. English is 
taught in this school in the higher classes. All 
children between the ages of 6 and 14 are re- 
quired to attend school. This law is enforced by 
fines and other penalties. 

School Statistics. — The statistics for 1872 are 
as follows: Common schools, 202, with 3,574 
boys and 2,700 girls; government boarding- 
schools 3, with 205 boys; government day schools 
5, with 344 boys, and 148 girls ; boarding-schools 



aided by the government, 9, with 170 boys and 
197 girls ; day schools aided by the government, 
8, with 168 boys and 106 girls ; independent 
boarding-schools 4, with 18 boys and 78 girls ; 
and independent day schools 14, with 312 boys. 
267 girls ; making a total of 245 schools, with 
4,791 boys, and 3,496 girls; or, in all, 8,287 pupils. 
The Lahainaluna seminary, in Lahaina, is a col- 
lege for native males. It was founded, in 1831, 
by the American mission ; but is, at present, 
supported and controlled directly by the govern- 
ment. Like the American colleges, its course of 
study embraces a period of four years. It had, 
in 1872, 103 students. The Oahu college, near 
Honolulu, was founded in 1841, by American 
missionaries, for their own children, and was. 
chartered in 1849. It is the principal institution 
for English-speaking youths of both sexes, and 
has, at present, 75 pupils. There are six female 
seminaries, with 358 pupils. These schools re- 
ceive a small portion of their support from the 
government. — See Lyons, Education in the 
Hawaiian Islands, in the Report of the U. S. 
Commissioner of Education, 1872 ; Nordhoff, 
Northern California, Oregon, and the Sand- 
wich Islands (1874). 

HAYTI, a Negro republic in the West In- 
dies. Its area is about 9,232 square miles, and 
its population, about 572,000, of whom the great 
majority are of negro extraction. The prevail- 
ing religion is the Roman Catholic, but other 
sects are tolerated. The language of the country 
is French. The island of Hayti was discovered 
by Columbus on Dec. 5., 1492. The western part 
of this island was, in 1697, formally annexed by 
France; but the eastern part remained, for a long 
time, a dependency of Spain. (See Santo Do- 
mingo.) In 1791, the negroes of Hayti rose against 
the French rule, and, after assassinating all the 
whites, proclaimed their independence in 1804. 
Under the French ride, nothing was done to 
educate the negroes. The constitutions of 1816 
and 1846 contained educational provisions, 
which were never carried into effect. Private 
schools were established in a few places ; but it 
was not until President Geffrard came into 
power, in 1859. that any thing was done by the 
government, to promote the cause of education. 
Under this president, the schools rapidly in- 
creased. According to the latest accounts, there 
are about 235 national schools, with about 
15,000 pupils. Port-au-Prince has a school of 
navigation, a law school, a school of physicians 
and surgeons, a music school, with about 100 
pupils, a drawing school, a school of arts and 
sciences, a lyceum, and a high school for girls. 
A high school for females was also founded by 
Geffrard at Cape Haytien. — See Delitsch, West- 
Indien mid die Sudpolarlander. 

HAZING, a term applied to the mischievous 
and often abusive and injurious tricks which are 
played by older college students upon freshmen. 
The term, as well as the practice, is of considerable 
age ; but, during the last few years, much effort 
has been put forth by those who have the charge 
of higher institutions of learning to suppress the. 



HEART 



HEBREW LANGUAGE 



40S> 



custom, as being shameful, barbarous, and utterly 
demoralizing to those participating in it. In the 
naval and military academies of the United 
States, this custom was. a short time ago, ob- 
served in the most revolting manner, often vio- 
lating the rules of common decency, and some- 
times inflicting severe bodily injuries. In 1S71, 
a number of cadets at the West Point Academy 
were dismissed from the U. S. service for being 
engaged in acts of outrage of this character ; and 
at the Naval Academy, at Annapolis, several 
midshipmen had their names dropped from the 
roll for what was designated "coarse, cruel, and 
oppressive conduct toward other members of the 
institution." In issuing the order, the Secretary 
of the Navy remarked, that "youthful vivacity 
and mischief " might sometimes be overlooked, 
but that "persistent blackguardism" could not be 
tolerated. In most of the better class of American 
colleges, this demoralizing' practice has been 
partly or wholly suppressed ; but nothing but 
severe and persistent measures, supported by 
strong public opinion, will banish it entirely. In 
mixed colleges, in which male and female students 
are instructed, it has almost wholly disappeared ; 
and, as an illustration of the difference between 
male anil female college students, the following 
account of the reception of new-comers at Vassar 
( 'allege is cited : " Upon a certain evening, a few 
days after the opening of the session, the mem- 
bers of the sophomore class receive their sisters 
who have just entered, with flowers, music, and 
a delightful, though inexpensive, entertainment". 
How much better this than the ruffianism of 
hazing! 

HEART, Education of. See Moral Edu- 
cation. 

HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language in 
which the Sacred Scriptures of the Old Testament 
were written, is on that account of special impor- 
tance both for the Hebrew people and for Chris- 
tians, more especially theologians, who desire to 
read the Scriptures in the original. It is one of the 
Semitic languages, so called because chiefly spoken 
by nations mentioned in Scripture as among 
the descendants of Shem. and embracing, besides, 
the Arabic, Syriac, Chaldee, and Ethiopic as 
its principal branches. It is the only one among 
the Semitic languages which, in countries of the 
Indo-European world, is extensively studied; and 
thus always serves as the portal through which 
Indo-European students are introduced to an 
acquaintance with a family of languages different 
from their own. Its great antiquity is acknowl- 
edged on all sides; and theologians have often 
claimed for it an age coeval with the earliest 
history of mankind. After the captivity in 
Babylon, it gradually became mixed with < !hal- 
dee. by which it was finally supplanted as the 
national language. The knowledge of the Old 
Hebrew language was, however, preserved by the \ 
priests and scribes, who used it for literary and 
educational purposes. From the 2d to the <>th 
century of the < ihristian era, Hebrew literature 
shows an independent development ; from the 
8th to the 11th it was stationary and neglected ■ 



from the 11th century to the present time, anew 
Hebrew literary language, formed on the basis 
of the Old Hebrew, and enriched by many new 
formations, technical terms, particles, and foreign 
words, has been extensively used by learned 
Hebrews in all branches of literature. — The 
alphabet now used in the Old Testament Script- 
ures is supposed to have been introduced by or 
soon after Ezra. It is called by the Jewish 
doctors Assyrian, and is generally admitted to be 
of Aramean origin. Another alphabet, the rab- 
binical or mediaeval, is chiefly used in Hebrew 
commentaries and in notes to the Old Testament ; 
and a third alphabet, the cursive, is used in writ- 
ing. A tierce controversy was carried on, for a 
long time, as to the origin and authority of the 
punctuation by which the vowel sounds are in- 
dicated. The learned Buxtorff believed that the 
vowel points are coeval with the Hebrew lan- 
guage, and apprehended from the opposite opin- 
ion, which was chiefly advocated by Cappel, the 
most dangerous consequences to the Christian 
religion. At present, the view of Cappel, that 
the vowel points were introduced about the 7th 
century of the Christian era. for the purpose of 
preserving as far as possible the true pronuncia- 
tion of the language, is generally acquiesced in. 
Like all the Semitic languages, with the sole ex- 
ception of Ethiopic. the Hebrew is read from 
right to left. 

The scientific study of the Hebrew language 
did not begin, even among the Jews themselves, 
until about the Oth century. Among the Church 
Fathers, Origen and Jerome devoted themselves, 
with much zeal, to the study of Hebrew, and 
Jerome, especially, became proficient in all that 
his Jewish masters could teach him; but. from 
the entire literature of this period which has been 
left to us. it appears that both Jews ami Chris- 
tians had but an imperfect knowledge of the 
ancient Hebrew language. Toward the end of 
the 9th century, the dews were stimulated by 
the example of the Arabians to bestow careful 
study upon ancient Hebrew; but, unlike the 
Arabians, they compared in their studies the 
whole of the Semitic languages. Among the 
many who distinguished themselves by writing 
grammatical or lexicographical works, the most 
noted arc Saadia Gaon (died 042). Jehuda Cha- 
jug (about 1050), Abraham ben-Esra (about 
'1150), and David Kimchi (about 1190 to 1200). 
Among the I Christians, the Hebrew language was 
studied only to a limited extent during the 
middle ages; although Pope Clement V., at 
the Council of Vienna, held in 1311, ordered the 
appointment at each university, of six professors 
of the Hebrew, Chaldee. and Arabic languages. 
The revival of classical studies, in the 15th cen- 
tury, gave an impulse also to the study of He- 
brew; and Wessel. Picusof Mirandola, and Agric- 
ola are mentioned among those who promoted 
the study of He'brew, which was especially culti- 
vated at the university of Tubingen. The real 
founder of a scientific study of Hebrew at the 
European high schools was Reuchlin. whose 
grammar and lexicon appeared iu 1506, and 



410 



HEBREW LANGUAGE 



closely followed the methods and traditions of the 
Jewish grammarians. Luther and Melanchthon 
strongly recommended the study of Hebrew to 
the Protestant theologians ; and several Protest- 
ant states of Germany, accordingly, received it in- 
to the course of instruction of the learned institu- 
tions, though generally as an optional study. In 
the Roman Catholic Church, the principal works 
were the grammar (1520) and dictionary (1529) 
of Santes Pagnini, a Dominican; and, somewhat 
later (1578), a greatly improved grammar by the 
Jesuit Bellarmin, who was professor of Hebrew 
at the university of Louvain. In the Protestant 
schools, the grammars and lexicons of the older 
Buxtorff were, for many years, the principal aids 
to the study of .Hebrew. A new school of He- 
brew philology arose under the leading of Alting 
and Danz, in the second half of the 17th century, 
which endeavored to show that the phenomena 
which the Hebrew exhibited, in a grammatical 
point of view, — the inflections, etc., had their basis 
in the essential properties of the language, and 
could be rationally evolved from definite prin- 
ciples. Great advancement was made, in the 
beginning of the 18th century, by the almost 
simultaneous rise of the two rival schools of 
Schultens.in Holland, and Michaelis, in Germany. 
In the former, the predominating tendency was 
"toward the almost exclusive use of the Arabic for 
the illustration of Hebrew grammar and lexicog- 
raphy. To this school belong Schroder, professor 
at Groningen, and Robertson, professor at Edin- 
burgh (Grammatical Heb., 2d edit., 1783). The 
principle adopted by the school founded by the 
Michaelis family, was to combine the use of 
all the sources of elucidation for the Hebrew, the 
cognate dialects, especially the Aramaic, the ver- 
sions, the rabbinical writings, etymology, and the 
Hebrew itself, as exhibited in the sacred writ- 
ings. From this school, to which the majority of 
recent German Hebraists belong, proceeded Ge 7 
senilis, whose grammars (Lehrgebaude, 2 vols., 
1817 ; Grammatik, 1813; 21st 'ed., 1872), reader 
(1814, 11th ed., 1873), and dictionaries (Sand- 
wSrlerbuch, 1810—12; 7th ed., 1868; Latin 
transl., 2d ed., 1846, English trans, by Edward 
Robinson and by Tregelles ; Thesaurus, 3 vols., 
1829 — 58) have been more extensively used than 
any other works of the same.kind. His grammar 
was translated into English by Moses Stuart 
(1826) and by Conant (1839) ; his shorter dic- 
tionary, by Gibbs (1824), and Robinson (1836); 
and both have been extensively used in Amer- 
ican schools. The greatest rival of Gesenius for 
the headship in Hebrew rjhilology is Ewald 
(Kritisehe Grammatik, 1827, 8th ed., 1870; 
Sprachlehre fur An/anger, 4th ed., 1875), who, 
starting from the principles first developed by 
Alting and Danz, treated the Hebrew language 
as an organic whole, according to historico-genet- 
ical principles, making at the same time a very 
extensive use of the cognate dialects. Among 
the numerous other Hebrew grammars published 
in Germany, those by Hupfeld( Grammatik,l 841 ) 
and Niigelsbach (Grammatik, 3d ed., 1870) are 
highly valued. In England and in the United 



States, grammars have, among others, been pub- 
lished by Lee (3d ed., 1844), Greene, and Jones. 
Of the numerous Jewish scholars who have 
written grammatical and lexicographical works 
on the Hebrew language, none is valued so highly 
as Fiirst (Handwarterbuch, 2 vols., 1857), who 
illustrates the Hebrew not only from cognate 
tongues, but also from those of the Indo-Ger- 
manic class, and endeavors, on philosophic 
grounds, to separate the accidental from the 
essential, the radical from the ramified, the root 
from the stem, the stem from the branches, so as 
to arrive at the laws which actually rule the lan- 
guage. Among the Hebrew grammars published 
in England and in the United States by Jewish 
scholars, are those by Horwitz (London, 1835), 
Nordheimer (2 vols., New York, 1838—42), 
Kalish (London, 1863), Mayer, and Felsenthal 
(Chicago, 1875). 

As the study of Hebrew, among Christians, 
generally is not begun until the students have 
obtained a good knowledge, not only of their 
native tongue, but also of Latin and Greek, the 
teacher will find it expedient to pursue a 
method very different from that observed in 
teaching young pupils the elements of Latin 
and Greek. The mastering of the chief rules of 
grammar may be expected to consume compar- 
atively little time. As the chief purpose of 
nearly all students of Hebrew is to be enabled 
to read the Bible, it is natural that teachers 
should generally conform their method to that 
special aim. The study of the Hebrew Bible is, 
therefore, begun as soon as possible, and most of 
the grammatical peculiarities are explained in 
connection with reading. Translations from the 
native tongue are rarely made ; though many 
scholars strongly recommend them, on the 
ground that every foreign language, to be com- 
pletely understood, requires exercises in written 
composition. In most Christian countries, the 
study of Hebrew is optional for Christian theo- 
logians. In Germany, the state governments de- 
mand of all the Protestant as well as Catholic 
theologians a knowledge of this language; and it 
is included in the subjects in which all the 
theologians of those churches have to pass an 
examination. To that end, the course of in- 
struction in the gymnasia embraces, for the 
higher classes, the study of Hebrew ; and the 
lectures given in the theological faculties of the 
universities and in the theological seminaries, ex- 
plain the Hebrew text no less than the theo- 
logical meaning. The study of the Hebrew lan- 
guage is of special interest to the Jews, whose 
total number is estimated at from six to seven 
millions. As the reading of the Hebrew script- 
ures is a prominent part of religious worship, 
the study of the Hebrew language is not only 
obligatory for all rabbis and readers, but is 
generally pursued in all Jewish schools. (See 
Hebrews, Education among the.) The history 
of the Hebrew language has been written by 
Gesenius (Geschichte der hebraischen Sprache, 
(1815) ; and by Renan (Histoire el systeme des 
langues semitiques, 4th ed., 1864). The method 



HEBREWS 



411 



of teaching Hebrew is treated of in Klinqen- 
stein. Her Vhterricht itn Hebrdischen (ls(il). 

The complete literature relating to the Hebrew 
language up to 1850 is found in Steihschnei- 
dek, Bibliographisches Handbuch fur hebrib- 
ische Sprachkunde (185!)). 

HEBREWS, Education among the. This 
subject will be treated under the following heads: 
(1) Ancient Hebrews : (II) Hebrew education in 
the middle ages ; (111) In modern times. 

I. Ancient Hebrews. — Notwithstanding the 
accessibility and abundance of the earliest records 
of the life and labors of the Hebrews, scared}' 
any thing is known of their educational status 
until after the termination of Biblical history. 
From the sacred records we simply learn that 
the Law made it the duty of parents to teach 
their children its precepts and principles. — 
During the Egyptian bondage, the Hebrews 
probably enjoyed some educational advantages, 
but to what extent it does not clearly appear 
from the records. Moses himself had been 
carefully trained, and was competent not only to 
lead but also to instruct the people of God, 
during their wanderings in the wilderness. At 
that time, the Hebrews must have been more 
or less subject to mental as well as to religious 
training. They must have been able to read 
and write; for they were commanded of God to 
write the precepts of the Law upon their door- 
posts and gates ; and they were, moreover, re- 
quired to write the injunctions upon great stones 
"Very plainly . immediately upon crossing the 
• Ionian, so that they might easily be rem/ by 
every Israelite. 

The end and aim of all mental training among 
the ancient Hebrews, up to the Babylonish cap- 
tivity, was to develop most prominently the re- 
ligious tendency, in the child, in order to rear 
obedient servants of the true Eloliim. Being a 
peculiar people — the only theocratic people of 
antiquity — engaged almost exclusively in 
pastoral and agricultural pursuits, their system 
of education aimed to secure the energetic as- 
sertion of a nationality whose essence consisted 
in the principle of faithfulness to the covenant 
of God. Hebrew education, therefore, was, 
previous to the captivity, nothing more nor less 
than a corollary of religion ; and teaching was 
necessarily, in the main, if not altogether, relig- 
ious. It involved instruction in the Law, the 
•customs, and the symbolical observances of the 
nation, as well as the narration of its history in 
illustration of these subjects. We should bear 
in mind, moreover, that the understanding of 
the sacred oracles was not the peculiar prerogative 
of the priestly order, but was enjoined upon 
every Israelite. This makes it Belf-evident that 
the knowledge of reading and writing must have 
formed a prominent part in the education of all 
children. For the same reason, too, arithmetic 
must have been taught ; as the days of the week, 
the months, the festivals, etc., were not designated 
by proper names, but by numerals. In fact, every 
art or science which is alluded to in the Old 
Testament, and upon a knowledge of which 



depended the understanding of the Scriptures, 
must, to some extent, have formed a part of the 
strictly religious Jewish education. Now, when 
we consider that the education of the Hebrew 
children depended upon the parents, it becomes 
self-evident that the Hebrews must have been, 
while residents of Canaan, a universally edu 
eated people, 

Of course, so long as the education of the child 
devolved upon the parent, there could not very 
well have been much room for schools. There are, 
however, cases on record (previous to the Baby- 
lonish captivity) in which professional teachers 
were resorted to. This was probably the case 
when parents found themselves incapacitated or 
too much engaged otherwise. Thus David tells 
us that he had many teachers. In the days of 
the Judges we read of a KirjaihrSepher.ihe"caty 
of books ", a name which seems to indicate the 
seat of some scholastic establishment that had 
been founded by the Canaanites. But to what ex- 
tent the people availed themselves of such helps 
we do not know. In the days of Samuel, again, 
and down through the prophetical age, there are 
indications of collegiate settlements in several 
parts of the country, as Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, 
llama, and Mt. Carmel. where the students, 
under the name of b'ney hannebiitn "sons of 
the prophets" lived a kind of monastic or rather 
Pythagorean life (not as celibates), in great num- 
bers and at common cost, and where the severer 
study of the theocratic laws and institutions was 
accompanied with that of poetry and music. But 
these schools of the prophets fell into decay a 
long time before the captivity. 

During the Exile, the Hebrews became very 
neglectful of the education of their children. The 
Law was not so carefully observed as in Canaan, 
their vernacular language was to a great extent 
forgotten, and there was even much amalgama- 
tion with the heathen nations. Yet the Baby- 
lonish residence was not without its benefits. The 
intercourse with the Chaldean people enlarged 
the Hebrew's field of knowledge, and gave to 
superior intellectual capacity a stimulus for its 
speculative exercise. The wonderful development 
of their Babylonish schools for centuries proves 
that they, even then, enjoyed that remarkable 
fertility of resource that -has preserved the He- 
brews to our day a peculiar people, though riven 
ami broken, and scattered in every clime. — 
With the restoration of the Hebrews to their 
own country, a brilliant page opens in their in- 
tellectual history. True, when Ezra, the priest, 
first came to Jerusalem to re-establish Mosaism 
in all its former glory, he did not find as 
many competent for the task of instructing the 
youth, as there had been previous to the captivity, 
but he found enough of highly cultured 1 1 el news 
to form the nucleus of a college. By the co- 
operation of the most enlightened and learned 
of the Hebrews, he formed a synod, or rather a 
college, commonly called the Great Synagogue 
[keneseth haggedolah) composed altogether, it is 
said, of one hundred and twenty ; and, wisely 
organized these scholars into a distinct order, 



412 



HEBREWS 



continued, in a succession of about as many 
years, the work of public instruction in Jerusalem. 
From this capital, teachers were sent throughout 
the country of Palestine ; and all Israel again 
enjoyed the training it had been accustomed to 
before the Exile, only with manifold improve- 
ments, obtained by the contact of their wise men 
with foreign nations. Not merely was the 
study of the Law re-established, but the study of 
other languages besides the Hebrew was intro- 
duced, and, in consequence, the critical examina- 
tion of other religious systems, as well as of 
philosophical speculation. It need not then be 
a matter of surprise that the Hebrews soon 
came to be noted as scholars, that, in 260 B. C, 
Ptolemy Philadelphus paid seventy Jewish 
scribes 2,500,000 dollars for the septuagint 
version of the Bible, prepared by them at Alex- 
andria at his request, or that the greatest light 
of neoplatonic philosophy was none other than 
Philo "the Jew" (A. D. 20). — After the ex- 
tinction of the Great Synagogue, its place was 
supplied by the sanhedrim, the president of 
that body, who was called " prince " [nasi) and 
became the supreme arbiter and authority in the 
whole sphere of morals and education, exercising 
a rectoral office in the scholastic institutions of 
the land. Besides, many of the members of the 
Great Council actively engaged in the work of 
instruction itself. One of the brightest lights 
in the history of ancient Hebrew pedagogy is 
Simon ben Shetach, who took a wider range of 
thought and speculation than any of his pred- 
ecessors. He introduced high schools in many 
places and did much to elevate the standard of 
Hebrew scholarship. He lived about 80 B. C. 
At that time, schools flourished throughout the 
length and breadth of Palestine, and education 
had been made compulsory. Every Judean town 
containing a certain number of inhabitants was 
bound to maintain a primary school, the chazan, 
or reader of the synagogue, usually being the 
teacher. Schools of a higher grade were presided 
over by the rabbins, and a certain portion of the 
public revenue was set apart for the support of 
these institutions. While there is not a single 
term for school to be found before the Exile, we 
now meet with about a dozen in common use. 
The etymologies of some of these words, and the 
signification of others, give us, in a very striking 
manner, the progressive history of Jewish educa- 
tion, and tell us that foreign elements had largely 
and favorably impressed Hebrew pedagogy. 
Some idea may be formed of the paramount 
importance which public instruction had assumed, 
in the life of the nation, from the innumerable 
popular sayings of the period : — " Jerusalem 
was destroyed because the instruction of the 
young was neglected. " " The world is only saved 
by the breath of the school children." " Even for 
the rebuilding of the Temple the schools must 
not be interrupted." " Study is more meritorious 
than sacrifice. " "A scholar is greater than a 
prophet." " You should revere the teacher even 
more than your father. The latter only brought 
you into this world, the former indicates the way 



into the next. But blessed is the son who has. 
learnt from his father : he shall revere him both 
as his father and as his master ; and blessed is 
the father who has instructed his son. " — The 
character of the schools may be best inferred 
from the laws by which their founding and 
management were controlled. For elementary 
instruction a school or teacher was required for 
every 25 children ; when a community had 
40 children, they might have one master and an 
assistant. Schools could not be established in 
the most densely crowded part of the town, 
nor near a river which had to be crossed by an 
insecure bridge, so as to endanger the health 
or lives of the children. The proper school age 
for a boy was six years, until then the father be- 
ing his instructor. Great care was taken in the 
selection of text-books, and that the lessons 
taught were in harmony with the capacity and 
inclination of the child, were practical, few at 
a time but weighty. " The parents must never 
cease to watch that their children are in school 
at the proper time." 

When the power of the Hebrews was broken 
anew at Jerusalem, and their temple again de- 
stroyed, the sense of their common danger, misery, 
and want bound them only more closely to one 
another. No sooner had the war terminated 
than, in place of the temple, the synagogue ap- 
peared, and what at first the priest had guided, 
the rabbi now controlled. The dispersion of the 
Hebrews and the destruction of the temple and 
school at Jerusalem, therefore, did not long inter- 
fere with their enjoyment of that peculiar nation- 
ality which they have now maintained for nearly 
seventeen centuries. A citizen of the world, hav- 
ing no country he could call his own, the Hebrew, 
nevertheless, lived within certain well-defined 
limits, beyond which, to him, there was no world. 
Thus, though scattered abroad, the Israelites had 
not ceased to be a nation ; nor did any nation 
feel its oneness and integrity so truly as they. 
Jerusalem, indeed, had ceased to be their capital; 
but the school and the synagogue, and not a 
Levitical hierarchy, now became their impreg- 
nable citadel, and the Law their palladium. 
The old men, schooled in sorrows, rallied the 
manhood that remained, and the infancy that 
multiplied, resolving that they would transmit 
a knowledge of their mission to future gen- 
erations. They founded schools as well as syn- 
agogues, and developed a grade of scholarship 
the ability of which is attested by the writing of 
a code of laws only second to that of Moses — a 
system of traditionary principles, precepts, and 
customs, intended to keep alhe forever the pe- 
culiar spirit of Judaism. The high school de- 
stroyed at the holy city, was supplanted by the 
college at Tiberias; and that place, changed into 
a kind of Jerusalem, where instead of building 
in wood and stone, they employed workmen in 
rearing another edifice, which, even to this day, 
continues to proclaim the greatness of the people 
after their dispersion. This was the Mishna and 
the Gemara, better known as the Babylonian Tal- 
mud, the so-called Oral Law reduced to writing. 



HEBREWS 



413 



arranged, commented upon, and explained ; un- 
til it became, in the course of a few centuries, a 
complete digest of the law. the religion, and the 
nationality of the Jews. The greatest complete- 
ness was given to their means of public in- 
struction by the establishment, in many places. 
of high schools like that at Tiberias. And not 
only was this done in Palestine and Babylon, 
but in all countries where the -lew had found an 
asylum. Thus, the college at Alexandria, in 
Egypt, became as celebrated as the colleges at 
Sora, Pumbadita, and Nahardea. The most 
noted schools of this period were, besides those 
just mentioned, the colleges at Akbara, Bethira, 
Gaesarea, Chammatha, Lydda, Jabneh. Magdala, 
Mauhuza, Xares. Sepphoris, Selki. Shaken-Zib, 
and Ushach. — At first, the organization of these 
high schools was very simple. Besides the pres- 
ident, who was the chief teacher, and an assist- 
ant, there were no offices or ranks. Gradually, 
however, superior and subordinate ranks were 
established. The president or rector, who was 
elected by the students from the rank of profess- 
ors, was called resJi methibtha. Next in rank 
stood the resh kcdla, or "dean," the chief <>f 
the assembly, whose office it was to expound or 
simplify to the students, for the first three weeks 
of the session, the theme of the rector's forth- 
coming lectures; and so arduous became the task, 
as the number of disciples increased, that, in 
time, no less than seven " deans'' had to be ap- 
pointed. Their colleagues, or the graduates who 
were eligible to that dignity, were called chaberim 
(companions), and corresponded somewhat to 
the English " fellows.'' The mode of instruction 
was chiefly catechetical. After the resh had 
delivered his exposition, for which the "dean'' 
had prepared the students, and the chaberim 
had followed with their comments, the disciples 
questioned the teachers. Now all became life. 
movement, and debate ; question was met by 
counter-question, answers were given wrapped 
up in allegories or parables, until the inquirer 
was brought to deduce the questionable point 
for himself by analogy, when a memorandum 
was made of the conclusions reached. The cur- 
riculum of study was quite varied, as much so as 
in any modern university. All maimer of sub- 
jects were brought forward in these Hebrew 
colleges. Theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, 
astronomy, astrology, medicine, botany, geog- 
raphy, arithmetic, architecture, were all themes 
which alternately occupied the attention of mas- 
ters and disciples. In fact, the Talmud, which 
is the repository of these discussions, is nothing 
less than an encyclopaedia of all the sciences of 
that time, and shows that, in many departments 
of science, these Jewish teachers anticipated some 
of the modern discoveries. See Hamburger, Real- 
EncyJdopddie fur Bibel 'und Talmud (Hamb., 
1866 — 74). The principal subjects of study 
were, of course. Biblical, including hermeneutics. 
or scripture interpretation ; halaka, or the con- 
stitutions of the traditional law ; popular ethics, 
legendary history, sacred poetry, and the science 
of the calendar. Etiquette received very great 



attention, as it was regarded by the Hebrew 
sages an essential part of education. The most 
minute directions were given as to the behavior 
of students toward their parents, their teachers, 
their superiors in age or rank. Perhaps the stran- 
gest feature of Hebrew education was the training 
of every student in some trade. Consequently, 
most 1 Iebrew " doctors" were but humble me- 
chanics. They were tent-makers, sandal-makers, 
weavers, carpenters, tanners, bakers, cooks. Piety 
and learning c inly received their proper estimation 
when they where joined to healthy bodily work. 
One of the greatest Hebrew sages, Rabbi Gama- 
liel, declares, " learning, no matter of what kind, 
if unaccompanied by a trade, ends in nothing, 
and leads to sin." — The high schools had two 
sessions in the year : the summer semester be- 
ginning with nisan (new moon of April), and end- 
ing with ehd (new moon of September) ; and the 
winter s< mesU r, beginning with tishri (new moon 
of October), and ending with adar (new moon 
of March). In the concluding month of each 
half year, the studies of the session were re- 
viewed. On these occasions, there were academic 
disputations which created extensive interest, 
and were attended by thousands of hearers. 
The academical degree of vJm/ier was conferred 
by the resh, who laid his hand on the head of 
the. candidate, with the words. "lie thou c/itiberl" 
As such he was entitled to a seat in the schools 
as commentator and judge on questions in dis- 
pute, his opinion possessing a certain value or 
authority. He then also dropped his simple 
personal name, and took the briefer but more 
honorable designation of "the son of" (ben); 
e. </., Joshua, the son of Bethira. called himself 
Ben Bethira. The higher degree was that of 
rah or rabbi; in Babylon, mur. It was given 
in the same form as the cJtaber, with the be- 
j stowment of a key. symbolizing that there was 
I now conveyed to the recipient a power of open- 
ing the law by authoritative exposition, and of 
locking up or releasing the consciences of men. 
I lniiarried men and women were not allowed to 
be teachers of boys. — As to girls, we have but 
little account in Scripture regarding their edu- 
cational advantages. Needle-work formed the 
chief, but by no means the only, subject of in- 
struction imparted to females. The 31st chapter 
of Proverbs is, probably, a pretty full descrip- 
tion of what was the education of a woman and 
house-wife in the ( (Id Testament period among 
the Hebrews; but, aside from this, the fact that 
mothers had to take part in the education of 
their children, would of itself show that their 
education must have been attended to. It is 
certainly clear that the prophetical schools in- 
cluded within their scope the instruction of 
females, who were occasionally invested with 
authority similar to that of the prophets them- 
selves. It will be remembered also, that, in con- 
tradistinction to other oriental people, many 
female poets and learned women figure in the 
history of the ancient Jews. 

II. The establishment of the Mohammedan 
power opens a new epoch in Hebrew education. 



414 



HEBREWS 



The severe treatment of the Romans had been 
superseded by a milder government at the hand 
of the Abassides ; but the Hebrew found con- 
siderate masters first in the Mohammedan rulers 
from Arabia. For centuries, the external con- 
dition of the Hebrews, under the eastern caliph- 
ate, was undisturbed by any great vicissitudes; 
and, from the 7th to the 11th century, their 
schools reached the height of prosperity. Thou- 
sands of students repaired to those fountains of 
instruction, not a few of whom came from 
distant parts of Europe and Africa, to carry 
back the means of promoting the cause of edu- 
cation in their adopted countries. In the 11th 
century, however, a less tolerant spirit ruled the 
eastern caliphates; and, in consequence, we meet 
with a decline in literature, which, had it not 
been for the humane policy of the western or 
white caliphates, would have resulted in an entire 
suspension of literary activity among the Jews. 
So far was the intolerance of the eastern caliphs 
carried, that, by the middle of the 11th century, 
the schools of Palestine and Babylon were shorn 
of all their ancient splendor, and Spain alone 
stood as the world's representative of Hebrew 
scholarship. In the Iberian peninsula, the Hebrew 
had had representatives from time immemorial; 
but, up to the close of the 10th century, the Jews 
there, though numerous and wealthy, were 
greatly behind their eastern brethren in intel- 
lectual development. No schools of any account 
are met with among them until the intolerance 
of the Eastern caliphs drove over to Spain some 
of the most renowned Hebrew scholars the East 
could then boast of. It was thus that Hebrew 
science received so decisive an impulse in the 
peninsula as to inaugurate a new era in Jewish 
intellectual progress. Indeed, the period from 
the opening of the 11th to the close of the 15th 
Century, may well be denominated the golden 
period of medifeval Hebrew learning. The same 
spirit of broad tolerance which had prevailed for 
over three centuries in the East, now marked the 
rule of the "white" or western caliphs. Schools, 
colleges, and libraries were multiplied in the 
great centers of the population. The learned of 
other countries were invited to take positions 
munificently endowed, and ere long the univer- 
sities of Spain became the resort of students from 
the East and the West. Among both students 
and teachers, the Jews counted largely; and the 
fountains of knowledge which sent forth their 
streams from the Arabian universities of Cor- 
dova and Toledo, were fed by Jews as freely as by 
Christians and Saracens. (See Arabian Schools.) 
Besides freely entering the common as well as 
literary walks of fife, and contesting with the 
other religionists the different avenues thus 
liberally opened to them, the Jews maintained 
a school system very much akin to that of the 
eastern countries in the preceding period. They 
not only sought to influence the training of their 
children in the earliest youth, but founded many 
collegiate establishments of their own, where a 
liberal education could be prosecuted by Hebrew 
young men and women under rabbinical in- 



fluence. Such schools arose in Aragon, Castile- 
Catalonia, and Navarre, and in the towns of 
Barcelona, Alcala, Burgos, Cordova, Saragossa, 
Toledo, Tarazona, and Lucena. In these institu- 
tions, under the care of some of the most eminent 
scholars of the age, a multitude of men were 
trained whose works have been ever held in esti- 
mation not only by Israelites, but by the learned 
of the Christian world as well. (See Ticknor, 
History of Spanish Literature, 3d ed., vol. I.) 
The principal of each college bore the title of 
nagid or prince, equivalent to that of resh me- 
ihibiha in the eastern schools. Of course, rabbin- 
ical learning was made the basis of other forms 
of instruction. The Hebrew professors of these 
schools very naturally wished the minds of their 
students to be preoccupied with their own na- 
tional doctrines and traditions. Thus a nagid, 
S-'alomo ibn Adrath, went so far as to enact that 
'•gentile" philosophy should not be studied till 
the age of 24 years. (It should be added, how- 
ever, that this proposition divided Hebrew 
scholars, and gave rise to a troublesome contro- 
versy.) There was a tendency in the Spanish- 
Hebrew youth to forsake the distinctively Jew- 
ish schools, and to avail themselves of the 
greater benefits of the more extensive educa- 
tional movements which were displaying them- 
selves around them. The rabbins, of course, 
saw, or thought they saw, imminent danger to 
Judaism, or rather to rabbinism; and hence their 
activity in educational movements. On the whole, 
this fear, though, as it now appears, ungrounded, 
was productive of much good to Hebrew learn- 
ing ; for it stimulated to a healthy exertion, and 
resulted in perfecting Judaism in Spain and in 
Portugal, until it rivaled that uprooted in the 
East. To facilitate talmudical studies, the works 
of Hebrew tradition were translated into the then 
vernacular Arabic; and thus the rabbinical insti- 
tutes acquired a status in modern literature. 
The critical study of the Hebrew was encouraged, 
and a system of Hebrew grammar developed 
which maintains its hold to this day. Besides, 
the use of the Hebrew in composition and the en- 
largement of the Hebrew ritual were encouraged, 
and thus a large number of students, in the west- 
ern peninsula, learned to write as freely the 
Hebrew, as their forefathers had written it in 
Jerusalem's most glorious day. In all these ways, 
the Hebrew sages domiciled in Spain and Por- 
tugal cherished national and ancestral feelings 
in the minds of the rising generation. The result 
of ail this labor was a vigorous religious life in 
the social condition of the people, and an age of 
literary activity such as had not been known in 
Hebrew literature since the dispersion. Numbers 
of eminent Hebrew scholars, theologians, poets, 
linguists, and physicians were brought into gen- 
eral public notice; and, besides, many works were 
composed, treating of every species of science, 
including law, medicine, astronomy, language, 
and the fine arts. In philology, rose David 
Khnchi ; in philosophy, Moses Maimonides, of 
whom it is said by some that he has only been 
excelled in wisdom and learning by Moses the 



HEBREWS 



415 



prophet: in poetry, Jehuda ben lievi. pronounced 
by some the rival of king Solomon; in astron- 
omy, Aben Ezra and Ibn Tibbon. But these are 
only a few lights in the much-illuminated fir- 
mament. In philosophy and astronomy, the 
Hebrew sages of that day excelled the Moham- 
medans. — See (tI'edemaxx, Das jiklische Unter- 
ricktswesen wahrend der spnniscli-ciri'ih. Periods 
(Vienna, 1873); Zdnz, Litergturgeschichte der 
synagogalen Poesie (Berlin. 1865); Kayserling, 
Geschichte der Juden hi Spanien und PoHugal; 
\jsrDO,Historyqfike Jews of 'Spain and Portugal. 

Hebrew learning and institutions of learning, 
however, flourished thus not only in the Iberian 
peninsula, but in many parts of the continent 
also, especially in France and Italy, where a hu- 
mane policy prevailed fi ir centuries. In the former 
country, colleges flourished at Montpellier, Nar- 
bonne, Lunel, and Marseilles, besides many 
schools of inferior grade, all of which were con- 
ducted after the Spanish model. In Italy, the 
colleges at Mantua, Lucca, Otrauto, and Bari not 
only enjoyed considerable reputation, but had the 
support of princes and of the pontiff at Rome. 
In the eternal city, the Hebrews supported an 
academy which boasts as its presidents the most 
renowned literati of the middle ages. One of 
them, Nathan ben Jechiel, who presided about 
the close of the 11th century, is said peritus 
omnis generis scientiarum fuisse. 

HI. The general spirit of persecution which 
prevailed against the Jews in Europe, from the 
13th to the 17th century, largely stifled their liter- 
ary activity; and the educational history of 
that period is very meager. When the religious 
zeal of Isabella and the covetous heart of 
Ferdinand closed the doors of Spain against 
all Hebrews who decided to remain faithful to 
the dictates of their conscience, many Israelites 
went to Holland, Germany, and Poland, and 
there established schools, which flourished for 
centuries. But these schools were almost exclu- 
sively devoted to tahnudic study. No such sys- 
tem as prevailed in Spain and on the continent 
previous to the persecutions by the Inquisition, 
has ever been re-introduced ; nor could such a 
system have been maintained previous to the 
present century. The baneful spirit of those 
dark ages had closed the doors of the schools, 
common or academic, against the Jew; and thus 
the liberal professions being made inaccessible to 
him.be could not well develop the scholarship of 
which Iris forefathers had boasted. But as the 
Hebrews labored for centuries under such dis- 
advantages, and yet maintained among them- 
selves a high moral culture, and did not sink into 
that state of degradation and crime which would 
have probably been the lot of other nations, a 
high estimate must be placed upon the culture 
and accomplishments resulting from the spirit 
of Mosaism ; and it might as well be confessed 
that the theocratic institutions of the Hebrews 
and the foundation of their politics and ethics 
on their religion has produced a better culture, 
mental and moral, in literature, than that of any 
other non-Christian people. Their ancient educa- 1 



tion was far in advance of the Chinese and the 
Hindoos ; for, in every lesson taught the Hebrew 
youth, were inculcated the sublimest virtues, 
among which may be enumerated charity, grati- 
tude, obedience and respect to the commands of 
parents, politeness and cleanliness, all coupled 
with extreme reverence for the Almighty. In 
short, the aim of Hebrew education seems to 
have been the mural perfection of the individ- 
ual, as well as the welfare of soeiety. — From 
the establishment of the American republic, 
the modern Jew dates his liberation from 
bondage, not only in this country but all over the 
continent of Europe. His enjoyment of freedom 
was not instantaneous in all these countries, but 
the dawn of the new epoch began with the ad- 
vance of republican principles in America and in 
France. In Germany, whereof all the enlightened 
countries, the -lew ha 1 to wait longest for his 
emancipation, the close of the last century is par- 
ticularly noted for his literary advance. Both 
Moses Mendelssohn, the philosopher, and Hart- 
wig Wessely, the philologist, deserve to be 
mimed as the founders of the first Hebrew free 
school at the Prussian capital (177b). Indeed, 
the latter scholar was really the ablest advo- 
cate of the modern method of education among 
the Hebrews. Thus, he not only exerted himself 
at Berlin, but also at Vienna, and elsewhere in 
the Austrian dominions, to prevent all opposition 
to the legislative recognition of the equality of 
the .lews with the Christians ami their rights to 
admission to the state schools. After these, David 
Friedliinder. a pupil of Mendelssohn. exerted him- 
self for the further improvement of the Hebrew 
schools. Wherever, in Germany or Poland, he 
heard of schools barbarously deficient in the ele- 
ments of useful secular knowledge, he labored for 
the introduction of the progressive system. An- 
other noted philanthropist of the period is Israel 
Jaeobson (born in 17(18, died in 182K), who ex- 
pended his large fortune for the education of 
his co-religionists. At Seesen, he founded, in 
1801, a school at an expense of 100,000 thalers; 
ami later, he labored at ( 'assel and in Berlin iu 
the same direction. In more recent times, the 
German scholar, Leopold Zunz, still living, figures 
as the ablest and most successful advocate of 
Hebrew culture. Next to him in rank, Abraham 
Geiger of Prussia, and S. L. Rappaport of ( rali- 
cia, in Austria, deserve a place. In Italy S. D. 
Luzzato has done more in this direction than 
all his contemporaries. In France, the place 
of honor belongs to Salomon Munk and J. 
Salvador. — There are, at the present time, 
good schools, both public and private, pretty 
Widely distributed in Germany. Austria, Den- 
mark^ France, and even in Russia and Poland, 
where efficient elementary instruction is afforded 
to Hebrew children. Usually, these schools are 
under the care of the state, and supported in 
part by it, and in part by the forced contribu- 
tions of the Hebrews who reside where the 
schools are located. In some of the larger cities 
where many Jews reside, the Hebrew schools 
provide separate training for the sexes, those for 



416 



HEBREWS 



HECKER 



girls giving special attention to needle-work and 
other female accomplishments ; those for boys 
giving sufficient classical training to admit them 
to the 5th or 6th year's course of the gymnasia, 
■where the course extends over a period of ten 
years. Since 1873, the German government has 
also supported several Hebrew theological chairs 
at the Berlin university, and afforded aid to a 
"seminary" (normal school) for the training of 
teachers to be employed solely in schools for He- 
brews. The Hebrew normal schools at Berlin and 
Breslau are regarded as among the best institu- 
tions of the kind in Germany. Hundreds of teach- 
ers are annually trained there. The Hebrews 
also support two greatly noted seminaries for 
theological training; the one (founded in 1847) , at 
Breslau, Prussia; the other (founded in 1828), at 
Padua, Italy. At the Berlin university, Hebrew 
students in theology enjoy (since 1874) not only 
the training of their co-rebgionists but of all the 
professors employed in that institution. — In Eng- 
land, much has been done, in recent times, for the 
education of poor Hebrews, who are mostly of 
foreign birth. In the countiy, the schools main- 
tained by Hebrews are intended simply for relig- 
ious instruction. In London, a number of Hebrew 
private schools exist, and several for the educa- 
tion of poor children. The most noted of these 
institutions is the Jews' Infant School, where 
the gutter children of Spitalfields and White- 
chapel, from the age of 2 to 7, are taught to 
speak, read, and write in English, and to recite 
their Hebrew prayers, in addition to other ele- 
mentary instruction. From 750 to 1000 children 
now find admission there. The government has 
the supervision ; and it is pronounced by the Earl 
of Carlisle" one of the finest schools in Eng- 
land." The Free School, in the same city, 
is of a more advanced grade. It admits those 
who desire instruction after leaving the Infant 
School. This Free School is pronounced the 
largest scholastic institution in England, if not 
in Europe. About 2,500 children are here in- 
structed, the sexes separately; the branches in the 
higher classes being beyond the range of element- 
ary study. The teaching staff is made up of 
90 masters and mistresses. This school also is 
under government inspection, and is supported 
mainly by voluntary contributions. It has re- 
ceived several munificent legacies, amounting 
thus far to over £50,000. Another noteworthy 
Hebrew school is the London Jews' College, 
founded to afford good education at a moderate 
charge to the children of the middle classes. 
Many of its pupils are trained for university 
degrees and in some instances for the Jew- 
ish ministry. There is also a society called 
The Jewish Association for the Diffusion of 
Religious Knowledge which supports schools 
and synagogues, and circulates publications, aim- 
ing, in all these ways, " to impress upon the 
Jewish mind proper notions of the principles 
and observances, the spirit and mission of Juda- 
ism, and, by appeals to the reason rather than 
to sentiment, to develop and foster a most 
fervent conviction of the truths of their re- 



ligion. But notwithstanding these institutions, 
it is claimed for London that it is probably the 
only city in which illiterate Hebrews reside. But 
for the degraded condition in which the very 
poor Hebrews in this city exist, it might safely 
be asserted that the Hebrews every-where are 
educated ; and that, though belonging to all na- 
tionalities, and scattered promiscuously all over 
the face of the earth, no Israelites can be found 
who cannot read or write, if not in the domicil- 
iary language, certainly in the Hebrew. — In the 
United States, the Jews have always occupied a 
most honorable position. Recognizing the value 
of the political and social fabric of that country, 
they have not only maintained institutions for 
the training of their children, but have sup- 
ported education in the public schools. Sunday- 
schools are now maintained in the cities for 
the religious training of Hebrew youth ; and 
where no such facilities are provided, the rabbi 
or chazan (public reader of the synagogue) 
usually assumes the task. At Philadelphia, 
where there are several distinctively Hebrew 
schools for general mental training, the Mai- 
monides CoDege was founded, in 1868; and, for 
a few years, it struggled in vain to secure stu- 
dents, though its facilities were superior, and 
the president one of the ablest educators and 
scholars in the country. In 1872, a movement 
was set on foot for the union of all American 
Israelites ; and, supported principally by congre- 
gations in the Western States as a Union of 
American Hebrew Congregations, a college 
was started, in 1875, with Br. I. M. Wise as 
president. There are reported to be 17 students 
in the institution, which is located at Cincinnati, 
Ohio. Thus far, the instruction is confined to the 
Hebrew language and literature. In May, 1876, 
the congregation of New York, supported by 
many of the congregations in Philadelphia, 
Baltimore, Chicago, and other cities, held a 
convention in New York, and determined to 
found a Hebrew Theological Seminary, for the 
education of Hebrew preachers and teachers 
first, and for general culture afterwards. The 
opening of this high school will probably be pre- 
ceded by the founding of schools for instruc- 
tion in the rudiments of the Hebrew language 
and in Jewish history. — See Gk^etz, Geschichte 
der Judea, vol. in. — xi.; Jost, Geschichte des Ju- 
denthums; Beer, S/azzen einer Geschichte der 
Erzieliung und des Unlerrichts bei denlsraeliien 
(1832) ; Ethridge, History of Hebrew Liter- 
ature (revised and enlarged by Worman and 
Pick, N. Y., 1876) ; Weber and Holtzmann, 
Geschichte der Israeliten ; Salvador, Histoire 
des institutions de Mo'ise et du Peuple hebreu 
(1828); Schmidt, Geschichte der Pddac/ogik,!., 
451; Kitto, Biblical Cyclopaedia, art. Hebrews ; 
J. H. Worman, Jews, in McClintock and 
Strong's Cyclopaedia of Bibl. Theol. and Eccles. 
Literature. 

HECKEJt, Johann Julius, an eminent 
German educator of the 18th century, died June 
24., 1768. He was one of the foremost followers 
of A. H. Francke (q. v.), with whom he became 



IIEDDING COLLEGE 



HEGIUS 



411 



acquainted while studying at the university of 
Halle. He was appointed, in 1735, inspector of the 
orphanhuu.se at Potsdam, and, in L739, pastor 
of the church of the Trinity, in Berlin ; and, at 
the same time, became instructor of the < lerman 
schools belonging to the parish. He at once dis- 
played the greatest zeal to increase the number 
of the schools. In .May. 1739, the first of his 
schools was opened with six teachers; and a num- 
ber of free schools followed in rapid succession, 
until almost every street had its own free school. 
In 174(1 and 1747. he enlarged his institutions, 
by adding to the course of instruction drawing. 
geometry, mechanics, architecture, agriculture, 
and the natural sciences. He now called his school 
Realsdhule, the first institution of this name. 
(See Real .Schools). In 1748, the school was 
definitely organized as the Royal Real School of 
Berlin, and consisted of three schools. — a Latin 
school [Paedagogium), a German school, and a 
real school. A teachers' seminary was connect© 1 
with it in the same year. The school gained 
great renown under Hecker and Iliihn (q. v.), 
his assistant. Hecker also paid great attention 
to the new phonic method of reading as opposed 
to the spelling method, lie was also the author 
of the Prussian school law, promulgated by 
Frederick the Great, in 17ii3. which made instruc- 
tion compulsory for all children from the fifth to 
the thirteenth year of age. — See IMttes, Schule 
■der P&dagogik (Leipsic, 1876) ; and Barnard. 
German Educational Reformers, and Journal of 
Education. 

HEDDING COLLEGE, at Aliington. Ill- 
founded in 1854, is under the control of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church. It admits both 
sexes. In 1H73 — 4. it had '.) instructors, 200 pre- 
paratory and 18 collegiate students, and 1,200 
volumes in its libraries. The value of its build- 
ings, grounds and apparatus was $50,000. The 
Rev. J. G. Evans, A. Al., was the president. 

HEDGE-SCHOOL, the name originally 
given, in Ireland, to a school held in the open 
air. beside a hedge ; hence applied to any tem- 
porary school in the country, whether literally a 
hedge-school or not. In some parts of the United 
States, such schools are called ambulatory schools. 
Eor an amusing description of a hedge-school and 
its teacher, see William Carleton's Traits and 
Stories of the Irish Peasantry (Dublin 1830 — 32). 
The hedge-schoolmasters resembled somewhat 
the German bacchants [scholares oogamies), 
and were often men of quite respectable attain- 
ments in scholarship. The popular novelist 
Carleton, whose work is referred to above, was 
partly educated, near the beginning of the pres- 
ent century, in a hedge-school. 

HEGEL, Georg- WiLhelra Friedrich, one 
of Germany's most distinguished philosophers, 
was born in Stuttgart, Aug. 27.. 1770, and died 
in Berlin, Nov. 14., 1831. In 1801, he was ap- 
pomtedprivatrdocent, and, in 1805, extraordinary 
professor of philosophy, at Jena. In 1 807, he was 
professor at the gymnasium in Nuremberg; in 
1816, professor in Heidelberg; and. in 1818. pro- 
fessor in Berlin. Though his life was chiefly 



devoted to the elaboration of a new system of 
philosophy, he exerted considerable influence on 
the educational system of Germany. While at 

Nuremberg, he received from the Bavarian 
government (1813) the appointment of school 
councilor; and. in 1820, the Prussian govern- 
ment appointed him a member of the scientific 
commission ot education. Three years later, he 
was commissioned to report on the study of 
philosophy in the Prussian gymnasia. He, more- 
over, exerted, for a long time, a powerful influence 
over the ministry of public instruction in Prus- 
sia. He did but little, however, directly for the 
science of education; but the philosophical prin- 
ciples which he enunciated have been, through the 
exertions of his followers, the means of intro- 
ducing many important modifications, both in 
educational theory ami practice. In his own 
works, pedagogies appeal's only in the form of 
applied psychology and ethics; and as, according 
to his system, development is incomplete until 
it assumes an ethical form, practical education 
i.-. simply the art of making men moral. The 
child is the offspring of nature ; and. to become 
truly human, it must be. as it were, reborn — must 
pass from the natural into the self-conscious 
and spiritual condition. To aid this transition 
is education. 1 Iegol attributed great importance 
to the institution of the family and of the state. 
The former he deemed the chief factor in edu- 
cation ; ami both together, the great nurse and 
teacher of humanity. He also placed vre;M M;iv-s 
upon authority in the instruction of children. 
The attempt to develop the reasoning faculties 
at too early an age he reprehended as baneful; 

but the child should not be kept too long in the 
bondage of the senses, but should lie early ac- 
customed to think of supersensual things. He 
insisted strongly upon classical studies as the 
source of an indispensable culture. In general, 
however, Hegel himself elaborated no theory of 
education ; but the essential principles of his 
philosophical system constitute the basis for such 
a theory, upon which his followers have, in part, 
worked. Among the noted educational writers 
who are followers of Hegel, we mention Rosen- 
kranz. Thaulow. and Kapp. — See Rosencraxz, 
HegeFs Le4era(1844); Kapp, SegelalsGymnasial- 
director 1 1835); Thaulow, Begets Ansichten ilber 
Erziehung und Uhterrichi, (3 vols., 1853 — 4); 
Haym. Hegel mul seine Zett (1857); Schmidt, 
Qeschichte der P&dagogik, vol. iv. 

HEGIUS, Alexander, one of the greatest 
German teachers in the second half of the 15th 
century, was born at Heck, in WestphaUa, 
between 1430 and 1440. and died atDeventer, in 
1498. His name, after the fashion of those 
times, was derived from his birthplace. He was 
educated by the famous Thomas a, Kempis. in 
the school of the Hieronymians (q. v.) at Zwolle. 
A iter conducting schools at Basel and Emmerich, 
he opened another at Deventer, which, under his 
able management, became one of the most cele- 
brated schools of that age. Ami >ng his pupils were 
Erasmus (q. v.) and Pope Adrian VI. Hegius 
greatly encouraged the study of the Greek Ian- 



418 



HEIDELBERG COLLEGE 



HERBART 



guage, and was one of the chief promoters of a 
better method of teaching the Latin classics. A 
collection of his works was published at Deventer. 
They are enumerated in Erhard, Geschichte des 
Wiederai/fbluhens ivissenschaftticher Bildung 
in Beutschland, vol. I. (See also Netherlands.) 

HEIDELBERG COLLEGE, at Tiffin, 
Ohio, was founded in 1850, under the auspices 
of the Reformed Church in the United States, 
for the education of both sexes. It has an en- 
dowment of about $80,000. The college and 
society libraries, with that of the theological 
seminary, contain about 5,000 volumes. The 
institution comprises a collegiate department, 
with a classical course of four years, and a sci- 
entific course of three years, and an academy or 
preparatory department, with a classical and an 
English course. Special facilities are afforded 
for the study of German. Heidelberg Theolog- 
ical Seminary, though under a separate board of 
trustees, is intimately connected with the col- 
lege. The cost of tuition in the classical course 
is $26 per annum : in the scientific course, $21 ; 
and in the academy, $17. In the theological 
seminary, it is free. In 1875 — 6, the college 
had 6 professors, and the theological seminary, 2. 
The number of students was 189 ; namely, col- 
lege, 90 ; academy, 75 ; theological seminary, 24. 
The whole number of the alumni of the college 
was 138 ; of the theological seminary, 112. The 
president of the college is Rev. George W. Wil- 
liard, D.D. (1876). 

HEINICKE, Samuel, a German educator 
and teacher of deaf-mutes, born April 10., 1729, 
died April 30., 1790. Having grown up without 
education, he joined the army, when twenty-one 
years old, and by a careful use of his leisure 
hours acquired some knowledge by self-instruc- 
tion. In 1760, he became, through the recom- 
mendation of Klopstock, tutor in the family of 
Count Schimmelmann, and, in 1768, teacher in 
Eppendorf. Finding here a deaf-mute, he tried 
a new method for the instruction of that 
class of people. Differing from the Abbe de 
l'Epee (q. v.), who taught deaf-mutes to ex- 
press themselves by means of signs and panto- 
mimic gestures, and in writing, Heinicke strove 
to teach them to speak in the common language 
of articulate sounds, so that they might under- 
stand, and be understood by, every body. The 
sign language he considered only as a means to an 
end, not as the end itself. His chief aim was to 
practice the deaf in the same forms of expression, 
as are used by those that can hear. As he was 
quite successful, a number of deaf-mutes were 
sent to him from different countries for educa- 
tion. In 1778, at the request of the elector of 
Saxony, he returned to his native country ; and, 
in the same year, founded, at Leipsic, the first 
German institution for the instruction of deaf- 
mutes. But Heinicke was an excellent educator 
generally. He did much to improve the wretched 
condition of the common schools, and zealously 
advocated the substitution of the phonic method 
of spelling. — See H. E. Stostzner, Samuel Hei- 
nicke, sein Leben und Wirken (1870). 



HENDERSON COLLEGE, at Henderson, 
Tex., was founded by the Methodist Episcopal 
Church as Fowler Institute, in 1840, and contin- 
ued under Methodist control till 1870, when it 
was rechartered as Henderson College, and be- 
came non-sectarian. It is supported by tuition 
and incidental fees. There is a fund of $10,000, 
but not yet available. Both sexes are admitted. It 
has, besides the collegiate department, a prepar- 
atory and an inferior department. In 1874—5, 
there were 6 instructors and 200 students. Oscar 
H. Cooper has been the president since the or- 
ganization of the college. 

HENRY, Joseph, a distinguished American 
physicist, born in Albany, N. Y., Dec. 17., 1797. 
He was appointed professor of mathematics in 
the Albany Academy in 1826; and, shortly after, 
began a series of experiments in electricity, which 
led to the theoretical invention of the magnetic 
telegraph, several years before its practical estab- 
lishment by Prof. Morse. He was appointed 
professor of natural philosophy in the College of 
New Jersey, at Princeton, in 1832, and has con- 
tinued up to the present time his experiments 
and researches, not only in electro-magnetism, 
but in other departments of physics. He is the 
author of Contributions to Electricity and Mag- 
netism (1839), and has been a frequent con- 
tributor to the American Philosophical Trans- 
actions, Silliman's Journal, Journal of the- 
Franklin Institute, etc. On the organization of 
the Smithsonian Institution, at AVashington, in 
1846, Prof. Henry was appointed its secretary, 
which position he still holds. 

HERBART, Johann Friedrich, a distin- 
guished philosopher of Germany who made 
pedagogics the great end and aim of philosoph- 
ical study, was born in Oldenburg, May 4., 1776, 
died in Gottingen, August 14., 1841. After 
studying at the university of Jena, where he at- 
tended the lectures of Fichte.he became. inl797, 
a tutor in the family of a citizen of Bern, and at 
once began to elaborate a system of pedagogy. 
His pedagogical studies led to an intimate 
acquaintance with Pestalozzi, who, at that time, 
was teaching at Burgdorf in the canton of Bern. 
In 1800, he went to Bremen, where he delivered 
pedagogical lectures, and, in 1802, he became a 
privai-docent (lecturer) at the university of 
Gottingen. In 1805, he was promoted to an ex- 
traordinary professorship ; in 1809, he received 
a call as ordinary professor to Konigsberg ; and, 
in 1833, he returned to Gottingen. In all these 
academic positions, he lectured on pedagogics as 
well as on philosophy, and gathered around him- 
self a number of young men thoroughly imbued 
with his ideas. At Konigsberg, he also founded, 
in 1810, a pedagogical seminary in which young 
teachers, under his immediate direction, were to 
instruct a select number of boys according to his 
educational principles. Herbart says, that his in- 
vestigations were chiefly due to the settled con- 
viction that very many of the tremendous gaps 
in our pedagogical knowledge are attributable 
to defects in our psychology, and that these must 
be remedied before a science of education is pos- 



HERB ART 



HERDER 



419 



sible. His educational principles flow directly 
from his philosophy. His psychology recognizes 
no predetermined capacities in the soul which 
direct its future development. The soul, in it- 
self, contains only the power of reacting against 
external influences. Such reaction constitutes 
perception; and the mind, as a conscious intelli- 
gence, resembles a machine constructed of these 
perceptions. If impressions from without are 
not guided, the result must be disorderly and 
worthless. Hence the necessity of systematic 
education, in order to give form and direction to 
the indefinite activity of the soul. In proportion, 
then, to the extent and regularity with which 
perceptions are called forth in the sold, will be 
the breadth and value of the mental organism 
which the soul creates out of its perceptions. 
The whole of Herbart's system is an indirect 
polemic against all theories which place the aim 
of education without the individual subject. 
Neither family, nor state, nor humanity, is the 
end of education, but the development of the 
individual himself. Every thing but the indi- 
vidual is an abstraction, and valueless except as 
it serves to advance his interests. Pedagogies, 
therefore, with Herbart is a department of 
ethics, or rather the method by which ethics 
secures its aim ; namely, the perfection of the 
individual. The work of education has three 
parts : discipline, instruction, and training. The 
child has no control of himself. He is the prey 
of whatever lawless inclination may claim him. 
To overcome this is the office of discipline. 
Society and the family furnish a part of the 
needed discipline, but not enough: it must be 
supplemented by the systematic discipline of the 
school. Discipline, however, must not be con- 
tinued any longer than is necessaiy. but care 
must also be taken not to relax it too soon. In- 
struction must not be limited to the acquire- 
ment of knowledge, or of technical skill. Its 
chief aim is the culture of the will : that is, to 
impart an insight into ethical relations and 
the ability to realize ethical ideas. Discipline 
and instruction must be united, in order to 
bring forth many-sidedness in knowledge and in 
character. Training aims to fix the moral les- 
sons into abiding forms of character, and to 
bring the student to a point where he can un- 
dertake the work of self-culture. It follows from 
Herbart's psychology, that he would not be con- 
tent with unrelated knowledge. According to 
him, the so-called faculties are produced and 
developed purely by the association of ideas. 
Mental vigor, therefore, can be secured only by 
a habit of looking at things in their relations ; 
hence, the true order of teaching is to begin as 
soon as possible to give not merely the facts, 
but their bearings and connections. In this 
way, knowledge acquires anintelleetual interest 
for the student, and a moral interest also; for 
the most important relations are ethical ones ; 
and the highest aim of instruction is to enable 
one to see all things in their ethical relations. 
and to act accordingly. These points are con- 
stantly repeated by Herbart, and illustrated at 



considerable length and with great energy. To a 
certain extent also, he viewed statesmanship as a 
branch of pedagogics. The chief educational 
works of Herbart are : Attgemevne Pada- 
gogik (18U6). and Um/riss padagogischer Vor- 
lesungen (1835; 2d edit., 1841). Among the 
numerous smaller works, the Aphorismen 
zur Pddagogik is of special importance for 
teachers. A full understanding of the edu- 
cational principles of Herbart is. however, 
scarcely possible without a knowledge of his 
philosophical system, which is chiefly explained 
in his two principal works. Psychologie (2 vols.. 
1824 — 5), and AUgemeine Metaphysik (2 vols.. 
1828 — 9). His complete works were published 
by Hartenstein '12 vols.. 1850 — 52). An edi- 
tion of his educational writings, in chronological 
order, with introductions, notes, and a compara- 
tive register, was published by Wilhnann (Her- 
bart's Padagogische Schriften, 2 vols., 1873 — .i). 
-V large number of educators have more fully de- 
veloped tin- views of Herbart; prominent among 
these, are Mager. AVaitz. Stoy, and Ziller. A 
biography of Herbart was published by Harten- 
stein (in an edition of the smaller philosophical 
writings of Herbart, 3 vols.. 1S42 — 3). — See also 
Schmidt, Gfeschichte der Pddagogik, i\\, trans- 
lated in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 
April. 1876. In May. 1876. his native city cele- 
brated, with great solemnity, his centennial birth- 
day, and erected a monument to him. 

HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, one 
of Germany's most distinguished theologians, 
authors, and teachers, was born at Mohrungen, 
Aug. 25., L 744, and died in Weimar. Dei', is., 
1803. He early distinguished himself by his 
progress in scholarship; and his literary attain- 
ment gained him the friendship of a Russian 
physician. 1 iv whom he was induced to commence 
medical studies. But he soon renounced these, 
and resolved to devote himself to theology. In 
1 7114. he was appointed teacher, and afterwards 
preacher, at the cathedral school in Riga; and 
while there, he attracted much attention by his 
writings. as well as by the brilliancy and eloquence 
of his preaching. In 1709. he left Riga to travel 
in Germany, France, and Italy; and while at 
Btrasburg was intimately associated with Goe- 
the. In 1770, he became court preacher, general 
superintendent, and counselor of the Upper 
Consistory at Weimar, where he passed the re- 
mainder of his life, in constant communion with 
the most gifted minds of that brilliant period of 
German literary history. Here, too, he labored 
for the improvement of the schools. In 1783, 
he drew up a plan for their management, and 
secured an increase of salary to the teachers. A 
teachers' seminary was established in 17--7. 
through his influence. In the lower schools he 
introduced the 1'estalozzian method as far as it 
was practicable under the circumstances. Her- 
der's views on education present many points of 
interest and value. His leading principle was. 
that the aim of education is to develop human- 
ity. First and foremost, he says, we are re- 
quired to be men ; and any educational system 



420 



HERMANN 



HEYNE 



which aims at less than the full culture of all 
the powers of manhood is treason toward God 
and humanity. It is only the purest and most 
gifted persons that should be teachers ; for the 
teacher must not only know what the pupil is 
to learn, but he must be what he aims to have 
his pupil become. His connection with his 
pupils must be of the most intimate character. 
His intellectual instruction must be given 
with all the freshness of original discovery ; 
and his moral teaching must have all the 
fervor of conviction, and the authority of 
absolute truth. In teaching science and history, 
it is not isolated facts that must be presented, 
but their relations and their aggregate logical 
significance. Especially should the student's 
self-activity be thoroughly aroused ; and, hence, 
he favored the Socratic method of leading the 
pupil's mind to develop truth for itself from 
fundamental principles. The whole of education 
must be permeated with the spirit of humanity 
and with a fervent piety. Notwithstanding 
his eidarged views and deep insight, he was 
quite conservative. He condemned in unmeas- 
ured terms the raw and presumptuous reformers 
of his day ; and the Philanthropinists did not 
entirely escape his censure. In one of his ad- 
dresses, he remarks that "instead of ,the good 
old word school, a fashion has been introduced 
of using new and more showy terms, such as 
Educational Institution, and Philanthropinum ; 
and that much is said of 'genius', ' original 
genius', which does every thing for itself, and 
has no need of any other instructor ; and 
of wonderful self-development by one's own 
powers." He strongly opposed a "French edu- 
cation", instead of teaching in the native lan- 
guage. He also advocated that the lower 
classes of real schools should train useful citi- 
zens, and that the tipper ones should form a 
scientific gymnasium. His views on the teaching 
of language were eminently sound and practical. 
" Grammar," he said, " must be learned from 
the language, and not the language from gram- 
mar ; style, from speaking, and not speaking 
from an artificially formed style." He was, in 
every respect, a practical educator, and was 
proud to be considered such. " In my nineteenth 
year," he said, " I began teaching in the highest 
class of an academical institution, and from 
that time to this I have never been free from 
the responsibilities of a teacher, or else of a 
school officer." The complete edition of his 
works (45 vols., 1805 — 22) contains a large 
number of addresses and essays on educational 
subjects. — See Schmidt, Geschichle der Pada- 
gogik, vol. iv. ; Raumer, Geschichte der Pddago- 
gik (translated in Barnard's German Teachers, 
and Educators). 

HERMANN, Gottfried, one of the great- 
est classical scholars of modern times, born 
Nov. 28., 1772, died Dec. 31., 1848. He studied 
at the university of Leipsic, where he became, 
in 1794, privat-docenl (lecturer); in 1798, extra- 
ordinary professor; and, in 1803, ordinary pro- 
fessor. At the time of his death, he was the senior 



professor of the university. He had a vigorous 
delivery, an unfailing memory, a fine perception 
of the beauties of poetry, and a complete mas- 
tery of the Latin language, — all quahties which 
rendered him an excellent teacher. When, in 
1834, the philological seminary in Leipsic was 
revived, Hermann was appointed to conduct the 
Greek instruction. He banished all practical 
exercises in teaching from the seminary, because' 
he believed that a man who had become a 
thorough scholar, would also be able to teach. 
He trained his pupils to translate back into Greek 
a translation from a Greek prose writer, so that 
the mistakes might be detected by a comparison 
with the Greek model, and, at the same time, 
show why the author had written differently. 
Hermann is generally regarded as the founder 
of a more rational treatment of Greek grammar, 
and as having thus indirectly exerted a consider- 
able influence upon the improvement of gram- 
matical science in general. His views on this 
subject are chiefly laid down in his work De 
emendanda ratione Grcecce grammatical (1801), 
and in his learned notes to Viger's De prcecipuis 
Gr cecal diction is idiotismis (1802; 4th ed., 1834). 
His endeavors to elucidate the intellectual life 
of the ancient world chiefly through an accurate 
knowledge of the language and of the metrical 
form, involved him in literary controversies with 
Bockh, K. O. Muller, and Creuzer. His editions 
of the tragic Greek poets and of other Greek 
writers are still highly valued. Memoirs of his 
life and works have been published by O. Jahn 
(1849), and Kochly (1874). 

HESPERIAli COLLEGE, at Woodland, 
Cal., under the control of the Christian denom- 
ination, was founded in 1869. It admits both 
sexes. In 1875 — 6, it had 10 instructors, 150 
students, and productive funds to the amount 
of $50,000. The value of its buildings, grounds, 
and apparatus is $30,000. B. H. Smith, LL. D. 
is (1876) the president. 

HESSXTS, Eobanus, one of the foremost 
German educators of the time of the Refor- 
mation, born in 1488, died in 1540. He was ap- 
pointed, in 1516, professor at the university of 
Erfurt ; accepted, in 1525, a call to the newly 
established gymnasium of Nuremberg, returned 
in 1534 to Erfurt, and, in 1536, became profes- 
sor of history at the university of Marburg. 
He was an intimate friend of Reuchlin, Me- 
lanchthon, and other eminent men of the age ; 
and his reputation as a teacher was so great, 
that, as professor at Erfurt, he is said to have 
had at one time 1500 hearers. He was one 
of the best modern Latin poets ; and, as author 
no less than as teacher, largely contributed to 
a better knowledge of Latin and Greek. Special 
works on the life of Hessus have been written 
by Camerarius (1553), Lossius (1797), Herz 
(1860), and SchwertzeU (1873). An interesting 
account of Hessus is also given in the work of 
D. F. Strauss on Hutten (2d edit., 1871). 

HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, a German 
scholar and educator, born Sept. 25., 1729, died 
July 14., 181 2 He studied in the university 



HIERONYMIANS 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



421 



of I^eipsie. anil after holding several minor posi- 
tions, received, in 1763, a call to the university 
of Gottingen, where, besides his position as 
academic teacher, he also held those of director 
of the philological seminary, librarian in chief of 
the university library, and inspector of the pad- 
agogium in llefeld. In his philological semi- 
nary, he educated a large number of efficient 
teachers; and as librarian, he succeeded in raising 
the university library to one of the largest and 
best arranged in Europe. As an organizer, he 
showed great talent, in the paedagogiwm in lle- 
feld as well as in the schools of Gottingen and 
Hanover, which, through his reforms, attained 
great celebrity throughout ( iermany. Heyne is re- 
corded as one of the greatest German philologists 
of the 18th century. Besides editing several 
Latin and Greek classics, he wrote numerous 
works on classic antiquity. His life was written 
by Heeren (1813). — See also Kaemmel, in 
SenMin's Encyclopadie. 

HIERONYMIANS, or Brethren of the 
Common Life, a religious order, which did 
much for education in the Netherlands ami north- 
ern Germany, during the 14th. l.uh. and Kith 
centuries. It was founded by Gerard ( J root (also 
written Groote or Grote). a native of Deventer. 
He was born in 1340, and studied in Paris from 
L355 to 1358, where he gave his attention to 
magic, astrology, and necromancy; but he re- 
nounced these arts and was chosen a canon i 1 1 A i x- 
la-Chapelle and in Cologne. In the latter place, 
he preached in his native language, — a thing un- 
heard of and bitterly opposed at that time. Urge I 
by his friends and supporters, he founded an in- 
stitution devoted to instruction and purity of life. 
Many friends joined him in this undertaking, and 
soon a society was formed, the members of which, 
without taking monastic vows, devoted their lives 
to piety, charity, and the education of the people. 
They depended for their subsistence on their own 
labor, and on property donated by the members 
on entering the order. The first house of the 
order was founded at Deventer, in 1384. Branch 
houses soon followed in many other cities of the 
Netherlands ; and in many parts of northern 
Germany. Female associations were also forme 1, 
with similar objects. Where they had no insti- 
tutions of their own, they taught in the existing 
schools. Thus, by the end of the 15th century, 
they had spread from the Scheldt to the Vistula. 
They regarded Hieronymus (St. Jerome) and 
St. Gregory (the Great) as their patron-saints, 
and hence called themselves Hieronymicms, or 
Gregorians. Gerard only lived long enough to 
see the commencement of the work of the order, 
as he died in 1384. He appointed as his suc- 
cessor Florentius Radewin. who was born in 
1350, studied at Prague, and became canon at 
Utrecht. As soon as he had heard of < lerard's in- 
fluential career at Deventer, he had given up his 
position in Utrecht, and had gone to Deventer as 
a vicar, where he soon became an intimate friend 
of Gerard. He died, after a life of great useful- 
ness, in the year 1400. It was he who proposed 
the living in common, which led to the order's be- 



ing called Brethren of the Common Life. Among 
I its other distinguished members, were Gerard 
I Zerbolt. commonly styled Gerard of Zutphen, 
I Thomas a Kempis, Johann Weasel, and the cele- 
brated cardinal, Nicolaus Cusauus. Some of their 
I pupils attained great celebrity in after life, among 
! whom were Erasmus. Agricola, and Hermann 
! Busche. They reached their greatest efficiency 
in the 16th century ; and their last union was 
j established at Cambrai, in 1505. After the Hef- 
j ormation, many of their number embraced the 
new faith, while the remainder were absorbed by 
the Jesuits. Although they cared for the edu- 
cation of all the people, they were particularly 
distinguished for their zeal in receiving the poor 
children of both sexes, and educating them. 
They laid particular stress on the religious ele- 
ment. The plan pursued in their instruction 
was simple in the extreme, and may be gathered 
from the following words of the founder : 
"Spend no time either on geometry, arithmetic, 
rhetoric, logic, grammar, poetry, or judicial 
astrology. All these branches Seneca rejects; 
how much more, then, should a spiritually-minded 
( 'hristian pass them by, since they subserve in 
no respect the life of faith. Of the sciences of 
the Pagans, their ethics may not be so scrupu- 
lously shunned; since this was the special field 
of the wisest among them, as Socrates and Plato. 
That which does not improve a man, or at least 
docs not reclaim him from evil, is positively 
hurtful, Neither' ought we to read pagan books, 
nor. indeed, the Holy Scriptures in order merely 
to penetrate into the mysteries of nature by 
that means.'' They, however, endeavored to 
promote the study of the Bible by the common 
people; and to their efforts in that direction is 
attributed the foundation of Christian popular 
education; since to study the Bible, the people 
must be instructed in reading, which led neces- 
sarily to writing; and thus the seeds of intel- 
lectual progress were sown, which sprang up 
and bore fruit in the Reformation. Because of 
their activity in promoting education, the 
brethren were sometimes called the Scholastic 
Fraternity (/retires scholar es)\ and. indeed, they 
devoted themselves not merely to the elementary 
instruction of the people, but to the higher 
branches of education, as is obvious from the 
many distinguished scholars found in their 

Schools. See ILuMER.'resc///e//A'f/er /'('/'< /<<r/w/f'&; 

translated in Barnard's German Educators; 
Delprat, Over de Broederschap nam G. Grote 
(1836 ; German translation by Moiinike, 1840). 
HIGH SCHOOLS, generally schools of sec- 
ondary or academic instruction, corresponding, 
to the lower grades of the German gymnasia, 
but sometimes partaking rather of the character 
of real schools. Public high schools exist in 
most of the states of the Union, forming a part 
of the public-school system, being the connecting 
link between the elementary district, common, 
or grammar schools, and the state university, for 
which they perform the office of preparatory 
schools. Some of these schools are so organized 
as to comprise academic, normal, and coinmer- 



422 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



cial departments. In small cities and towns, 
high-school classes or departments, taught in the 
same building with the grammar schools, take 
the place of separate high schools. There is a 
great want of uniformity in the grade and char- 
acter of these schools in different states and in 
different cities of the same state. Some are 
simply of a higher grade than the grammar 
schools ; that is, they give instruction in more 
advanced studies ; while' others strictly form a 
a part of a graded system which includes a 
complete representation of. primary, secondary, 
and superior instruction. In some of the large 
cities, as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chi- 
cago, Cincinnati, Detroit, and St. Louis, the 
high school assumes large proportions, and per- 
forms a very important function, both as regards 
elementary and superior or university education, 
stimulating the one and supporting the other. 
The establishment of public high schools in the 
United States is of quite recent date ; although, 
in Massachusetts, as early as 1797, the academies 
were virtually incorporated into the system of 
public schools, by receiving endowments of land 
from the state. In 1834, an act of the New 
York legislature required the regents of the 
university to apply the surplus income of the 
literature fund, beyond the sum of $12,000, to 
the education of common-school teachers, by 
distributing it to such academies as should un- 
dertake their instruction. Until 1837, when 
the Philadelphia High School was established, 
there was no institution of the kind in the 
United States outside of Massachusetts. Balti- 
more organized a high school in 1839 ; Cincin- 
nati, in '1850; and Chicago, in 1856. In the 
city of New York, as early as 1826, efforts were 
made to establish a high school " for instruction 
in the higher branches of an English education, 
and in Latin and Greek ;" but the plan was not 
realized until the organization of the New York 
Free Academy, in 1819, in pursuance of an act 
of the legislature, and a subsequent popular 
vote, the result of which was, 19,404 in favor of 
the measure, and 3,409 against it. This institu- 
tion is now the College of the City of New 
York. Boston had no high school for girls until 
1853; and the city of New York, no public in- 
stitution for the higher education of females 
until the establishment of the Female Normal 
College, in 1870. It is thus within a period of 
less than twenty-five years that the system, now 
so extensive, of public high schools has grown 
up in the United States. In some of the 
states, the system is much better organized 
than in others, as to the gradation of the course 
of study, both in its relation to the elementary 
schools below and the university above. In 
some cases, the graduates of the high school are 
admitted ipso facto into the university. In 
Michigan, there is an arrangement by which 
high schools that desire a recognition from the 
university are visited and examined by a com- 
mittee of the faculty ; and, if approved, have 
their graduates admitted to the university with- 
out further examination. This plan appears to 



have worked well, especially in its effect upon 
the high schools themselves, as subjecting them 
to good scholastic supervision, and placing them 
in proper organic connection with the university. 
This is substantially the arrangement existing 
in a few other states, and is strongly advocated 
in some of the states in which it does not exist. 
In many places, however, much opposition has 
been made to the establishment of public high 
schools, as transcending the scope of state edu- 
cation, which, it has been contended, should be 
confined strictly to primary instruction. In sup- 
port of this position, the small proportion of 
pupils attending these schools, as compared with 
the school population, has been urged to demon- 
strate the injustice, as alleged, of taxing the en- 
tire community for the higher education, and, 
therefore, the particular benefit, of so small a 
portion of it. On the other hand, it is urged 
that, although only a few directly enjoy the ad- 
vantages afforded by these schools, the whole 
community is greatly benefited by their influence, 
independently of their elevating and stimulating 
effect upon the elementary schools. " I will 
thank any person," says Everett, " to show why 
it is expedient and beneficial in a community to 
make public provision for teaching the elements 
of learning, and not expedient nor beneficial 
to make similar provision to aid the learner's 
progress toward the mastery of the most difficult 
branches of science and the choicest refinement 
of literature." The specific grounds on which 
higher education at the public expense is advo- 
cated and defended are the following ; (1) High 
schools serve to give increased efficiency to the 
elementary schools below them. (2) The high 
school and the state university, to which it is 
preparatory, constitute the best preservative of 
republican equality, and, therefore, a preventive 
of social caste ; inasmuch as they afford the 
means for all, of whatever social grade, to enjoy 
the benefits of all the education which they 
have the capacity to receive. (3) High-school 
education is the means of discovering and devel- 
oping genius and talent, by the cultivation of 
which the political, social, and industrial inter- 
ests of the community are greatly advanced. 
(4) The vital forces in every community center 
in its leaders, political, social, and religions; 
and, hence, it is of the greatest importance that 
those gifted minds and those energetic characters 
that, with or without culture, always make 
themselves felt in a free community, should 
have, regardless of wealth or social grade, full 
opportunity of receiving such an education as 
will render the power they must inevitably wield, 
beneficent to society at large. " No system of 
public education," says Huxley, " is worthy the 
name of national, unless it creates a great edu- 
cational ladder with one end in the gutter, and 
the other in the university." " Experience has 
proved," says Fras. Adams (in Free School 
System of the United States, London, 1875), 
"that elementary education flourishes most 
where the provision for higher education is most 
ample. If the elementary schools of Germany 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



HISTORY 



423 



are the best in the world, it is owing, in a great 
measure, to the fact, that the higher schools are 
accessible to all classes. In Kngland. not only 
have the aims of the elementary schools Inch 
educationally low and narrow, but an impass- 
able gulf lias separated the people's schools 
from the higher schools of the country. In the 
United States, the common schools have always 
produced the best results where the means of 
higher education have been the most plentiful." 
Superintendent Philbriek, of Boston, in his an- 
nual report for 1K74. said. " The common school 
is always feeble and inefficient when high schools, 
academies, and colleges are wanting. Educational 
science teaches that educational improvement 
works from the top downward, and not from 
the bottom upward. Harvard College was, for 
a long period, the mainspring of the success of 
the common schools of Massachusetts." In 1*74. 
the citizens of Kalamazoo, Mich., brought a 
case before the circuit court in order to test the 
right of a school board to establish and maintain 
a high school as a part of the public school 
system of the state. Against the right, it was 
argued that the law contemplated, in the free 
schools, only primary instruction in the element- 
ary English studies, that, therefore, the estab- 
lishment of a high school, with a curriculum 
embracing higher mathematics, languages, etc.. 
was a transgression of the law; and that, conse- 
quently, taxation to support such an institution 
might be legally resisted by the people. The 
court, however, ruled against this point. — that 
the law providing for primary schools did not 
prohibit the establishment of other schools ; that 
the enumeration of branches for a teachers 
examination was only prescribing a minimum 
of qualification ; that the legal direction. " all 
instruction shall be in the Knglish language, " 
must be held to refer to the medium for com- 
municating knowledge, not to any subject of in- 
struction ; that, accordingly the teaching of 
Greek. Latin, German, French, etc., was not ex- 
cluded ; and that, as the school in question came 
fairly within the provided system of public 
schools, it might, like others, be sustained by a 
reasonable district taxation. 

High schools should not be needlessly multi- 
plied, and should be carefully prevented from 
trenching upon the sphere of the elementary 
schools. Since their value depends greatly on 
their influence upon the elementary schools, 
the requirements for admission should be such 
as to incite the latter to accurate and thorough 
scholarship within their sphere, and stimulate 
their pupils to faithful and earnest study. When 
the number of high schools or high-school de- 
partments is excessive, the tendency is to weaken 
this influence by reducing the standard for ad- 
mission, or relaxing the strictness of the exami- 
nations. In some of the cities of the Union — Xe w 
York, Boston, St. Louis, and others, the high 
school has been introduced as a part of the 
evening-school system. Besides the public high 
schools, there is a large class of private institu- 
tions of a similar grade, which differ onlv 



in name from seminaries, academies, classical 
schools, etc. In England, the great public 
schools, such as Eton, Harrow, etc., belong to 
the same class, as secondary or middle schools; 
and the High School of Edinburgh is a repre- 
sentative of the same class. (Sec Ski omjakv 
Instruction.) 

HIGHER EDUCATION. See High Schools, 
Secondary Instruction, and Superior Instruc- 
tion. 

HIGHLAND UNIVERSITY, at High- 
land. Kan., under the control oi the Presbyterians, 
was chartered in 1858. It has productive funds 
to the amount of $25,000. The cost of tuition 
is $33 per year. It has a preparatory and a col- 
legiate department, to which both sexes are ad- 
mitted, and there is a special course for young 
ladies. The library contains 5,000 volumes. In 
1872 — 3, there were (i instructors, and 145 pre- 
paratory, and 25 collegiate students. 

HILLSDALE COLLEGE, at Hillsdale, 
Mich., under the control of the Freewill Baptists, 
was established at Spring Arbor in 1*44, and 
chartered as Michigan Centra] College in 1845. 
It was removed to its present site and reehar- 
tered as 'Hillsdale ( 'ollege', in 1855. Both sexes 
are admitted. Over $25,000 have been subscribed 
to the endowment. Tuition fees are nominal. 
The library contains 4.000 volumes. The college 
has a preparatory and a collegiate department, 
with a classical and a scientific course, and also 
a theological and a commercial course, and courses 
in art and music. In 1*72 — 3, there were 21 in- 
structors and 579 students, of whom 1!)7 were in 
the college classes, 273 in the preparatory depart- 
ments, and .1 3 in the theological course. 

HIRAM COLLEGE, at Hiram, Portage Co., 
Ohio, is under the control of the Disciples. It 
took its present title in 1807. growing out of the 
Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, founded in 
1850. It is supported by tuition fees and an 
endowment of about $60,000. 'I he libraries 
contain about 2.500 volumes. The collegiate 
department comprises (1) a classical course, (2) a 
Latin and scientific course, (3) a scientific course, 
and (4) a ladies' course. It has also a prepara- 
tory, a normal, a commercial, and an elementary 
course. Considerable atttention is given to pre- 
paring young men for the ministry. Many of 
the best known and most useful Disciple minis- 
ters have studied in this college. In 1874 — 5, 
there were H instructors and 233 students (12G 
males and 107 females), of whom 30 were of the 
collegiate grade. The president of the college 
is Burke A. Hinsdale. A.M. (1870). 

HISTORY, as a branch of instruction, pre- 
sents very many important points of inquiry 
for the educator. The vast held which it oc- 
cupies as a realm of facts, the great difficulty in 
classifying these facts, and deducing from them 
any general principles or laws, or even in asso- 
ciating them so that they may be presented to 
the mind of the learner in groups bound together 
by some common relation, — these character- 
istics of history make it perhaps the most dif- 
ficult which the educator has to deal with. This 



424 



HISTORY 



will account for the diversity of opinion as to 
the proper method of teaching it, as -well as for 
the many obvious errors of method that exist. 
Some, indeed, have condemned it as a school 
study ; on the ground that the mere facts of 
history, without the general laws which they 
teach, are of no account, while the study of the 
philosophy of history is too deep for immature 
minds. On this account, Prof. Bain contends 
that it is a subject proper only for the university. 
John Locke said, "As nothing teaches, so 
nothing delights, more than history. The first of 
these recommends it to the study of the 
grown man ; the latter makes me think it fittest 
for a young lad". These extreme opinions arise 
from viewing the subject from different stand- 
points. There is no doubt that the study of 
history, like that of geography, botany, astron- 
omy, and other school subjects may be presented 
to the mind of the child in such a manner as 
not only to be useless and distasteful, but actually 
injurious. As in every other subject, the edu- 
cator is to consider the nature of the mind to 
be addressed, and the character of the study 
itself. Primarily, history is a narrative ; and 
there is nothing which pleases children so much 
as narratives concerning tilings in which they 
take an interest, or with which they are familiar. 
If children, therefore, are to study history, they 
must first be interested in the persons and things 
that it refers to. Thus American children will 
be eager to learn about the discovery of Amer- 
ica by Columbus, because it concerns the coun- 
try in which they live ; and they will be scarcely 
satisfied with any amount of detail in regard to 
the particular facts connected with that event. 
Columbus as a great personage will then loom up 
in their imagination, and their curiosity will be 
exerted to know something about him. This 
will interest them in Isabella, the good queen of 
Spain ; and something may be said of her, and 
of the country to which she belonged. In this 
desultory way, and whithout any special effort 
to show the relations of events as to time or 
cause and effect, the conceptive faculty of quite 
young children may be addressed in teaching his- 
tory, and thus their minds will be prepared for 
its regular study, by receiving those underlying 
conceptions which are constantly needed to make 
formal historical narratives interesting or even 
understood. "The fact", says Emerson, "must 
correspond to something in me to be credible or 
intelligible". It is in reference to this principle 
that Wickersham remarks, "It concerns us little 
to know the lineage of kings and queens, the 
intrigues of courts, or the plans of campaigns ; 
but it would interest us much to be told how 
people in past times built their houses, worked 
their fields, or educated their children — what 
style of dress they wore, what kind of food they 
eat, what books they read." The latter classes 
of facts are not, however, more interesting in 
themselves, but because they are more nearly 
related to our individual experience. Different 
persons will not be interested in the same class 
of historical facts. The soldier will attend to 



the military history of a country ; the statesman, 
and politician, to the political; the agriculturist, 
to the methods of husbandry in use ; and to a. 
numerous class of minds the dynastic history — 
the " lineage of kings and queens", will possess 
supreme fascination. All departments of history 
are useful in their special applications; and are of 
interest to those who desire to know the facts 
which they severally comprehend. In arranging 
history for educational purposes, we must con- 
sider the degree of development of the pupil's 
mind; and in this respect historical study may be. 
divided into three stages : (1) The introductory, 
in which the mind of the young child has to be 
prepared for the study, as above indicated ; (2) 
The intermediate, at which the formal study of 
history commences, dealing principally with 
facts and their obvious relations ; and (3) The. 
advanced, in which the higher forms of general- 
ization are presented, constituting what has been 
styled the philosophy of history. In the first, 
stage, what has been called the " fragments of 
history", that is, brief and interesting narratives,, 
biographical sketches, &c., clothed in a simple 
picturesque style, should constitute the subject 
matter of the instruction. This may be pre- 
sented in a desultory manner, without any special, 
regard to logical or chronological order, the great, 
object being to interest the learner by filling his 
mind with vivid conceptions of certain events- 
and personages. Of course, this preliminary in- 
struction may take a wide range, embracing the 
most prominent persons and events in the history 
of the world, and thus constituting a valuable 
outline, on which to base the subsequent study. 
Put this is not so important as that, in every 
thing that is taught, the young pupil's experience 
and imagination should be addressed ; that is, 
the facts presented to be learned should be con- 
crete facts, not mere abstractions. Epitomes of 
history are valueless for this purpose, because 
they attempt to cover the whole ground. As 
has been well said by a celebrated educationist, 
the use of an epitome is like giving a child an 
" index to learn by heart ". 

In the second stage, while the same principle 
should be steadily kept in view, the study should 
become more formal and systematic. It is here 
that the most important questions arise for con- 
sideration. The first of these concerns the choice 
between a compendium of history and a series- 
of historical text-books on different nations. The 
system of special national text-books grew up- 
at a time when, from national patriotism, each 
country considered its own history as foremost 
and hence, all others as of secondary importance ; 
and it has been fostered, in the advance of 
historic learning, by a system of abridgments of 
large standard works, or by school books based, 
in method of treatment, upon them. But such 
treatment is not adapted to conditions for which 
the originals were not intended. Each of these 
special works presupposes the existence of all 
the others, and thus virtually depends on them 
for its general stand-point, and for that knowl- 
edge which is indispensable to render the narra- 



HISTORr 



425 



five intelligible : and, hence, for school purposes, 
the abridgments are of little use. because this 
general knowledge cannot be supposed to exist. 
Besides that, the large standard works are too 
exclusively philosophical in their character and 
arrangement to admit of an abridgment for 
school purposes. Narrowing the field of view 
for the purpose of scientific investigation, such 
works naturally adopt largely the consecutive 
narrative form : but consecutive narrative is not 
essential when only general leading facts are to 
be presented, and narrative detail is unsuited 
to the treatment required for school instruction. 
There can be no perspective in such a mode of 
treatment. Leading facts rank side by side with 
subordinate ones, and the history assumes the 
form of dry annals. Excessive detail in historical 
text-books is always a fruitful source of vexation 
to both teacher and pupil. What is needed, for 
this stage of instruction, is a skillful grouping 
of facts, which, while it departs but little from 
the chronological order, shows the proper rela- 
tion of events — how one brought about the 
other. In the history of the world, as of each 
separate country, and of every great event, as, for 
example, the Reformation, the Thirty Years' 
War, the Revolution in England, the American 
Revolution, the French Revolution, the great 
Civil War in the United States, there are cer- 
tain conspicuous stand-points, or centers of in- 
terest, around which other events should be 
grouped, as dependent upon them. The same 
principle is opposed, in the teaching of general 
history, to confining the attention of the pupil 
exclusively to each nation in succession, through- 
out its entire history [ethnographic method). It 
is a well-defined feature of every historic move- 
ment that, in many of its epochs, it is carried 
along by some particular nation as the represen- 
tative, for the time being, of some controlling idea 
or principle, other nations playing a subordinate 
part. This should be clearly brought out in the 
arrangement of the subject ( grouping method |. 
It is not always possible, however, to distinguish 
a single nation as holding such an undisputed 
prominence ; but. where this question is in 
doubt, there is always a movement, more or less 
general, to which the contemporaneous nations 
are subject, and to which, therefore, the history 
of the separate nations should have a distinct ref- 
erence. In the period of the Reformation, for 
example, it is desirable to present the nations 
collectively in their relation to it. the events 
which concern their separate existence being 
krpt in the background. A system of instruction 
which presents, in succession and at widely sep- 
arated intervals, the share of each particular 
nation in such a great movement as the Refi >r- 
mation, cannot possibly impress the mind of the 
pupil properly in regard to' it. In the compi- 
lation of a compendium of history suitable for 
school use, a compromise is requisite between the 
plan of teaching the history of each nation by 
itself (ethnographic method) and that of teaching 
by periods or epochs, the history of each nation 
coming in where it belongs in the period (syn-_ 



chfpnistic method). The latter method, by short 
periods, centuries for instance, is useless for be- 
ginuers, as it gives only a confused picture of 
the whole. In ancient history, it has but a 
limited application ; because the nations of an- 
tiquity were essentially separate, coming on the 
stage at successive periods, and rarely blended, 
to any extent, in any general movement. The 
ethnographic method is. therefore, the best for 
this department of history, but may be departed 
from in certain portions of it. as, for example, 
in the history of the states of Greece. For be- 
ginners, the ethnographic method seems to be 
best, at least until a good general outline has 
been fixed in the mind, after which the grouping 
method ought to be steadily pursued, but still 
with a constant regard to the mental advance- 
ment and maturity of the student. The chrono- 
logical method must, however, lead in every 
scheme of elementary historical teaching. The 
pupil must, above alt things, attend to the order 
of time ; or his subsequent reading and study 
will be greatly embarrassed. This method has 
been used in Germany from time immemorial, 
with modifications such as have been referred to,, 
for adaptation to the purposes of elementary, 
burgher and real schools, and gymnasia. These 
modifications consist chiefly in the relative prom- 
inence given to the synchronistic and ethno- 
graphic principles. Stiehl's Der vaierldndische 
Geschichtsunterricht in unsern Elementarschu- 
len — The history of our Country in die Ele- 
mentary Schools (Coblenz, 1842), and Haupt's 

Weltgeschichle nach Pestalozzi's Grundsatzen — 
General History on the Principles of Pestalozzi 

1841 ). were attempts to introduce the grouping 
method. Many of the school text-books on 
history, published in Great Britain and the 
United States, arc based on tin same system: but 
teachers have generally favored the ethnographic 
system, as less fragmentary and disjointed. For 
a field so vast as that of general history, it is of 
the highest importance that the idea of both 
unity and sequence should be impressed upon 
the pupil's mind. In the chronologic method, 
the perspective view which this unification of 
the broader parts demands, is not dependent on. 
the special notions of any teacher or compiler, 
but grows up in the mind from the study of 
the facts themselves. In the treatment of antiq- 
uity, the history of the eastern nations precedes 
that of the Creeks, and the Greeks the Romans: 
and while teaching each in chronologic order, 
the other contemporaneous nations should be 
brought in. as episodes, at such periods and in 
such connections, as will best illustrate the 
history of the great nation which, for the time 
being, is controlling the affairs of the world. 
Egypt. Assyria. Babylon. Persia, Greece, Rome 
(republic and empire), may, in succession, be 
made the leading nation: and all the others will 
come in at certain periods. In the middle ages, 
the treatment should be analogous: there is at 
every period, a great tribe or nation, whether the 
Franks, the Saracens, the Normans, or the t Ger- 
mans, the history of whom, treated in its chrono- 



426 



HISTORY 



logic order, will absorb the remainder, except what 
may come in episodically. In modern history, 
the ethnographic principle must at first have 
prominence, before the pupil can study the great 
European movements, such as the Reformation 
and the Thirty Years' War, with any real sat- 
isfaction or benefit. ' As Ranke remarks, " it 
is only on the side of the activity that the events 
can be judged." In the early part of the 16th 
century, the policy of Charles V ., in the latter 
part, the Protestant development in Holland, 
France, and England controls the scene. In the 
17th, alternately, the advance of the Jesuits, the 
Thirty Years' War, and the reign of Louis XIV., 
claim an absorbing attention. In the 18th, the 
England of Walpole, the Prussia of Frederick, 
and the French Revolution, successively give the 
stand-point for understanding European history. 
Chiefly as episodes, in mediaeval and modern 
history, com; in certain great topic? ; such as the 
Saracenic civilization, the Byzantine culture, the 
Turkish ascendency, the maritime discoveries of 
Portugal and Spain, the Italian Renaissance, 
the struggle of the Dutch Republic, the rise of 
Sweden and Russia, etc. Whatever method may 
be used, synchronistic exercises will be con- 
stantly requisite to a full understanding of the 
relations of events. These may take the form 
of lists of sovereigns grouped into centuries and 
arranged, side by side, in perpendicidar columns ; 
or leading events arranged in the same way. 
After the history of any nation or period has 
been studied in the chronological order, various 
methods of arrangement may be adopted for the 
purpose of review, varying the sequence which 
has been followed in the regular lessons. Thus, 
the pupil may be required to state all the events 
connected with a particular place, or a particular 
individual, which he has previously learned in 
a strictly chronologic order, or in connection 
with the national history. The topical method 
■of recitation will be found the most effective, 
not only for the attainment of the best results 
as far as history itself is concerned, but for col- 
lateral culture, particularly of expression. On 
account of the latter, accuracy in language 
should, as much as possible be insisted upon; 
and the pupils should be required to use their 
own language, instead of memorizing that of the 
text-book. Brief written sketches of events, 
personages, periods, etc., will be of great use in 
making this collateral culture effective, and will 
also afford much useful practice in other re- 
spects. — A severe and sustained drill on a single 
manual is of great use for the strong landmarks 
it leaves in the pupil's mind ; but, to be thor- 
oughly effective as an educational process, it 
ought to be accompanied with the reading, to 
some extent, of auxiliary books giving interesting 
detail in regard to prominent points. Such a 
system of independent reading by the different 
members of a class, properly utilized, will lead 
to the acquisition of much interesting infor- 
mation, each pupil bringing his own contri- 
bution, to be offered in connection with the 
class exercises. Children, at an early age, with 



a taste for reading, will devour solid books of 
history, when not under compulsion ; especiaUy 
if they have a strong frame-work fixed in their 
minds for the separate facts to attach themselves 
to; and such reading will constitute a very im- 
portant part of mental culture. — Dates are to 
some extent needed, but only in connection with 
the general narrative. To memorize the dates 
of isolated events is worse than useless. The 
dates of certain great events, marking epochs, 
should be carefully fixed in the mind. As already 
said, the method pursued should be such as to 
keep the stream of time constantly in view ; and 
this will render the memorizing of many dates 
unnecessary. " Dates ", says the German writer 
Abbenrode, " are the most simple monitors of 
memory, and can never be entirely omitted, 
though they ought to be limited for children, 
and sometimes to be made round numbers, for 
the sake of memory ; nay, a sensible arrangement 
of them often aids the understanding of related 
events better than could be done by long ex- 
positions. " Chronological relations may be 
better taught by means of historical charts, rep- 
resenting the exact position in time of every 
nation and event, just as a map represents coun- 
tries, cities, etc., in space. These should be large 
enough to show clearly to the eye what is rep- 
resented ; and the different nations should be 
marked out in strong colors. Of such charts, 
Labberton's and Halsey's are examples. Pro- 
gressive maps, showing the states and countries, 
and their extent at different periods, are indis- 
pensable. American school manuals, such as 
Anderson's General History, Swinton's Outlines 
of History, and Thalheimer's manuals of ancient 
and modern history, are copiously supplied with 
maps of this kind. Those of Freeman's Old 
English History (London, 1869) are also good 
examples of such maps ; as are also those of 
Labberton's Historical Atlas (Phila.,1872). These 
progressive maps illustrate the relation of geog- 
raphy and history, and afford an indication of 
the extent to which geographical study is needed 
in connection with that of history. It is, how- 
ever, desirable that all the places mentioned in 
the history should be at least pointed out on 
the map. 

Good historical lectures are eminently benefi- 
cial, in connection with regular lessons, or re-in- 
forced by suitable class exercises. The taking of 
notes by the pupils is of little value; because such 
notes can concern only definite and disconnected 
facts which should be impressed upon the mind 
by the study of a compendium or by class drill ; 
while the lecture is designed to give broad, gen- 
eral views of events, in their relations, and in 
their bearing on some great historical movement. 
The taking of notes by young pupils must neces- 
sarily interrupt the current of their thought, and 
thus mar the effect of the lecture. It is, however, 
in the third or advanced stage of historical study 
that lectures have their special place. 

The class of facts — the kind of material — to 
be selected for the elementary study of history 
is another important consideration for the 



HISTORY 



42V 



teacher, as well as for the compiler of a school 
compendium. There is a great diversity in this 
respect. In some text-books, undue prominence 
is given to the political and military history, 
every thing pertaining to social life being left 
out. This deprives the study of much of its 
strongest and best interest. The condition and 
progress of the people in the elements of civili- 
zation. — the industrial and fine aits, literature. 
education, social culture, manners, customs, etc , 
should be graphically sketched, in connection 
with the political history, which must, of course, 
constitute the frame-work of the whole. The 
office of history as a school study, is not only to 
give information in regard to the events of the 
past, but it is to discipline the mind by cultivat- 
ing and improving 1 1 I the memory. (2) the im- 
agination, (.'i| the judgment. ( t| the power of 
expression, anil (:">) the moral and emotional 
nature. The pupil, when properly instructed, 
has his sympathies aroused : he applauds the 
noble, the patriotic, and the virtuous ; he con- 
demns the mean, the selfish, and the wicked. 
Every lesson teaches him by example, for it con- 
fronts him with either human virtue or human 
wickedness. The false tinsel of glory must not 
lie permitted to conceal the selfishness, cruelty, 
and wrong of the ambitious tyrant or conqueror; 
and the nobleness of the martyr will not be de- 
based because he pines in a dungeon or dies on 
the scaffold. Treated in the right spirit, history 
thus becomes a great moral teacher for pupils of 
every class and grade. 

In the third stage, that of superior instruc- 
tion, history has strong claims to attention. 
Whatever the sphere of life in which the stu- 
dent is to engage, he should possess himself of 
the key to the records of tie- past history of 
mankind. History may peculiarly be called a 
••living study," since it draws its interest at once 
from the slow but certain movement of human 
forces, among which self-interest, will, and pas- 
sion play a great part. The field is so vast, that 
the untrained student will be lost in the maze, 
ami will wander about aimless and bewildered. It 
is the office of education to show that the elements 
are really simple, and to impart a system to the 
vast crowd of facts, by which the}' may become 
useful, by being co-ordinated. It is here. then, 
that history assumes whatever scientific phase 
it may be capable of. What has been called the 
philosophy of history is, in an especial manner 
and degree, suitable for college study, as it 
brings into play the higher faculties of the mind, 
— generalization, reason, and judgment. At this 
stage, we do not rest satisfied with a simple 
narrative of events, but we attempt to trace 
them to their real causes, and deduce from them 
those general laws on which political and social 
science must be based. "The true science of 
history." says Bossuet. "is to observe the latent 
tendencies which have prepared great changes, 
and the important conjunctures which have 
brought them into fact." Those latent tendencies 
are to be looked for in the principles of human 
nature as constituting one factor ; while the in- | 



fluences which constitute the other factors are 
neither obvious, nor established in the general 
convictions of mankind. This gives rise to various 
theories ; as the materialistic theory, which sup- 
poses the co-ordinate factor in bringing about the 
changes in history to be the forces of material 
nature, acting on human character and human 
will; the spiritualistic theory which attributes to 
the soul of man a certain freedom of purpose 
and will, acting independently of its material sur- 
roundings ; and the tkeisiic theory, which attrib- 
utes great movements and changes in the world's 
history to the special interposition of an over- 
ruling Providence, a Divine will, and thus makes 
"God in history." the supreme source of all the 
great events that have marked the intellectual, 
social, and moral progress of mankind. These 
theories may. however, be called the metaphysics 
of history : they are not essential to the inves- 
tigation of the laws which constitute its philos- 
ophy ; inasmuch as the generalizations upon 
which these laws are based. are chiefly independ- 
ent of them, the course of human events, like 
the course of nature, being controlled only by 
general laws. 

What has already been suggested has exclu- 
sive reference to facts, or statements of facts, 
accepted as such ; but there is another depart- 
ment of history which concerns the sources of 
history, their nature and credibility: and this 
has an indisputable claim upon the attention of 
those who teach, and those who study history in 
its advanced stages. Two objects will be sub- 
served by this : (1 ) The mind w ill acquire the 
useful habit of withholding its assent from all 
statements that are not supported by suffi- 
cient testimony; anil (2) The judgment and 
critical faculty will receive a practical culture 
which must prove of great service in the further 
prosecution of study, and in the affairs of daily 
life. In the prosecution of this historical criti- 
cism, the student is invariably to consider (1) the 
writer or writers from whom the narration pro- 
ceeds. (2) their means of information. (.':!) their 
character for sagacity and discernment, (4) their 
interests, associations, and affections. All these 
inevitably color the narrative, and hence consti- 
tute an important element to be considered in 
the kind and degree of credibility to which it is 
entitled. — In the struggle, for some time in prog- 
ress, between the friends of classical and of 
scientific studies, history as a branch of educa- 
tion holds a Strong and prominent position. AVhile 
it is a record of the past, it is. in fact, the science 
of the future ; and one only has to imagine the 
condition of the world, were all its annals 
destroyed, to appreciate the practical value of 
this science. The studies pertaining to matter 
and force claim supreme consideration with 
many ; anil those pertaining to the mere linguis- 
tic expression of thought, often obsolete and 
valueless, with many others ; but history deals 
with the facts of human intelligence and will, 
illustrates the principles which control the prog- 
ress of mankind in all the elements of civiliza- 
tion, and hence assumes an office and agency in 



428 



HIWASSBE COLLEGE 



HOFWYL 



connection with human education, without which 
it must be measurably ineffective and imper- 
fect. — See Wickersham, Methods of Instruction 
(Phila., 1865); Currie, Principles and Practice 
of Common-School Education (Edinburgh and 
London); Von Raumer, GeschicMe der Pada- 
qogik, trans, in Barnard's Journal of Educa- 
tion, No. xx.; also, in the same, Catechism on 
Methods of Teaching, s. v. History, by Abben- 
rode, in which will be found a list of valuable 
works for consultation on the methods of teach- 
ing this subject. 

HIWASSEE COLLEGE, in Monroe Co., 
Tenn., 7 miles from Sweetwater, was founded in 
1849, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, South. The name of the post- 
office is the same as that of the institution. It 
is supported by tuition fees, and has a prepara- 
tory and a collegiate department. The library 
contains about 1,500 volumes. The tuition fee 
for five months is $12.50 for primary studies, 
$15 for intermediate, and $12 for collegiate. 
A law department has been organized, but it has 
made little progress. In 1875 — 6, the college 
had 5 instructors and 186 students. John H. 
Brunner, A. M., is the president of the institu- 
tion (1876). 

HOBART COLLEGE, at Geneva, N. Y., 
was chartered in 1825, growing out of an 
academy and divinity school established by Bishop 
Hobart of the Protestant Episcopal Church, in 
1821. Its entire endowment is something over 
$300,000, of which, perhaps, $60,000 is repre- 
sented by land and buildings, while one consider- 
able portion is in the shape of free scholarships, 
of which there are twenty-six, leaving less than 
$21,000 of annual income from endowment for 
the support and maintenance of the college. A 
considerable portion of the entire sum ($4,200) is 
in the shape of annuities, contributed from New 
York City. The library contains about 13,000 
volumes. There are two courses, a classical of four 
years, and a scientific of two years. The tuition 
fee is $50 a year. The scholarships are primarily 
designed for students intended for the ministry. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 7 instructors and 29 
students. The presidents have been as follows : 
the Rev. Jasper Adams, D. D., 1826—28 ; the 
Rev. Richard S. Mason, D. D., 1830—35 ; the 
Rev. Benj. Hale, D. D., 1836—57; the Rev. Ab- 
ner Jackson, D. D., LL. D., 1858—68 ; the Rev. 
James Kent Stone, D. D., 1869—70 ; the Rev. 
James Rankine, D. D., 1870 — 73; the Rev. 
Maunsell Van Rensselaer, D.B., LL. D., 1873 
— 76 ; and the Rev. William Stevens Perry, D. 
D., LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed in 
1876. 

HOFWYL, Schools of, a group of educa- 
tional institutions established by Fellenberg, 
which very widely attracted attention, and at- 
tained a high reputation for the excellence of 
the theory on which they were based, and for 
their practical success. Hofwyl, originally called 
Wylhof , was a large estate, about six miles from 
Bern, Switzerland, which was purchased by Fel- 
lenberg, in 1799, for the purpose of enabling 



him to carry out his peculiar educational views. 
Deeply impressed with the need of ameliorating 
the condition of the poorer classes by affording 
them the means of a practical education, he was 
also convinced that the education received by 
the higher classes in the universities and middle 
schools, very greatly needed reform. He de- 
signed, therefore, to establish "an institution for 
both classes, in which they should be so separated, 
as to prevent confusion, and yet so connected, 
that each might observe the other, and that oc- 
casion might be given to establish, on a Christian 
basis, the character of each." Agriculture he 
believed best adapted, as an occupation, to de- 
velop the powers of both mind and body in their 
proper harmony. Hence, he conceived that an 
agricultural school would form the best basis 
for the carrying out of his proposed plans. In 
1829, Hofwyl was described as a village of about 
300 inhabitants, comprising (1) A farm, of about 
600 acres ; (2) Workshops, for the fabrication 
and repair of agricultural implements, and 
of clothing for the inhabitants ;. (3) A litho- 
graphic establishment in which music and other 
things needed in the institution were printed ; 
(4) A Literary Institution for the education of 
the higher classes ; (5) A Practical Institution 
for those who were destined for trade, or whose 
circumstances did not permit a more complete 
education ; and (6) An Agricultural Institution 
for the education of the laboring classes. The 
secluded situation of Hofwyl, at a convenient 
distance from a large town, and surrounded by 
some of the most beautiful objects of Swiss 
scenery, particularly commended it to Fellen- 
berg. The first of the schools was commenced 
in 1804; but, in 1829, the writer of a series of 
letters, published in the American Annals of 
Education, for 1831, thus described the institu- 
tions of Hofwyl : 

"On entering Hofwyl from Bern, the traveler 
finds himself in an extensive court or play-ground, 
furnished with instruments for gymnastic exercises, 
and a hillock of clean sand, in which the younger boys 
exercise their ingeuuity in digging caves and building 
castles, surrounded on three sides by the building de- 
voted to the literary institutions, and sheltered on the 
west by a little wood, composed of a variety of trees, 
which serve at once as a place for botanical observa- 
tions, and as a retreat during the heat of summer. In 
pleasant weather, the lessons are not unfrequently 
given here, in arbors furnished with seats for this pur- 
pose. The principal building on the east of this court, 
is inhabited by 80 pupils, under the constant super- 
intendence of Fellenberg and four of his children. 
The basement story is occupied by the kitchen and 
store-rooms. The first floor is divided into four sec- 
tions by halls which traverse the building in its length 
and breath. One of these sections is occupied by the 
superintendents; another, by the dining hall and music 
room ; a third and fourth, by the chapel and three 
large and lofty rooms for study. The second floor is 
devoted to the class rooms, the library, and the col- 
lection of casts. The third and attic stories contain 
the dormitories of the pupils, and chambers for the 
superintendents. The size, airiness, and neatness of 
every part of the building are very striking; and a 
well-arranged system of stoves on the Russian plan, 
maintains a mild and uniform temperature during the 
winter, whicli is not to be found in climates far less 
severe, where the methods of employing fuel are less 
perfect. In this institution, Fellenberg proposes to 



HOFWYL 



HOLBROOK 



429 



give a complete education preparatory to professional 
studies. Between 20 and 30 instructors are employed 
in this establishment, most of whom reside in another 
building, and have no connection with the pupils, ex- 
cept during the hours of instruction. Two small budd- 
ings, which shelter the cum t on the north and south, 

contain a large warm bath lor winter, the store-ro 

for the gardening tools of the pupils, a cabinet-maker's 
shop, in which those who have the disposition are 
taught this art, the book-bindery of the institution, 
and several rooms which are devoted to exercises in 
instrumental music, fencing, and dancing, which would 
interfere with the tranquillity necessary in the prin- 
cipal building. Beyond the Literary Institution is a 
second court, furnished, like the first, with frames and 
poles for gymnastic exercises. On the east side of 
this court, and at the entrance of the first court, are 
garden spots, assigned to the pupils as a means of 
amusement and exercise ; and, at a little distance on 
the side of the hill, a circular cold bath of hewn stone, 
90 feet in diameter, and 10 feet deep, in which they 
are taught to swim, with a neat bathing-house in the 
Gothic style. On the west side of the court is the 
chateau, or family mansion, in which Mrs. Fellenberg 
resides with her younger children. It also coutaius 
the bureau, or couuting-house, of the establishment, 
in which strangers are received, and the business of 
the institution transacted, by a person devoted to this 
object. It likewise serves as a depot for the little 
articles which the pupils have occasion to purchase. 
In the garden of the chateau, is the school for peas- 
ant girls, under the immediate direction of Mrs. Fel- 
lenberg, and one of her daughters. In the rear of the 
chateau, are two buildings occupied by 20 or 30 pupils 
of the Practical Institution. These are lodged and fed 
in a more simple manner than the pupils in the Liter- 
ary Institution, and are permitted to avail themselves 
of its lessons, and to partake of the labors of the farm, 
or the counting-house, according to their necessities 
and destination. — lu the rear of these buildings, is a 
second cold bath of hewn stone, only 2 feet in depth, 
designed for the use of the younger pupils. Adjoin- 
ing this is a building 150 feet long, the lower part of 
which forms a large sheltered arena for riding and gym- 
nastic exercises in unpleasant weather. The upper 
stories are occupied by the class rooms and dormi- 
tories of the Agricultural Institution, iu which children 
of the laboring classes are taught the practical part 
of agriculture, and receive three or four hours of in- 
struction daily in reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
other useful branches. . . . An interesting branch of the 
Institution of Hofwyl is the colony of Meykirk, at the 
distance of five or six miles. It consists of 8 or lo 
poor boys who were placed under the direction of a 
teacher on a spot of uncultivated ground, from which 
they were expected to obtain the means of subsist- 
ence. It is designed as an experiment on the prac- 
ticability of providing for the support and education 
of friendless children, without any further expense 
than that of the soil which they cultivate. Several 
hours are devoted daily to intellectual and religious 
instruction, and thus the children advance in cultiva- 
tion and kuowledge, as well as in hardihood and in- 
dustry." 

It was a ruling principle with Fellenberg, in 
the management of Hofwyl, that "gradual prog- 
ress is the only sure progress." And he care- 
fully avoided bringing together a large number 
of children of various characters, to be subjected 
to a kind of discipline entirely new to them. 
He commenced with introducing two or three 
boys into his own family ; and afterwards he 
would receive only a few pupils at once into his 
school, so that they might fall insensibly into the 
prevailing habits and discipline. Wehrli, who 
distinguished himself so highly as an assistant 
of Fellenberg, was thus taken into his family ; 
and the active benevolent spirit was so rapidly 



and strongly developed in him, that, before the 
end of the year, he requested to be placed with 
three pupils, gathered from the highways and 
hedges, in the farm-house of the establishment. 
Here Wehrli partook of their straw beds and 
vegetable diet, became their fellow laborer and 
companion, as well as their teacher, and thus 
laid the foundation of the Agricultural Institu- 
tion, in 1808. The Normal .School, or Seminary 
for Teachers, was an important addition to the 
institution. The first year, gratuitous instruc- 
tion in the art of teaching was given to 42 
teachers from the Canton of Bern. Subsequently 
a number of young Russians, of the highest 
class, were sent by the emperor Alexander to be 
instructed ; but the Russian government after- 
wards withdrew its patronage, being jealous of 
the liberalizing influence of Hofwyl. Other 
European states entertained the same feeling. 
Many English and Swiss pupils were instructed 
in this school. In 1823, a building was erected 
in the garden of the mansion, to accommodate 
a school for poor girls. 

All the schools at Hofwyl were conducted on 
the soundest and most approved principles of 
education, and with a devotion, on the part of 
the instructors, that could not but be followed 
by success. In 1813, a commission, at the head 
of which was M. Ringger, one of the most dis- 
tinguished patriots of Switzerland, was appointed 
to examine the Agricultural School. The report 
of this commission (published at Paris, 1815) is 
a most interesting document. Six days were 
spent in the examination, which embraced all 
the details of the labors, studies, and religious 
exercises of the pupils, their food, dress, and ae- 
commodations. The approval of the commission 
was full and emphatic. Of the noble Wehrli 
the report expressed great admiration : "From 
the dawn of day." it remarked, "he seems to have 
no thought nor time except for his, pupils. 
^'hen he came among them, amidst their labors 
or amusements, he appeared rather like an elder 
brother than an instructor." The school at that 
time comprised 23 boys, from the lowest and 
often the most vicious families — some of them 
abandoned children — and, literally, taken from 
the highways and hedges ; and yet they lived, 
under a mild system of government, in perfect 
peace and harmony. Such was the effect of the 
sound principles, wise administration, and de- 
voted labors of Fellenberg and his co-laborers, 
in this most interesting institution. It still re- 
mains under the control of the descendants of 
Fellenberg, and was advertised by them to be 
re-opened, after thorough renovation and repairs, 
on Sept. 23., 187li, under the management of 
Mr. A. Fr. Andresen, the successor of Dr. Ed- 
ward Muller. For a full account of Fellenberg 's 
system, see American Annals of Education, 
vol. i., passim. (See also Fellenberg.) 

HOLBROOK, Josiah, distinguished for his 
labors in behalf of science teaching in common 
schools and the diffusion of useful knowledge 
among all classes, was born in Derby, Ct., in 
1788, and died near Lynchburg, Va., in 1851. 



430 



HOLBROOK 



HOME EDUCATION 



It was while pursuing his studies in Yale Col- 
lege, that, under the instruction of Prof. Silli- 
man, he imbibed that fondness for natural 
science, particularly chemistry and geology, 
which gave direction to his future life. For 
some time after graduating, in 1810, he gave his 
attention to agriculture, managing his father's 
farm at Derby. There he took part in the 
establishment of an agricultural school, in which 
he delivered lectures on his favorite sciences. In 
1826, he published his plan for an Association 
of Adults / 'or Mutual Instruction, and organized 
the MiUbury Lyceum, as a branch of the pro- 
jected American Lyceum, which he designed to 
consist of affiliated lyceums, or associations for 
mutual improvement, in every state of the 
Union. Thus the town lyceums were, by dele- 
gates, to constitute a county board of education, 
the county boards, in a similar manner, a state 
board ; and the state boards were to be repre- 
sented in a grand national convention, the object 
being to promote general education and the 
spread of intelligence among all classes. Hun- 
dreds of these lyceums were established in vari- 
ous parts of the United States, through the in- 
defatigable labors of Mr. Holbrook, who gave his 
whole time to the delivery of scientific lectures, 
the distribution of circulars and tracts, and the 
personal visitation of schools. In 1825, he 
began the manufacture of cheap and simple 
school apparatus for illustrating geology, natural 
philosophy, and geometry; which, in 1829, in 
connection with Thnothy Claxton, of Boston, he 
greatly extended, into what was afterwards 
known as the Holbrook School Apparatus. In 
1842, he undertook the organization of a system 
of school exchanges, the object of which was an 
interchange, among schools in different parts of 
the country and in foreign countries, of speci- 
mens of pupils' work ; such as, maps, draw- 
ings, geometrical solids, collections of minerals, 
etc. In this way, he conceived, the intellectual 
activity of the pupils would be stimulated ; and, 
besides, by becoming acquainted with the prod- 
ucts of each other's labor, their standard of 
excellence would be elevated, and their desire 
for improvement increased. This scheme met 
with considerable favor in many parts of the 
country, particularly in the city of New York, 
and for a time was successfully carried on. The 
American Lyceum also, for a while, greatly flour- 
ished. In 1828, a public meeting was held in 
Boston to promote its objects, at which Daniel 
Webster presided, and George B. Emerson acted 
as secretary ; and resolutions were adopted com- 
mending the Lyceum to public favor and sup- 
port. At other meetings, Edward Everett took 
part in the proceedings ; and subsequently, out 
of this movement, in favor of popular education, 
grew the Boston. Society for the Diffusion of Use- 
ful Knowledge, followed soon after by the Boston 
Lyceum ; and, partly as the result of the same 
awakening, the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion was established in 1830 ; and the next year, 
the Florida Education Society was organized at 
Tallahassee. The American Lyceum held its 



first national convention, May 4., 1831, in New 
York, and adopted a constitution. There were 
present delegates from Maine, Massachusetts, 
New York, Pennsylvania, Yale College, the 
city of Washington, and other places; and 
Stephen Van Rensselaer was elected its first 
president. A general meeting was held each 
succeeding year till 1839, when a special conven- 
tion, held in Philadelphia November 22., termi- 
nated the public proceedings of the Lyceum. — 
Mr. Holbrook continued in his favorite enter- 
prises of philanthropy until the close of his life. 
While on a visit to Virginia, near Lynchburg, he 
went out for geological exploration, and was not 
again seen until his body was found at the foot 
of a cliff, from which it was supposed he had 
fallen. Few lives have been so earnest, unselfish, 
and philanthropic ; and to very few has it been 
given to be the means of stimulating the intellect- 
ual activity of so many thousands. — See 
Barnard's Journal of Education, vols, vm., and 
xiv.; and American Educatms, vol. n. ; Amer- 
ican Annals of Education; Bourne, History of 
the Public School Society (N. Y., 1870). 

HOLIDAY. See School Festivals. 

HOLLAND. See Netherlands. 

HOLY ANGELS' COLLEGE, at Van- 
couver, Washington Ter., under Roman Cath- 
olic control, was founded in 1860. It is sup- 
ported by tuition fees and voluntary contri- 
butions. In 1876, it had 70 pupils. Its presidents 
have been as follows : the Rev. J. B. Brouillet, 
1860—62; the Rev. P. Means, 1862— 72 ; the 
Rev. P. Hylebos, 1872—3 ; and the Rev. Louis 
G. Schram, the present incumbent, appointed 
in 1873. 

HOLY CROSS, College of the, at Worces- 
ter, Mass., was founded in 1843 by the Rt. 
Rev. Benedict Joseph Fenwick, Roman Cath- 
olic Bishop of Boston, and was given by hmi 
to the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. In 1865, 
it was incorporated by the legislature of the 
state, with power and authority " to confer such 
degrees as are conferred by any college in this 
commonwealth, except medical degrees." The 
object of the institution is to prejjare youth for 
a professional or for a commercial course of life. 
The course of studies embraces, in its whole ex- 
tent, a period of seven years, of which three are 
given to the preparatory and junior classes, and 
the remainder to the senior. The candidates for 
the degree of Bachelor of Arts must undergo an 
examination in rational and natural philosophy, 
astronomy, and chemistry, and must be well ac- 
quainted with Latin, Greek, and mathematics. 
The charge for board and tuition is $250 per an- 
num, besides some extras. In 1874 — 5, there 
were 12 instructors and 177 students. The num- 
ber of degrees conferred at the commencement 
in 1875 was 13. The library contains 11,000 vol- 
umes. The Rev. Joseph B. O'Hagan, S. J., is 
(1876) the president. 

HOME EDUCATION is that which is car- 
ried on in the home circle, or family, as con- 
trasted with that which is afforded by the 
school. Up to a certain age, and within a cer- 



HOME EDUCATION 



431 



tain sphere, home education, or its equivalent, 
is not only indispensable but inevitable. The 
parents are the first teachers, especially the 
mother; and the educative influences of the 
nursery not only precede in time, but exceed in 
power, those of the school. Here the fuuiidati.ni 
is laid on which the school-teacher must sub- 
sequently build ; ami, comparatively speaking, 
more is accomplished in the period of earliest 
childhood, both in storing the mind and in 
forming the disposition and character, than dur- 
ing any equal number of subsequent years. " A 
child gains more ideas," says Lord Brougham, 
"in the first four years of his life than ever 
afterward.'' Early home education consists pe- 
culiarly in what has been called unconscious 
tuition, by means of which the plastic nature of 
the young child is insensibly moulded by the 
agencies which environ it. The mother chiefly 
controls these agencies, which may be enumer- 
ated as follows : (1) The affectionate tenderness 
which she displays, in ministering to the wants 
and gratifying the desires of the child, and in 
sympathizing with and alleviating its distresses ; 
(2) Her behavior, as being delicate ami refined, 
or coarse and rude, — showing self-restraint and 
dignity, or manifesting impulsiveness and pas- 
sion ; (3) The tones of her voice — sweet and 
tender, or harsh and dissonant, firm and decisive. 
or weak and yielding; (4) The expression of 
her face, implying similar traits ; (.">) The force 
of her will, under the intelligent guidance of 
educational principles and the restraints of con- 
science. Such are the elements of a mother's 
educative power, — a power the exercise of which 
results in forming in the child traits of character 
that no succeeding agency of circumstance, edu- 
cation, or self-discipline can entirely efface. It 
will be seen, from this enumeration, that the 
mother's influence is rather moral than intellec- 
tual ; indeed, the special period of its exercise 
supersedes the necessity of any formal cultiva- 
tion of the knowing faculties. The child, dur- 
ing the first few years of its existence needs 
little direction in this respect. Natural curios- 
ity and innate activity constantly stimulate the 
growth of the mind, and fill it with those ideas 
which are to constitute, in succeeding years, the 
materials of thought. It is just as absurd to 
subject a very young child to formal instruction 
as it woidd be to attempt the development of its 
physical powers by gymnastic exercises. Watch- 
fulness is, however, constantly required to check 
the formation of bad habits, which have just as 
strong a tendency to spring up in the young 
mind as rank weeds in a virgin soil. (See 
Habit.) The period of exclusive home educa- 
tion here referred to being so decisive of the 
future character of the child, and the mother 
being the first and most effective of all educa- 
tors, it will be apparent that the science of edu- 
cation, in its most comprehensive sense, should 
constitute an essential part of the curriculum 
of every female seminary or college. Particu- 
larly should the future mother be taught to ap- 
preciate the character of the influence, in all its 



phases, which she is to exert ; as well as to un- 
derstand, how to render it effectual in contribut- 
ing to the future welfare of her child. The 
father, at a somewhat later period, but in a 
similar manner, is a powerful educator within 
the circle of home. Both by precept and ex- 
ample, but especially by the latter, he makes 
life-long impressions. In vain are precepts, 
however, if they are not fully supported by ex- 
ample. What a terrible indictment is brought 
by Quintilian against the home education of his 
time in the following suggestive statement: 
'• Would that we ourselves did not "corrupt the 
morals of our children ! We are delighted if 
they utter any thing immodest. Expressions 
which would not be tolerated even from the 
effeminate youths of Alexandria, we hear from 
them with a smile and a. kiss. Nor is this won- 
derful : we have taught them ; they have heard 
such language from ourselves. They see our 
mistresses, our male objects of affection; every 
dining-room rings with impure songs: things 
shameful to be told are objects of sight. From 
such practices springs habit, and afterwards nat- 
ure. The unfortunate children learn these vices 
before they know that they are vices : and hence, 
rendered luxurious and effeminate, they do not 
imbibe immorality from the schools, 'mt carry it. 
themselves into the schools.'' While contemplat- 
ing so shocking a picture as this, not of home 
education but of home corruption, no one can 
wonder at the degree of degeneracy which the 
political and social system of the Romans finally 
reached. While, in the grade of society to which 
the above quotation refers, no child, in the stale 
of society of our times, could be subjected to 
such contaminating influences: yet. even at 
present, the impressions, both intellectual and 
moral, received by children in very many of 
the home circles of what are considered the bet- 
ter classes of society, are lather debasing than 
elevating, f The complaint is often made by 
teachers that the children placed under their 
care are so depraved by bad home training, or 
in consequence of absolute neglect, that their 
efforts to discipline and instruct these pupils are. 
almost useless. This is the more to be regretted, 
as school education can. in most cases, only sup- 
plement that of home : and because the influ- 
ences that center in the latter are always more 
potent than those wielded by the former, chiefly 
because schi « >1 education is primarily intellectual; 
whereas that of home is primarily moral. At 
any rate, such is the fact generally. 

After the period of formal instruction has ar- 
rived, the question arises in the minds of many 
parents, whether it is better to detain the child 
at home to be instructed by private tutors or to 
submit it to the discipline and instruction of the 
school. This question has been much discussed 
by educators. Quintilian, in regard to this 
point, said, in favor of school education, that "it 
had the sanction of those by whom the polity of 
the most eminent states was settled, as well as 
that of the most illustrious authors." The fol- 
lowing arguments are generally adduced to prove 



432 



HOME EDUCATION 



HOME LESSONS 



that the education acquired in school is to be 
preferred to any that is possible by private tutors 
at home : (1) The intellectual training is more 
effective ; since the boy or girl coming in com- 
petition with those of the same age is stimulated 
to greater exertions than would be possible in 
any system of home instruction. As Quintilian 
says, "At home, the boy can learn only what is 
taught himself: at school, he will also learn what 
is taught to others. He will hear many things 
approved ; many others, corrected. The reproof 
of a fellow pupil's idleness will be a good lesson 
to him; as will, likewise, the praise of his neigh- 
bor's industry. I He will think it disgraceful to 
yield to his equals in age, and great honor to ex- 
cel his seniors. All these matters arouse the 
powers of the mind; and if ambition be an evil, 
it is often the parent of virtue." The child 
educated at home can never realize the full ex- 
tent of his own powers, having no standard by 
which to measure them. Hence, he is satisfied 
with meager results, at the same time that he is 
likely to be rilled with self-conceit. It is, how- 
ever, scarcely disputed that the school, as a mimic 
world, presents a variety of incentives which a 
home education could never afford ; and that it 
is favorable to rapid mental growth. But it is 
its influence on the moral nature that has been 
chiefly called in question. Hoirie has been de- 
picted as the abode of purity and innocence, — 
of kindness, gentleness, and affection, — of court- 
esy and refinement, — of morality and religious 
influence ; and such it ought to be, and it is to be 
hoped, often is. From such an atmosphere, the 
home-bred child is at once introduced into a new, 
and to him utterly unknown, world. Instead of 
sympathy, he finds, among his school-mates, in- 
difference ; instead of courtesy and kindness, a 
thoughtless disregard of all weakness, either of 
mind or body, except, indeed, to turn it into 
ridicule. He finds that, if he is not mindful of 
himself, and sufficiently self-assertive, he will be 
borne down in the mass. There is an antag- 
onism — an aggressiveness in those around him 
that begets caution and resistance ; there is a 
sense of danger that cultivates courage, and a 
matter-of-fact spirit that crushes out egotism 
and sensitiveness. Thus the boy, in the little 
world of the school, is prepared for the greater 
school beyond. Probably, no better illustration 
of this fact is afforded anywhere than in the 
great Public Schools of England. Eton has been 
especially noted for the rough discipline to which 
its pupils subject each other ; and yet we find 
the following cogent testimony as to the favor- 
able effects of that system upon the boys' char- 
acters, from an entirely reliable source: " I think 
it cannot be denied that the tendency of the 
Eton system is to make a boy generous and firm- 
minded, to exercise his common sense early, to 
make him habitually feel a moral responsibility, 
to act not under the impulse of fear, but of 
generous shame and generous emulation, to be 
willing and determined to keep trust because he 
is trusted: — in a word, to make him a manly boy 
and a gentleman." [Public School Education, 



by Sir J. T. Coleridge, London, 1860.) It has 
been well said in regard to the corrupting influ- 
ence of school, " School indeed brings the knowl- 
edge of evil, but the innocence of childhood is 
but the innocence of ignorance ; by home edu- 
cation it cannot be much prolonged, and when 
knowledge comes at last, it finds less force of 
character and less strength of principle to coun- 
teract its poison." Better, therefore, it would ap- 
pear, is it to unite the education of a good school 
with that of a properly ordered family, in which 
combination the evils of school life will be neu- 
tralized by the stronger and purer influences of 
home. Not home or school, but home and 
school, constitutes the proper agency for the 
education of children, whether boys or girls. It 
is the opinion of some, however, that admitting 
the advantages, in general, of a school education, 
that of home generates certain peculiar traits 
and excellencies of character which are essential 
to the welfare of society. This is the argument 
of Isaac Taylor, in Home Education, who says, 
" the school-bred man is of one sort — the home- 
bred man is of another ; and the community has 
need of both ; nor, as I think, could any meas- 
ures be much more to be deprecated, nor any 
tyranny of fashion more to be resisted, than 
such as should render a public education, from 
first to last, compulsory and universal." 

HOME LESSONS, or Home Studies. The 
question whether home lessons, or home studies, 
should be a part of the system of instruction in 
schools of different grades, and if so, to what 
extent they should be permitted, and in what 
manner they should be pursued and super- 
vised by the teacher, is one of considerable im- 
portance, which is still extensively discussed by 
writers on education. The need of home 
lessons for pupils of secondary and higher 
schools has never been disputed. In regard 
to the schools of a lower grade, many physicians 
have strongly objected to any kind of home 
lessons, as long as the children are required to 
spend from 4 to 5 hours a day in the school 
room. Their arguments are, however, chiefly 
directed against the length of the school sessions. 
From an educational point of view, it has justly 
been urged by recent writers, that the regulation 
of this matter must chiefly depend on the 
question, for what purpose should home lessons 
be given. On this point, educators, at the present 
time, are much more nearly agreed than formerly. 
No writer of note will, nowadays, maintain that 
home lessons should be for the mere purpose of 
preventing idleness — of keeping the children 
busy, or as a punishment for delinquencies ; but 
it is agreed that all home studies should aim at 
training the pupils to self-exertion, at giving 
them the ability to depend upon their own efforts 
as students, and by degrees, to dispense with the 
aid of a teacher. If this principle is accepted, 
several corollaries are self-evident. Home lessons 
should not begin at too early an age. Young 
children need the supervision of a teacher to a 
much greater extent than those of a more ad- 
vanced age, and are much less fitted to spend 



HOME LESSONS 



HORN-BOOK 



4:;:; 



their time profitably without direct guidance. 
Moreover, while the school sessions for young 
children, are as long as for older ones, the medical 
warning not to overwork the brain, applies with 
much greater force to the home lessons of the 
former than to those of the latter. Special care 
should be taken that all the children fully un- 
derstand the work which they are required to 
perforin at home, and that they are compe- 
tent to do it. No child of good standing in the 
class should feel it necessary to apply to his par- 
rents or adult friends for help, it is especially 
this point that is so apt to be disregarded by 
teachers. Parents have a right to object to any 
home lesson or exercise which requires, in the 
case of diligent pupils, any help in addition to 
that of the teacher. All exercises of this kind 
prove a torment, and are absolutely injurious. 
"The school", says Diesterweg, "must teach 
the method of home studies. It is not enough 
that the home lesson be appropriate in itself ; 
the pupil must be enabled to prepare it in 
a proper manner. How often poor children tor- 
ment themselves where this is not taught ! The 
teacher should show them how to memorize, 
how to prepare or review a lesson, how to write 
a composition, by previously memorizing, pre- 
paring, reviewing etc., with them at school. Thus 
the teacher becomes the pupil's friend, and this 
is more than to be his master." Moreover, when 
pupils are required to write exercises at home, 
the teacher should faithfully correct them. The 
failure to do this fosters habits of carelessness. 
Many teachers greatly err in this regard, 
burdening children with the task of wilting 
pages of exercises, and correcting but few. or 
none, of them. Certainly, no teacher who is 
guilty of so serious a mistake, can be regarded 
as understanding the work either of instruction 
or of discipline. Home lessons are, in general, 
more frequent in European than in American 
schools. The opinion is entertained by many 
European writers, especially German (as Rol- 
fus and Pfister, Realencyclopadie, vol. i.. art. 
Aufgabe), that home lessons are entirely un- 
known in American schools. Of course, this is 
not correct ; but the views strenuously advocated 
by the best American educators, that home les- 
sons should not begin early, and that they should 
occupy only a small portion of the childrens' 
time out of school are fully concurred in by the 
best educational writers of Germany, "Under 
the guidance of the teacher", says Diesterweg, 
" the attentive pupil will be able to learn at 
school, in one tenth of the time, what he is 
sometimes required to learn, when distracted 
and fatigued, at home. Thousands of pupils and 
parents become disgusted with the school, on 
account of the annoyance which they receive from 
the home lessons heedlessly assigned by the 
teachers ; home lessons should, therefore, be re 
stricted to the smallest possible amount ; and the 
teacher, before assigning such a lesson, should 
ponder well the question whether just this les- 
son cannot be dispensed with, or be made un- 
necessary." Dittes (Schule der Padagogik) 



is of opinion that the best arrangement for a 
common school is to confine all the learning of 
lessons to the school room, and to set apart 
special hours for study, under the direct super- 
vision of the teacher. This, of course, is an 
extreme view ; but it serves to illustrate the 
depth of the conviction that home lessons, as 
usually assigned, do not promote the real prog- 
ress of the pupil. "The effect of poorly learning 
a lesson", says D. P.Page [Theory and Practice 
of Teaching), " is most ruinous to the mind of a 
child. He, by the habit of missing, comes to 
think it a small thing to fail at recitation. He 
loses his self-respect. He loses all regard for his 
reputation as a scholar. Besides, the attempt 
to acquire an umcasonable lesson, induces a 
superficial habit of study. — a skimming over 
the surface of tilings. The motto of the wise 
teacher should be, not how much, but how well 
lie should always ask, is it possible that the 
child can master this lesson, and probable that 
he trill." 

HOPE. See Incentives, Prizes, and Re- 
wards. 

HOPE COLLEGE, at Holland, Mich., was 
established in 1851, by the Reformed Dutch 
Church, as the Holland Academy. It was 
organized as a college in 1863, and incorporated 
in 18(56. Its especial design was to furnish a 
suitably educated ministry. It has an endow- 
ment of about $60,000. The library contains 
about 1,200 volumes. Three departments hare 
been organized: (1) preparatory, (2) academic 
or collegiate, and (3) theological. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 9 instructors and 111 students. Rev. 
Philip Phelps, Jr.. has been the president since 
the organization of the college. 

HOPKINS, Mark, a noted American 
scholar and teacher, born in Stockbridge, Mass., 
Feb. 4., 1802. After graduating at Williams 
College, and serving as tutor in that institution 
for two years, he commenced the practice of 
medicine in New York: but. in 183(1. returned 
to "Williams College to fill the position of pro- 
fessor of moral philosophy and rhetoric, and, in 
1836, succeeded Dr. Griffin as president of the 
College, in which position he remained until 
1872, when he resigned to resume the duties of 
professor of mental and moral philosophy. He 
has published a number of works, all of which 
evince high intellectual and moral culture, as 
well as literary ability. Among them, that which 
illustrates best his peculiarly lucid mode of 
teaching difficult subjects is An Outline Study 
of Man (New York, 1873), which is a model of 
the developing method as applied to intellectual 
science, as well as of blackboard illustration. 

HORN-BOOK, a book consisting of a single 
page, formerly used to teach children the alpha- 
bet ami other simple rudiments. It was, in fact, 
the first page of the primer, pasted on a thin 
board, which terminated in a handle, and having, 
fastened over the printed matter, a thin plate of 
transparent horn, to protect it from being soiled 
or torn by the young learner. Usually there was 
a hole in the handle for a string, by which the 



434 



HOUSE OF REFUGE 



HOWE 



apparatus was slung to the scholar's girdle. 
Hence, in a View of the Beau Monde (1731), we 
find a lady described as "dressed like a child, in 
a bodice coat and leading-strings, with a horn- 
book tied to her side". Sometimes, instead of 
being mounted on a board, the printed page was 
pasted on the back of the horn only. The horn- 
book was in use in England from the time of 
queen Elizabeth to the close of the eighteenth 
century ; it was also used in some of the Amer- 
ican colonies until about the same time. The 
oldest specimens contain the alphabet, in small 
letters and capitals — in black-letter or in 
Roman — commencing with a cross, which 
serves to designate the first row. This is followed 
by the vowels, and their simplest combination 
with the consonants, the Lords' Prayer, and the 
Roman numerals. (See Christ Ceoss Row). Be- 
fore the horn-book was invented, it is thought, 
a cast-leaden plate was used in England, having 
on its face the alphabet in raised letters ; as 
ancient carved stones have been discovered 
winch appear to have served as moulds for cast- 
ing such plates. There are many allusions hi 
English literature to this little implement of 
elementary education. Shenstone in his quaint 
poem, the Schoolmistress (1741) , thus refers to it: 

"Eftsoons the urchins to their tasks repair ; 
Their books, of stature small, they take in hand, 
Which with pellucid horn secured are, 
To save from finger wet the letters fair." 

Cowper, in Tirocinium, or aHeview of Schools, 

(1784), thus describes it : 

Neatly secured from being soiled or torn 

Beneath a pane of thin translucent horn, 

A book ;to please us at a tender age, 

'Tis called a book, though but a single page) 

Presents the prayer the Saviour deigned to teach, 

Which children use, aud parsons — when they preach." 

Locke, in Thoughts on Education, mentions the 
horn-book and primer as the "ordinary road" to 
learning to read in his time. (See Pkimer.) 

HOUSE OF REFUGE. See Reform 
Schools. 

HOWARD COLLEGE, at Marion, Ala., 
was founded by the Missionary Baptists, in 
1843. It has a library of about 2000 volumes, 
geological and mineralogical cabinets, and chem- 
ical, mathematical, and philosophical apparatus. 
The cost of tuition, board, etc. in the college de- 
partment is $ 226 per annum. Theological stu- 
dents receive tuition free. The course of study 
is divided into the following distinct schools : 
(1) School of Latin; (2) School of Greek; 
(3) School of modern languages ; (4) School of 
English ; (5) School of moral science and theol- 
ogy ! (6) School of mathematics ; (7) School of 
chemistry, geology, and mineralogy; (8) School 
of natural philosophy and applied mathematics ; 
(9) School of civil engineering ; (10) Business 
school. There is. also, a preparatory department. 
The degrees conferred are B. S., A. B., M. A., and 
C. E., each of which requires proficiency in sev- 
eral schools. In 1874 — 5, there were 5 instruc- 
tors and 102 students. The presidents have been 
as follows : H. W. Talbird, D. D., J. L. M. Curry, 
LL. D., S. R. Freeman, D. D., and J. T. Murfee, 
LL. D., the present incumbent (1876). 



HOWARD UNIVERSITY, at "Washing- 
ton, D. C, was chartered by Congress in 1867, 
and named after Gen. O. O. Howard, one of its 
founders. It occupies a commanding and 
beautiful site at the head of Seventh street, north 
of and just beyond the city limits, and has several 
tine buildings. Though the institution was es- 
pecially designed for colored youth, every depart- 
ment is open to all, without distinction of race or 
sex ; and both white and colored persons of both 
sexes are found among its instructors and stu- 
dents. Ihe university is supported by contri- 
butions and tuition fees. It has libraries con- 
taining over 8,000 volumes, a mineral cabinet, 
and a museum. The departments of instruction in 
connection with it are as follows : (I) Academical' 
branch, consisting of (1) Normal department, 
with a model school ; (2) Preparatory depart- 
ment; (3) College department. (II) Professional 
branch, (1) Medical department ; (2) Law de- 
partment ; (3) Theological department. The 
normal department was, at first, supported by 
what was known as the Miner Fund. The medical 
students have the advantage of the Freedmen's 
General Hospital and Asylum, situated within 
the grounds of the institution. The theological 
department is open to students of every Chris- 
tian denomination. The cost of tuition in the- 
law department is ip50 a year (or $40, when paid 
in advance) ; in the medical and theological de- 
partments, it is free ; in the other departments, 
$12 per year. The number of instructors and 
students, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : 
Departments. Instructors. Students. 

Normal \ 34 

Model school ( ,„ 141 

Preparatory f " 39 

College ) 33 

Medical 8 24 

Law 2 13 

Theological 3 25 

Total 2l 3tk7 ' 

Gen. Howard was president of the University 
till 1873, when he was succeded by John M, 
Langston,LL. D., as vice-president. In 1875, the 
Rev. Edward P. Smith was chosen president ; 
and continued in office till his death, in 1876. 

HOWE, Samuel Gridley, a distinguished 
American educator and philanthropist, partic- 
ularly noted for his zeal and success as a teacher 
of the blind and the imbecile, was born in 
Boston, in 1801, and died in that city, in 1876. 
After graduating at Brown University, in 1821, 
he studied medicine for a time ; but, becoming 
interested in the cause of the Greek patriots, he 
entered the revolutionary army, in which he 
served as surgeon till 1827. About this time, 
Dr. John D. Fisher, who while pursuing his 
medical studies in Paris, had become acquainted 
with the Abbe Haiiy's institution for the blind, 
proposed the establishment of a similar institu- 
tion in Boston. Dr. Howe, who had returned to 
the United States for the purpose of soliciting 
contributions for the cause of the struggling 
Greeks, was invited to take charge of the pro- 
posed institution; and having accepted, he imme- 
diately embarked for Europe to visit the asylums. 



HUARTE 



HUNGARY 



435 



for the blind in England. France, and Germany. 
On his return, the institution was organized, 
under the name of the Perkins Intitution for 
the Blind, with l»r. Howe at its head (18:12). 
Here the education of Laura Bridgman (q. v.), 
a blind deaf-mute, under his personal instruc- 
tion, attracted general attention, and placed Dr. 
Howe in the front rank of teachers ; since only 
the most ardent zeal, and the most consummate 
skill, tact, and patience could have accomplished 
so difficult a task. He was also much interested 
in the education of the imbecile ; and the ex- 
perimental school for their training, which he 
helped to found, resulted, in 1851, in the Mas- 
sachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded 
Youth, in South Boston. He was the author 
of a Reader for the Blind (1839) and a Histor- 
ical Sketch of the Greek Revolution (1828). 

HUARTE, Juan, a Spanish physician and 
philosopher, was born inXavarre, about 1535, and 
died about 1600. He gave great attention to 
psychology, and particularly to the externa] 
physiological indications of character; and at- 
tempted to show the practical value of his system 
in education and otherwise, in his great work 
Exdmen de Tngenios para Sciencias i Test of 
Minds for thelearning of the Sciences), published 
about 1580, in which he gave directions for dis- 
covering the special talents of individuals for 
the acquisition of particular sciences. This book 
became very famous, and was translated into 
various languages. The English version was in- 
titled the Trial of Wits. It taught that every 
person is endowed with a talent for some specialty, 
which should be discovered and cultivated; since 
whatever attention he might give to other pur- 
suits, he could never rise above mediocrity in 
them. As a means of ascertaining this special 
gift, he laid great stress upon an examination 
of the form of the head, thus, to some extent 
anticipating the doctrine of Gall and Spurz- 
hciin. — See Ticknob, History of Spanish Liter- 
ature. 

HTJET, Pierre Daniel, a noted French 
scholar, born at Caen, Feb. 8., 1G30, died at 
Paris, Jan. 2fi., 1721. He was a pupil of Des- 
cartes and Bochart, accompanying the latter to 
Sweden, in 1652. He also visited Holland, but 
returned to Caen and gave himself up entirely 
to study, ne became Doctor of Laws, in 1670, 
and soon after, was summoned to Paris, where 
he was appointed sub-preceptor, under Bossuet, 
of the Dauphin. He directed, for his royal pupil, 
the preparation of the Delphin edition of the 
classics. In 1685, he was made bishop of Sois- 
sons, but was transferred to the see of Avran- 
ches, in 16'J2, which position he resigned in 
169!), on account of ill health. His complete 
works were published in 1856, in 6 vols. 

HUMANITIES (I-at. humaniora or literal 
humaniores), those branches of education or 
study, which are included in what is called po- 
lite or elegant learning, as languages, grammar, 
rhetoric, philology, and poetry, with all that per- 
tains to what is called polite literature, includ- 
ing the ancient classics. The name implies that 



the study of these branches, in opposition to the 
physical sciences, which especially develop the 
intellectual faculties, has a tendency to humanize 
man. — to cultivate particularly those faculties 
which distinguish him as mint, in all his rela- 
tions, social and moral ; that is. which make him 
a truly cultured man. In the older systems of 
education, the humanities took the lead ; in the 
new, they have been, to a considerable extent, 
superseded by studies deemed more practical, 
from a utilitarian point of view. The contest 
between the humanities and the so-called prac- 
tical studies, as branches of higher education, is 
still rife. The humanities are, at present, more 
commonly designated belles-lettres (q. v.). 

HUMBOLDT, Karl Wilhelm von, a dis- 
tinguished German statesman, philologist, and, 
educator, brother of the great scientist, Alexander 
von Humboldt, was born June 22., 1767, died 
April 8., 1835. He studied at the universities 
of Frankfort on the Oder and Gottingcn. and 
after holding several positions in the Prussian 
diplomatic and state service, was appointed, in 
January, 1809, chief of the educational depart- 
ment in the ministry of the interior, in which 
position he remained until April, 1810. This 
short period was fruitful of reforms in the edu- 
cational affairs of Prussia ; but it was especially 
in the fields of higher education that Humboldt's 
influence was felt. He prepared the way for, and 
thus became the real founder of, the University 
of Berlin, and also laid the foundation of the 
future greatness of the Prussian gymnasia. His 
reforms in the study of languages, in the schools 
of Prussia, exerted a far-reaching influence. His 
own linguistic works were of great importance, 
especially that upon Kami, the language of an- 
cient Javanese literature ( XJeber die Kawisprache 
auf der Insel Java, 3 vols., 1836 — 40), still re- 
g:i nled as a classic on the philosophy of language. 
'I In- introduction, which treats of the dim 1 1 
of languages and their influence upon the de- 
velopment of the human race, appeared in a 
separate volume [Ueber die Versch'i denheit des 
menscMichen Sprachbaues, etc.). — See Stkin- 
thal, Die Sprachwissenschoft W. von Humboldt s 
(1848); Heym, Wilhelm von Humboldt (1856). 

HUMBOLDT COLLEGE, at Humboldt, 
Ic iwa, was founded in 1869, by the Rev. Stephen 
II. 'I 'a ft, but was not opened until 1872. It is 
non-sectarian, and is supported by voluntary 
contributions. Tuition is free to students to 
the number of 100. The college building is a 
beautiful marble edifice, erected at a cost of 
over $40,000. The library contains 1,300 
volumes. It includes an English, a preparatory, 
and a collegiate course. In 1874 — 5, there were 
4 instructors, and 97 students, of both sexes. 
Rev. Stephen H. Taft has been the president 
since the commencement of the institution. 

HUNGARY, one of the principal divisions 
of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, is composed 
of Hungary proper, the former kingdom of 
Croatia, which, besides sending delegates to the 
i [ungarian diet, has a provincial diet of its own, 
and the free city of Fiume. Its entire area is 



436 



HUNGARY 



125,045 sq. m., and its population, which, ac- 
cording to the census of 1869, was 15,509,455, 
was estimated, in 1875, at 15,993,196. The 
population of Hungary is made up of a number 
of different races, no single race having an ab- 
solute majority. These races differ not only in 
language, but also in dress and customs. Accord- 
ing to estimates by Austrian statisticians, the 
races are divided nearly as follows : Germans, 
1,780,000, forming 11.4 per cent of the total 
population ; Slaves, 4,746,000, or 30.6 per cent ; 
(nearly 16 per cent being Servians or Croats, 
and 12 per cent Slovacks); Italians and Rouma- 
nians 2,673,000, or 17.6 percent; Jews, 553,700, 
or 3.5 per cent; Magyars, 5,553,700, or 35.7 
per cent ; and various other tribes amounting 
to about 199,000, or 1.2 per cent of the total 
population. The Magyars, though constituting 
considerably less than one-half of the population, 
are the ruling race, and are making strenuous 
efforts to introduce the study of their language 
into all the schools of the country. The former 
kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, in which 94 
per cent of the people belong to the Slavic race, 
preserves a certain degree of administrative 
independence ; and the Croatian language is 
used in all the public schools. In 1869, the 
different religious denominations were repre- 
sented as follows : Roman Catholics, 7,600,000 ; 
United Greeks, 1,600,000 ; United Armenians, 
5,200 ; Protestants of the Augsburg Confession, 
1,114,000 ; aud of the Helvetian Confession, 
2,031,000; Oriental Greeks, 2,590,000; Grego- 
rian Armenians, 650; Unitarians, 55,000 ; other 
Christian denominations, 2,600 ; Jews, 553,700 ; 
other non-Christians, and persons of no relig- 
ion, 220. The ruling race of the country, 
the Magyars, were a Mongolian tribe, that took 
possession of Hungary in 894. Christianity was 
introduced under Duke Geysa (972 — 98), whose 
son Stephen was crowned king by the Pope. In 
1526, a part of the country was conquered by the 
Turks, and the remainder was annexed to Austria, 
with which country it has been connected ever 
since. In 1849, it was deprived of its ancient 
constitution, and converted into a crown land 
or province of the Austrian empire ; but, in 
1867, its constitutional independence was re- 
stored ; and, since that time, it has formed one 
of the two main divisions of the Austro-Hun- 
garian Monarchy. In consequence of the numer- 
ous civil wars, the oppression by foreign barba- 
rians, and the conflicting tendencies of the rival 
races and religions, the progress of education in 
Hungary has been slow. The numerous German 
settlements of the 12th and 13th centuries, even 
in the darhcst hours, never failed to make provi- 
sion for the education of their children; and when 
the majority of these settlements, in the 16th 
century, joined the Augsburg confession, their 
schools were benefited by their closer connection 
with the states of Germany. It was thus that 
the Cronstadt gymnasium was founded in the 
latter part of the 16th century, that gradually 
the city schools in various places were raised to 
the rank of gymnasia, and that scarcely a com- 



munity of the Augsburg confession was without 
a common school. The same was also true of 
most of the communities of the Reformed 
Church. The elementary education of the Cath- 
olics in the German settlements, was not so well 
cared for ; but numerous gymnasia were founded 
by the Jesuits in the Hungarian countries, which 
grew quite rapidly. Very little was done for the 
cause of education by the government, uutil 
Maria Theresa appointed a commission on 
schools and studies, in 1774. The whole country 
was divided into nine districts. The provincial 
director, who presided over a district, had charge 
of all the schools, with the exception of the 
national university, the gymnasium of Buda, 
and the episcopal lyceums. Li 1778, the in- 
spectors of the Catholic common schools met in 
Buda, and consulted on a plan, called the pro- 
jeclum Budense, to organize these schools. In 
accordance with this plan, a normal school was 
immediately established in every district, and 
common schools were to be erected as soon as 
possible in every parish. In the village schools, 
instruction was to be confined to reading, writ- 
ing, and arithmetic, with German, if desired ; 
while, in the city schools, a knowledge of Ger- 
man was considered necessary for all the scholai-s. 
The schools of non- Catholics were to be grad- 
ually incorporated with the system. In 1780, 
the empress gave to the schools the property of 
the Jesuits, amounting to about 10,000,000 
florins ; but, owing to the peculiar circumstances 
which existed under Joseph II., this large sum 
did not immediately produce the expected result. 
Joseph II. attempted a number of radical reforms; 
but most of them had to be abandoned, even 
before his death. A commission, however, ap- 
pointed by the Reichstag, drafted a new law, 
which was adopted in 1806. According to this 
law, every Catholic community was to have a 
national school, with one or two teachers ; while 
73 cities were to have upper schools, with three 
or four teachers. The ten normal schools were 
to serve at the same time as schools for teachers. 
The 60 gymnasia were divided into 54 full 
gymnasia, with six classes, and 6 of four classes 
each. After the death of Joseph II. the Protest- 
ants refused most determinedly to introduce 
this new law into their schools, and Catholic 
children were prohibited from attending Protest- 
ant schools without the consent of the priest. 
A new era began when, in 1850, the Hungarian 
lands became an integral part of the Austrian 
monarchy. Attention was, at first, given to the 
elementary schools. New schools were erected, 
the condition of the teachers was improved, 
and existing schools were enlarged. Teachers 
were procured at great expense from other coun- 
tries. Under the newly appointed district . 
officers, the school attendance increased rapidly. 
The long interruption of school sessions, generally 
from March till November, was abolished ; and 
penmanship, drawing, and music were introduced, 
for the first time, into Hungarian schools. An 
entirely new idea were the Puszta or Fanya 
schools, which were designed to furnish instruc- 



HUNGARY 



43T 



tion to the numerous children living on the 
great plains in houses far apart from each other, 
;i ml whose parents were chiefly engaged in herd- 
ing horses for the nobility. After the re-estab- 

hshment of the Hungarian independence, a new 
school law was promulgated, in Isds, which lias 
greatly promoted the advance of education. — 

Primary Instruction. — Education, according 
to the new law of 1868, is compulsory for all 
children from the sixth to the fifteenth year. The 
primary schools are divided into elementary and 
higher people's schools, burgher schools, and pre- 
paratory schools for teachers. The different relig- 
ious denominations may establish public schools 
of their own, if they comply with the general re- 
quirement of the school laws. Private persons 
or associations may also establish elementary and 
normal schools, if the teachers hold propel cer- 
tificates. These schools may become public 
schools by complying with the provisions of the 
school laws. Every private school, however, 
must conform to the course of instruction pre- 
scribed by law for schools of the same grade. 
Every community in which denominational 
schools exist, and in which there are as many as 
30 children of other denominations, must pro- 
vide an elementary school. The elementary 
school is composed of two courses, — a common 
school course, of six years, and a review course, 
of three years. The school year must comprise, 
in the country, at least eight months, and in the 
cities, nine months. The course of study com- 
prises religion, reading, and writing, arithmetic, 
languages, geography, and history, natural phi- 
losophy, natural history, music, gymnastics, anil 
practical instruction in gardening anil farming. 
Every child must be instructed in his mother- 
tongue. Wherever there is a large number of 
people speaking different languages, teachers of 
those languages must be employed. All cities 
of more than 5,000 inhabitants must establish 
at least a higher people's school ; and. if their 
means sulfide, a burgher school. In these schools, 
boys and girls must be instructed separately, and 
in their own language. The course of study 
comprises religion, penmanship, and drawing, the 
mother-tongue, the Hungarian language, where 
it is not the medium of instruction, mathematics, 
natural history and natural philosophy, geog- 
raphy and history, the elements of agriculture, 
constitutional history, book-keeping, gymnastics, 
and singing. In the schools for girls, agriculture, 
constitutional history, and gymnastics are omit- 
ted, needle-work beeing taught instead of them. 
In the burgher schools, the boys' course com- 
prises six years ; and the girls' course, four years. 
In addition to the studies pursued in the higher 
people's schools, chemistry, statistics, and the 
elements of law are taught in the burgher 
schools. In some of the larger schools, Latin, 
French, music and other branches are taught as 
optional studies. The course in the normal 
schools comprises three years. A model training 
school is connected with every normal school. 
The schools are under the direct authority of 
the communities, each one of which elects a 



committee of, at least, nine members. The 
whole country is divided into school districts, 
for each one of which the ministry appoints an 
inspector, who must superintend all the schools 
in his district, and visit them, at least, once a. 
year. He sees that the laws are properly en- 
forced, and makes an annual report on the con- 
dition of the schools in his charge. Subordinate 
to the inspector is a school councilor. Teachers 
are appointed, either upon graduating from a 
normal school, or upon passing a proper exam- 
ination. A school law for Croatia was passed 
by the Croatian diet, in 1874, of which the 
principal provisions are as follows : The state 
has the control of the entire school system. 
School attendance is compulsory and free. In- 
struction is imparted in the Croatian language ; 
but other languages may be used as the medium 
of instruction, where they are spoken by the 
inhabitants, if the community supports its own 

sel 1. and the inhabitants are ignorant of the 

( 'roatian language. In all such schools, the study 
of the Croatian language is obligatory. The 
school age extends from the eighth to the twelfth 
year inclusive. Female teachers may be ap- 
pointed in lower classes of the common school 
in case of need. Burgher schools for both sexes 
are substituted in place of the real schools which 
formerly existed in connection with the head 
schools. Pupils may enter the teachers' seminary 
upon completing their fifteenth year. '1 he course 
of instruction comprises tlvree years. 

In 1873, there were, in all the lands of the 
Hungarian crown, 15,445 schools, of which 1 .■ 12 
were communal schools, and 13.903, denom- 
inational schools. In the same year, there were 
8(11 communities without any school at all, and 
the children of which could not even attend 
neighboring schools, on account of distance. The 
day schools were attended by 1,174,427 children 
(037,193 boys and 537.231 uirlsi. the review 
schools by 231.530 (123,512 boys and 108,018 
gjrls), the higher people's schools by 10,104 
(0.243 boys and 3,801 girls), and the private 

sel Is by 23,534 (10,905 boys and 12,029 girls), 

and the intermediate schools by 13,071 boys, 
making a total of 1,443.200 children receiving 
instruction. On the other hand, 678,154 (318,420 
boys and 359.734 girls), or nearly 40 per cent of 
the children of school age, received no instruc- 
tion. The total number of teachers in the same 
year was 19,598, of whom 15,149 were licensed. 
The number of normal schools was 57 ; of which 
15 were state and 32 denominational schools for 
male teachers, and 4 state and denominational 
schools for female teachers. These schools wen 
attended by 2.371 students (1.877 males and 494 
females. The number of teachers was 510, and 
the total number of classes 154. In 1875. there 
were higher people's schools for boys, with agri- 
cultural courses; 1 with a course of gardening 
and grape culture. 1 with a carving school, and 
1 with a trails Bchool; 9 for both sexes, 29 
burgher schools for boys, and 8 for girls. A 
higher female school in Buda-Pesth. and two 
state seminaries for female teachers, in Buda- 



438 



HUNGARY 



HYGIEXE 



Pesth and in Raab. were established in 1875. 
Buda-Pesth. the capital of Hungary, had. in 
1873. 51 communal. 2 government. 18 denomi- 
national, and 49 private schools. The school 
population was 51.532. The day schools wen; 
attended by 27.864. and the review schools by 
4 1 26 pupils. TnaVincr in all about 79 per cent of 
the school population. The courses for adults 
were attended by 1.922 pupils, and the trade 
school, by 1.510 pupils. 

Secondmy Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
tion is imparted in gymnasia and real schools, 
which correspond to the institutions of the same 
name in Germany. In 1872. there were 147 
g ymnasia with 1.842 teachers and 27.360 stu- 
dents. Of these. 20.775 were Magyars. 2.418 
Germans. 2.195 Roumanians, and 1.^63 Slaves. 
The number of real schools, in the same year, was 
31. with 315 instructors and 5.803 students, of 
whom 3.815 were Magyars. 1,530 German*. 326 
Slaves, and 115 Roumanians. The Hungarian 
language is taught in all these schools. In Hun- 
gary proper, it is the medium of instruction 
in all secondary schools: though in some, one or 
more other languages are also used for some 
branches of instruction. In Transylvania, the 
medium of instruction is German in the Roman 
Catholic gymnasia of Hermannstadt and Cron- 
stadt. and in all schools belonging to the Evan- 
gelical Church : Roumanian, in the gymnasia of 
the Greek Church: and the Hungarian language. 
in all other sehools. 

5 :>erior Instruction. — There are three uni- 
versities in Hungary: in Buda-Pesth. in Klau- 
senburg founded in 1872 . and in Agrani 
I founded in 1874i. The university of Buda- 
Pesth had. in the winter term of 1875 — 6. 150 
professors and 2.63o stulents. Klausenburg had. 
in the same year. 61 professors and 417 students. 
In the University of Agraru. 270 students were 
admitted, upon its opening, in 1874: but. in 
187s — 6, the number of students was 319. and 
that of professors. 31. The universities of Hun- 
gary have substantially the same organization as 
those of Germany and of Austria proper. 

Special Instruction. — Hungary had the fol- 
lowing special schools in 1875: A royal poly- 
technic institute, in Buda-Pesth. with 57 profess- 
ors and 862 stulents: 9 royal.and 4 evangelical 
law academies, a commercial high-school, in Buda- 
Pesth. a royal agricultural academy, in Alten- 
burg. 4 other agricultural academies, in Debrec- 
zin, Keszthely. Easchau. and EUausenburw. the 
royal academy of forestry, in Schemnitz. the 
Croatian school of agriculture and forestry, in 
Kreuz. 5 lower agricultural schools, 3 schools of 
vine-culture, a royal mining academy, in Schem- 
nitz. 2 lower mining schools, an academy of 
music, in Buda-PesthTa royal school for the "edu- 
cation of officers of the ■ cavalry, in 
■Taszbereny. the Ludovica Academy in Buda- 
Pesth, for the landtcekr, a preparatory school, in 
Gunz, and a naval academy in Fiume. — See 
Season. Encydopadie, voL v.. s. v. Austria; 
Klux, Statistik von Oesterreich-Ungarn (1876): 
Brachelli, Statistische Skizze der Staaten Eu- 



rope's (1875) : and Statistische Sliz^ der osier- 
reichisdi-ungariscJien MonarcJiie |1874). being a 
supplement to Steix and W.iFPirs. HandbucJi 
der GeograpJtie und Statisiik. 

HYGIENE, School, has reference to that 
department of school administration, which per- 
tains to the preservation of physical health. 
This is to be distinguished from physical educa- 
tion, which looks rather to the special tr ainin g 
or developing of the body: while hygienic prin- 
ciples and rules have for their object to preserve 
that condition of health in which all pupils are 
supposed to enter school, and. by their constant 
though unobtrusive influence, to make that con- 
dition permanent. The value of the maintenance 
of physical health will hardly be questioned by 
any thoughtful person, certainly not by any educa- 
tor ; for while the mind does sometimes, indeed, 
appear to act independently of the body, there 
are numerous instances on record which show 
that not only intellectual inefficiency is directly 
traceable to ill health, but moral obliquity also. 
If the effect of positive disease, therefore, be- 
comes so evident in specific instances as to reveal 
this direct connection, the cases in which that 
connection is obscure, and the effect apparent 
only in a general way. must be numerous. Il- 
lustrations of this are not wanting in the experi- 
ence of every observing person. So well estab- 
lished has this connection become, and so im- 
portant, consequently, has the subject of physical 
health in education teen deemed, that no prom- 
inent educational writer has failed to notice it. 

The subject of the preservation and promotion 
of physical health in the school involves the fol- 
lowing considerations : (1) the character of the 
site on which the school building is erected ; 

II the mode of constructing the building, as 
well as the location and construction of the out- 
buildings. — water-closets, etc.: iHIi the con- 
struction and arrangement of the class-rooms : 

IV the size, number, and distribution of the 
windows for the admission of light ; (Y) the 
mode of ventilation ; ( YI) the manner of heat- 
ing the rooms, and the average temperature 
preserved in them by artificial heat ; (ATI) the 
adaptation of the school furniture to the physical 
wants and condition of the children ; ( YHl) the 
kind of discipline employed, in regard to hygi- 
enic principles ; (IX) the degree of attention 
given to the personal condition of the pupils, so 
as to preserve cleanliness and prevent the com- 
munication of disease : and (X) the means af- 
forded for physical exercise. Each of these will 
be considered in its order, according to the above 
enumeration. 

I. Site. — Modern sanitary science, fortunately, 
has given such particular attention to the sub- 
jects of site and exposure, and has impressed the 
public mind so thoroughly with the necessity 
of their healthfulness. that only willful ignorance 
or obstinacy will, in our day, permit a building 
designed for human occupancy to be placed in 
a manifestly unhealthy location. The healthful- 
ness of a school site depends upon (1) the char- 
acter of the soil; (2) its elevation; (3) the cir- 



HYGIENE 



439 



cumstances which facilitate or obstruct proper 
drai:. \ its remoteness from any stagnant 

r. or marshy ground, liable to produce mal- 
arial fera - rrom any factory 
or establ ish ment poisoning the air by the issue 
of u aid ofiensm g - - to which may 
be added 1G1 the amount of space it affoi - 
play-grounds, so as to facilitate physical ex 

While no school board or committee would 
err so far a? to place a -chool-house in a situa- 
tion decidedly unfavorable in regard to any of 
considerations, there exist between this 
anladecideiilyhealthylocation.au man:, 
intermediate situations, which caU for the exer- 

of goo 1 judgment, and even a knowk _ 
medical and sanitary science, in deciding upon 
their fitness as sites for schools. In ttie country. 
the difficulty is usually simplified by the greater 
opportunities for choice, and the undisturbed, 
natural condition of the ground. In cities, how- 
ever, the choice is necessarily restricted: and the 
best judgment wiU often be at fault in regard to 
the nature of the ground, this being frequently 
"made gruuu i . i. •-.. ground forme 1 by bringing 
earth from a distance, a:. ig it over 

- originaUy low anil swampy : or the filling 
itself may be composed of refuse and garbage 
which are destructive of health. A scientific 
test of such ground wiU ordinarily show a - 
oozing up. through the soil, of puis moos _ • 
Modern examinations, also, as to the distribu- 
tion of diphtheria, fever and ague, and some 
other dis. - - • that these usuaUy foUow 

tiie lines of oil water-courses. The leak. _ 
sewers and gas-pipes is another insidious foe 

a the dwellers in cities ha winter. 

The choice of location, therefore, shook] always 
be such as to avoid these infliie:. - - -de to 
health. T. ill be. if possible, light or 

sandy, or a coarse gravel, since clayey soil holds 
the rain, and soon causes wet feet, with all their 
accompanying diseases: while the vegetable mat- 
ter, decomposed by the sun and standing water, 
frequently gives rise f iisumption. and fevers 
of various kinds. If such a soil must be seed, 
there should be a sloping surface, or. if unavoid- 
ably level, nothing short of the most thorough 
<lraining should be tolerated. 

n. Ckmstructi P&J — The con- 

struction of the school buUding wiU depend on 
the number of pupils to be accommodated : the 
kind of school, as regards the sexes : and the 
grade. — whether primary, grammar, or high 
School 3 - - In regard to 

water-closets and urinals, it is hardly necessary 
to say. that they should, for convenience, be as 
near the school-house as possible, without heing 
near enough to aUow the perception of any odor. 
The approaches from the school-house should be 
under cover, the ventilation and the supply of 
Ught should be ample. They should also be en- 
closed from observation. 

III. Cji/xtr mi inn tmtd ArrotgemeHt cf Class 
Booms. — This varies with the conditions under 
which the school-house is btnlt. The rooms, how- 
ever, should alwavs be constructed so as to aUow 



at least 108 cubic feet of air space to each pupfl. 
and y square feet of floor-space. The height of 
ceiling recommended by the best author;- 
a minimum of 12 feet and a maximum of 15 

if the room is not very large. These pro- 
visions are absolutely necessary to furnish to 
each pupil the amount of air necessary for health. 

V entil.it: 
IV. 7 - - . N 
the Windoics. — Un this subject. < 'urrie. in 
n. remarks : •• 1 he utwidt on for 
lighting a school should have two ends in view : 
. proper amount of light, and '1 its just 
distribution. The effect either of an excess or a 
deficiency of light is to strain the eye and cause 
a depression of spirits. especiaUy as the 
advances. In regard to distribution. aU the 
parts of the school should be equaUy lighted, 
which may be more easily done with a few ju- 
diciously placed windows of respectable size than 
with a number of smaUer. straggling apertures. 
• iood ways of lighting a school are these : 

erhaps. the best of all is when the light is 
admitted from the roof, as it is then steady, 
equable, and free from shadow. , '1 The win- 
dows may be placed in tL :he school 
room, or in two adjacent - b to admit 
the light from the pupils left. Where there 
are windows in front of the classes, they should 
l>e at some distance from them, and in ever, 
they should be at such height in the walls as 
to remove aU danger from urafts when they are 
opened, ."-chool windows should be of the same 
shap«? as ordinary house windows : at any rate, 
lattice windows, with numerous, small, lozenge- 
shaped jianes of glass should l«e avoided , ;>- 
ligh* transmitted through them is so broken as 
to be extremely fatiguing to the eye. 3 Each 
window should be fitted with blinds - 
ate the intensity of light, when necessary, par- 
ticularly to exclude the direct rays of the sun. 
If the windows are used for ventilation as weU 
as lighting, the difficulty of using the blinds in 
such a case may be obviated by having a fixed 
Venetian blind outside the window at the top. 
and hanging the inside blind on a level with the 
bottom of it. -I The tint of the school walls 
should neither be too duU. so as to absorb the 
light unduly, nor too glaring, so as to dazzle the 
eye by reflection. Of the colors commonly em- 
ployed : namely, the white, the ocher. the Bf 
color, and the lightish-brown, the last two are 
obviously to be preferred." If the lighting of 
the school room is from the roof, care should be 
taken that the windows or sky -lights should not 
slope to the south or west, as the heat and sun- 
light wiU be intolerable in hot weather, and 
their regulation by blinds wiU be ditficult. If 
the lighting, on the other hand, is by side win- 
- •• the height of the window sills from the 
floor." says Robson. - should alwavs be con- 
siderable, and the heads near the ceiling. Much 
of the cheerfulness of a school room. especiaUy 
in a town, depends on the amount of sky which 
can be seen from the windows. The heigl. 
the sflls from the floor, therefore, shonld never 



440 



HYGIENE 



be less than five feet, and may be even more 
with advantage. This will enable the top or 
head to be placed nearly, if not quite, up to the 
ceding, and then the upper stratum of vitiated 
air can be more readily removed." The impor- 
tance of this subject in regard to health is very 
great. Liebreich, in his report to the College of 
Preceptors of London (July, 1872), attributes 
several diseases of the eye to this cause alone ; 
and Dr. Cohn asserts that of 410 students ex- 
amined by him, only one-third possessed good 
eye-sight, the remaining two-thirds having had 
their sight injured, in his opinion, by the de- 
ficient lighting of the school rooms in which they 
studied. A rough calculation, from researches 
made on the subject, gives 200 square inches of 
window glass as the proper number for each 
scholar. In the above remarks by Currie, the 
left side has been designated as the one from 
which the light should come, because this en- 
sures the fullest illumination of the page, with 
the least inconvenience, and the least injury to 
the eye. When light is admitted through the 
front of the room, the glare is directly in the 
face either of teacher or pupils, they being sup- 
posed to face each other. If it falls from be- 
hind, the shadow of the head is thrown directly 
upon the page ; if from the right side, the 
shadows of the arm and hand, in the act of 
writing, equally obscure it. The light, therefore, 
should fall from the left side, and, as far as pos- 
sible, from above. In evening schools, the light- 
ing should be, as nearly as possible, equal to that 
by day. If gas is used, the glass cylinder with a 
reflecting shade is recommended, for the purpose 
of steadying the light and making it stronger and 
whiter. Ground glass shades are now generally 
discountenanced, their effect being to diffuse the 
light. For general illuminating purposes they 
are desirable, as in the parlor or concert room ; 
but are out of place in the school room, or in 
any room where the object is to concentrate 
light upon a particular spot. 

V. The Mode of Ventilation. See Venti- 
lation. 

VI. Mode of Healing, and Temperature* — 
Many methods, based upon ingenious theories and 
provoking heated discussion, have been adopted 
to overcome the difficulties attending this sub- 
ject; but it is, probably, not unfair to say that 
an entirely unobjectionable heating apparatus, as 
regards health, has yet to be devised. Wood is, 
of course, too dear for general use. The ordinary 
stove, the cellar furnace, and all devices for 
warming air by passing it over heated metal 
surfaces are now entirely discountenanced, it 
having been discovered that a highly poisonous 
gas is set free, and passes through heated metal 
as through a sieve. The steam coil, placed out- 
side of the school room and heating a column of 
air which is drawn from the outside, and, after 
heating, ascends into the room, has, of late, been 
extensively used. At the opposite end of the 
room, a grate, varying in size with that of the 
room, is placed ; the theory being that, as the 
heated air ascends in one end of the room, the 



cool and foul air is forced out at the other 
through the flue of the grate, in which a fire 
is usually kept to facilitate the current. This 
method, while perhaps the least objectionable of 
any, has been opposed on the ground, that by it 
the stratum of air nearest the ceiling is kept 
warmest, whfle that nearest the floor, which 
should be the warmest, is least so. To obviate 
this difficulty, it has even been proposed to make 
the floor of stone and warm it after the manner 
of an oven, i. e., by kindling a fire under it- 
Whatever method is adopted, however, fluctua- 
tions of temperature should, as much as possible, 
be avoided, and the air of the room should be 
kept steadily at from 05 to 70 degrees. 

VII. Furniture. — Several diseases have been 
traced to faultily-constructed school furniture, 
chief among which is curvature of the spine, with 
the diseases consequent upon it. This is some- 
times the result of insufficient lighting ; but more 
frequently it arises from the improper construc- 
tion of the desk and seat, or the arrangement of 
them. (See School Furniture.) 

VIII. Discipline and School Management. — 
The methods of discipline which militate against 
bodily health are fortunately growing less in 
every civilized country, as more study is given to- 
the subject of education. It may be said briefly 
that whatever discipline tends to bodily deteri- 
oration in any way should be discountenanced, as. 
the object of discipline is to train, not to break 
down. (See Discipline.) Of the errors, under 
the head of school management, which affect 
health may be mentioned those which arise from 

(1) the length of the daily school session. These 
errors are frequently due to the fact that courses, 
of study are laid down first, with the view of ac- 
complishing a certain result, and the pupils' 
powers are made to conform to them. By this 
inversion of the natural method, sessions of five 
and six hours, with only slight intermissions, are 
sometimes ordered ; this can result only in 
physical injury. The reversal of this, i. e., a study 
of the child's physical necessities first, and a- 
school course based on them, will insure the adop- 
tion of the only safe and reasonable method con- 
sistent with health. This should be so arranged, 
by a judicious alternation of sedentary occupa- 
tions, physical exercises, and recesses, that no 
"violation of the primary laws of physiology", as. 
Frof . Owen terms it, may be possible. In a room 
supplied with proper hygienic facilities, four 
hours per day is thought to be the maximum for 
very young pupils, and five hours for older ones. 

(2) The number, length, and distribution of 
recesses must vary with the different ages of the 
children to such an extent, that the only practi- 
cable guide for their regulation must be found in 
the discretion of the teacher. It may be said, in 
general, however, that the weariness of the pupil, 
which is shown by his restlessness and want of 
attention, furnishes the best indication of the 
time when the ordinary textbook studies should 
be superseded by physical exercises, or by the ab- 
solute recreation of the play-ground. In tropical 
climates, the middle of the day, for exercise of 



HYGIENE 



441 



any kind, should be avoided. Nature, however, 
has pointed this out so unmistakably, that there is 
little liability to error. (.'!) The numbi r. length, 
and distribution lit' vacations are, in a general 
way, governed by the same consideration that 
prescribes the number, length, and distribution 
of recesses ; namely, the freshness, both mental 
and physical, of the pupil, with such modifications 
as may be suggested by climate, prevailing con- 
tagious diseases, or other conditions. The ten- 
dency, of late years, in the United States, has 
been to begin the school session about the first 
of September, and to continue it uninterruptedly 
— with a slight jntermission of a week during the 
holidays — till the following June or July. By 
this arrangement, a long, continuous vacation is 
insured during the warmest season of the year, 
when, it is claimed, rest is most needed. It has 
been objected to this, and perhaps with reason, 
that the heat of the summer months renders 
them unfavorable for that outdoor exercise which 
is most needed for the recuperation of the system, 
and that the health of pupils would lie promoted 
rather by confining them indoors. As long, 
however, as the summer heats are avoided by 
a flight to the sea-shore or the mountains, this 
practice will probably prevail : and though it 
may be said that the poor of cities, who are by 
far the largest patrons of the public schools, can- 
not afford to leave the city for .summer retreats, 
it must be remembered, on the other hand, that 
the greater prevalence of fatal diseases in cities, 
during the summer months, renders a vacation 
desirable even in their case. (4) Tlie regulations 
of the school may. by their severity, seriously 
interfere with bodily health, by cheeking or 
entirely repressing that activity which is so 
marked a characteristic of childhood and youth. 
Reid, in his Principles of Education, says." 
There is nothing in which parents are often more 
tyrannical and unreasonable than in expecting 
children to be quiet and good, and give them 
little trouble, when they will not put themselves 
to the least trouble to find suitable occupation 
for the active and restless faculties of their 
children. The trouble that a child gives to those 
in charge of it, should very often lie viewed as 
an effort of nature to recall them to their neg- 
lected duty." The degree and kindof restraint, 
exercised over pupils, therefore deserve careful 
consideration. In this connection must be con- 
demned all those restrictions which repress, for 
any considerable time, that innate activity which 
is a necessity of the child's very being, and the 
repression of which, though not immediately and 
actively productive of disease, becomes passively 
so by the condition of atrophy which it tends to 
produce. Want of exercise is frequently as in- 
imical to health as excess of it. The number 
and length of lessons, also, by their excess may 
become physically injurious. ""With young chil- 
dren." Ourrie says, "a k-sson should not average 
in duration more than a quarter of an hour, and 
on no account exceed twenty minutes. It is hard 
enough to sustain the attention, even for this 
jieriod ; and no child will be able to retain more 



than we can tell him within it. The teacher 
should subdivide his lesson rather than trespass 
beyond this limit. lessons of different kinds. 
i. e., occupying different senses, should follow 
each other ; this is a great relief. It is absurd 
to speak of these frequent changes as causing; 
loss of time". Excitement and overwork, also, 
should be avoided. The same general directions, 
however, given in regard to the number and 
length of recesses, are applicable here. The les- 
sons assigned by the teacher and studied in his 
presence may be easily directed ; but those which 
are pursued at home should receive equal atten- 
tion. (See Home Lessons.) 

IX. Personal i 'oia/i/ioii if Pupils. — (1) Clean- 
liness, being a necessary condition of health, 
should be strenously insisted upon. Cleanliness 
of theperson will sometimes be found, especially 
in schools among the very poor, to be neglected. 
The danger of the outbreak of disease, or of its 
communication from this source, is always great, 
in large schools : and. therefore, the frequent, 
use of the lavatory, in such cases, is necessary. 
Cleanliness of clothing is no less necessary to 
prevent the communication of disease. Realising 
the neglect of a proper care of the clothing, 
natural to children through t bought lessness.many 
school boards have made the daily dusting and 
brushing of clothes by the pupils a part of the 
school routine. In Germany, this is often in- 
sisted upon, and the necessary provision made at 
the expense of the school. Cleanliness of habits 
is a no less essential condition of good health, 
and should lie watched, as far as may be, and 
enforced with a view to the prevention of ill 
health. (2) It frequently happens that diseases, 
more or less contagious in their nature, break out 
in schools, and lead to the closing of the schools 
for a time, with sometimes more serious results. 
In many cases, these could have been prevented, 
or confined to the original case, by a proper pre- 
caution on the part of the teacher. Ophthalmia, 
hooping-cough, scrofula, scarlet fever, small-pox, 
and skin diseases, whether of the head or the 
body, are cases of this kind. A slight knowledge 
of the symptoms should apprise an intelligent 
teacher of the danger at once, and secure the re- 
moval of the case to the home or the hospital. 
(3) Vaccination, as a preventive of small-pox, 
should receive attention. The efficacy of this is 
now so thoroughly established, that a majority 
of public schools do not hesitate to employ it, not- 
withstanding the objections often urged. When 
the disease becomes epidemic, if the pupil has 
never been vaccinated, the operation should take 
place at once: if he has. proof should be required, 
either in the shape of marks, or a certificate, 
which should establish three facts : that the 
operation was performed by a competent and 
responsible person, that it was effective, and that 
it was done recently enough to ensure its efficacy 
in averting disease at the time the proof is re- 
quired. 

X. Physical Exercise. — That this is one of the 
most effective of all agencies in preventing dis- 
ease, is now generally admitted, though the ex- 



442 



IDAHO 



cess to which it is often carried in our day has, 
for some time, been creating a reaction against it. 
The phase of the question which calls tor atten- 
tion here, is its use not so much as a means of 
development, as in promoting health. On this 
account, one of the most important acces- 
sories of the school-house is the play-ground. 
"Whether this is used as a place for continuing 
the discipline of the sehool room, or simply as a 
spot where children may be absolutely free to 
pursue their games, its size, location, and exposure 
should be carefully considered. If the plot on 
which the school-house stands is large, but en- 
tirely, or almost entirely, surrounded by other 
buildings, the planting of shade trees around the 
limits of the enclosure is recommended, in order 
to give seclusion. These should never stand, how- 
ever, so near the building as to exclude light, or 
cause dampness. Eobson says in regard to this, 
"The play-ground should not be of a straggling, 
inconvenient form, but compact and without re- 
cesses or places where children can remain long 
out of sight. A northerly or easterly aspect should 
never be wantonly provided when a southerly or 
westerly one could have been as easily obtained 
by no other outlay than that of a little common 
sense. A portion should be covered, so that in 
wet weather the children may not be compelled 
to play in their school rooms. In the case of in- 
fant schools, this covered portion is absolutely in- 
dispensable, as already shown, because marching 
forms so important an element in their prepar- 
atory instruction. It can generally be obtained in 
the form of a light shed open on one side ; but, 
in some cases, and where land is dear, it may 
be convenient to raise the boys' and girls' schools 
on a low story of eight to nine feet high, and 
thus to obtain some portion of the covered play- 
ground underneath. In such cases, care will be 
required to prevent a cold, drafty result. As 
to the size of play-grounds for different schools, 
it is difficult to be precise. On account of their 
more active out-door games, requiring space, the 
boys should undoubtedly have the lion's share, 
while the infants — too young to develop all the 
uses of a play-ground — will be happy in one 
much more limited. Perhaps, a space of about 
twice the size of the school room and class rooms 
is necessary for the latter. Where land is dear, 
and in consequence limited, one play-ground 



may suffice both for the girls' school and the in- 
fants', an arrangement being made by the respec- 
tive mistresses for its use at separate times. 
Without such arrangement, there is risk of dis- 
order, no one being responsible for the discipline 
of all. If there are two infant schools or depart- 
ments on the same site, the girls should be pro- 
vided with a separate play-ground, because then 
the numbers are sure to be too great for one." 
By what means these play-grounds should be 
separated, is still a matter of discussion, different 
methods being employed in different places, with, 
thus far, equally satisfactory results. 

In dismissing the subject of school hygiene, it 
may be said that the influence of school life on 
physical health, if properly managed, is not only 
not injurious, but positively beneficial. This 
might be inferred, a priori, from the fundament- 
al law of existence. It is amply confirmed, how- 
ever, by actual statistics. Efforts to prove the 
contrary have been made by inferences drawn 
from false premises based on over-exertion, and 
many erroneous theories prejudicial to the cause of 
education have thereby become prevalent. The 
interaction of mind and body, however, is not only 
an established, but a conceded fact ; and just as 
surely as the body, by proper exercise, contrib- 
utes to the efficiency of the mind, so surely does 
the mind, by duly regulated action, contribute to 
that of the body. The annals of medical science 
confirm this in the most unmistakable man- 
ner. The difficulty is to assign to each its proper 
amount of exercise. On this point, differences 
will probably always exist ; but the foundation 
has been carefully and substantially laid ; and, 
each year, by increased interest, refinement of 
processes , and patient investigation, something 
is added to our knowledge of this most important 
subject, and the probability of our possession of 
a school couise capable of accomplishing the 
great desideratum of modern life — a true educa- 
tion — is more assured. — See Currie, Principles 
undPractice of Common-School Education (Edin. 
and Lond.) ; Kobson, School Architecture (Lond., 
1874) ; Pafpenheim, Handbuch der Sanitdts- 
Polizei, nach eigenen Untersuchungen bearbeitet 
(2 vols., Berlin, 1858 — 9) ; Siegel, Die Schule 
und ihr Einfluss auf die Gesundheit (1868); 
Passavant, Ueber Sclmlunterricht vom arzt- 
liclien Standpunkie (1868). 



IDAHO was organized as a territory March 
3., 1863, being formed from portions of Dakota, 
Nebraska, and AVashington territories, and in- 
cluding then the present territory of Montana and 
nearly all of Wyoming. Its present area is 86,294 
sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 14,999. 

Educational History. — Soon after the organ- 
ization of the territory, provision was made for 
the support of public schools, and a school system 
was established. In 1866, the number of pupils 
enrolled in the schools of eight counties was re- 
ported as 436, out of a school population of 792 



children, between five and eighteen years of age. 
The whole number of children of school age in 
the territory was estimated at that time as 1500. 
Up to 1870, little progress had been made, the 
census returns showing only 466 pupils attend- 
ing the schools of the territory. The whole 
number of school children in the territory, be- 
tween the ages of five and twenty-one, in 1871, 
was 1,596 ; in 1872, 1,909 ; in 1873, 3,473 ; and 
in 1874, 4,010. 

School System. — The school law has been re- 
peatedly changed. That at present (1876) in 



IDAHO 



IDIOTS 



443 



force was passed in January, 1875. Its leading 
provisions are the following : — 

The territorial controller is, ex officio, territo- 
rial superintendent of public instruction ; and 
his duties are, to exercise a general supervision 
over the public schools of the territory, to pre- 
pare blanks for reports of county superintend- 
ents, trustees, teachers, etc.; to apportion the 
school fund ; and to make a detailed report to 
the legislative assembly at each of its regular 
sessions ; also to present such suggestions as he 
may deem necessary, in relation to the construc- 
tion of school-houses, the management and sup- 
port of the schools, the qualifications of teachers, 
and the promotion of the general interests of 
education throughout the territory. The other 
officers who perform duties directly connected 
with education are the county superintendents 
and the trustees of schools. The auditor of each 
county is, ex officio, county superintendent, 
whose duties are, to apportion the public school 
money among the schojl districts, on the first 
Monday in .March, and quarterly thereafter ; to 
distribute, on behalf of the territorial superin- 
tendent, blanks, reports, etc., for the use of the 
school trustees, census marshals, and teachers; to 
keep on file reports from school trustees etc.; and 
to make an annual report to the territorial super- 
intendent, stating the number of school-houses 
in each district of his county, the number of 
children of school age, the number of pupils at- 
tending school, the number of libraries and books 
therein, the school books used, the amount of 
money paid for teachers' salaries and other 
school purposes ; to appoint trustees to fill va- 
cancies, and to organize new school districts on 
the application of the inhabitants of the same; 
also to modify the boundaries of school districts ; 
ami to receive and file all school election returns. 
Three trustees of schools an- elected annually in 
each district, who hold office for the term of one 
year. Their powers and duties are to employ 
and remove teachers, and to fix the salaries of 
the same ; to visit the schools as often as once 
in each month ; to take charge of all the school- 
property in their respective districts ; by vote 
of the district, to convey by deed any school 
house or site, also to purchase real estate for the 
use of the schools ; to call meetings of the in- 
habitants to decide upon the levy of any special 
tax that may be required in order to defray the 
expenses of the schools ; to examine and license 
teachers ; and to appoint a census marshal to 
make the enumeration of the children in the dis- 
trict. Xo books, papers, tracts, ordocuments, of a 
political, sectarian, or denominational character 
are permitted to be used in any of the schools. — 
Teachers, before receiving a certificate of license 
from the trustees, must pass an examination in 
orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
raphy. English grammar, and the history of the 
United States. — The legal school age is from 
five to eighteen years. 

School Statistics. — In 1874, the whole number 
of school-districts in the territory was 77; and 
the number of school houses, 53. There were 



3 libraries, containing 108 volumes. The num- 
ber of children, between five and twenty-one was 
4,010 ; and the school attendance was 2,030. 
The whole amount of money received was 
$31,004.33 ; and the amount expended, §21,789. 

School Fund. — All moneys accruing from the 
sale of lands given \>y Congress for school pur- 
poses, and all moneys appropriated 1 ij ( '< ingress 
for school purposes in the territory, are to be 
devoted to the establishment of a university 
or other high school. Moneys obtained by 
legacy, donation, escheats, etc.. constitute an ir- 
reducible and indivisible general school fund, 
the interest of which is apportioned among the 
counties. The county school fund is obtained 
by a tax of not less than two, or more than 
five, mills on each dollar of taxable property 
in every county. All moneys arising from fines 
for a breach of the penal laws of the territory 
are set apart by the county treasurer as a part 
of the county school fund. 

Measures were taken in July. 1874. to estab- 
lish in Boise City a university, to be known 
as the Idaho University. Provision has been 
made for this institution in the new school law. 

IDIOTS, Education of. The term idiots 
is applied to those who, in different degrees, are 
deficient in intellectual power and activity. A 
more general designation, however, of this class 
of unfortunates is that of the imbecile, at feeble- 
minded persons; since idiocy is usually employed 
to denote an extreme degree of mental deficiency. 
The first attempt, so far as is known, to in- 
struct Mints was made by St. Vincent de Paul 
in the 17th century, and by the philosopher Itard, 
the friend and disciple of Condillac, at the close, 
of the 18th century; but the efforts of both 
were limited to a few isolated cases, and did 
not lead to the establishment of any perma- 
nent school for idiots. Dr. Itard committed the 
facts which he had gathered to his pupil Dr. Se- 
guin, who made the study of idiocy a specialty. 
The subject had, in the mean time, been discussed 
by a number of physicians, and the establish- 
ment of special schools for idiots had been re- 
commended by Dr. Pool of Edinburgh (1819), 
and Dr. Belhomme of Paris (1824). Practical 
attempts, on a small scale, had also been made 
at Salzburg in Austria (1816), at the American 
asylum for the deaf and dumb in Hartford, 
Ct. (1818) ; at the Bicetre, one of the large 
insane hospitals in Paris (1828) ; at the Salpe- 
triere, another insane hospital at Paris (1833); 
by Dr. Voisin, who organized a school for idiots 
at Paris, in 1833, and by other philanthropists. 
But all these attempts were of short duration, and 
a firm basis was not gained until the establish- 
ment of the school of Dr. Seguin. In 1848, Dr. 
Seguin settled in the United States, where he 
assisted in the organization and improvement of 
several institutions for idiot instruction. In 1 874, 
there were three schools for idiots in France, — at 
the Bicetre and the Salpetriere at Paris, and at 
Clermont, with an aggregate number of 85 in- 
mates. In Belgium, institutions for the instruction 
of idiots are connected with the insane asylums 



444 



IDIOTS 



at Gheel and Bruges. The Netherlands have one 
school for idiots, at the Hague, founded in 1855, 
with which, three years later, a medical asylum 
was connected. In Switzerland, Dr. Guggenbiihl 
opened, in 1842, a school specially intended for 
wetins, on the Abendberg, in the canton of Bern. 
His pretended, ability to cure cretins attracted 
for a time great attention, but was, afterwards 
generally denounced as a fraud. In 1874, Switzer- 
land had two private schools for idiots, in the 
cantons of Bern and Basel, with an aggregate 
number of 27 inmates. There are similar schools 
in the canton of Thurgau and in the city of 
Zurich. In the German provinces of Austria, 
an attempt to establish a school for idiots was 
made, as early as 1816, at Salzburg, by the 
teacher Guggenmoos. A few years later, twelve 
cretin children were received at the monastery 
of Admont, in Salzburg. From 1835 to 1847, 
Haldenwang, a clergyman of Wiirtemberg, main- 
tained at Wildberg a private institution for idiot 
children. The governments of several of the Ger- 
man states granted the means for establishing 
idiot asylums ; and Dr. Kern, who had already, in 
1842, begun to experiment in Eisenach, succeeded 
in effecting remarkable partial cures, and was. 
placed by the Saxon government at the head 
of an excellent asylum in Gohlis, near Leipsic ; 
while Sdgert in Berlin (1844), Krause in Halle 
(1840), Glasche in Hubertsburg (1846), and Dr. 
Rosch, in Wiirtemberg, were no less successful. 
In 1874, Prussia had ten idiot asylums, some 
private, and some maintained by the state. 
Sweden had. in 1874, three schools, and Rus- 
sia, one school for idiots. In England, the first 
efforts for the instruction of idiot children were 
made by some benevolent ladies, in Lancas- 
ter, Bath, Ipswich, and Brighton. A movement 
for establishing idiot asylums on a large scale 
began in 1847. The institution at Earlswood, 
near Bedhill, Surrey, had, in 1874, 700 inmates; 
other institutions are the Eastern County 
Asylum, Essex Hall, Colchester, the Western 
Counties Asylum, at Starcross, near Exeter, 
the Midland Counties Asylum, at Knowle, and 
the Royal Albert Asylum, near Lancaster. A 
private institution of Dr. Langdon Down, at 
Normansfield, near London, is only designed for 
the wealthy. All these institutions have train- 
ing schools connected with them. Scotland 
has a national institution for the education 
of imbecile children, at Lasbert, Stirlingshire, 
with 90 pupils. There are also schools for idiots 
in Ireland, Canada, and New South Wales. In 
the United States, the earliest efforts to instruct 
idiot children were made, as has already been 
stated, in the Hartford asylum for the deaf and 
dumb. Similar attempts, but only in isolated 
cases, were subsequently (1838 or 1839) made in 
the Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston, 
and in the New York Deaf and Dumb Institution. 
The first impulse to the establishment of special 
schools for idiots was given (1845) by the letters 
of George Sumner, describing his visit to the 
Paris schools. Among the first and foremost 
promoters of the cause in the United States, were 



Dr. S. B. Woodward, superintendent of the 
hospital for the insane, at Worcester, Mass., and 
Dr. Frederick F. Backus, of Rochester, N. T. 
The legislatures of Massachusetts and New York 
at once took action in the matter. In New York, 
Dr. Backus, who had been elected a member of 
the state senate, reported, in 1846, a bill for the 
establishment of an idiot institution ; and, in 
Massachusetts, the legislature appointed a com- 
mission to investigate the condition of idiots 
and report suitable measures for their instruc- 
tion. In accordance with the report of the 
commission, an experimental school was estab- 
lished at South Boston, in Oct. 1848, which was, 
in 1850, incorporated as the Massachusetts School 
for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded Youth. It was, 
from its foundation until \ 876, under the direction 
of Dr. Howe, whose death occurred in that year. 
The state makes an annual appropriation of 
$16,500 for its support, and poor children are 
admitted without charge. The states of Maine, 
New Hampshire,Yermont, and Rhode Island each 
support a few pupils in this institution. In New 
York, the establishment of the first school for idi- 
ots, which, in 1 846 , had been favorably reported by 
Dr. Backus, was delayed until 1851, when an ex- 
perimental school was opened at Albany, which 
was subsequently, as a permanent state institu- 
tion, transferred to Syracuse, where a large edifice 
was erected for its accommodation at a cost of 
nearly $90,000, with facilities for the instruction 
and care of 150 pupils. Since then, it has 
been enlarged. The school has been, from the 
first, under the direction of Dr. H. B. Wilbur, 
who previously, from 1848 to 1851, had con- 
ducted a private school for idiots at Barre, 
Mass., which, after he had accepted the call to 
Albany, was carried on by Dr. Ceorge Brown. 
The Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble- 
Minded Children, originated as a private school, 
in 1852, at Germantown, but was, in the following- 
year, incorporated under its present name ; and 
in 1857, after receiving a grant from the state, 
transferred to its present location at Media, Del- 
aware Co. The Ohio State Asylum for the 
Education of Idiotic and Imbecile Youth, which 
is wholly supported by the state, was organized at. 
Columbus, in 1857, as an experimental school. 
It was permanently established in 1864, when a 
site, about 2 miles from the city, was purchased, 
and a building erected, in 1868, affording ac- 
commodation for 250 inmates, but subsequently 
enlarged. In Kentucky, the Institution for 
the Education of Feeble-Minded Children and 
Idiots was established in 1860, at Frankfort; 
and in Illinois a similar institution, in 1865, at 
Jacksonville. The Connecticut School for Imbe- 
ciles was established at Lakeville, in 1858. The 
city of New York opened, in 1867, a school for 
idiots in connection with the idiot asylum on 
Randall's Island. A private school, which limits 
the number of its pupils to 12, was opened in 
1871 at Fayville, Worcester Co., Mass. The 
report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education 
for 1874, gives the following statistics of these 
institutions : 



IDIOTS 



ILLINOIS 



445 





o "S 

jo = 
= 2 u 

£5.8 

.So 


Number of inmates 


£ 8 

.8.5 u 

c w c 

111 

o c 


V 

£ 
o 

c 


u 


NAMES. 


73 

s 


u 

E 
u 
fc. 


o 
H 


-a 
a 
u 

a. 
X 

H 




12 

24 

14 

50 

16 

7 to 9 
19 

74 

65 


45 

06 

50 

52 

71 

5 
110 
217 

123 


34 
37 

40 
23 
47 

3 

89 
143 

101 


79 

103 
99 
75 

118 

8 
199 

360 

224 


164 

254 

213 

190 

530 

14 
691 

014 

733 






Illinois Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded 


$24,500 
7,500* 


$24,500 


Kentucky Institution for the Education of Feeble- 


Private Institution for the Education of Feeble-Minded 


40 000 


Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded 
Youth 


22,669 


23,645 


Hillside School for Backward and Peculiar Children. 


New York Asylum for Idiots, at Syracuse, N. Y 


41,186 
70,283 

59,898 


40,962 
63,433 

G3.594 


Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble - Minded 



* Also $150 ]ier capita allowed by the state. 

The first efforts for the instruction of idiots 
were made upon no definite plan, or simply with 
the view to subject some philosophical theory 
to a practical test. Since the establishment of 
special schools for idiots, idiocy is generally 
viewed as a prolonged infancy ; and, in all efforts 
for the development either of their physical powers 
or their mental faculties, it is deemed essential 
to proceed according to the principles of physiol- 
ogy, and to conform, as strictly as possible, to the 
teachings of nature. The physical education will, 
of course, vary according to the deficiencies of 
individuals : and the instruction will always, to 
a large extent, be conditioned by the health 
of the pupils and the progress of their medical 
treatment. It is self-evident, therefore, that 
medical and educational skill must go hand in 
hand in the management of schools for idiots. 
— It has been found that Froebel's kinder- 
garten occupations may easily be so modified 
as gradually to enliven the nervous action of 
idiot children, and that, in general, playful occu- 
pations must be resorted to, so as to make at the 
beginning deep and lasting impressions on their 
listless minds. Experience also shows that, under 
proper treatment, about one-third of all idiot 
children (if the cure be early begun) may be ad- 
vanced to nearly average usefulness ; another 
third, to the lower grades of intelligence; and the 
rest, to a condition in which they cease to be 
a mere burden on the family or on society. 
The largest of the American schools, that of 
Media, Fa., reports that, up to July 1., 1872, 
the improvement of its inmates had been as 
follows : taught to speak, 53 ; articulation im- 
proved, 253 ; taught to read, 254, to write, 146, 
to feed themselves, 61, to dress themselves, 94, 
to walk, 5 ; gait improved, 286 : reformed from 
bad habits, 164, from destructive habits, 302; 
accustomed to some employment, 241 ; epilepsy 
cured, 23 ; epilepsy improved. 78. 

According to the last census, the number of idi- 
ots in the United States was 24,527 ; in England 
and Wales, 29,452 ; in Norway, 2,039. In Scot- 



land, the number was estimated at 3,000; in Ire- 
land, at 7.000; in the Netherlands, at about 3.000; 
in Switzerland, including the cretins, at 3,800. 
In many countries, no official enumeration of 
idiots is made. Where the census has been taken, 
the figures are believed to be too low. as there are 
many cases of idiocy which are not recognized by 
parents and relatives. 

The views of Dr. Seguin on the education of 
idiots are laid down in the works, Traitement 
moral, hygiene ct education des idiots I Paris. 
1846) ; Idiocy and its Treatment by (he Physio- 
logical Method (New York. 1866), and New 
Facts "in/ Remarks concerning Idiocy (New 
York, 1870). See also Dr. Ayres, Report mi 
the Education qf Imbecile ami Idiotic Children, 
(in vol. xni. of the Transactions of the American 
Medical Association,1.862)\ Dr. Cheyne Brady, 
The Training of Idiotic and Fictile- Minded 
Children (Dublin, 1864) ; and Dr. Kern's essay 
on the subject, in AUgemeine Zeitschrifi fur 
Psychiatric, 1857 ; and Dr. L. P. Brockett, in 
Barnard's Journal qf Education, vol. i. — A 
statistical account of all European institutions 
for idiots may be found in Edlenmeyer, Ueber- 
sicht der SffenMchen und privaten Irren- und 
Idioten-AnsiaUen oiler ewqpaischer Staaten, 
(1863). See also Segcin, Report on Education 
at the Vienna Exhibition (Wash., 1875). 

ILLINOIS. This state formed a part of the 
North-west Territory, organized in pursuance of 
the ordinance of duly 13., 1787, and including 
the whole of the public domain situated north 
of the Ohio river. Out of this territory were 
successively formed, and admitted into the Amer- 
ican Union, the states of Ohio (1802). Indiana 
(1816), and Illinois (1818) ; subsequently. Mich- 
igan (1837), and Wisconsin (1848). According 
to the census of 1820, Illinois had a population 
of 55.211 ; in 1870. its population was reported 
as 2,511,096, giving it the fourth rank among 
the states of the Union. Its area is 55,410 square 
miles. The number of illiterates 10 years of 
age and upward was, at that time, 8,38 per cent 



446 



ILLINOIS 



of the whole population ; and the proportion of 
illiterates among adults was 7.16 per cent of 
the males, and 8.59 per cent of the females. 

Educational History. — A law was passed 
providing for the establishment of public schools 
in the state as early as 1823 ; and, the census of 
1840 reported the number of common schools 
as 1241, with 34,876 pupils. In 1850, the num- 
ber of schools had increased to 2,641 , and the 
number of pupils, to 132,324. The school fund, 
at that time was $939,799, derived from the 
sale of public lands, and the surplus revenue of 
the United States. On the formation of the 
state, one section in each township was appro- 
priated for the support of schools, and after- 
wards an additional income of 3 per cent on the 
actual proceeds from the sales of public lands 
within the state. One-sixth of these proceeds 
was appropriated for the support of colleges. 
The office of superintendent of education was 
not created till 1854; and, the next year, a bill 
was passed, providing that the educational affairs 
of the state should be administered by the state 
superintendent, a school commissioner for each 
county, and a board of education for each town- 
ship. State funds were to be distributed only 
among those schools which had, for at least 
six months in the year, offered equal and free 
instruction to all children of the legal school 
age. The first state superintendent was Ninian 
Edwards who was elected in 1854 and served 
tih 1856 ; W. H. Powell served from 1856 to 
1858 ; and again from 1862 to 1864 ; the system 
was administered by Newton Bateman, as state 
superintendent from 1858 to 1862, and a second 
term from 1864 to 1874, when he was succeeded 
by S. M. Etter, the present incumbent (1876). 
The system, as at present constituted, was 
adopted in 1872. An outline is given below. In 
1874, a law was passed prohibiting all school 
officers from excluding any children from the 
schools on account of color. The school law was 
further amended so as to abolish the provisional 
teachers' certificate. A bill providing for com- 
pulsory education was passed by the House, but 
defeated in the Senate. 

School System. — Public education is ad- 
ministered by the following school officers : 
(1) A state superintendent of public instruc- 
tion ; (2) County superintendents of schools ; 
(3) Boards of township school trustees; (4) Boards 
of district school directors. The state super- 
intendent is chosen by popular vote, at a general 
election, and holds office for the term of four 
years. He is the executive head of the system. 
He is under bonds ($25,000) for the faithful 
discharge of his official duties ; and is required 
to keep an office at the seat of government, and 
to receive, arrange, preserve, and file all official 
documents, and hold the same in readiness to be 
exhibited to the governor or to any committee 
of the legislature. He has the general super- 
vision of the schools, and is authorized to make 
such rules as may be requisite for carrying the 
school law into effect. He has appellate juris- 
diction in all controversies arising under the 



school law, where original jurisdiction is vested 
in the county superintendents. He is authorized 
to grant state certificates authorizing the holders 
to teach without further examination, in every 
county and school district in the state, and 
valid until revoked for cause. He is, ex officio, 
a member of the state board of education, to 
which is intrusted the management of the State 
Normal University, the condition and expendi- 
tures of which he is required to report to each 
session of the legislature; and he is also, ex officio, 
a member of the board of trustees of the State 
Industrial University. — County superintendents 
are elected every four years. They have the 
custody of and distribute the school moneys to 
the several townships, visit and inspect the 
schools in the county at least once in each year, 
and report their condition to the state super- 
intendent. They are the official advisers of all 
the subordinate school officers and teachers of 
their respective counties, and the channel of 
official communication between the state depart- 
ment of education and all local township and 
district school officers. They are, also, required 
to assist in the management of teachers' insti- 
tutes. They, morever, examine and license 
teachers. At least four public examinations 
are required to be held every year in each 
county ; and the examination may be conducted 
either by the county superintendent in person, 
or by a board of examiners appointed by him. 
Sets of questions are furnished, from time to 
time, by the state superintendent, for the pur- 
pose of these examinations, with general instruc- 
tions as to the conditions upon which certificates 
of each grade should be granted. In this way, a 
uniform standard of qualifications is preserved. 
No teacher can lawfully be employed in any 
common school in the state without a certificate 
of qualification ; and no county certificate can 
be granted except upon "due examination" of 
the candidate by the county superintendent. 
After a certificate has been granted, it may be 
renewed, at expiration, by the county super- 
intendent, or he may require the teacher to sub- 
mit to another examination. County super- 
intendents are also vested with power to revoke 
certificates, at any time, for immorality, incom- 
petency, or any other sufficient cause. The 
compensation of county superintendents is $5 a 
day for services actually rendered, and 3 per 
cent upon the amount of sales of school lands, 
and upon real estate taken for debt, for their 
services in making such sales ; and a further 
commission of 2 per cent upon the amount of 
all sums distributed, paid, or loaned out, by 
them. — A board of trustees, consisting of three 
members, is elected in each township, for a term 
of three years, one member retiring annually. 
The trustees determine the number of school 
districts into which the township is to be divided, 
and apportion and distribute, semi-annually, the 
public school moneys among the districts of 
their respective townships. They are invested, 
in their corporate capacity, with the title of all 
school-houses and sites, and may sell the same 



ILLINOIS 



447 



when it is deemed expedient. — School directors 
are elected, in the same manner as trustees; and 
each board of directors consists of three mem- 
bers, holding office for three years, one new 
member being elected annually. They levy tuxes, 
and are required to establish and keep in oper- 
ation, for at least six months in each year, and 
longer if practicable, a sufficient number of free 
schools for the proper accommodation of all the 
children in the district over the age of six and 
under twenty-one years. They may adopt and 
enforce all necessary rules and regulations for 
the management of the schools, and must visit 
and inspect the same as often as practicable. 
They appoint the teachers and tix their salaries, 
and may dismiss them for incompetency, cruelty. 
negligence, or immorality. They direct what 
branches are to be taught, and what text-books 
must lie used. — The branches required to be 
taught are orthography, reading, penmanship, 
arithmetic. Knglish grammar, geography, and 
the history of the United States; the law. how- 
ever, provides that other and higher branches 
may be taught than those enumerated. This 
permissory provision has led to the establishment 
of one or more advanced schools in nearly every 
county of the state, " the vitalizing influence of 
which ". said Supt. Bateman, in 1868, " is felt 
through all the subordinate grades of schools. " 
The school age is from 6 to 21 years, and all 
bona fide residents of a school district, of the 
proper age, have the right to attend, free of cost, 
the public schools of that district. Pupils resi- 
dent in one district cannot attend school in 
another without the written consent of the di- 
rectors of both districts. 

Sclmol Fund. — Public educational revenues 
are derived from the lollowing sources : (1) The 
school fund proper, consisting of three per cent 
of the net proceeds of the sales of the public 
lands in the state, one-sixth part excepted ; 
amounting to about $665,000. (2) The surplus 
revenue fund, consisting of a portion of the 
money which was received by the state from the 
general government, under an act of Congress, 
providing for the distribution of the surplus 
revenue of the United States, and by law of 
March 4., 1H37, made a part of the common- 
school fund of the state. (3) The college or 
university fund, consisting of one-sixth of the 
three per cent, or school fund proper. (4) The 
seminary fund, consisting of the proceeds of the 
sales of the "seminary lands", donated to the 
state by the U. S. government, for the purpose 
of founding and maintaining a seminary for the 
education of the children of the state ; all of 
which lands that remained unsold in 1801, were 
donated, by an act of the legislature, to the 
Illinois Agricultural College. This fund amounts 
to about $60,000. These constitute the per- 
manent state school fund, the principal of which 
is loaned to the state, which pays interest there- 
on at the rate of six per cent. Besides these 
sources of revenue, there are (5) the count}/ school 
fund, consisting of surplus moneys in the hands 
of the county school commissioner; (6) the 



township fund, derived from the proceeds of the 
sale of the sixteenth section in each congressional 
district — said section (640 acres) having been 
donated to each township for school purposes, 
by act of Congress ; (7) the state tux fund, for- 
merly obtained by an assessment of two mills 
ad valorem upon all the taxable property of the 
state; in lieu of which, by act of 1K74, it was 
provided that one million dollars should be 
annually appropriated out of the state school 
fund ; (8) the district tone fund, from which the 
largest amount of revenue is derived, consisting 
of such variable supplementary or special a mounts 
as may be levied, from time to time, by the re- 
spective local boards of school directors, the 
school directors of every district being required 
by law to levy annually such a tax as will, 
when added to the public funds, be sufficient to 
maintain a free school for at least six months in 
each year. Besides these, there is finally ('.)) a 
fund deviiied from fines, forfeitures, and penal- 
ties, imposed by, or incurred before, courts of 
record, or justices of the peace. 

Teachers' Certificates. — Every teacher must 
hold a regular certificate either of the first or 
second grade. Certificates of the first grade are 
valid for two years, and certify that the holders 
are qualified to teach orthography, reading in 
Knglish, penmanship, arithmetic. Knglish gram- 
mar, modern geography, the elements of the 
natural sciences, the history of the United 
States, physiology, and the laws of health. Those 
of the second grade are valid for one year, and 
certify to an ability to teach the same branches, 
excepting the natural sciences, physiology, and 
the laws of health. The county superintendent 
has discretionary authority to renew such certifi- 
cates at the expiration of the time for which 
they were granted, by his endorsement thereon ; 
and may revoke the same, a! any time, for im- 
morality, incompetency, or other proper cause. 

Educational Condition. — ITienumberof school 
districts in the state, in 1874, was 11,285, in all 
of which except 157. schools were sustained for 
5 months or more: the whole number of free 
public schools was 11.646, and the number of 
graded schools, 754. The other important statis- 
tical items are the following : 

Number of persons of school age, 938,878 

Number of pupils enrolled, males, 350,082 
females, 321,693 

Total of pupils enrolled. 
Average daily attendance, 
Number of teachers, males, 9.03G 

females, 12,093 

Total, 

Receipts, from state tax, $1,021,971 

" " local tax. 6,668,183 

Interest of school fund, etc. 1 . 213. 437 

Total, ~ ~ $7,893,591 

Expenditures, for tuition, $4,G34,G22 

Sites and buildings, 1,009,960 



671,775 
383,334 



21,129 



Other purposes, 

Total, 



2.221.100 



Cost per unit of school population, 
" " of enrollment, 
" " of average attendance, 



$7,865,682 

$5.00 

7.82 

13.73 



448 



ILLINOIS 



Normal Instruction. — Professional instruction 
and training are afforded to teachers in the State 
Normal University, at Normal, and in the 
Southern Illinois Normal University, at Carbon- 
dale. The former was organized in 1857 ; it in- 
cludes both an academic and a normal depart- 
ment. Students in the latter are required to 
sign a pledge to become teachers in the schools 
of the state; and, on this condition, their tuition 
is afforded gratuitously. Male students must be, 
at least, IT years of age; and female students, 
16. Auxiliary to the normal department, is the 
Model School, designed to furnish an opportu- 
nity for observation and practice to those prepar- 
ing to be teachers. The academic department 
consists of the High School, which furnishes a 
thorough preparation for admission into the 
university or for business. The High School is 
a department of the Model School, -which com- 
prises also a Grammar School and a Primary 
School. From the time of its organization to 
1875, this institution had given instruction to 
3,258 persons, of whom 241 had completed the 
course and received diplomas of graduation. 
During the same period, the Model School in its 
several grades, had received about 2,930 pupils, 
of whom 22 were graduates of the High School. 
About 25 per cent of the pupils of the Model 
School became teachers. The Southern Illinois 
Normal University was opened in 1874. It oc- 
cupies one of the finest school edifices in the 
United States. It includes, besides a normal 
department proper, a preparatory department 
and a model school. The model school is of an 
elementary grade, giving instruction in the 
branches usually taught in the common schools ; 
the preparatory department is of the grade of a 
high school, with a course of study of three years. 
The normal course, of four years, embraces two 
courses, — a classical and a scientific course; both, 
however, make the study of the English language 
and literature quite prominent. During the last 
year, opportunity for practice is afforded in the 
preparatory and model schooLs. Besides these two 
state institutions, there are two county normal 
schools, — the Cook County Normal School, at 
Eaglewood, near Chicago, and the Peoria County 
Normal School, at Peoria. Each of these has 
an organization similar to that of the state normal 
schools. There is also a normal school at Chicago, 
and a normal department in Eureka College, at 
Eureka. Teachers' institutes constitute an impor- 
tant agency for the professional improvement of 
those actually engaged in teaching. Of these, in 
1874, there were held in different parts of the 
state 184, which continued in the aggregate 828 
days, and were attended by 6,713 teachers. 

Secondary Instruction. — In 1874, there were 
116 public high schools in the state. The school 
law provides that, on a petition of 50 voters in 
any school township,. an election for or against 
a high school may be held at the next ensuing 
election of trustees, and if a majority of the 
votes be found to be in favor of a high school, 
the trustees shall establish it. There are very 
many private seminaries for secondary instruc- 



tion in the state, including a large number of 
preparatory schools, and several business colleges. 
Of the latter, in 1874, there were 16. 

Superior Instruction. — There is a large num- 
ber of universities and colleges in the state, 
besides several colleges for women. The name of 
most of the former are given in the following table : 







When 


Religious 


NAME 


Location 


found- 
ed 


denomina- 
tion 




Abingdon 


1853 


Disciples 


Augustana College 


Paxton 


1863 


Lutheran 


Blackburn University . . . . 


Larlinville 


1867 


Presb. 




Carthage 
Chicago 








1857 


Baptist 






1855 


Disciples- 
M. Epis. 




Abingdon 






1829 


Illinois WesleyanUniv.... 


Blooming ton 


1850 


Meth. 




Galesburg 
Lincoln 


1841 
1867 


Prsb.&Cg. 
Cumb.Pr. 


Lincoln University 


Lombard University 


Galesburg 


1857 


Universal 




Lebanon 


1828 


M. Epis. 




Monmouth 


1858 


U. Presb. 


Northwestern College 


Naperville 


1861 


Evang. 


Northwestern University. 


Evanston 


1855 


M. Epis. 


Shurtleff College 




1835 


Baptist 
R. C. 


St. Ignatius College 


Chicago 


1870 


St. Joseph's Eccles. Coll. . 


Teutopolis 


1861 


R. C. 




Bourb.Grove 


1869 


R. C. 




"Westneld 


1865 


U. Breth. 




Wheaton 


1858 


Congreg. 



Technical and Professional Instruction. — 
The principal institution for scientific and tech- 
nical instruction is the Illinois Industrial Uni- 
versity, at Urbana, chartered in 1867. It has 
a corps of 25 instructors, including professors, 
lecturers, and assistants ; and, in 1$75, the at- 
tendance of pupils was over 400. It comprises 
four colleges, of (1) Agriculture ; (2) Engineer- 
ing, including a school of architecture ; (3) Nat- 
ural ' Science ; (4) Literature and Science. These 
colleges embrace 12 subordinate schools and 
courses of instruction, including a school of 
domestic science and art, a school of commerce, 
and a school of military science ; also a school of 
wood engraving, printing, telegraphing, photo- 
graphing, and designing. Candidates for admis- 
sion to the university must be at least 15 years of 
age, of good moral character, and able to pass an 
examination in English grammar, geography, 
arithmetic, algebra, history of the United States, 
and natural science. This institution is endowed 
with the national land grant, and the amount 
of its productive funds is about $320,000. The 
value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is about 
$640,000. It is well supplied with apparatus, 
and has a library of over 10,000 volumes. The 
Illinois Agricultural College, at Irvington was 
organized in 1866. 

The chief theological schools are the following : 



NAME 


Location 


Religious 
denomination 


Theol. Dept. Shurtleff Col. 


Alton 


Baptist 


do. do. Blackburn 








Carlinville 
Chicago 




Union Theol. Seminary . . . 


Baptist 


Chicago Theol. Seminary. 


Chicago 


Cong. 


Theol. Sem. of Northwest. 


Chicago 


Presb. 


Biblical Dept. Eureka Col. 


Eureka 


Christian 




Evanston 


Meth. Epis.. 


Wartburg Seminary 


Mendota 


Lutheran 


Augustana Theol. Sem... , 


Paxton 


Lutheran 



ILLINOIS COLLEGE 



ILLITERACY 



449 



In these various institutions, in 1874, there 
were 49 instructors, 18 endowed professorships, 
and 290 students. The total amount of product- 
ive funds was about $775,000 ; and the libra- 
ries contained, in the aggregate, nearly 30.000 
volumes. 

The law schools consist of the law departments 
of Illinois Wesleyau University, and McKendree 
College, and the Union College of Law, at 
< 'hieago. The medical schools comprise the 
Chicago Medical ( 'ollege (a department of North- 
western University), Rush .Medical College, 
the Woman's Hospital Medical College, and the 
Hahnemann Medical College, at Chicago. 

Special Instruction. — The Illinois Institution 
for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at 
Jacksonville, is one of the most extensive and 
important institutions for deaf-mute instruction 
in the United States. It comprises departments 
for instruction in the sign language, as well 
as in articulation, or visible speech, and in draw- 
ing ; also domestic and industrial departments. 
In 1874, there were nearly 400 pupils on the 
rolls of the institution, and a corps of 20 instruct- 
ors. The Illinois Institution for the Education 
of Feeble-Minded Children, at Jacksonville, is 
also a large and important institution, founded 
in 1865. Its efficiency is thoroughly attested, 
the children being instructed successfully in most 
•of the simple elementary branches of knowledge, 
besides being taught important matters connected 
with domestic economy and practical occupations. 

Educational Associations. — The State Teach- 
ers' Association, established in 1853, holds its con- 
vention annually, and is well sustained ; besides 
which there are many other local associations, 
in more or less active operation. A state asso- 
ciation of county superintendents was organized 
about twelve years ago, for the purpose of pro- 
moting the efficiency of county school supervision, 
and securing a more uniform compliance with 
the requirements of the school law. 

ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at Jacksonville. 
HI., chartered in 1835, is non-sectarian. The 
value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus 
is $190,000 ; the amount of its productive funds, 
$135,000. It has a classical and a scientific 
course, libraries containing 11,000 volumes, and 
a corps of 9 instructors. The cost of tuition is 
$36 per year. Connected with the college are 
the Whipple Academy and the Jacksonville 
Business College. The number of students, in 
1875-6, was as follows: in the college, 60; acade- 
my, 76; business college, 221. The Rev. Julian 
M. Sturtevant, D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the pres- 
ident of the college. 

ILLINOIS WESLEY AN UNIVERSITY, 
at Bloomington, 111., founded in 1850, is under 
Methodist Episcopal control. It has a fine cam- 
pus of 10 acres, libraries containing 2,400 vol- 
umes, and productive funds amounting to $90,000. 
The value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus 
is $150,000. Both sexes are admitted. A law 
department was organized in 1874. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 15 instructors and 776 students 
(546 preparatory and 230 collegiate). 



ILLITERACY (from the Latin illileralus, 
unlettered, i. e., ignorant of letters or books) 
is a term used at present to denote the in- 
ability to read and write. The mere fact as to 
how many persons in any community are unable 
to read and write is not, in itself, of very great 
value ; but, in its relations to ignorance and 
knowledge, it is highly important, as marking 
the dividing line on one side of which may be 
placed all those who are hopelessly consigned to 
a total ignorance of books, and are, therefore, 
deprived of all the advantages to be derived from 
their study or perusal : and. on the other, all 
who, by means of such knowledge and such 
sources of information, have been placed on the 
high road to thrift, skill, intelligence, culture, 
virtue, and every other element of the highest 
civilization. To the individual, illiteracy is a 
most deplorable misfortune ; to the community, 
in proportion to its extent, it is an acknowledged 
bane. The principle of free schools is derived 
from a consideration of the numerous evils which 
popular ignorance entails upon a community; and 
of this ignorance illiteracy is the exponent. On 
the same principle is based all legislation for 
compulsory attendance at schools. These prin- 
ciples have, however, been called in question; but 
very rarely. "Parents", it has been said, "can- 
not justly be forced to give their children a certain 
amount of education, unless it is assumed that 
this education is as necessary for the mind as 
food and clothing are for the body"; and, of 
course, this is an assumption that cannot be 
maintained. But national systems of education 
have regard to the good of the community, not 
merely, or chiefly, to that of the individual. The 
want of literary education is the source of nu- 
merous ills to the body politic, which legisla- 
tion should strive to remove. The statistics 
of illiteracy are, thus, of the greatest value, as 
indicating the progress or retrogression of a 
nation in the most important elements of well- 
being. (See Chime and Education.) 

A full view of this subject requires that the 
attention should be given to ( I ) the sources of in- 
formation — what they are, and how reliable they 
can be made; (II) the general facts obtained 
by an investigation into the condition of the 
people in the different countries of the world, 
which, for this purpose, may be distributed into 
various groups, comprehending the totally igno- 
rant barbarous tribes, the extremely illiterate pop- 
ulations of the old despotisms of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa, and those in which only a modified 
degree of illiteracy is still found to exist, — the 
highly-favored states of Europe and North Amer- 
ica; (III) some special facts regarding the compar- 
ative illiteracy of (1) males and females, (2) adults 
and youth, (3) the general population and crimi- 
nals, and (4) the general population and con- 
scripts ; (IV) the relations of illiteracy to (1) su- 
perior knowledge, (2) common labor, (3) skilled 
labor, (4) national power, (5) pauperism, (6) crime, 
(7) home and its influences, (8) higher civilization 
and religion; (V) the causes of illiteracy; 
(VI) remedies, and the prospects of improve- 



450 



ILLITEEAOY 



ment by the operation of various influences pecu- 
liar to modern civilization. 

I. As the chief sources of information, depend- 
ence must be placed upon (1) census reports, 
some of which, especially such as those of Italy 
for 1861 and 1871, are replete with instruction 
on this subject ; but those of the United States 
are the most valuable of all, embracing, as they 
do, four periods, 1840, 1850, 1860, and 1870. 
The later ones are of especial importance, as 
they afford particular statistics of various classes, 
— native and foreign, white and colored, adults 
and youths, males and females. All the facts 
presented in the census reports for 1840, -50,-60, 
are brought together and digested in a paper on 
Illiteracy published in the Annual Report of the 
U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1870, in 
which the census returns of these three periods 
are compared. The results of the census of 1870, 
in this regard, are tabulated and compared in the 
Annual Report oIVSVl. (2) Government reports 
on education, such as those of the U. S. Bureau 
of Education for 1870 — 4, and the special Cir- 
culars of Information issued by the Bureau, 
contain a large amount of information on this 
subject, derived from various sources, especially 
the papers on Education and Labor, Educa- 
tion and Crime, and Education and Pauperism. 
(3) Important facts are obtained from special 
official reports, on Criminals, Conscripts, and 
Marr iages,~by some of the European governments. 

II. The first group, that of wholly illiterate 
savage or barbarous tribes, needs only to be re- 
ferred to, without any enumeration. Having no 
books and no written language, their total igno- 
rance reacts upon their barbarism, and perpetu- 
ates the degradation which has caused it. Pass- 
ing to those nations that have written languages 
and books, there appears, first, a group consists ; 
ing of those which, descended from ancient des- 
potisms, have been enveloped in thick clouds of 

uorance from which some of them are only just 
emerging, — Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Russia, and 
(not long since) Greece, Poland, Italy (till her 
late revival, and even now in her southern prov- 
inces), Spain and (doubtless) Portugal, with 
their American colonies. In .all these^to a greater 
or less extent, popular ignorance, or" Illiteracy, 
has prevailed up to the present time. The 
government has neither provided for nor fos- 
tered universal education ; and the political and 
■ religious status of the people has afforded no in- 
citements to any efforts of their own in this 
direction. Even in the Spanish and Portuguese 
colonies, the old spirit and habits inherited by 
the people have been stronger than the desire for 
liberty, intelligence, and progress. To the group 
of nations above referred to, Hungary, not long 
ago, belonged ; but, of late, the people, by their 
energy and enthusiasm, have made wonderful 
progress in the march of intelligence ; but, even 
now, she remains, side by side, with her sister 
state Austria, in which, despite the influence of 
her intelligent and progressive German popula- 
tion, one half of the inhabitants remain in a con- 
dition of illiteracy. By the side of this group, 



but with a history, and under conditions, wide- 
ly different, stands India, one of the most be- 
nighted of nations, having 90 per cent of her 
males, and 95 per cent of her whole population 
(for letters are religiously and socially forbidden 
to females) wholly illiterate ; and this, notwith- 
standing that she still possesses the wonderful 
literature of her early clays, in the hands of the 
Brahman caste, still devoted to learning, with 
her wealthy Parsees fostering education, and the 
influence of her princely Mohammedan conquer- 
ors still remaining in the religious schools con- 
nected with the mosques. This fact shows to 
what an extent outcast and ignorant masses tend 
to depress and degrade the general condition of 
a people. The case of the Mohammedan coun- "• 
tries — Turkey, Persia, Egypt, is quite peculiar. 
These people are the successors of the Saracens, 
whose learning and culture shone so brightly, 
while Europe was enveloped in the darkness of 
the middle ages, and who contributed so largely 
to the sources of modern civilization, and gave 
to it such an impetus. — China may be referred 
to, as presenting a somewhat singular phase of 
illiteracy, her political system holding out the 
strongest inducements to education and learning 
to the males, while the females are very generally 
kept in a condition of illiteracy. (See China.) 
This is one of the results of Confucianism, which,, 
while it accords to the matron the highest re- 
spect, has treated the subject of female education 
(instruction in letters and books) with entire in- 
difference. China, therefore, as far as the free- 
dom of her male population from illiteracy is 
concerned, would take a high rank among edu- 
cated nations ; but, as her women are untaught, 
she must be placed with those who are half in 
darkness. — J apan woidd come in here, side by 
side with China, whose religion and philosophy, 
■sacred books, with their language and literature* 
and peculiar alphabetic characters, she adopted 
long ago, introduced into her schools, and taught 
to the masses of her people. But she has done 
more than China, she has added a simpler (syl- 
labic) writing of her own (halakana); and, what 
is far more, she has taught her women as well 
as her men. The Japanese cannot be considered 
an illiterate nation. The number of persons, 
who cannot read or write, is comparatively 
small, even the most degraded' classes being 
often able to write the Tcalakana, and to read 
the books printed in that style ; so that her illit- 
erate popvdation is set down at no more than 10 
per cent. (See Japan.) In a distinct group may 
be placed France, Belgium, England, and Ire- 
land, about one-third of their people being un- 
able to read or write. The proportion in Ire- 
land may be somewhat larger ; but, in that 
country, the people have received from the 
priesthood some instruction in letters beyond 
what the government has provided for. them. In 
these four countries, the spirit of progress 
has had to contend against many of the same 
influences that have kept down the people of the 
more benighted countries of Europe already con- 
sidered. Next in order of advance, comes the 



ILLITERACY 



451 



American Union, with its 20 per cent of illiter- 
ates. — The Netherlands, Germany proper, Den- 
mark. Norway and Sweden, and perhaps Switzer- 
land, are entitled to the distinction of showing 
the smallest amount of illiteracy. (See Table.) 
III. The diversity of social customs and na- 
tional institutions leads to corresponding differ- 
ences in the condition of various classes : and 
the degree of illiteracy found to exist in these, 
respectively, presents a basis for very important 
considerations in relation to the expediency of 
particular legislative measures. Hence, the im- 
portance of ascertaining the comparative illiter- 
acy of youth and adults, males and females (se.E 
illiteracy), white and colored (race illiteracy), 
etc. The statistical facts in regard to these points 
are very imperfect: but many, that are quite 
reliable, are exceedingly instructive. Thus, ac- 
cording to the U. S. census of 1870. of every 
1,000 persons of the population, 1 years old and 
upward, 140 were illiterate; of adults, 94; of 
youth (from 10 to 21 years of age), 52. In • ht- 
many, the census of 1871 reports 9 J per cent of 
men, and 15 per cent of women, unable to read 
and write. In Scotland, 11 per cent of men, and 
21 per cent of women could not read or write 
at marriage. In Bavaria, only 7 per cent of the 
recruits were illiterate ; in Germany, however, 
the mass of the illiteracy is in the north-eastern 
provinces of Posen and Prussia proper, among a 
people foreign to the language and institutions 
of the German nation; while, hi most of the Ger- 
man states, the percentage of illiteracy is very 
small — in some, less than one per cent. In 
France, the census of 1872 showed 27 per cent 
of illiterate males and 33 per cent of illiterate 
females; while the census of Spain 1 1 860) showed 
69 per cent of males and 91 per cent of females. 
Italy, in 1861, was reported as having till per cent 
of illiterate male adults and 68 per cent of il- 
literate male youths (from 12 to 18 years of age). 
In the city of Xew York, the census of 1870 re- 
ported, out of the total population of 942,292, 
14,1174 male adults and 30.810 female adults, as 
unable to write; while of male youths (from 10 to 
21), there were only 3,088, and of female youths, 
1,929, unable to write. This close correspond- 
ence in the one case, with the large discrepancy 
in the other, is a very suggestive fact, pointing 
as it does to the effect of foreign immigration, on 
the one hand, and to the influence of a great 
common-school system, on the other. The aver- 
age of illiterates in Belgium is 30 per cent ; and 
in Great Britain and France, it is considerably 
below 50 per cent; while, in Belgium, the 
percentage of illiterate criminals (1855) was 57 
percent, in France (1871) it was 41 percent. 
A comparison, based on full and accurate sta- 
tistics, of the percentage of illiteracy among the 
adults of a population, with the percentage of 
illiteracy among adult criminals, would demon- 
strate, with great force and clearness, the effect 
of education upon crime. (See Crime and Edu- 
cation.) The percentage of illiteracy among con- 
scripts, in any country, affords a means of as- 
certaining the general condition of a people in 



this respect, inasmuch as inquiries in regard to it 
are generally conducted with considerable care. 

IV. The various points considered in this di- 
vision of the subject cannot be treated upon a 
basis of statistics; but, theoretically, or by 'i pri- 
ori reasoning, it may be satisfactorily shown 
that the advancement of a people in every de- 
partment of learning, science, art, artistic and 
industrial labor, depends on the diffusion of in- 
telligence, and the means of intelligence — read- 
ing and writing, among all classes of the com- 
munity. Illiteracy is an exponent of ignorance ; 
and "what bodily disease," says commissioner 
Eaton (Report qf U. S. Bureau of Education, 
1871). ''has ever wrought the terrible evils to 
society that come from ignorance, whose children 
are destitution and crime ? The children whom 
society, the church, and the school fail to educate, 
learn in the streets, and from countless teachers 
of vice, aided by those grim masters, hunger and 
want, the malign arts that render the property 
of our households, the virtue of our women, and 
the health and happiness of our people insecure." 

V. The causes of illiteracy, in nations that 
have already reached the condition of civilization, 
are various ; among them may be mentioned 
(1) absolutism, in government, basing itself up- 
on the principle of "divine right" instead of the 
will of the people, or in religion, depriving the 
people of all freedom of thought : as is shown by 
the fact that a people controlled by a despotic 
power — monarchy or hierarchy — are, usually, 
largely illiterate, the riding class, as in the case 
of the priests in Egypt, and the Druids of 
Britain, engrossing all knowledge, and shutting 
up its avenues against the people: (2) caste, aris- 
tocracy, or class distinctions fixed as institutions, 
must necessarily promote illiteracy, for a similar 
reason; as must also (3) restrictions upon the 
right of suffrage, shutting out any large class of 
the community from its exercise : and, even 
when the institutions of society are free, and 

I public schools are abundant, frequently, legisla- 
tive compulsion may be required, as an inter- 
mediate step to promote the acceptance, on the 

! part of ignorant or vicious parents, of the ad- 
vantages of education for their children ; and 
therefore, (4) the absence of compulsory attend- 
ance laws may be a cause of illiteracy. (See 
Compulsory Education.) 

VI. Improvement in regard to the diffusion 
of learning must come from the operation of ju- 
dicious measures designed to remove the causes 
of illiteracy above referred to. The general ac- 
ceptance by civilized nations, at the present time, 
of the principle of popular or state education, as 
the only stable foundation of national prosperi- 
ty, with the vast augmentation of the means of 
communication, through the varied applications 
of steam and electricity, must gradually but 
surely diminish among every people the ratio of 
illiteracy. Evidence of a strong tendency in this 
direction is shown by every succeeding census in 
the great and progressive nations of the world. 

The following tables present the statistics of 
illiteracy in different countries. 



452 



ILLITERACY 



Table I. 
Ratio of Illiteracy to Population. 

[Countries marked * are nearly free from illiteracy; 
in those marked f, the ratio of illiteracy is very large 
but not definitely ascertained.] 



Countries 



Argentine Republic 

Austria (conscripts) 

Bavaria " < 

Belgium 

Brazil 

China 

Denmark - 

Egypt ■ 

England 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Hawaii 

Hungary 

India 

Ireland {criminals) 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands (conscripts) . 

Norway 

Poland 

Portugal 

Russia 

Scotland (criminals) 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey .- 

United States 



Per cent of Illiteracy 



Recent 
statistics 



83 



30 

t 
50 
* 

t 

33 
33 
12 
82 
* 
51 
95 
46 
73 
10 
93 
18 
* 

91 

t 
91 
21 
80 



t 

20 



Table III. 

Illiteracy as compared with various Degrees 

of Education. 



Countries 



Table II. — Illiteracy in the United States. 

[Censuses of 1840, -50, and -60 reported those who 
could not read and write; that of 1870, those who could 
not read and those who could not write.] 

[r means cannot read; w, cannot write.] 



France 

" (military) 

" (civil, males) 

" (civil, females) 

" (adults) 

" (minors, 6—20 years) 

Spain (men) '. 

" (women) 

" (both) 

United States (aged 10 & over) 

Belgium 



Date 

of 
census 

or 
report 



Per cent 




Germany 

Italy 

Netherlands . 




Switzerland 

Appenzell Int. (read) 

" " (write) . . . 

" Ext. (read) 

" " (write) . . . 

Basel (all read fluently) . 

" (write) 

Bern (read) 

11 (write) 

Soleure (write) 

Zurich (write) 



Belgium . 



1870 

1851 

1856 

1859 

1861 

1867 

1868 

1869 

1864 

1867 
1851—52 

1869 
1816—58 
1869—62 
1868—69 

1870 



England & Wales (males) 

" <• " (females).. 

•■ •■ (both) 

Ireland (males) 

" (females) *. 

(both) 

Scotland (males) 

" (females) 

(both) 

France 



Foreign-born 

(most of 
them whites) 



Native-born -; . 
(white and , „ 
colored) 



Native White 



Italy (galley-slaves; 

(prisoners — males) 

" females) 

both) 

Conde'd minors (males) . . 
« *< (females) 

(both)... 
" lyr. or more (males) 
« « " " (females) 

.< (both).. 

Minors in custody (males) 

i< " «* (females) 

" (both)... 

t, ^ ^ ~ i „ (Pennsylvania 

United States Penitentiary) 



1850 

1855 

1871—72 



1872 



1871—72 



1868 
1861 
1862 
1868 
1871 
1871 



(adults)., 
(minors) 

(adults) 1860-69 

(minors) 

' 1829 74 

n!y. news' boys|l866— 76 



1841-53 

1854—66 
1867—70 
1871—76 
1850—59 



20 39 
18 | 36 

ZH 

— 5 



11 



56 
72 
61 
60 
67 
03 
31 
9 
20 
80 

25 

24 
26 
27 
33 
32 
31 



80 
39 

13 
16 
4 
1 
3 
47 
22 
37 
21 
13 
20 
13 
11 
9 
16 
16 
29 
37 
17 
34 
44 
16 
40 
26 
31 
29 
39 
22 
38 



IMAGINATION 



453 



IMAGINATION, Culture of. Imagina- 
tion is the power by which conceptions, origi- 
nally formed from the perception of natural ob- 
jects or their representatives, are reproduced in 
a fictitious combination which resembles the 
natural. This faculty, existing as it does, in a 
greater or less degree, in every mind, and enter- 
ing to some extent into almost every mental act, 
must be placed among the few great powers of 
the mind which demand careful cultivation. 
The influence of the imagination is equally felt 
in moral and intellectual action. By its aid, the 
man of science, recombining the elements gath- 
ered by an observation of the visible world 
around him, projects his thought into the unseen 
universe, and determines the existence of condi- 
tions which knowledge alone could never detect, 
but which observation serves only to confirm. 
Through the influence of imagination alone, the 
record of the past becomes a guide and a warn- 
ing to the present. Thus, the hand of charity 
is opened to relieve necessities which the active 
exercise of this faculty pictures to us as existing 
in the homes of want and misery. The every- 
day thought of the boor, and the rare flight of 
the man of genius are alike indebted to its aid. 
The universality of its presence, therefore, and 
the danger attending its unregulated develop- 
ment, constitute its peculiar claim to attention 
at the hands of the educator. Notwithstanding 
this, however, the need of a systematic cultiva- 
tion of the imaginative faculty seldom receives 
practical recognition. This is owing somewhat 
to the fact that the want which would be pro- 
duced by its total neglect, is partly met by its in- 
direct and irregular cultivation in the studies of 
any ordinary school course ; but more to the 
hidden nature of its action, and the want of 
that subtle discernment necessary in the teacher 
to detect its influence in the mental operations 
of the pupil. A knowledge of its power and 
of the consequent need of its cultivation is de- 
rived almost entirely from our own experience. 
The extent, therefore, to which it influences or 
controls the judgment, is appreciable only in our 
own case, and in that only approximately ; and, 
hence, an analysis of its effect on the thought or 
actions of others becomes a matter of extreme 
difficulty. The neglect of its cultivation in the 
ordinary school curriculum is productive of re- 
sults hardly less pernicious than its abuse by un- 
due stimulation ; for, while by the latter the 
judgment and reason are subordinated, and the 
mind is turned from the consideration of the 
practical, and concentrated too exclusively upon 
the ideal, thus enveloping the daily concerns of 
life in a kind of mental mirage, which results in 
disappointment and discouragement when the 
cloud is dispersed ; by the former, the dull, mat- 
ter-of-fact phase of existence acquires undue 
prominence, to the suppression of all sentiment 
and that love of the beautiful which cheers and 
helps us to find, even in the commonest aspects 
and the least fortunate circumstances of life, 
reason for admiration and gratitude. These con- 
siderations should secure for it careful attention. 



The development of the imaginative faculty 
begins at a very . early period. The conscious- 
ness, on the part of the child, of objects ex- 
ternal to itself, constitutes perception. This is 
very soon followed by conception, which con- 
sists in taking from the object perceived a men- 
tal picture capable of reproduction at pleasure, 
in the absence of the original. This latter may 
be called the first act of the imagination — the 
storing of the mind with materials for future 
use. Simultaneously with this, or only shortly 
after, occurs the naming of these materials — 
the association of thoughts with words, with a 
view to their expression as language. (See In- 
tellectual Education.) Thus far, the action 
of the imagination depends upon the percep- 
tion of actual objects. It now remains for the 
imagination to use the materials already pro- 
vided, by discarding the actual object, and form- 
ing partly by the aid of words as symbols of 
general ideas, an ideal picture ; or, independ- 
ently of words, and by its own act, creating 
for itself scenes and images not less vivid than 
their tangible representatives. The work of the 
imagination, therefore, is complementary to that 
of observation. The order is, (1) perception, 
(2) conception, (3) imagination. The action of 
the latter is presupposed by that of the two 
former. Knowledge alone — the mere storing 
of the mind with facts and conceptions — would 
be of little value "without the vivifying power 
of imagination. Its function is to lift the 
mind from the contemplation of the actual, and 
carry it beyond the field of mere observation, 
into those ideal regions where the tangible has 
no existence, or where its existence cannot be 
actually verified. — In the cultivation of the fac- 
ulty of imagination, several methods are open 
to the teacher, the most common of which are 
pictures, oral narratives, and reading, or combi- 
nations of these. In all, the attention is the 
principal object to be secured ; since thus only 
can a vivid mental picture be formed, and any 
other is worse than useless. The picture is. of 
course, the surest instrument for accomplishing 
this result, since it is a direct appeal to the eye 
— the earliest and most powerful agent by which 
knowledge is obtained. It is desirable, there- 
fore, that the picture should be clearly drawn or 
painted, and in as simple or elementary a form 
as is consistent with the idea of completeness. 
A few salient features, therefore, are all that are 
necessary for this purpose ; since fine gradations 
of color or shaibng can be observed only at the 
expense of the general impression. In oral nar- 
rative, the degree to which the clearness of the 
general impression is produced, depends entirely 
upon the teacher. A warm, sympathetic nat- 
ure is here the only qualification. By it, he is 
enabled to place himself on the pupil's level, to 
enter into his thoughts, and by the use of figures 
and illustrations familiar to youthful minds, to 
produce a correct and precise mental image. 
Any other disposition than this is a decided dis- 
qualification for the cultivation of the imagina- 
tion by this method. "Where the picture and 



454 



IMAGINATION 



IMITATION 



the oral narrative are used together, the former 
should not be exhibited till after the description. 
It should then be produced to re-inforce the de- 
scription and give it greater clearness ; but, if 
it is exhibited before that time, the attention is 
drawn to it at once, to the neglect of the nar- 
rative. Pictures which are to be used for the 
purpose of illustration, should, if possible, be 
new to the pupil in order to produce their best 
effect. Of the methods mentioned, however, for 
the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, read- 
ing is not only the most common, but is, in most 
cases, indispensable. The requisites in this case, 
however, are still the same. The object being 
always to fix the attention as powerfully as pos- 
sible upon a mental picture, the style should be 
simple and clear, but graphic and forcible, 
abounding in concrete terms, not in abstract 
phrases, and appealing to the experience of the 
pupil, and awakening his sympathies. An ex- 
cellent test of the clearness of the mental picture 
formed is that of recalling at the end of the 
reading, the scenes, incidents, and actors in the 
order of their introduction or occurrence. Al- 
most every branch pursued in the ordinary 
school or college course affords some opportunity 
for the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, 
but special fields for its most active exercise are 
found in geography, history, and poetry. Some 
departments of natural science may also afford 
occasion for its activity. The condition of the 
earth in prehistoric time, its chemical, geolog- 
ical, and meteorological constitution, the plants 
and animals that grew or moved upon its sur- 
face, together with its relation past, present, and 
future, with other worlds, afford scope for the ex- 
ercise of the most lively imagination. The his- 
tory of the human race, also, is filled with scenes 
and incidents of which, if skillfully presented, 
the mind of the pupil will never tire. Even in 
the teaching of subjects usually considered dry 
and uniuteresting, there is field for the exercise 
of this facidty. Grammar, mathematics, polit- 
ical economy, and logic, if illustrated by a teacher 
of active fancy, can be freed, in large measure, 
from the abstract nature which is supposed 
to be essential to them, and which renders 
them ordinarily so uninviting. In regard to 
the use of fiction as an agent in the cultiva- 
tion of the imagination, much discussion has 
•arisen, the objection usually urged being that its 
effect is to stimulate this faculty unduly. This 
is probably true of one class only; namely, those 
in whose minds the imaginative faculty exists 
by nature in an abnormal degree. Where this 
power is deficient, it will hardly be said that the 
perusal of works of fiction can do more than to 
develop the faculty, so as to bring it into pro- 
portion with the other mental powers ; while 
the probability is, that the result will fall short 
of this. In the remaining class, those in whom 
this faculty exists in a normal proportion, the 
evil residt of stimulation produced by the read- 
ing of works of fiction, has, perhaps, been over- 
rated. The reading alone can only serve to fill 
the mind with high ideals — the harm resulting 



has probably been produced by neglecting to 
provide the necessary means or occasions for an 
active exercise of the high and generous sen- 
timents and resolves thus aroused. If we read 
continually of suffering, but never give alms, 
habit soon causes us to accomodate ourselves to 
this condition as the natural one, and the mental 
excitement ceases to seek any outward, active 
expression. This, probably, is the explanation 
of the anomaly sometimes noticed in the his- 
tories of eminent writers, that their works are 
filled with sentiment and tenderness, while their 
lives were mean and despicable. The result here 
is owing to that half education which rouses 
the sympathies, and then neglects to provide 
for their exercise. But this abuse of the true 
method can hardly be considered a condemna- 
tion of the method itself. An experienced edu- 
cator says on the subject of the general culture 
of the imagination : " I much fear, neither 
teachers nor scholars are sufficiently impressed 
with the importance of a proper training of this 
faculty. Some there may be who despise it al- 
together, as having to do with fiction rather 
than with fact, and of no value to the severe 
student who wishes to acquire exact knowledge. 
But this is not the case. It is a well-known fact 
that the highest class of scientific men have been 
led to their most important discoveries by the 
quickening power of a suggestive imagination. 
Of this the poet Goethe's original observations 
in botany and osteology may serve as an apt 
illustration. Imagination, therefore, is the enemy 
of science only when it acts without reason, that 
is, arbitrarily and whimsically ; with reason, it 
is often the best and most indispensable of allies." 
(See Fiction.) 

IMITATION. The possession of this im- 
portant faculty, and the desire to exercise it, 
constitute two essential elements of all human 
progress. From childhood to maturity, and 
even beyond — as long, indeed, as the effort at 
self-improvement is kept up — a vast majority of 
the human race are employed merely in imitat- 
ing the models that have been set up by individ- 
ual genius, or by the accumulated wisdom and 
taste of ages ; and their success in life is greater or 
less, according to the accuracy of their imitation. 
Especially during childhood and youth, is this 
faculty brought into active play. It is the nec- 
essary accompaniment and basis of instruction, 
the stepping-stone to all excellence. Being of so 
great importance, therefore, in nearly every de- 
partment of education, it should receive the 
special attention of the teacher. — The conditions 
of success in imitation are chiefly two : (1) ac- 
curate observation, and (2) a retentive memory. 
Probably few have noticed how slightly the 
facidty of observation is usually exercised. This, 
however, may be easily illustrated. Of twenty 
persons listening to a speaker whose voice has 
some peculiar tone or inflection, it will probably 
be found that only half a dozen or perhaps even 
less will notice it, unless it is very marked ; and 
of these, only two or three will be able to re- 
produce it with any degree of accuracy. How 



INCENTIVES 



INDIA 



455 



often do men differ as to the form or color of 
some feature in the face of an acquaintance! 
For example, let a draughtsman, whose attention 
has not previously been specially called tu the 
object, be askeil to draw a rose-leaf. The prob- 
ability is. that he will confess his inability to do 
so, though he would recognize a rose-bush with- 
out difficulty. Instances might lie multiplied of 
the loose, general way in which this faculty is 
used, the result of which is. that only an indef- 
inite impression is left on the mind, instead 
of an accurate picture. (See Attention.) If it 
be granted then, that mere imitation, when 
uncultivated, cannot be depended on, it will 
probably not be denied that a good memory, 
and, in most cases, a certain degree of mechan- 
ical skill, are necessary, when it is cultivated, 
to produce the best results. It only remains, 
therefore, to point out a few of the studies 
and pursuits in which imitation is the chief in- 
strument, and to indicate some of the methods 

by which it may be made most efficient. A ng 

the first, may be enumerated writing, map-draw- 
ing, as now generally used in teacliing geography, 
ami nearly all the arts ; among them, drawing, 
with all the professions that immediately depend 
upon it. as surveying, civil engineering, mechan- 
ics, architecture, together with all the natural 
sciences in the teaching of which, sensible objects 
are to be represented. In learning to speak a 
foreign language, also, a direct appeal is made to 
the faculty of imitation. Among the methods 
used for producing efficiency in imitation, tin- 
kindergarten system is of great value for insur- 
ing steadiness of hand and accuracy of eye. (See 
Kindergarten.) The usual school exercises of 
reading, declamation, dialogues, etc., are more or 
less successful, according to the closeness with 
which the feelings and expressions of imaginary 
persons are imitated. Proficiency in classical 
composition, also, is promoted, in many colleges 
and universities, by placing before students orig- 
inal models for imitation. The value of this 
faculty, in moral education, can hardly be over- 
stated, that most powerful of all educators- 
example — depending to a great extent on imita- 
tion for its efficiency. (See Example.) 

INCENTIVES, School, consist of rewards 
of various kinds, offered to pupils for progress 
in study and good behavior ; such as " gi >< 1 1 
tickets", certificates of merit, books, and other 
things awarded as premiums for excellence 
either in proficiency or conduct. Besides these. 
various expedients are resorted to for the pur- 
pose of exciting emulation, which are also to be 
classed among school incentives ; such as giving 
public praise, awarding merit marks, putting 
the names of meritorious pupils upon a roll of 
honor, which is suitably embellished and framed, 
and hung in a conspicuous place in the school- 
room. The dismissal of pupils from school 
previous to the usual time is also to be placed 
among the same class of incentives. To this, 
however, strong objection has been made, inas- 
much as it seems to imply that attendance at 
school is burdensome and grievous, whereas it 



should he made pleasant and attractive. The 
efficacy of this incentive, as every teacher knows, 
is very great, because it appeals to the natural 
activity of the child, upon which the confinement 
of school cannot but operate as a restraint, how- 
ever well it maybe administered; and experience 
has demonstrated that an occasional relief from 
this confinement does not. on the whole, weaken 
the pupil's attachment to school. All such in- 
centives, it must be borne in mind, are of a 
secondary nature : and the educator should al- 
ways exercise care that their influence should 
not be so exerted as to impair the force of higher 
and more enduring motives to good conduct. 
See Rewards;) 

INDIA, a country in Asia, at present under 
British rule, with the exception of a few French 
and l'oi'tuguese colonies. 'I he term India is 
sometimes also applied in a wider sense, embra- 
cing those countries known by the name of 
Hindoostan and Farther India. In this article, 
we treat of that part only which is known as 
British India. r lhe area of the country under 
the direct rule of the British government is 
904,049 square miles, with a population of 
1 90,563,048. The native states, which, although 
governed by native princes, are still more or less 
subject to British influence, have an area of 
546,695 square miles, ami a population of 
48,267,910, making the total area of British In- 
dia 1450,744 square miles, and the aggregate 
population 238,830,958. 'I he principal religions 
in British India (as far as it is directly under 
British rule), according to the last census (com- 
pleted in 1872), were represented as follows: 
Hindoos. 139,248,000; Mohammedans, 40,883,- 
000; Buddhists, 2,833,000 ; Christians, is'JT.OOO ; 
Sikhs, 1,174.000; other creeds, 5,102,000; of 
unknown religion, 425,000. The number of ( hris- 
tians, according to missionary reports, is how- 
ever, considerably larger. 'Hie I rotestants claim 
a native population ot more than 250,000; and 
the Roman Catholics, according to a statement 
prepared in 1870 for the Vatican Council, 
1,076,000. The Parsees are one of the least 
numerous sects, but they constitute one of the 
most intelligent portions of the native popula- 
tion. The best known among the sects of recent 
origin is the Braam.o-Sa.maj, founded about 
1830. It is a kind of rationalistic development 
of Brahman ami ( hristian doctrines, and admits 
into its canon of sacred books such portions of 
the Vedas and the Bible, asaxe merely theistic 
and not miraculous. It chiefly exists in the large 
cities, and its members take an active interest in 
all educational movements. 

But little is known of the early history of In- 
dia. It was, in the 6th century B. t '.. invaded by 
the Persian king Darius, and in the 4th by Alex- 
ander the Great; but the connection thus es- 
tablished with the countries of western Asia and 
Europe soon ceased, and India relapsed into its 
secluded position. The invasion of the country 
by Mohammedans began in the Sth century A. D., 
and. since that time, large portions of India con- 
tinued under Mohammedan rule, until finally 



456 



INDIA 



compelled to yield to the advancing power of 
some of the European nations. The first of these 
who obtained territorial possessions in India, were 
the Portuguese, who, early in the Kith century, 
established their rule by seizing some of the forts 
on the western coast. The English East India 
Company, after obtaining permission from the 
Mogul emperor, established its first factory in 
1613, and gradually extended its power, until at 
last nearly the whole of India was united under 
its rule. In 1858, the East India Company trans- 
ferred all its possessions to the British Crown ; 
and, in 1876, the queen of England assumed the 
official title of Empress of India. 

I. Ancient India. — India, like China, Persia, 
and Egypt, possesses one of the most ancient of 
civilizations. The education of children consisted 
chiefly in training them as members of one of 
the castes into which the people were divided. 
There were four principal castes : the Brahmans 
or priests, the Kshatriyas or warriors, the Vais- 
yas or merchants, and the Sudras or laborers, 
composed mainly of the conquered people. Be- 
low the Sudras was a still more degraded class, 
known as Pariahs or outcasts. Every native of 
India belonged to one or other of these castes, and 
all children were brought up strictly within their 
own. The first instruction embraced teachings 
and warnings suggested by the necessities of 
daily life, in order thus to teach the children 
to imitate the good. On the subsequent education 
the priests had the most powerful influence. 
They were the sole teachers. Women and the 
fourth caste were excluded from all education. 
Elementary instruction embraced only reading, 
writing, and arithmetic. A teacher with a staff 
and with an assistant holding the switch, gave 
instruction to boys sitting around him under the 
trees. In arithmetic, only the elements were 
taught ; while writing, which was closely con- 
nected 'with instruction in reading, was first prac- 
ticed in the sand, then on palm leaves with an 
, iron pencil, and finally on platane leaves with ink. 
One child showed it to another, and one heard 
the other recite. Particular attention was paid 
to the higher schools of the Brahmans; and the 
educational laws, which are treated quite ex- 
haustively in the law books, have reference al- 
most exclusively to the Brahmans. In the learned 
schools in Benares, in Trizioon, and in the Nud- 
deah, the exoterics, to whom also members of 
the second and third caste belonged, were in- 
structed in grammar, prosody, and mathematics; 
and the esoterics, in poetry, history, philosophy, 
astronomy, medicine, and law. The pupil was 
for five years only a hearer ; after that time he 
was permitted to express his thoughts and 
doubts to the teacher, and to take part in the 
disputations. The whole course comprised from 
12 to 20 years, during which time the scholar 
lived with the teacher. No regular compensa- 
tion was received by the teacher, as to do so 
would be considered shameful, but presents were 
given as a remuneration. The reading of the 
Vedas was considered the highest instruction 
of the Brahmans, and was connected with various 



ceremonies. India possesses no theory of peda- 
gogy ; but, instead of the dry, prosaic collection 
of rules of the Chinese.we find here some deep ped- 
agogical sayings in the pleasing garb of poetry, 
and particularly in the form of fables. The old- 
est of the collections of fables, the Pantchatan- 
tra, was written in the 5th century of our- 
present era, and has been translated into almost 
every modern language. It contains numerous 
short sayings, extolling the advantages of educa- 
tion. — A new religion, Buddhism, sprang from 
Brahmanism ; but although it had its origin in. 
India, it was forced to retreat before the old relig- 
ion, and spread particularly over China, Farther 
India, Mongolia, Japan, and other countries of 
eastern Asia. The chief aim of the Buddhists is. 
to improve the moral life. For this purpose ten 
commandments have been laid down, containing, 
besides some excellent moral principles, rules for 
good behavior. Buddhism ignores the castes, 
though it does not absolutely prohibit them. The 
clergy were made the basis of Buddhistic society; 
whereas, in other creeds, the laity were the basis 
on which the hierarchy reposed. Though this 
creed has always been one of the most extensive 
in the number of its followers, it has contributed 
little to the progress of education. On education 
in ancient India, see Schmidt, Geschichie der- 
Padagogik, vol. I. 

II. Modern India. — Both the Catholic and 
the Protestant missionaries who went to India, 
established schools for the education of the na- 
tives, but they reached only a small portion of 
the native population. By the natives them- 
selves nothing was done to improve the system 
of education and instruction. The East India 
^Company had not founded a single school until 
1793. In that year, Wilberforce moved, in the 
House of Commons, to send school-teachers to 
India, in order to superintend the instruction of 
the people ; but the India House denounced the 
plan as detrimental to the continuance of their 
rule. In 1813, parliament granted $ 10,000 an- 
nually for educational purposes ; but the money 
was spent for the promotion of literary studies, 
rather than for education. In 1848, the lieu- 
tenant governor of Agra brought forward a. 
scheme to give a school to every village of at 
least one hundred families. After three years' 
discussion the court of directors of the East. 
India Company accepted the groundwork of the 
plan; and orders were issued that a school should 
be provided for every circle of villages, called 
Hulkabundee, and that the teachers should be 
paid by a tax of two per cent on the land 
revenue. The plan has been gradually developed; 
and government schools now exist, in regular 
gradation, from those which give the humblest 
elementary instruction to the highest colleges ; 
and the best pupils of one grade are able to pass 
through the other grades by means of scholar- 
ships. To complete the system, a university was 
established, in 1857, at each of the three presi- 
dency capitals, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, on 
the model of the London University, for holding 
examinations and conferring degrees. The gov- 



INDIA 



INDIANA 



45T 



eminent institutions are intended to serve as 
models, to be gradually superseded by schools 
supported on the grant-in-aid-system — a system 
based on the principle of perfect religious neu- 
trality, and on regular rules adapted to the cir- 
cumstances of each province. Normal schools 
exist in each province for the training of teachers. 
The medium of education, in the elementary 
schools for the masses, is the vernacular lan- 
guages, into which are translated the best ele- 
mentary English treatises. The study of the clas- 
sical languages of India is, however, still main- 
tained. The English language is taught in the 
Anglo-vernacular schools and colleges for the 
education of the upper and middle classes of 
society. The governing agency of this system 
consists of a director of public instruction in 
each province, aided by a staff of inspectors. 
The following table gives the number of schools 
and colleges belonging to, aided or maintained 
by, the government in British India, with the 
average number of pupils attending them, the 
amount expended by the government, and the 
gross expenditure on account of instruction dur- 
ing the years 1862, 18G7, and 1871 : 



Year 



1862. 
1867. 
1871. 



Number of 
educational 
institutions 



13,210 
20,683 

25,147 



Average 
attend- 
ance 



350,762 
05K.N34 
799,622 



pended by 
the gov't 



£248,330 
481,378 

649,724 



penditures 
from all 



£284,076 

755,518 

1,019,418 



Counting in the indigenous schools, the whole 
number of schools of British India (exclusive of 
the native states and Burma) amounted, in 
1872, to 40,700 ; and the number of scholars, to 
1,280,914. The schools which have been improved 
up to the government standard are divided as fol- 
lows : Lower-class schools, middle-class schools, 
high schools, normal schools, special schools, col- 
leges, and universities. — The number of middle- 
class schools, in 1871, was 2,873 (for boys 
2,740. for girls 133), with 158,728 pupils (boys 
151,656; girls 7,072). The number of high schools 
was 273, with 47,572 pupils; of these only one 
school was for girls. The number of normal 
schools was 104 (87 for males, 17 for females) 
with 4,346 students (4,080 male and 266 female). 
The number of general colleges, in 1871, was 44, 
of which 24 were government colleges, and 20 
private and aided colleges. The number of stu- 
dents in the government colleges was 1,854; and 
in the private colleges, 2,140, making a total of 
44 colleges, with 3,994 students. Besides the gen- 
eral colleges, there were 10 law colleges, with 
684 students ; 5 colleges of medicine, with 893 
students; 4 colleges of civil engineering, with 549 
students. Of other special schools, there were 3 
schools of design and decorative art : one at Cal- 
cutta (with 50 students); one at Madras; and one 
at Bombay (with 90 students), besides the David 
Sassoon Industrial School at Bombay, with 101 
students. The progress of the three universities 
at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, from the time 
of their foundation, in 1857, to 1871, is shown 
by the following table : 





CALCUTTA 


MADRAS 


BOMBAY 


Year 


Candi- 
dates 


Passed 


Candi- 
dates 


P.iSVJ'l 


Candi- 
dates 


Passed 


1857 

i860 
1866 
1871 


244 

MIS 

1,350 

2,877 


162 

414 

629 

1,601 


440 
1,701 


8 

93 

564 


41 
52 

1,153 


36 

23 

229 

231 



Female education, which had been almost en- 
tirely neglected, according to the custom of the 
country, received a strong impulse, in 1866, 
from an English Unitarian lady, Miss Carpenter, 
who arrived in Bombay in that year. After 
making a tour of Guzerat, and holding several 
meetings in Surat, she proceeded to Madras, 
where she enlisted the warm sympathy and co- 
operation of Lord Napier, the lieutenant gov- 
ernor of that province. Upon arriving in Cal- 
cutta she convened a large meeting, which was 
attended by most of the prominent government 
officials. She succeeded in awakening an inter- 
est in female education ; and. under her direc- 
tion, a number of female schools, and also ragged 
schools, were established. For an account of the 
progress of education in India, see the official 
Statement of the Moral and Material Progress 
of India, published annually; also the several 
volumes of the Annual American ('//< lopailia; 
and the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of 
Education, for 1873. 

INDIANA, at first a part of the North-west 
Territory, afterwards formed a part of Indiana 
Territory, organized July 4., 1800. In 1805, 
Michigan was set off from it ; and, in 1809, Illi- 
nois, leaving the territorial limits the same as 
those of the state at present. Indiana was ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 11.. 1816. 
Its area is 33,809 square miles: and its popula- 
tion, in 1870, was 1,680,637, giving it the sixth 
rank among the United States. 

Educational History. — The duty of the state 
to educate its children was early recognized in 
Indiana. The constitution adopted in 1816 
declared the general diffusion of learning and 
knowledge through a community to be essential 
to the preservation of a free government, and 
made it the duty of the general assembly, at 
the earliest practicable moment, to provide a 
law for a general system of education. It was 
not until the adoption of the new constitution, 
in 1851, which made it the duty of the general 
assembly to " encourage, by all suitable means, 
moral, intellectual, scientific, and agricultural 
improvement, and to provide by law for a 
general and uniform system of common schools, 
wherein tuition shall be without charge and 
equally open to all," and which provided for the 
election of a state superintendent of public in- 
struction, that we have any permanent record 
of the condition and progress of the public 
schools. The act to provide for a " general and 
uniform system of common schools" was passed 
June 14., 1852 ; but. although in force after its 
publication and distribution, it did not become 
practically operative until the first Monday of 
April, 1853. This was owing to a discrepancy 



458 



INDIANA 



"between the school law and the township law, so 
that no school officers for the township could be 
elected until the. time for the regular election 
of the township trustees, in April. This law 
provided for the consolidation and equalization 
of the school funds, and for the organization of 
school corporations by civil townships instead of 
by districts, and also gave the people the power 
to assess special township taxes, for the build- 
ing of school-houses and for the continuance of 
schools after the public funds were expended. 
"William 0. Larrabee was the first person elected 
to fill the office of superintendent of public in- 
struction. He inaugurated the system, and at 
-this time served two years from November 8., 
1852. Caleb Mills took the office November 8., 
1854, and served until February, 1857. He 
distributed the libraries bought with the pro- 
ceeds of the tax levied for that purpose, among 
the townships of the state. He was succeeded 
"by William C. Larrabee, who was again elected 
superintendent, and served for two years, from 
the second Tuesday of February, 1857. During 
his administration, he made many important 
recommendations to the legislature, in regard to 
the time of receiving reports and of apportion- 
ing the revenue. Samuel L. Rugg, his successor, 
served two years, from the second Monday of 
February, 1859. In his term of office, he in- 
vestigated the condition of the school funds, and 
considered plans for their more profitable man- 
agement. Miles J. Fletcher took the office of 
state superintendent, February 11., 1861. In the 
spring of 1862, he was killed in a railway ac- 
cident, and Samuel K. Hoshour, D. D., by ex- 
ecutive appointment, filled the vacancy from 
May 29., 1872 until his successor was elected 
find qualified. Samuel L. Rugg was again 
elected for a term of two years, commencing 
November 21., 1862 ; but, owing to an amend- 
ment in the school law, changing the time of as- 
suming the duties of the office, he held over until 
March 15., 1865. George W. Hoss succeeded, 
March 12., 1865, serving for a term of two yeais. 
He administered the new school law, and replen- 
ished the township libraries. Being elected for 
& second term, he held office until October, 1868, 
when, by reason of his resignation, the newly 
elected officer, Barnabas C. Hobbs was appointed 
to fill out the term. During the term of office 
of Mr. Hobbs, the Normal School was opened, 
January 6., 1870. Milton B. Hopkins took the 
office, March 15., 1871, for a term of two years. 
Through his instrumentality, a law was passed 
abolishing the office of county examiner and 
creating that of county superintendent. Mr. Hop- 
kins entered upon the duties of a second term, 
March 15., 1873, but did not live out this term. 
He died in August, 1874; and his son, Alexander 
C. Hopkins, by executive appointment, filled the 
vacancy, from August 20., 1874, until March 15., 
1875, when James H. Smart, the present incum- 
bent, entered upon the duties of the office. Six 
of these superintendents are now living. 

School System. — The school officers of the state 
are the directors of the districts into which the 



townships are divided, the trustees of townships, 
members of boards of school trustees in incor- 
porated towns and cities, county superintendents, 
members of the state board of education, and 
the state superintendent of public instruction. 
The directors of school districts act under the 
authority of the township trustees, and exercise 
quite limited powers. They preside at school 
meetings, take charge of the school property, 
and perform other duties under the direction of 
the trustees. Voters at school meetings may 
designate other branches than those required by 
the school law, which they wish to be taught in 
their respective districts. They may request a 
trustee to remove a teacher, and they may peti- 
tion him in regard to the repairing or removal 
of a school-house. Township trustees are elected 
by the people annually, and are the school 
trustees for their respective townships. It is 
their duty to take charge of the schools, employ 
teachers, build school-houses, provide furniture, 
apparatus, etc., take the enumeration of the 
school children, and to cause to be held, month- 
ly, township institutes for the instruction of the 
teachers. They may also provide township 
graded schools and arrange for admission into 
them from the other departments. The school 
boards of cities and towns consist of three mem- 
bers in each. Those in cities are appointed by 
the common council, for three years, one mem- 
ber being appointed annually, in June. Those 
in towns are appointed by the civil trustees of 
the town, in the same manner as the city trustees 
are appointed. School matters in cities and 
towns are more exclusively in the hands of school 
trustees, than in townships, inasmuch as the 
law does not provide for school meetings in the 
former. The law permits school boards of cities 
and towns to employ superintendents for their 
respective corporations. The county superin- 
tendent is appointed by the board of county 
commissioners, biennially, in June ; and he must 
have had two years' successful experience in 
teaching. It is his duty to examine all appli- 
cants for license to teach. These examinations 
are held on the last Sunday of each month. 
The branches required by law are orthography, 
reading, writing, arithmetic, geography. English 
grammar, physiology, and United States history. 
It is his duty to visit the schools of the county 
at least once each year, to attend township in- 
stitutes at least once each month, to hold a 
county institute annually, and to receive reports 
from school trustees and collate the same, and 
forward them to the superintendent of public 
instruction. He may also hear and determine 
appeals from the decisions of township trustees, 
in sundry minor matters; and finally, he has the 
general superintendence of the schools in his 
county, except in cities and towns in which 
superintendents may have been employed. The 
slate board of education consists of the state 
superintendent, who is, ex officio, president ; the 
governor ; the presidents of the state university, 
the normal school, and Purdue University ; 
and the superintendents of the three largest 



INDIANA 



459 



cities of the state. The board meets as often as 
occasion may require. It appoints the trustees 
of the state university and the official visitoi-s 
of the normal school. It prepares printed lists 
of questions which are sent out to the county 
superintendents monthly, and which are by them 
submitted to the teachers who apply for licenses. 
The state board is also empowered to grant 
to teachers of high character and standing, state 
licenses which are valid for lite The board 
takes cognizance of such other educational mat- 
ters as may properly come before it. and makes 
such recommendations to subordinate officers 
anil to the legislature as it may deem advisable. 
The state superintendent of public instruction 
is elected by the qualified voters of the state, at 
a general election, for a term of two years. He 
is charged with the administration of the system 
of public instruction and with the general super- 
intendence of the business relating to the com- 
mon schools of the state, and of the school funds 
and revenues appropriated for their support. It 
is his duty to render an opinion, in writing, to 
any school officer so desiring, in regard to the 
administration or construction of the school law. 
He must also visit every county in the state and 
examine the auditor's books and records, relative 
to the school funds, revenues, etc. He must 
confer with the school officers, and make public 
addresses as occasion may require. 

School Fund. — There are two sources of rev- 
enue for the support of the public schools : 
(1) the interest on the school funds, and (2) the 
proceeds of the tax levied by the state and by 
local authorities. The school funds are divided 
into two classes : (1) The common-school fund, 
the sources of which are the surplus revenue 
fund, the saline fund, the bank tax fund, the 
Oi >unty seminary funds, tines assessed for breaches 
of the penal laws of the state, all forfeitures 
which may accrue, all escheated lands and es- 
tates, the proceeds of the sales of the swamp 
lands, granted to the state of Indiana by the 
act of Congress of 1850, anil the fund arising 
from the 1 14th section of the charter of the State 
Bank of Indiana ; (2) The congressional town- 
ship fund, which is derived from the sale of the 
10th section, in each township, set apart to the 
townships, by Congress, for school purposes. The 
common-school fund amounts to $0,313,247. 

fund amounts to 
chool fund of the 
state 88,711,319. These funds can never be 
diminished, and the proceeds of them must be 
used for tuition purposes only. 

School Taxes. — The state levies annually a 
tax of 10 cents on each one hundred dollars, 
which, with the proceeds of the common-school 
fund, is apportioned to the various school dis- 
tricts, in proportion to the number of children 
between the ages of and 21 in each. The local 
authorities have also the right to levy a local 
school tax of 25 cents on each one hundred dol- 
lars, which must be expended in the township, 
town, or city, in which it is levied. They have 
also the right to levy a local tax of 50 cents on 



each one hundred dollars, to be used in purchas- 
ing grounds, building school-houses, and supply- 
ing the necessary furniture and apparatus. In 
addition to all this, the civil authorities in cities 
and towns have the right to issue bonds to pro- 
vide for the payment of debts contracted in the 
purchase of grounds and the erection of build- 
ings thereon by school authorities. There can 
be only §50,000 worth of these bonds in cir- 
culation at any one time; and. when issued, 
it is the duty of the civil authorities to pro- 
vide for their payment, by the levy of a spe- 
cial tax therefor, provided that said tax shall 
not exceed, in any one year, more than 50 cents 
on each one hundred dollars. The total amount 
of school tax possible in cities and towns, in any 
one year, under the law of the state, is as 
follows : 

Stale tax on each $100 $0.16; on each pull, $0.50 

Local tuition tax oneachSlOO 0.25 " " 0.50 
" .special " " " 0.50 " " 1.00 
" bond " " " 0.50 " " 1.00 

Total amount $1.41 $3.00 

In townships the limit is $1.16. 

Educational Condition. — The total number 
of district schools in the state is 9,230 ; of city 
j systems, 40 ; of town systems. 202 ; and the 
number of school-houses is 0,307. The number 
of township and district graded schools is 300 ; 
of ungraded schools, 8,940. The estimated value 
of school property is $10,870,338. The follow- 
ing are additional items of the school statistics 
for 1875—0 : 



School population, white males, 
white females. 



340,514 

:il7.4:u 



Total white, 057,948 

colored males, 4,940 

colored females, 4,848 

Total colored, 9,788 

Total school population 6G7.73G 

Number of pupils enrolled, whites, 495,711 
colored, 6,651 



and the congressional township 
$2,398,072. making the total scl 



Total enrollment 502,302 

Average daily attendance, estimated at 315,000 

Number of teachers, male and female 13,133 

Number of female teachers, estimated at. . . 5,500 

School fund $8,799,191 

Total receipts 4,948,879 

Expenditures for tuition 2,830,747 

Norm i din st 'met ion . — The State Normal School 
at Terre Haute, established in 1870, occupies 
one of the finest school buildings in the state. 
The faculty of the institution embraces 9 in- 
structors, including the president ; while 4 others 
are employed in the model schools connected 
with it. The number of students, from Jan., 
1873, tc. Dec, 1*74, was over 401. of whom 187 
were males, and 214, females. The whole num- 
ber of persons that had received instruction in 
this school, from 1870 to 1875, was 855. Two 
courses of study are pursued : one elementary, 
including the branches required to be taught in 
the common schools, with instruction in the the- 
ory and practice of teaching ; and the other ad- 
vanced, including all the subjects taught in the 



460 



INDIANA 



INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY 



high schools of the state, and designed to pre- 
pare teachers for employment in these schools. 
In the latter course, special prominence is given 
to the study of languages, especially French and 
and German. The Northern Indiana Normal 
School, at Valparaiso, organized in 1873, is a 
private institution. — Teachers' institutes con- 
stitute, in this state, a very important instru- 
mentality for the professional instruction of 
teachers. The several county superintendents 
are required to hold a county teachers' institute 
at least once a year in each county; besides 
which, at least one Saturday in each month, 
while the public schools are in session, is re- 
quired to be devoted to township institutes. In 
1875, the number of county institutes held was 
91 ; and of township institutes, 4,080. 

Secondary Instruction. — The number of pu- 
pils in the 21 approved high schools in the state 
was reported, in 1874, as 13,342 ; the number 
of teachers employed was 350, of whoni 223 
were males, and 127 females. These schools are 
so organized as to be preparatory schools to the 
state university. No uniform course of study 
is prescribed ; but the candidates for admission 
to the university, in 1874, were examined in 
geography, English grammar and sentential 
analysis, geometry, and Latin, including Caesar 
and Virgil. In a table appended to the state 
report for 1874, 9 private or denominational in- 
stitutions for secondary instruction are enumer- 
ated, having, in the aggregate, 810 students in 
the academic classes, and 547 in the preparatory 
departments. Several private schools and acad- 
emies of this grade reported to the U. S. Bu- 
reau of Education, in 1874. There were, at that 
time, also, 10 business colleges, with 31 teachers 
and 1,697 pupils. The courses of study in these 
schools ranged from 6 months to 5 years. 

Superior Instruction. — First among the insti- 
tutions of this grade, stands the Indiana Uni- 
versity (q. v.), at Bloomington, which is closely 
connected with the school systems of the state 
by an arrangement which admits to the fresh- 
man class, without further examination, all 
graduates of high schools approved by the state 
board of education, who present certificates that 
they have passed a satisfactory examination in 
the preparatory course of study. Other institu- 
tions for superior instruction are given in the 
following table : 







When 


Religious 


NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomina- 






ed 


tion 


Concordia College .... 


Fort Wayne 


1839 


Ev. Luth. 


Earlham College 


Richmond 


1857 


Friends 


Ft. Wayne College 


Fort Wayne 


1846 


M. Epis. 




Franklin 


1844 


Baptist 




Hanover 


1827 


Presb. 


Hartsville University 


Hartsville 


1850 


U. Breth. 


Indiana Asbury Univ. 


G-reencastle 


1832 


M. Epis. 


Moore's Hill College. 


Moore's Hill 


1854 


M. Epis. 


N. W. Christian Univ. 


Indianapolis 


1857 


Christian 


Ridgeville College 


Ridgeville 


1867 


F.W.Bap. 


St.Bonaventure's Coll. 


Terre Haute 


1872 


R. C. 


St. Meinrad's College 


St. Meinrad 


1861 


R. C. 


Union Christian Coll. 


Merom 


1859 


Christian 


Univ. of Notre Dame. 


Notre Dame 


1842 


It. C. 




Crawfordsville 


1832 


Presb. 



Professional and Scientific Ins/ruction. — 
Purdue University, at Lafayette, is an industrial 
university, and embraces schools of agriculture, 
mechanics, mining and engineering, industrial 
art, and military science ; besides this, there is 
the Terre Haute School of Industrial Science, at 
Terre Haute. The schools of law are the law 
department of the Indiana University, and the 
law school of the North-western Christian Uni- 
versity ; and the medical schools are the College 
of Physicians and Surgeons of Indiana, the In- 
diana, Medical College, connected with the In- 
diana University, and the Medical College of 
Evansville. 

Special Instruction. — This department of edu- 
cation is represented by the Indiana Institution 
for Educating the Deaf and Dumb, at Indianap- 
olis, which, in 1874, had 15 instructors and. 
333 students ; and the Indiana Institute for the 
Blind, at Indianapolis, which, in 1874 — 5, had 
109 pupils, and a corps of instructors including 
a superintendent, 5 teachers in the literary de- 
partment, 3 in the industrial, and 3 in the mu- 
sical, besides 4 household officers. 

Educational Libraries. — The total number of 
volumes in the various educational libraries of 
the state is reported as 357,545 ; of which the 
township libraries contained 253,545 volumes, 
the city libraries were estimated to contain 
50,000 volumes, and the college libraries, 54,000 
volumes. The law does not, at present, provide 
for a general tax for the support of public libra- 
ries ; but it permits the founding of library as- 
sociations, and authorizes the common councils 
of cities to take stock in such associations, and 
levy the annual tax of 2 cents on each $100 in 
support of the same. 

Educational Journals. — There are two edu- 
cational journals published in the state : The 
Indiana School Journal, the official organ of the 
state superintendent of public instruction ; and 
The Northern Indiana Teacher, published at 
South Bend. 

INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY, 
at Greencastle, Ind., commenced in 1832, and 
chartered in 1837, is under Methodist Episcopal 
control. The first class graduated in 1840. It 
has an endowment of $180,000, and property to • 
the value of $150,000. Tuition is free. The li- 
brariescontainaboutl0,000 volumes. The institu- 
tion has philosophical and chemical apparatus 
and a cabinet of minerals and fossils. Both sexes 
are admitted. The regular courses are the clas- 
sical and philosophical, but an elective course 
may be pursued. Opportunity is afforded for 
normal instruction, and there is a Biblical course 
for theological students. Indiana Medical Col- 
lege is, by recent action of the proper author- 
ities, made the medical department of Asbury 
University. The medical school is located at 
Indianapolis, and has 9 professors and 6 lect- 
urers. There is also a preparatory department. 
In 1875-6, there were 12 instructors, 509 stu- 
dents (256 collegiate and 253 preparatory), and 
565 alumni. The presidents of the university 
have been as follows : Bishop Matthew Simpson, 



INDIANA UNIVERSITY 



INDIANS 



461 



D.D., 1839—48; the Rev. Lucien W. Berry, D. D., 
1849—54; the Rev. Daniel Curry. D.D.. 1854 — 7; 
Bishop Thomas Bowman. D.D., LL. D., 1858—72; 
the Rev. Reuben Andrus, D. D., 1872 — 5; and the 
Rev. Alexander Martin, D. D., the present in- 
cumbent, appointed in 1875. 

INDIANA UNIVERSITY, at Blooming- 
ton, Ind., was chartered as a college in 1828, 
and as a university, in 1839. It is non-sectarian, 
being under state control. It has two tine 
buildings, a library of over 6.000 volumes, a 
chemical laboratory, a museum containing fos- 
sils, minerals, zoological specimens, etc., and pro- 
ductive funds to the amount of $110,000; besides 
which it receives annual appropriations from the 
state. The value of its buildings, grounds, and ap- 
paratus is $200,000. Both sexes are admitted. 
Besides the preparatory and the collegiate depart- 
ment, the latter having a classical and a scien- 
tific course, there is a department for the study 
of law. The medical department was discon- 
tinued in 1876. The number of instructors and 
students in the various departments of the in- 
stitution, in 1876, was as follows: 

Departments Instructors Students 

Preparatory 4 1 42 

Collegiate 10 132 

Law 2 36 

Total 16 ~310 ~~ 

The Rev. Lemuel Moss, D. D., is (1876) the 
president. 

INDIANS, American. The earliest at- 
tempt at the civilization of the American In- 
dians was made by the Spanish government, 
in Mexico and South America, at the time of 
their conquest, when the sons of chiefs and 
princes in Mexico and Peru were educated, and 
endowed with the rank of Spanish nobles. Many 
families in Spain, to this day, boast of their 
Mexican or Peruvian descent. Their further 
education was conducted through the agency of 
missions, the most celebrated of which were those 
of Paraguay. The education of the North 
American Indians was begun, also, by Catholic 
missionaries in Canada and Louisiana, Florida, 
Mexico, and California. It has been participated 
in gradually by other denominations, and has 
followed the line of the frontier to the present 
time — the religious character of the instruction 
imparted being gradually eliminated as the sepa- 
ration of church and state approached com- 
pletion. The Puritans, at an early date, estab- 
lished missions at Nantucket and Martha's 
Vineyard, at Newtown and Plymouth, Mass., 
and in Connecticut, the laborers principally be- 
ing the Mayhews, Eliot, Cotton, and Sargeant. 
The famous Indian Bible of Eliot was prepared 
by him for the instruction of converts. The In- 
dian School of Dr. Wheelock, now Dartmouth 
College, and Harvard University, at the time of 
its foundation, gave instruction to Indians, the 
latter with the intention of using them as teachers 
of their own race. Only one Indian, however, 
has ever graduated there — Caleb Cheeshahteau- 
muck, in 1665. The Brainerds, who labored in 



New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the Moravians, 
among the Delawares. and the Society of Friends, 
have all produced results more or less important. 
Nearly all of the large Protestant denominations 
have labored in this field, either separately or 
through associations organized for this special 
purpose. The Episcopalians established an 
Oneida mission ; and. the Methodists, in 1819, 
founded missions among the Wyandots, 
Iroquois, Creeks, Ottawas, Shawnees, Dakotas, 
and the Indians of Oregon. The Southern 
Methodists, the Presbyterians, in 1837, the 
American Missionary Association, American 
Indian Missionary Association. Baptist Home 
Missionary Society, and the Southern Baptists 
have also established missions and done effective 
work. The Catholics, also, have not been be- 
hindhand in their efforts to educate the savages 
of North America. Their missionaries, Le 
Jeune, Lalemant, Breboeuf, and Marquette were 
pioneers in the work; and their labors, extending 
from Canada along the frontier to Texas, form 
an exciting story of devotion and self-sacrifice. 
In the United States, the Indians may be divided 
into three classes, according to their surroundings 
and consequent mode of life ; namely, (1 ) those 
who are closely and entirely surrounded by 
whites ; (2) the wild Indians of the plains, who still 
adhere to their nomadic mode of life ; and (3) an 
intermediate class having the whites on one 
side and the wild tribes on the other. It is in 
this last class only that the experiment of civil- 
ization is operative, the reclaiming of the first 
class being considered accomplished, and that of 
the second class, impracticable. The following 
figures are taken from the report of the United 
States Commissioner of Education for 1874 : 
Number of Indians in the United States, ex- 
clusive of those in Alaska 275,003 

Number of school buildings upon Indian res- 
ervations . . 232 

Number of schools npon Indian reservations 345 
Number of scholars: males 5,797; females 

5,161 10,958 

Number of teachers 407 

Number of Indians who can read : adults, 

1,392, youths 2,616 4,008 

Number of Indians who have learned to read 

during the year 961 

It will be seen from the foregoing, that the 
proportion of scholars, among the Indians, is 
about 1 in every 26. Of those in New York, 
1418, out of a total of 5,140, attend school. These 
Indians, of course, being few in number and 
every-where surrounded by civilization, have un- 
usual advantages over their brethren of the Far 
West. The total number of Indians east of the 
Mississippi, excluding those of New York, is 
18,505 ; scholars, 2,599, or about 1 in 7. It is in 
the Indian Territory, however, that the most ex- 
tensive and interesting attempts at education 
have been made. (See Indian Territory.) The 
prospect of the education and final civilization 
of the Indians brought under the charge of the 
agencies, is considered promising ; though the 
want of funds, and the difficulty the Indians 
have to encounter in learning a strange language, 
have thus far retarded their progress. The 



462 



INDIAN TEREITORT 



INDIVIDUALITY 



number of Indians in British America is esti- 
mated at 150,000. For information in regard to 
them, see the articles on the several British 
provinces of North America. 

INDIAN TERRITORY, an unorganized 
portion of the United States, embracing an area 
of 68,901 square miles. In 1870, the population 
was stated at 68,152, of whom 2,409 were 
whites, 6,378 colored, and 59,367 Indians; of the 
latter, 24,967 were living on reservations, the 
nomadic Indians being estimated at 34,400. 
Indian Territory was set apart by the act of 
Congress, passed June 30., 1834, for the regula- 
tion of trade and intercourse with the Indians. 
This act declared that "all that part of the 
United States west of the Mississippi and not 
within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or 
the territory of Arkansas", should for the pur- 
poses of the act be considered the Indian country. 
This vast tract formed a considerable portion of 
the Louisiana purchase of 1803 ; but the Indian 
territory has beeu greatly reduced by the for- 
mation of states and territories out of it ; so that, 
at present, it is comparatively of small extent. 

Educational Condition. — Indian Territory 
comprises six agencies and thirty-six different 
nations and tribes, numbering (according to the 
report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education 
for 1874) over 76,000 persons. The total num- 
ber of schools, in 1874, was 172, with 177 build- 
ings, 189 teachers, and 4,727 pupils. The four 
principal nations of the territory (under the care 
of the Union Agency) are the Cherokees, re- 
ported as numbering 17,217 persons (including 
1,300 colored) , the Seminoles, 2,433; the Creeks, 
about 13,000 (including 2,000 colored) ; and the 
Choctaws and Chickasaws (confederated), 22,000. 
These nations occupy a territory that has, in the 
aggregate, an area of 28,000,000 acres, of which 
about 150,000 are under cultivation. Each na- 
tions has its own school system, including super- 
intendents, school board, etc. The Cherokees 
are the most advanced. Their system embraces 
a superintendent of public instruction, elected by 
the national council for a term of two years; and 
a board of education, consisting of four members 
including the superintendent, who is a member 
ex officio. It is empowered to establish rules 
and regulations for the management of the 
schools, and to prescribe the text-books to be 
used. The common schools are divided into 
three grades : primary, intermediate, and gram- 
mar schools. The school year consists of nine 
months and a half, commencing on the first 
Monday in March, and is divided Into two terms 
of twenty weeks each. The regular school day 
is six hours ; but for pupils under eight years of 
age, it is only four hours. The school age is 
from 6 to 18. All teachers are required to be 
examined and licensed by the board of education. 
There are 3 school districts, each having a school 
commissioner, who has the general management 
and supervision of all the schools in his district ; 
but an appeal from his decisions may be taken 
to the board of education. In 1874, there were 
in the Cherokee nation, 68 schools, taught 



chiefly by natives, in their vernacular, but also 
learning English. The number cf pupils enrolled 
in these schools was estimated at 2,500 ; and the 
average attendance, at 2,000. The school fund 
amounted to $2,909,113, upon which the annual 
interest was $161,889. — The Choctaws and 
Chickasaws, numbering about 22,000, in 1874, 
had 67 day schools, chiefly boarding-schools, at 
which the estimated attendance was 1,650. The 
Creeks had 31 schools, with 750 pupils ; and the 
Seminoles. 5 schools, with about 120 pupils. — 
The Cherokees maintain a female seminary, with 
about 70 pupils ; also an orphan asylum, pro- 
viding for about 100 children. Mission schools 
are supported in the other agencies, as follows : 
Quapi/w Agency, 3 mission schools (on the in- 
dustrial plan) and one day school, with a total 
enrollment of 232 pupils ; Sac and Fox Agency, 
a manual-labor school, with 28 pupils, and the 
Shawnee day school, with 20 pupils ; Osage 
Agency, a manual labor school, with 90 pu- 
pils, a mission school, with 35 pupils, a day 
school for the Kaws, with 54 pupils, and a 
boarding-school ; Wichita Agency, 2 schools, one 
a day school, and the other a boarding-school, 
whole attendance 111 pupils; Kiowa Agency, 
2 boarding-schools, having 84 pupils. — See 
Report of U. S. Commissionei- of Education for 
1874. 

INDIVIDUALITY, that distinction of 
character which is produced by mental or moral 
peculiarities. The value of this element of 
character, in the affairs of life, can hardly be 
overestimated. Goethe considered that its pres- 
ervation and development should be the sole 
end of a true education ; and Mill declares that 
it is the great want of our time. Its rarity, 
however, is a necessary consequence of the lev- 
eling tendency of the age in which we live. The 
average experience of the world at any period, 
is embodied in the prevailing customs of that 
period. In that sphere, the great bulk of the 
world's activities move with unthinking regu- 
larity, — the force of education making it natural, 
and absorption in the struggle for existence 
allowing no time for any thought of change. The 
increase of facilities for the spread of knowledge, 
also, adds directly to the coercive power of 
public opinion by extending its sway ; and, 
while it enlarges the sphere of custom renders 
its influence more uniform and more difficult 
to be opposed. Yet its boundaries must be 
steadily extended, or life degenerates into mere 
routine. To the man of individuality, whether 
as artist, poet, preacher, philosopher, or thinker 
of any kind, is committed the task of enlarging 
that sphere, and setting up new ideals. In daily 
life, also, a thousand emergencies arise, demand- 
ing instant action for which experience furnishes 
J no guide. The ordinary mind is paralyzed,- 
' and turns instinctively to the man of genius, or 
exceptional power, for guidance. Individuality 
thus becomes the pioneer of progress. When 
we remember, further, that individuality fur- 
nishes the common ground on which genius and 
insanity meet, and that its cultivation, according 



INDIVIDUALITY 



463 



as it. is proper or improper, may minister in a 
hundred ways to the happiness and well-being of 
the individual and the race, or to untold misery 
for the one, and loss to the other, its claim for 
consideration in any educational scheme will not 
probably be denied. Unfortunately, however, 
the difficulty of properly treating it is com- 
mensurate with its importance, the consider- 
ation of it going, as it does, to the very root of 
every system of education. All educational plans 
presuppose uniformity in the minds of the 
children to be subjected to their influence. Their 
fundamental principles, being only conclusions 
drawn from the observation of a large number 
of individual instances, necessarily employ them- 
selves with the resemblances to be found among 
those instances, to the exclusion of the differ- 
ences. The question always is. "ruder given 
circumstances, how would a majority of minds 
act ?", little attention being paid to the minority. 
And the larger the majority, the more readily is 
the conclusion drawn from their uniform action 
accepted as a rule, and the less . likelihood is 
there that any attention will be paid to the in- 
significant minority. Yet it is in this minority, 
that the minds possessed of decided individuality 
will be found. In many cases, no doubt, private 
instruction would produce more satisfactory re- 
sults in developing exceptional powers; but cir- 
cumstances frequently do not admit of this, and 
the teacher, in that case, must endeavor to sup- 
ply the deficiency, as far as possible, by special 
attention. For that highest from of individuality, 
called genius, the ordinary school system can, 
probably, do little in the way of direction, its 
very nature leading it to reject all external 
guidance ; it is a law unto itself. (See Genics.) 
But for that great army of thinkers and wink- 
ers whose peculiar fitness for special pursuits 
is early manifested, and whose earnestness and 
patient labor, in a thousand varied ways, are 
daily enlarging the domain of knowledge, the 
advantage of a well-digested course of study and 
moral training can hardly be questioned. One 
of the most effective aids for resisting the tend- 
ency to reduce all minds to uniformity, and for 
giving to individuality its due prominence, con- 
sists in keeping constantly in mind the mod- 
ern idea of education ; namely, that it is a 
development from within of capacities there 
existing. The mind is not a vessel into which 
knowledge is to be poured till it is full, but a 
plant on which education is to act, as the sun 
and rain act, drawing out and expanding it into 
leaf, flower, and fruit, according to Ike plan mi 
which it in constructed. And just as the gar- 
dener places different plants in different soils, 
and subjects them to varying amounts of sun- 
shine and moisture, expecting diversity of results, 
and recognizing in that diversity his success, so 
the teacher, while subjecting all to the same 
general treatment, as the gardener does, should 
seek to vary his methods, in order to accom- 
modate them to the peculiarities of the pupils 
under his care. The first step to this end must 
be a determination of what those peculiarities 



are. In this search, many circumstances may 
temporarily mislead him. In his first day's ac- 
quaintance with a pupil, for instance, he may 
fancy he discovers in him a natural aptitude for 
a particular study, which a longer acquaintance 
will show to be due to some slight previous 
training in that study — in which case the apt- 
itude will entirely disappear as soon as he has 
reached the end of his fortuitous knowledge; 
or he may discover, toward some particular 
branch, a disinclination wdiich is only the natural 
disgust or reaction of the mind on account of 
the too early presentment of that branch to his 
immature powers ; or, in a third case, an incli- 
nation may be shown, which is produced solely 
by some poetical aspect of the study, due to 
early experience or association, and has no con- 
nection with the essential nature of that study. 
A boy. in this way. for instance, might show a 
quasi-love for botany from having been brought 
up among flowers, the forms and colors of which 
appealed powerfully to his love of beauty ; or a 
similar love of astronomy or microscopy from 
having had the run of an observatory or an opti- 
cian's shop. Hut no teacher of discernment will 
long be deceived by such superficial knowledge 
or inclination, if opportunities for examination 
are afforded him. A more dangerous misap- 
prehension, however, exists frequently in regard 
to moral powers. This often happens in cases of 
what may be called negative individuality — 
eases in which the faculties necessary for the 
future well-being, instead of being abnormally 
developed, seem to be entirely wanting. These 
mistakes, unfortunately, are common, and are 
attended with the gravest consequences. An 
obtrusive show of virtue rouses suspicion at 
mice, and leads to detection; but the want of it 
is. in many cases, easy of concealment, and, 
escaping notice, escapes, also, correction, and the 
error appears later in life, bringing disgrace ami 
ruin. Dishonesty, both in word and deed, is one 
of the commonest of these defects of character. 
Tyrannical government in childhood and early 
youth is the fruitful parent of this evil. Self- 
preservation, the strongest instinct of its nature, 
leads the child to the use of deception as a 
shield from punishment ; and it uses it the more 
readily because it cannot understand the base- 
ness of it. 

Having determined the pupil's distinguish- 
ing trait, the treatment should be a partial cul- 
tivation of the prominent faculty, with a special 
cultivation of the others. An entire suppression 
of this ruling faculty would result in disgust 
with the enforced attention given to the others ; 
while an exclusive cultivation of it — which 
is almost always the result, wdien the pupil is 
allowed to "follow his inclination" — would end 
only in one-sidedness, or want of balance. As 
the constant disposition of the pupil, under the 
treatment here prescribed, would be to neglect 
the distasteful studies for the favored one, the 
efforts of the teacher should be exerted to make 
the former as attractive as possible, by con- 
stant references to the latter by way of illustra- 



464 



INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 



tion. By a s killf ul teacher, this may be done to 
a greater extent than might at first appear. A 
judicious system of rewards, also, might be de- 
vised, to favor proficiency in the studies likely 
to be neglected. In the elaboration of the 
plan, specific rules will be of little use. The 
highly developed faculties, mental and moral, 
exist in such varied combination, and the daily 
circumstances and influences surround and 
govern in such a way, as to make of each case, 
a complicated problem, requiring special study. 
The general plan, therefore, can only be indi- 
cated, and its fulfillment committed to the 
discretion of the teacher. In it, he will find 
ample field for the exercise of his skill and in- 
genuity. His genius for teaching will be no- 
where more apparent. — In addition to the 
case of negative individuality, there is another, 
which may be called that of general negative 
individuality, in which the faculties are evenly 
developed, but are all below the average. This 
condition is equivalent, in its results, to that of 
a mind with faculties of normal strength, too 
evenly developed, the resulting character, in 
both cases, being one of mediocrity, which mani- 
fests itself in a general want of decision or in- 
firmity of purpose. Such characters are never 
themselves in the presence of a superior mind. 
Their negative virtue becomes as injurious as 
positive vice ; for, as all men are compelled con- 
stantly, under stress of daily circumstances, to 
act, the action of such persons is never their own, 
but is merely a reflection of that of the more 
powerful minds by whom they are surrounded. 
The demagogue and the quack find in such 
characters their pliant instruments. This result, 
therefore, should be carefully guarded against, in 
every country especially, where political power 
in the hands of the masses is great or increasing. 
The teacher's duty, in this case, is perhaps the 
most difficult of all, it being nothing less than 
the creation of individuality. This object, how- 
ever, is worthy of his highest efforts, since the 
element he is endeavoring to evoke is the most 
valuable of all the products of a true education 
— the personal quality whose moral aspect is 
self-respect, as well as self-reliance, and which 
constitutes the surest basis for a correct life, 
whether as an individual or a citizen. (See 
Character, Discernment of.) 

INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES. The 
name Indo-Germanic is applied to a large num- 
ber of languages which comparative philology 
has proved to be of a common origin. It was 
chosen to indicate what was believed to be the 
eastern (India) and the western (Germany) bound- 
ary of the extent of these languages. Since the 
Celtic has been recognized as belonging to the 
family, the name is no longer adequate, and 
other names, as Aryan, Indo-European, Japhetic, 
Sanskritic, have been proposed and sometimes 
used instead of it; but still Indo-Germanic is 
the name generally preferred by writers on the 
subject. — The Indo-Germanic languages, accord- 
ing to the common consent of all prominent 
writers on the subject, embrace the following 



branches : (1) Germanic or Teutonic ; (2) Slavic ; 
(3) Lithuanic; (4) Celtic (Irish etc.); (5) Italic 
(Latin etc.) ; (6) Greek ; (7) Iranian or Persian; 
(8) Sanskritic or Indian. Some writers add an 
lllyrian branch, of which the modern Albanian 
is regarded as a relic ; others divide somewhat 
differently, regarding the Slavic and Lithuanian 
not as two different branches, but as only one 
branch; but they all agree as to the affinity of 
the eight branches which have been enumerated. 
From the time when Cyrus founded the Persian 
empire until the present day, nearly all the lead- 
ing civilized nations of the globe have spoken 
Indo-Germanic languages, and to-day these lan- 
guages are the vehicle of thought for nearly 
all Europe (the only exceptions being the Turk- 
ish, the Hungarian, the Finnish, and the Basque 
languages), for the entire civilized population of 
America and Australia, and for the larger por- 
tion of Asia. The comparative study of the 
Indo-Germanic languages has cast a great deal 
of light upon all the languages which are taught 
in the English-speaking world — the vernacular, 
the classical, and the foreign. Not only does 
this study convey a clearer view than was for- 
merly attainable of the peculiar kinship existing 
between all these languages, but, especially by 
the aid of the Sanskrit, explains many points 
which were formerly obscure, and enables the 
student to trace the origin and gradual growth 
of most of the grammatical forms. The influence 
is most apparent in the Latin and the Greek, 
the relations of which to the family have been 
best set forth by Corssen (Lateinische Sprache) 
and G. Curtius (Griechische Etymologie). The 
standard grammars of these languages, especially 
those written during the last twenty years, have 
generally been benefited by the results of com- 
parative philology; and teachers who understand 
the chief Indo-Germanic languages find it easy, 
•without any need of additional time, to com- 
bine with instruction in Latin and Greek, a 
rudimentary knowledge of the Indo-Germanic 
system. And it is safe to say, that, henceforth, 
it will be impossible for any grammarian to 
surpass, or even to equal, the best Latin and 
Greek grammars now in use, unless he possesses 
a good knowledge of the relation of the classic 
to other Indo-Germanic languages, and especially 
to Sanskrit. — The study of English in the 
lower grades of instruction has been indirectly 
benefited by the progress of these researches, 
because to them we are largely indebted for a 
more intelligent class of teachers, and a much 
superior class of text-books. In the more ad- 
vanced grades of instruction, the course of 
studies can be so arranged — and notable at- 
tempts have recently been made in this direc- 
tion — as to embrace an introduction of the stu- 
dent to a rudimentary acquaintance with some 
of the chief results of Indo-Germanic philology. 
(See English, Study of.) More detailed infor- 
mation on this subject may be found in Max 
Muller's, and in W. D. Whitney's Lectures 
on Languages. Comparative grammars of the 
Indo-Germanic languages have been written by 



INDUCTIVE METHOD 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 



465 



Bopp, Schleicher, and Eapp ; a dictionary, by 
Fick. A collection of comparative grammars on 
the eight branches of the Indo-Germanic lan- 
guages was begun in lb70 (Biblioihek indo- 
germanischer Grammatiken, Leipsic), and will 
embrace (1) Indian Grammar, by Whitney; 

(2) Iranian Grammar, by Hubschmaun ; 

(3) Greek Grammar, by Meyer ; (4) Italic 
Grammar (embracing Latin, etc.) by Bucheler ; 
(5) German Grammar, by Sievers; (6) Irish 
(Celtic) Grammar, by Windish ; (7) Lithuanian 
Grammar, by Leskien ; (8) Slavic Grammar, by 
Leskien. An introductory volume by E. Sievers 
contains the Outlines of Phonetic Physiology 
(Grundzur/e dec Lnutji/ij/siolor/ie) as an intro- 
duction to the study of the phonology of the 
Lido-Germanic languages. 

INDUCTIVE METHOD, in education, is 
but another name for the developing method 
(q. v.). It is so called because it is based upon 
the principle of logical induction, or the process 
of deriving general principles from an observa- 
tion and comparison of individual facts. Instead 
of teaching definitions, principles, and rules ar- 
bitrarily, and illustrating them by facts, the 
teacher who uses the inductive method, calls the 
attention of the pupil to a sufficient number of 
the facts to enable him to find the principle or 
rule for himself. The learning of the definition, 
which, in the deductive method, is the first thing 
to be done, in the inductive method, is the last 
step in the process. Most text-book' follow the 
deductive method ; but the most effective ele- 
mentary instruction is inductive. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The term 
industrial education is used to designate the 
training of pupils, not only in the common 
branches of instruction, but in certain industrial 
or business pursuits. An industrial school, in \ 
the widest sense of the word, denotes any school 
for teaching one or several branches of industry : 
but the special schools of this kind, and, in par- 
ticular, those of a higher grade, are more gener- 
ally comprised under the name of technical 
schools (see Technical Education); and the 
name industrial school is usually restricted to 
a school for neglected children, in which training 
in manual labor or industrial pursuits constitutes 
a prominent feature of the plan of education. 
The common schools, however, sometimes have 
classes, in which children are instructed in cer- 
tain industrial pursuits. The idea of providing 
for the instruction of children in manual labor 
appeal's to have originated iu the desire to enable 
poor children to earn as early as possible their 
daily bread. In England, Chief Justice Hale rec- 
ommended, about 1670, to parliament to estab- 
lish in every parish an industrial school. In 
1705, Locke laid before the English parliament a 
plan to counteract the spread of pauperism, and 
to this end, proposed the establishment, in each 
parish, of labor schools in which the children of 
the poor, from 3 to 14 years of age, were to find 
lodging, board, support, and occupation. Parha- 
ment. however, rejected the bill which embodied 
this idea, and a similar attempt made, in 1790, by 



Pitt, equally failed. In Italy, canon Odescalchi 
founded, in 1686, a great charitable institution 
under the name Ospizio aposlolico di San 
Michele, which, besides other departments, con- 
tained an industrial school for both boys and 
girls. The girls were instructed in needle-work ; 
and a number of workshops were fitted up for 
the boys, among which they were at liberty to 
( hi >o.-e. This example was followed by many other 
institutions, and the instruction of girls in house- 
work and needle-work, and of the boys in some 
mechanical trade, became a general feature of the 
Italian orphan and foundling asylums. The first 
practical attempt, in Germany, was made by 
A. 11. Francke, who introduced in his pceda- 
gogium instruction in turning and glass-grinding. 
An attempt made by llccker.the founder of the 
first real school, to train his pupils in the cultiva- 
tion of mulberry-trees and the rearing of silk- 
worms, was abandoned soon after his death. The 
Austrian educator Kindermann conceived the 
idea of introducing industrial instruction into 
the common school, and succeeded, in the course 
of a few years, in organizing industrial schools in 
more than 200 places. The proposition that 
all children should receive at school instruction 
iu manual labor, as well as in book learning, 
found an influential supporter in the philoso- 
pher Kant, and the scheme of national educa- 
tion proposed by Fiehte likewise combined 
learning with labor. Pestalozzi also endeavored 
to train his pupils in vaiious industrial arts 
as well as in books ; and his ideas were more 
fully carried out by Fellenberg, and especially 
by Wehrli. Salzmann, in the famous insti- 
tution of Schnepfenthal, gave to his pupils, 
outside of the regular school hours, manual 
work in the garden and field — exercises in turn- 
ing and planing, in basket-making, and other oc- 
cupations of a similar character. In Wurtem- 
berg, the government took great interest in the 
labor school, and ordered that schools of this 
kind should be organized in connection with 
eveiy common school, and that all the girls 
should be instructed, during three or four hours 
a week, in needle-work. Li several other states of 
Germany, as well as in Sweden, Belgium, and 
other countries, courses in industrial education 
have been arranged on a large scale, in close, 
connection with the conunon schools ; and the. 
children are trained not only for the common 
pursuits of life, but for the special branches of 
industry prevailing in their particular locality. 
The idea that the pupils of common schools 
should be trained in industrial occupations was 
also conceived by Froebel, the founder of the 
kindergarten ; and one of his most enthusiastic 
adherents, Georgens, endeavored to develop this 
idea theoretically, as well as practically. The 
German teachers' convocation to which an elab- 
orate plan for embodying manual labor with 
the course of instruction in common schools was 
submitted, refused to commit itself in favor of 
any such scheme ; but it adopted a declaration 
that the question, what kinds of labor should be 
admitted into the course of instruction, how they 



466 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 



should be organized, and in what order they 
should follow one another, is one of the great 
educational questions of the day. — One branch 
of industrial pursuits, needle-work, has at present 
been almost universally introduced into the 
common schools of Germany and other coun- 
tries. Two afternoons in each week are set apart 
for the instruction of girls, by a competent per- 
son, in the art of sewing, the pupils beginning 
as early as six years of age, at first using 
paper. They are also taught to knit, each girl 
furnishing her own material and keeping the 
product of her labor. When they have learned 
to hem, the next step is mending. From plain 
sewing, mending, and knitting, the pupil ad- 
vances to fine needle-work, tatting, and crochet- 
ing. Some of the tapestry work of the older 
pupils is often so beautiful in design and so 
artistic in execution as to challenge general ad- 
miration." (See J. P. Myers, in the Report of 
the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1873.) 

In England, before any grant is made to an 
elementary school, the educational department 
must be satisfied that the girls in the day school 
are taught plain needle-work and cutting out, as 
a part of the ordinary course of instruction. 
Plain needle-work is understood to include darn- 
ing, mending, marking, and knitting ; but no 
fancy work of any kind can be done in school 
hours. In the United States, Massachusetts has 
given the greatest attention to this subject. A 
report of the committee on industrial schools, 
made to the board of education, in 1873, recom- 
mends that sewing, which is now taught in three 
classes of the girls' grammar schools, be carried 
forward into all the classes, by a gradual and 
progressive change, which is not to interfere 
with the pupils' intellectual culture and training. 
They proposed, also, that, as instruction in sew- 
ing was thus extended in the number of classes 
to which it was imparted, it should be enlarged 
in the character and practical value of the 
work performed, and that, certainly in the first 
and second, and perhaps in the third classes, 
instruction should be given in cutting, shap- 
ing, fitting, and completely making girls' and 
ladies' garments, the requisite materials for 
this instruction to be furnished by the city, 
under the supervision of the committee on 
accounts. The city superintendent of Provi- 
dence, R. I., stated in his report for 1873 — 1874, 
that the sewing department in the schools of 
that city was producing the happiest results. 
Nearly 600 children, he reported, were taught 
every week to use skillfully their needle, and 
more than 400 girls who received, in the public 
schools exclusively, instruction in the use of the 
needle, were, he said, earning from $4 to $12 a 
week. In private female institutions, needle- 
work as a branch of instruction, has been quite 
generally introduced, and has come to be looked 
upon as an indispensable requisite in the course 
of instruction. As regards the male departments, 
of public schools, the introduction of industrial 
drawing into all schools is now strongly urged 
by many educators. The legislatures of Massa- 



chusetts and New York have taken the lead in 
this question, and ordered its introduction into- 
all the common schools of the respective states. 
(See Art-Education, and Drawing.) 

Special attention to industrial occupations is 
given in most of the orphan asylums, and in re- 
formatory and charitable schools. These schools 
must not only give to their pupils the instruction 
which other children receive at school, but they are 
expected to furnish, at the same time, a substitute 
for home education, and to prepare their pupils, 
in the best possible way, to earn their daily 
bread when the time of their discharge from the 
school arrives. It is, therefore, not only desir- 
able but indispensable for a school of this kind 
to provide for industrial instruction. It is grati- 
fying to learn, from the annual reports of the 
U. S. Commissioner of Education, that the 
number of orphan asylums which have opened, 
or have arranged to open, an industrial de- 
partment, is increasing. The importance of this 
subject cannot be too strongly urged upon the 
attention of all who found, support, patronize, 
superintend, or conduct institutions of this kind. 
For the girls, house work and sewing commend 
themselves, at first sight, as the most appropriate 
branches; for the bo}'S, the instruction should 
consist in preparing them for some industrial 
occupation in life. The extent and the variety 
of this instruction will, of course, depend on the 
resources of the institution. The most extensive 
industrial training given in any charitable insti- 
tution, as far as is known, is in Girard College, 
Philadelphia. In 1864, a chair of industrial 
science was established, embracing the practical 
and theoretic teaching of various handicrafts. 
The branches of labor in the work room thus pro- 
vided for were type-setting, printing, bookbind- 
ing, type-founding, stereotyping, turning, car- 
pentering, daguerreotyping, photography, elec- 
trotyping, electroplating, and practical instruc- 
tion in the operation of the electric telegraph. 
Shoe-making has been taught and successfully 
carried on since 1871. (See Orphan Asylums, 
and Reform Schools.) 

The great importance of industrial education 
in evening schools is too evident to need any 
discussion. The technical instruction which 
the immense majority of mechanics receive is 
insufficient ; and their success in life depends, to 
a great extent, on their subsequent self-education. 
Any aid which can be given to them in their 
efforts to improve their education, is, therefore, 
of incalculable benefit. How well this is under- 
stood and appreciated by them is clearly indi- 
cated by the large attendance at such evening 
schools as afford the desired instruction. (See 
Evening Schools.) On the industrial schools of 
Germany, see Schmidlin, Oeffentliche Kinder- 
Industrieanstalten (1824). The principal works 
in which this union of industrial classes with 
common schools is urged, are by Friedrich, 
Die Erziehung zur Arbeit (1852), and Geor- 
gens, Qegenwarlder Volksschvle (1857). See also 
Douai, Kindergarten und Volksschule (1876); C 
B. Stetson, Technical Education (Boston, 1876). 



INDUSTRY 



INSTRUCTION 



4tn 



INDUSTRY is a quality or habit upon the 
value of which it is scarcely requisite to insist 
in an educational work ; since its absolute neces- 
sity as a condition of success in every walk of 
life is almost undisputed. For though there 
have been eminent men, who might declare, as 
Montaigne did, that laziness was one of the ruling 
qualities of their minds, it will be found, proba- 
bly, on examination, that their want of exertion 
was supplemented by great natural parts, which, 
in a measure, rendered that exertion unneces- 
sary. It will, probably, be granted also that, 
with more continuous application, their success 
would have been far greater. The number of 
such men, moreover, is exceedingly small, and 
they were never the champions of the cause they 
adopted. On the other hand, we have the con- 
current testimony of men eminent in every de- 
partment of knowledge, and in all ages, as to the 
exceeding importance of industry both as an in- 
tellectual and a moral agent. The definition of 
the word, in fact, as it is commonly used, is its 
own best recommendation, i. e., the disposition 
to keep one's self employed in some useful work. 
Industry is thus nearly synonymous with dili- 
gence (q. v.); but the latter is rather dependent 
upon the feelings, the former, upon the con- 
science. The great importance of industry be- 
ing acknowledged, it only remains to consider 
the method by which an industrious habit may 
be fostered. Though industry is frequently a 
matter of temperament, or merely an indica- 
tion of bodily health, there are many cases in 
which the want of it cannot be explained by 
reference to either of these causes. Usually, 
children are active enough; though, during 
their earliest years, their activity takes the form 
of play. Nature seems to have pointed this out 
as the most promising avenue through which the 
mentally indolent child may be approached, so 
as to direct its energies into the right channel. 
By associating with it, in its recreations, sug- 
gesting new ones which involve some pleasing 
mental exercise, and thus bridging over the gap 
which separates play from work, and making it 
narrower or less abrupt, the judicious teacher 
may rouse the dormant faculties and implant 
industrious habits, where, at first, this might 
have seemed impossible. This is the key to the 
kindergarten system. It must never be forgotten 
that an indolent habit of mind is sometimes the 
result of discouragement arising from a too 
early presentation of mental pursuits to faculties 
not yet sufficiently developed to undertake them. 
Frequently the child falls into an indolent habit 
from the fact that it cannot choose out of many 
things which one to do, or, doing a little only of 
each, accomplishes nothing of consequence — a 
condition equivalent to indolence. The method 
here should be a daily routine, in which the 
teacher should work with the pupil, giving thus 
the powerful stimulus of his example, to instill 
into the pupil's mind ideas of order, method, and 
constancy of exertion. In forming the indus- 
trious habit, the school room has immense ad- 
vantages over the home circle as it usually exists, 



I from the fact that no distracting cause can prop- 
erly be allowed to enter ; and because, too. all 
I its exercises, lessons, and tasks imply the need 
' of continuous application and exertion, without 
! regard to the momentary inclinations of the 
pupil. The implanting of this single habit 
firmly in the pupil's mind is, doubtless, one of 
the most important results of both home train- 
ing and school education. 
INFANT SCHOOLS. See Kindergarten. 
INSPECTION, School. See Supervision. 
INSTITUTES, Teachers'. See Teachers' 
Institutes. 

INSTRUCTION (Lat. instrut Ho) is the com- 
munication of knowledge. Education trains the 
powers of the individual, in order that he 
may attain to the perfection of his being; in- 
struction supplies him with something that is 
objective or external. Instruction has specially 
to do with the intellectual development of the 
child, and is an instrument in the hands of the 
educator, which he can wield with the greatest 
precision and in the most skillful manner, lie 
may attempt to act on the feelings and the vo- 
litions; but so obscure are the operations of the. 
soul in these regions, that he may produce ex- 
actly the opposite effect to that which he ill- 
tended. But when he communicates knowledge, 
he knows that, if the pupil is capable and atten- 
tive, he will receive exactly that which it is in- 
tended he should receive. Moreover, knowledge 
stands in close relation to the feelings and voli- 
tions; and, accordingly, the teacher employs it 
for the purpose of influencing and directing 
these. Thus, it comes to pass that instruction 
occupies the largest part in the work of educa- 
tion, and constitutes that portion which can be 
undertaken and provided for by a community, 
since it can be delegated by a parent to a regu- 
I laxly trained teacher with the best results. In- 
struction is putting something into the mind ; 
education is strengthening and developing the 
powers of the mind. It is plain that a teacher 
should put nothing into the mind which does 
not train and develop its powers ; but as it is 
possible to do so, and as this frequently takes 
place, instruction is to lie divided into educative 
and non-educative ; and one of the most impor- 
tant questions which a teacher can investigate, 
is the nature of educative instruction. There 
are three qualities wdiich attach ti < all educative 
instruction: (1) Instruction, to be educative, 
must follow the natural laws of the intellectual 
development of man. Man's intellectual life be- 
gins in the exercise of the senses. He accumu- 
lates a large number of individual observations. 
In these observations, like gathers to like. A 
child looks at a tree ; and the tree produces an 
impression on his mind. The next day, he sees 
another tree ; and the resemblances in this tree 
strike his mind, and recall the former impression. 
The two impressions thus unite, and form a 
stronger impression than either separately. 
Other impressions of a similar nature unite, un- 
til the child forms a definite notion of a tree. 
The child is thus gathering into unities the 



468 



INSTKUCTION 



various impressions which he is continually 
forming ; and this process continues. He learns 
the individual first, and groups his observations. 
Thus instruction, to be educative, must always 
proceed from the individual to the general, from 
the concrete to the abstract. There is no re- 
versal of this process in education ; but the 
process is often reversed in instruction with 
taneful effect. To the teacher, the general truth 
contains the sum of all the particulars, and he 
thinks he gives to the child this general truth 
with all its contents, when he urges it upon him, 
makes him commit it to memory, and frequently 
recalls it to his mind ; but the fact is, that the 
child learns the general truth without the con- 
tents. He has the shell without the kernel. 
The result is, either that the truth lies dormant 
until experience gives him the particulars, and 
he may then recall the truth, or that the child 
is lulled into the belief that he has learned 
something when he really knows nothing, and 
his mind is prevented from stepping forward in 
that direction, by the belief that he knows the 
truth already. Furthermore, this non-educative 
instruction loses a great opportunity. If the 
child is allowed time, and is supplied with a 
sufficient number of individual instances, he is 
sure to make the generalization himself. Noth- 
ing imprints the truth more permanently than 
the discovery of it for himself, and nothing 
brings into play all the powers of the soul more 
healthily than the discovery of a truth. The 
teacher must, therefore, always proceed from 
the concrete to the abstract ; but, in employ- 
ing this method, he must exercise very great 
patience. Generalization is a slow process, 
somewhat uncertain in time. The child seems 
to be just reaching the truth, but he turns away 
with a bound, and he may take some time more 
to master it completely. Or he may, one day, 
have a glimpse of it, and the next, it has van- 
ished. But, however slow or uncertain the 
process may be, it is the only truly educative 
mode of giving instruction. The teacher, like 
Socrates, is a maieutic artist, and he must watch 
carefully over the birth of a truth, not forcing 
nature, but giving nature every help that she 
will willingly receive. (2) Educative instruc- 
tion arrests the attention and awakens the inter- 
est of the pupil. The rule implied in this state- 
ment may be expressed in the words, that the 
teacher must attach the new matter to the old 
by a natural connection, that he must pass from 
the known to the unknown. The subject of at- 
tention is one that cannot be discussed here. 
We can note only how it is to be secured. The 
pupil must be on good terms with his teacher. 
Where there is antagonism, there can be no 
satisfactory attention. The pupil may, indeed, 
attend through fear ; but fear is a weakening 
force ; and the result is, to associate in his mind, 
with the subject comprehended, feelings of dis- 
like and disgust, so that, at the end, there is no 
interest in the subject, but, on the contrary, a 
wish that he may never have to do with it again. 
Then, the teacher must carefully consider the 



state of the pupil's mind, when he commences. 
Probably, he has come from the play-ground. 
His mind is occupied with some occurrence that 
has taken place there, and his mind will remain 
occupied with it the whole hour, if the teacher 
does not employ means to displace it. Some 
little time should be given to the pupil to calm 
down ; and then, when he is prepared to listen, 
the teacher should start with something that the 
pupil knows well and feels an interest in, and 
from that gradually work his_way to the new 
matter which he has to communicate. The re- 
sult of his teaching should be, that the child 
has a stronger interest in the subject than he 
had before. To rouse this interest, the teacher 
has to remember that every intellectual activity 
is closely connected with corresponding feelings 
and exertions, and the teacher succeeds when he 
makes his intellectual propositions awaken the 
appropriate feelings and exertions. (3) Educa- 
tive instruction always keeps in view the prin- 
cipal aim and end of education. It always 
works for a purpose. The object is not to cram 
the pupil with a certain amount of knowledge, 
to give him an hour's dose of information, with- 
out regard to his whole being. It deliberately 
asks whether the information which is to be 
imparted, will fit into the harmonious devel- 
opment of the child's powers. It will, therefore, 
proportion the amount given to the healthy 
evolution of the child's nature. It will not look 
to the greatest success in the particular departs 
ment, but to the greatest success compatible 
with the healthy action of all the child's powers. 
It is not necessary, in an article like this, to 
go further into the questions to which the sub- 
ject of instruction gives rise. They are treated 
in separate articles. We may, however, take a 
general view of them : (1) We should have to 
treat of the subjects of instruction. These may 
be divided into those that relate to nature, those 
that relate to man, and those that relate to God. 
The first gives us the natural sciences, — a knowl- 
edge of the earth in its present state, geology, 
botany, zoology, physics, including astronomy and 
chemistry. Then come the abstract subjects 
arising out of these : the science of numbers 
and of magnitude, arithmetic, algebra, and geom- 
etry. Next follows the knowledge that relates 
to man : physiology, psychology, and sociology ; 
but the latter sciences cannot be taught scientif- 
ically to children. The- main facts are made 
known concretely in literature, and therefore 
the pupil learns languages, — his own, modern 
languages, and ancient languages. Education 
insists that these should ultimately, and as soon 
as possible, pass from being mere studies of words 
to be a means of acquainting the pupil with the 
feelings, thoughts, and desires of great and good 
men, past and present. Closely connected with 
languages is the study of history ; and allied to 
history and intermediate between the first and 
second classes of study, is geography, — a knowl- 
edge of the earth as it has influenced man and 
been used by him. The third class of subjects 
relate to religion; but this is closely allied to the 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 



469 



second, and, indeed, falls properly under it : for 
it is the knowledge of mans relations to God. 
(2) We should have to inquire into the educative 
value of all these studies, but this inquiry belongs 
to the special articles. Here it has to be remarked, 
that none of the subjects must be entirely omit- 
ted. The mind of man must not be deliberately 
made one-sided. The multiplication of interest 
is one of the great objects of education. (3) We 
should have to inquire into the methods of edu- 
cation ; and (4) into the organization, private 
and public, necessary to render instruction effec- 
tive. Ali these subjects are discussed in the 
ordinary manuals on instruction. Educative 
instruction has been marie the subject of special 
investigation by T. Ziller. in his Grundlegung 
zur Lehre vom erziehenden UnterrUsht. Wizen 
ihrer wissensckafUichen urn I praktischrreforma- 
torischen Seite entwickelt (Leipsic, I860). — See 
also Rosenkranz, Pedagogics as a System, trans. 
by A. C. Brackett (St. Louis, 1872). 

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. The 
term intellect (Initio, intellect/is, from inter, be- 
tween, and legere, to gather, or collect) is used 
to denote the faculty or faculties by which man 
Jenows, in distinction from those of sensibility 
and will. In the formation of the human 
character, the culture of the intellect is of sub- 
ordinate importance to that of the other two 
mental functions, — the proper order in this 
regard being (1) will, (2) sensibility, (3) intellect : 
for the intellect is only an instrument, the use of 
which must depend upon the natural strength 
and educational training of the other elements 
of human character. There is, however, without 
doubt, a reflex action of sound intellectual cult- 
ure, by means of which the propensities and 
tastes of an individual are ennobled, and his 
moral sense strengthened. In order to direct 
the education of the intellect, it is necessary to 
understand its operations and the mode of its 
growth from infancy to mature age ; the processes 
by which its powers may be guided, stimulated, 
and improved, and the agencies by means of 
which this improvement, or culture, is to be ef- 
fected. The human mind acts, as it were, by 
separate faculties ; it appears to possess distinct 
powers. These faculties, or powers, are without 
doubt, intimately associated. They are but 
functions of a single agent ; but they are func- 
tions distinct, both in their mode of operation 
and in the objects upon which they are exercised. 
To form an idea from a present object of sen- 
sation is obviously distinct from recalling that 
idea when the object is no longer present. This 
again differs essentially from the suggestion of 
one idea by the presence of another in some way 
associated with it. Again, to create from the 
simple impressions derived from natural objects 
an original picture, or series of pictures, such as 
those of Hogarth on canvas, or of Bunyan. in 
written composition, is certainly a very different 
process from the selection and combination of 
elementary propositions so as to derive from 
them an original principle, or truth. The mind 
is, nevertheless, a unit; and all its operations, of 



however diverse a character, may be conceived 
to depend, directly or indirectly, upon some 
rudimental process ; but nothing would be gained 
practically by such a procedure ; and, therefore, 
we may properly conform to the common usage in 
this regard, and consider the intellect as com- 
prehending many distinct faculties, which, of 
course, cannot be cultivated and strengthened by 
the teacher without a sufficient knowledge of 
their respective spheres of action, their modes of 
operation, and the objects upon which they are 
specially exercised. These have been conveniently 
classified and designated as follows: (1) The 
acquisitive faculties, including consciousness and 
sense-perception ; (2) The representative/acuities, 
including conception, association, memory, and 
imagination; (3) The elaborative faculties, in- 
cluding, comparison, abstraction, generalization, 
judgment, and reason. — The senses, those avenues 
of communication with the external world, are 
rii-st to be considered, since probably ideas, at 
first, spring from sensation, which appears to be 
the primitive stimulus of activity in the whole 
animal kingdom. (See SENSES.) It is. however. 
in no other way connected with the mind than 
as the means of supplying the material upon 
which the first mental operations are performed ; 
and when this material is afforded, the mind, as 
an entirely independent agent, may or may not 
act upon it. this act being controlled by what is 
called attention (q. v.), which is only a condition 
(if activity assumed by the mind in regard to any 
of the objects of sensation or consciousness. When 
sensation and attention exist simultaneously, 
there must result what is called perception, sen- 
sation being simply the effect produced by ex- 
ternal objects upon the bodily organs, and per- 
ception the act of the mind in becoming cog- 
nizant of it as preceding from some cause ex- 
traneous to itself. The product of these two 
acts, constituting what is called sense-pi rception, 
would be only momentary, or would last only 
1 luring the presence of the object perceived, but 
fur the existence of a faculty by which the mind 
retains impressions tint-- made, recalls them, 
voluntarily or involuntarily, and thus is enabled 
to make them the subject of independent mental 
action. These impressions, and in an especial 
manner those made through the medium of 
sight, become in this way a part of the mind ; 
they are imprinted upon its very texture, as it 
were, like pictures upon the photographic glass. 
Hence the name ii/nm (from the (ireek word 
ISelv, to see). This faculty is called conception 
(q. v.l. It requires the most careful cultivation 
in childhood and youth ; since it alone enables 
the mind to store up the materials of knowledge 
and thought in its wonderful and mysterious 
repository. The intellect of childhood is chiefly 
employed in the exercise of it — in storing up 
ideas, and gathering materials out of which to 
produce its subsequent creations, whether these 
are the fantastic pictures of fancy, the more 
regular combinations of imagination, or the 
sequences of ratiocination. Whatever, therefore, 
hinders this process, shrivels the mind and stunts 



470 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 



its growth. Its vitality dies out for want of ex- 
ercise, and torpor takes the place of elasticity 
and vigorous life. This is, therefore, one of the 
first faculties to be addressed in education. Its 
activity is to be fostered by supplying it with 
abundant food — objects on which it may be 
exercised, and language designed to bring into 
clear mental view the conceptions already ac- 
quired. — The next mental process to be con- 
sidered is association. In the first stages of the 
mind's growth, there exists but little power of 
combination, certainly none of logical com- 
bination; but there is an elementary principle 
of intellection by which ideas tend to become 
linked together according to certain relations ; 
this is called association (q. v.). Perhaps, the 
most important of the elementary associations 
established in regard to the conceptions is that 
of words or names with the conceptions of objects 
which they are thus made to represent. This is, 
without doubt, one of the earliest, as well as one 
of the most rudimental, of the mind's combi- 
nations. The association itself, it must be borne 
in mind, is all that is arbitrary ; since it is not 
words themselves that are associated with the 
conceptions of the objects, but conceptions of the 
spoken words, formed through the medium of 
hearing. What is meant by asserting that the 
association alone is arbitrary, is that the spoken 
word, as an actual sense-perception, is retained 
and recalled by conception, and is, therefore, no 
more arbitrary than any other idea ; but having 
no intrinsic relation to the conception for which 
it is to stand, it is associated with it arbitrarily, 
that is, by repeatedly bringing the two conceptions 
together, in accordance with that law of mental 
action by which ideas repeatedly brought into 
connection suggest each other. — Without the 
association of words with ideas, the mind could 
advance but a very few steps in its development ; 
because, (1) it would be unable to receive any 
stimulus by communicating with any other 
minds ; (2) it would be powerless to control the 
order in which the conceptions would present 
themselves to the mind, or to divest them of the 
vagueness of revery or dreaming ; and (3) no proc- 
ess of thought or reasoning could be carried on 
without the assistance of language. This need 
of words is illustrated by the efforts of children 
to talk, and call things by names, long before the 
power of articulation exists, thus showing that, 
although they are unable to employ words for 
the expression of ideas, the mind is constantly 
making use of them in carrying on its rudimental 
operations. — It is an important law that con- 
ceptions are more strongly associated when their 
corresponding perceptions have been associated. 
Thus, suppose it is desired to teach a child the 
meaning of the word skip ; in other words, to as- 
sociate in his mind the spoken word ship with 
the conception of the ship, so that the one will 
always suggest the other. If he has never seen 
a ship, nothing but the actual perception will 
suffice, and he must be taken where one may be 
actually seen ; but if he has seen the object 
without learning its name, the conception may 



be recalled to his mind either by questioning 
him or by showing him a picture of it. Without 
doing this, the word ship may be repeated to 
him, and he may pronounce it any number of 
times, without learning any thing, since it would 
be presenting to his mind a sign without showing 
what it signifies. In elementary instruction, this 
error is quite often committed. 

It is important to consider upon what funda- 
mental or primary notion the mind proceeds in 
establishing the arbitrary association between 
things and their names ; that is, between concep- 
tions which intrinsically have no relation to 
each other. A slight observation will ascertain 
that the mind very early requires the notion of 
names as representatives of things, and thus 
comprehends the relation existing between a sign 
and the tiling signified ; not that this notion is 
made an object of actual consciousness or reflec- 
tion, but that it is intuitively recognized by the 
mind, and is practically employed by the child 
in making known its wants or expressing its feel- 
ings. The question, "What is it ?" so often heard 
from the lips of a young child on seeing a new 
object, appeare generally to have reference only 
to this notion. The child perceives the need of 
affixing a name to the object in order that it 
may become a definite conception, as well as be 
prepared for expression ; and when a name is 
given, however arbitrary or unintelligible, the 
inquiry proceeds no further, the child appearing 
entirely satisfied. It is only when the mind has 
made more progress in development and has ac- 
quired a knowledge of other relations, that this 
question can possibly have any other import. 
Very much of the early development of a child's 
mind thus consists in acquiring a knowledge of 
words, but, let it be carefully observed, of words 
only as representatives of actual conceptions. 
In this way, the knowledge of tilings, and the 
knowledge of words, increase pari passu, and 
the mind is prepared for operations of a more 
advanced character ; since it is only by symboliz- 
ing individual conceptions, that generalization 
can take place, that is, that individuals can be 
conceived with reference exclusively to certain 
qualities which they possess in common, and 
thus be arranged in classes. This office of lan- 
guage has been explained in the following man- 
ner by a very acute writer (H. L. Mansel) : "In- 
tuitive generalization consists in directing the 
attention, voluntarily or involuntarily, to the 
common features of several objects presented to 
us, neglecting or not perceiving those qualities 
which are peculiar to each. It is not a distinct 
cognition of the class as a class, nor of the indi- 
viduals as individuals; but a confused perception 
of both together. To form a complete cognition 
of the individual, I must, by the aid of imagina- 
tion, supply those distinctive features which 1 
am unable clearly to perceive. To form a com- 
plete cognition of the class, I must separate the 
common attributes from their connection with a 
definite time and place. But how are attributes, 
apart from their juxtaposition in space, to be so 
connected together, as to constitute a single ob- 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 



471 



ject ? The head and trunk and limbs of an indi- 
vidual man are connected together by continuity 
in space, and by that continuity constitute a 
whole of intuition, whether distinctly recognized 
in that relation or not. How are the attributes 
of maukind in general to be separated from 
their position in space, and yet so united together 
as to constitute a whole of thought '.' To effect 
this we must call in the aid of language. The 
word is tn thought what space is to perception. 
It constitutes the connecting link between va- 
rious attributes — the frame, as it were, in which 
they are set — and thus furnishes the means 
by which the features characteristic of a class 
may be viewed apart from the individuals in 
which they are intuitively perceived, and com- 
bined into a complex notion or concept." In re- 
gard to the same point. Whately remarks, in Ele- 
ments of Logic : "The majority of men would 
probably say, if asked, that the use of language 
is peculiar to man ; and that its office is to ex- 
press to one another our thoughts and feelings. 
But neither of these is strictly true. Brutes do 
possess, in some degree, the power of being taught 
to understand what is said to them, and some of 
them even to utter sounds expressive of what is 
passing within them. But they all seem to be 
incapable of another very important use of lan- 
guage which does characterize man : namely, the 
employment of common /''rum [general terms) 
formed by abstraction, as instruments of thought; 
by which alone a train of reasoning may be car- 
ried on. And accordingly a deaf-mute, before be 
has been taught a language — either the finger- 
language or reading — cannot carry on a train 
of reasoning, any more than a brute. He differs 
indeed from a brute, in possessing the mental 
capability of employing language ; but he can 
no more make use of that capability till he is 
in possession of some system of arbitrary general 
signs, than a person born blind from cataract I 
can make use of his capacity of seeing, till the 
cataract is removed." 

Next to the association of things with words , 
as their representatives, is that founded upon a 
perception of resemblance in the objects from ' 
which conceptions are derived. This, it will be I 
perceived from what has already been adduced, 
takes place prior to generalization, to which it 
directly leads. There is, probably, no relation so 
obvious to a child as that of resemblance or anal- 
ogy, and none that affords so much employ- 
ment to its mind, or that affects it with more 
pleasurable emotions. This is particularly the 
case with the relation of analogy when found to 
exist between objects quite dissimilar. The facil- 
ity and readiness with which very young chil- 
dren discern resemblances, whether they are 
founded upon form, color, or structure, indicate 
a natural aptitude of the mind to perceive the 
varieties of these qualities in different objects, — 
of these qualities especially, because they are 
addressed to the sight, which of all the senses 
gives rise to the most vivid conceptions. The 
varieties of color (tints), form, etc., generally 
have no designations in the child's mind — no 



symbols in language ; and. therefore, cannot be 
made distinct objects of conception or of con- 
sciousness ; and. in the earliest stages of mental 
development, this is not required to enable the 
mind to cany on its rudiniental processes. Very 
young children can learn to classify objects with 
respect to their resemblances in form, color, etc ; 
and to require them to do this, is one of the best 
exercises that can be employed to aid the devel- 
opment of their minds. The readiness with 
which children apply the same name to objects 
having only a general resemblance to each other 
in form, color, or structure, is another proof of 
this characteristic of the human mind. '■ Chil- 
dren," says Aristotle, "at first call every man 
father, and every woman mother, but afterwards 
they distinguish one person from another.'' The 
perception of resemblance is, thus, prior to that 
of difference, and. apparently, for a very good 
reason ; since, if the reverse were the case, the 
mind, instead of requiring immediately words as 
the representatives of classes, would need a word 
for every object of perception, and thus could 
make no advancement in developing the higher 
faculties. This was the doctrine of Pestalozzi, 
and a basic principle of his system. There is no 
doubt that very great diversities in objects ex- 
cite the attention more readily than correspond- 
ing resemblances, just as rapid transitions from 
one color to another, from intense darkness to 
a brilliant illumination, etc.. produce activity in 
the perceptive faculties ; and hence, the employ- 
ment of such processes in the education of those 
mentally deficient ; but where any two objects 
are placed before a child, of which the points of 
resemblance and of difference are equally ob- 
vious to the developed and mature mind, the 
child will intuitively notice the former before 
he will the latter. '1 he constitution of the mind 
seems to necessitate this. Objects which are 
very unlike may, indeed, have some points of 
resemblance which escape the notice of a child, 
and which, therefore, the teacher will need to 
point out so as to assist in their discovery, and, 
in this way, to cultivate the habit of observa- 
tion. The whole structure of the intellect as a 
thinking and reasoning apparatus seems to be 
based on the ready recognition of likeness and 
analogy in the various objects presented to the 
senses. Isaac Taylor remarks, in Home Eduea- 
cation: "The sense of resemblance runs before 
the power of discriminating or designating dif- 
ferences ; hence, it happens that by the infant 
and the savage the names of individuals are ex- 
tended to species, and the names of species to 
genera.'' "Thus," as Mansel remarks, "by the 
aid of language, our first abstractions are, in 
fact, given to us already made; as we learn to 
give the same name to various individuals pre- 
sented to us under slight, and at first unnoticed 
circumstances of distinction. The name is thus 
applied to different objects long before we 
learn to analyze the growing pow-ers of speech 
and thought, to ask what we mean by each 
several instance of its application, and to cor- 
rect anil fix the significance of words at first 



472 



INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 



used vaguely and obscurely." The association 
of the conceptions as dependent upon an obser- 
vation of resemblance, has been called intuitive 
generalization; since it does not consciously 
follow any process of abstraction, because, from 
the failure of the undeveloped mind to notice 
distinctions and differences, no such process is 
needed for the purpose. For example, a child 
sees a book for the first time, and learns its 
name, book; now, on seeing another book, how- 
ever different from the first in size, color, etc.. he 
invariably applies to it the term book, by the 
perception of analogy leading on to intuitive 
generalization. Common names are, therefore, 
first learned, and particular or proper names 
only given to such objects as are constantly pre- 
sented to the mind ; since, by being thus more 
intimately known, their distinctive peculiarities 
are more clearly discerned, this discernment 
leading to an individualization, as the next step 
in the growth or development of the mind. The 
operation of the sense of analogy is seen in the 
use of figurative, or more definitely, tropical 
language ; and its rudimental character is illus- 
trated by the fact that children and savages are 
particularly prone to the use of this language. 
Indeed, as before remarked, it is one of the most 
intense mental pleasures of the child to trace 
analogies in objects of considerable diversity in 
general appearance, and to apply such meta- 
phorical terms as will forcibly express them. 
This again adds very greatly to a child's power 
of expression, since, without the perception of 
these analogies in objects, every variation would 
require some specific term, metaphorical names 
ceasing to have any meaning whatever. This 
characteristic of a child's mind gives to the in- 
telligent teacher considerable resources for il 
lustration, particularly in the use of words and 
their application to the objects which they rep- 
resent. Thus, the term cape would be much 
better understood if its exact literal import were 
explained, and the analogy exhibited between 
the head and a cape, or headland. It is unfort- 
unate that so few compound or derivative words 
in English are formed from the simple words of 
the language itself, and that recourse has been 
had to so great an extent to the Latin and 
Greek languages for a supply of such roots ; 
since, in consequence of this, most of the words 
of the language are necessarily taught as arbi- 
trary terms, which, otherwise, would be the 
means of stimulating mental activity in the 
learner. A striking contrast has very often been 
made, in this respect, between the English and 
German languages, such terms as Regensckirm 
(umbrella), Sorinenschirm (parasol), Handschuk 
(glove), Fingerhit (thimble), einsaugen (absorb), 
dttrchsichlig (transparent), etc., illustrating very 
clearly the fact referred to. This peculiarity of 
a language, in drawing almost exclusively from 
its own primitive words the materials for the 
construction of complex epithets, is also very 
prominent in the Greek language, and constitutes 
one of its excellencies. Where it exists, it must 
afford great facility in education, and must form 



the basis for processes "which are impracticable^ 
where a language, such as the English, is to be 
employed, which derives nearly all of its abstract, 
and scientific terms from languages not merely 
foreign but entirely out of use. The growth of 
mind in its relation to language has been here, 
dwelt upon at some length because of its im- 
portance as a source of practical knowledge to 
every teacher who makes the study of mind the 
basis of his operations. Arbitrary rules may be 
laid down, and applied ; but the scientific teacher 
who investigates the foundation of these rules in 
the principles of intellectual science will best 
know how to adopt his methods to the diversified 
exigencies of his work. Association as an ele- 
mentary function of mind, is dependent upon a. 
variety of circumstances other than those enu- 
merated ; as time, place, cause and effect, and 
design. These are, however, of secondary im- 
portance for the study of the educator. — The 
peculiar functions of the representative faculties, 
memory and imagination should receive a care- 
ful study, since they underlie many of the most 
important processes which he is called upon to 
direct. (See Imagination, and Memory.) Theelab- 
orative faculties, comparison, abstraction, and 
generalization, have already been referred to in 
relation to the rudimental stage of tlieir opera- 
tion; in the higher grades of instruction, they find 
constant exercise in the studies of mathematics 
and natural science, which form a part of the cur- 
riculum of every high school, college, and univer- 
sity. Judgment and reason pass through a grada- 
tion of development from the most elementary to 
the highest stages of education. — Such is the field 
which a discussion of the principles of intellectual 
education embraces. In the practical application 
of these principles, the teacher is to be guided not 
only by a knowledge of the general functions of 
mind and their development, but by all the pecu- 
liarities of individual endowment which he may 
be able to discern. (See Character, Discernment 
of.) He is to permit the mind to expand by its 
own intrinsic activities, only interposing restrain- 
ing or stimulating agencies when . and where he 
finds a tendency to abnormal or morbid growth. 
There are, however, special methods of opera- 
tion in intellectual education, partaking more of 
a positive character, by means of which the 
teacher is directly to impart knowledge — to 
communicate information ; and, thus, is opened 
up a consideration not only of the mind to be 
cultivated, but of the branches of knowledge to- 
be taught, in relation to the several faculties 
which they tend to cultivate. (See Instruction.) 
In this connection, and by the use of the same 
guiding principles, the proper order of presenting 
these studies must be considered and ascertained, 
this order being correlated with the natural order 
in which the intellectual faculties are developed- 
(See Order of Studies.) The final result of 
this department of education should be, to enable 
the individual, in all the circumstances of life, to 
exercise with efficiency p.nd address the vari- 
ous intellectual faculties with which he has been 
endowed. (See Culture.) 



INTEREST 



IOWA 



473 



INTEREST. To awaken an interest on the 
part of the pupils in the subjects of instruc- 
tion should always be a prominent object of the 
teacher's efforts, since it is an indispensable con- 
dition of all true success. Antecedently, the 
young pupil feels no interest in the school studies; 
he neither appreciates their importance nor has 
any desire to acquire a knowledge of the subjects 
of which they treat. But the skillful teacher 
knows how to stimulate curiosity, and to impress 
upon the mind of the pupil the idea that ha is 
acquiring knowledge, and thus to awaken an 
interest in the processes of instruction. When 
these processes are appropriate and natural, the 
pupil's interest is easily sustained ; and it will be 
generally found that a flagging interest is due 
either to previous defective training or to the 
endeavor to teach subjects for which the pupil's 
mind is not prepared. It is a psychological 
axiom that the mind has no less appetite for 
knowledge of the right kind, than exists physic- 
ally for proper food to nourish the body, it is, 
therefore, the office of educational science to de- 
termine the kind of mental food proper for every 
age, and how it should be prepared so as to 
stimulate, while it satisfies, the mental appetite. 
There should also be individual adaptation, the 
teacher giving whatever attention may be neces- 
sary to the special inclinations, tastes, and capaci- 
ties of his pupils. (See Attention.) 

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS are schools 
of a grade between primary schools and grammar 
schools, or between elementary schools and high 
schools. Such schools generally constitute an 
important part of the graded school system. 
Schools of a grade between elementary schools 
(in German, ElemPiiturxc/iule), and colleges and 
universities, are often called middle schools (Ger- 
man, Mittelschule). 

INTERROGATION, or the Interrogative 
Method, is an indispensable means of conducting 
most processes of instruction, particularly those 
of an elementary grade. Its office is either 
(1) tentative, or (2) illustrative. As a tentative 
process, the teacher uses it to determine the 
quantity and the quality of the knowledge which 
the pupil has attained. Thus, in hearing recita- 
tions, the teacher, by means of questions, ascer- 
tains how much of the lesson previously assigned, 
the pupil has learned, and, with what accuracy 
it has been learned ; and on the kind of questions 
asked, as well as on the manner of asking them, 
depends the degree of skill and effectiveness of 
this important part of the teacher's work. The 
same is true, also, of the conducting of exami- 
nations by school inspectors or superintendents. 
The process of questioning is also tentative when 
used as preliminary to a course of instruction, 
in order to determine the amount of information, 
or the kind of ideas, already acquired by the 
pupil, either directly relating to the subject or 
remotely connected with it, and constituting the 
elementary conceptions upon which it is to be 
based. Instruction on every subject needs such 
preliminary questioning. — Interrogation is illus- 
trative when it is used as a direct means of in- 



struction, in order to induce the pupil to combine 
his ideas in such a way that he may be led to a 
clear conception of the truth. This was the ]rroc- 
ess used by Socrates in giving instruction : and 
hence, it is often called the Socratic method. Great 
skill can be exercised by the teacher in the use of 
interrogation for this purpose : indeed, the art of 
questioning [calechetics] becomes a special de- 
partment of the work of teaching, and has been 
so treated. Rules can scarcely be given for its 
attainment ; but it may briefly be said that it 
depends upon (1) a thorough training of the 
analytic faculty of the teacher. (2) such a minute 
and accurate knowledge of the subject to be 
taught as will enable him to resolve it into its 
elementary principles. (3) a full appreciation of 
the pupils condition of mind, both as to ca- 
pacity and degree of attainment, and (4) sufficient 
practice in interrogation to produce facility in 
framing questions of every kind and form. Where 
these conditions exist, the questions asked will 
be an effective means of making every subject 
clear to the learner's mind. (See Catechetical 
Method.) 

INTUITIVE METHOD. See Object 
Teaching, and Pestai.ozzi. 

IOWA, originally a part of the vast Louisiana 
purchase of 1803, was included in the territory 
of Iowa, organized in 1838. which extended 
north from tin- state of Missouri to the British 
line, and was bounded on the east and west, 
respectively, by the Mississippi and Missouri 
rivers. It was admitted into the Union, with 
its present limits, in 1846. Its area is 55,045 
square miles ; and its population, in 1870, was 
1,194,020; but, in 1873, it was reported as 
1,251,333. 

Educational History. — In 1833, the date of 
the first permanent settlement of Dubuque, a 
school-house was built in that town, which, it is 
claimed, was the first built in the state. It was 
erected by funds contributed by the enterprising 
lead-miners. During the next six years, other 
schools were opened in various parts of the state. 
In 1839. the territorial legislature passed a law 
for the establishment of public schools, provid- 
ing that " there shall be established a common 
school, or schools, in each of the counties of the 
territory, which shall be open and free for every 
class of white citizens between the ages of 5 and 
21 years." It also provided for the formation 
of school districts, each to be governed by a 
board of three trustees, whose duties were to ex- 
amine and employ teachers, superintend the 
schools, and collect and disburse the school 
moneys. In 1840, the legislative assembly en- 
acted a much more comprehensive law for the 
establishment of a common-school system, mak- 
ing ample provision for free public schools. In 
the U.S. census of 1840, very few schools, either 
private or public, were reported: an academy, 
in Scott county, with 25 pupils, and 63 common 
schools, with 1 ,500 pupils. In Jan., 1841, the 
office of superintendent of public instruction was 
created; and Dr. William Reynolds, a teacher at 
Iowa City, was appointed to the place. The 



474 



IOWA 



office was, however, abolished Febr. 17., 1842; 
but, by the first constitution of Iowa, the general 
assembly was required to provide for the election 
of a superintendent of public instruction, who 
should hold office for three years. Since that 
time, the office has been tilled successively by the 
following slate superintendents: — James Har- 
lan, from 1847 — 8 ; Thomas H. Benton, Jr., 
from 1848 — 54; James D. Eads, from 1854 — 7; 
Joseph C. Stone, for one month; Maturin L. 
Fisher, from June 1857 to Dec. 1858, when the 
state board of education abolished the office, 
assigning its duties to the secretary of the board. 
Thomas H. Benton, Jr., was elected secretary, 
and served till 1863, when he resigned to enter 
the U. S. military service. During a portion of 
that year, the duties of the office were performed 
by H. A. Wiltse, who was succeeded, in 1863, 
by Oran Faville. The office of superintendent of 
public instruction was revived March 23., 1864, 
and Oran Faville was elected to the position, in 
which he remained till March 1., 1867. His suc- 
cessors were D. Franklin Wells, from March, 
1867, till his decease, in Nov. 1868; Abraham 
S. Kirsell, from Jan. 1869 to Oct. 1871 ; and 
Alonzo Abernethy, from Oct. 1871 to the pres- 
ent time (1876). When Iowa was admitted into 
the Union, it contained about 400 school dis- 
tricts. The number, however, rapidly increased, 
amounting, in 1849, to 1,000, and in 1850, to 
1200. In 1857, the state board of education as- 
sumed control of the educational interests of the 
state. The number of school districts, at that 
time, had increased to 3,265 ; but, difficulties 
having arisen in the practical working of the 
system, an act was passed in 1858, by which 
the school districts were made co-extensive with 
the civil townships, and " each incorporated city 
or town, including the territory annexed thereto 
for school purposes, and which contains not less 
than 1000 inhabitants," was created a separate 
school district. The number of districts was 
thus reduced to less than 900. By this arrange- 
ment, although it met with considerable opposi- 
tions, the system was rendered less complex, and 
there was a saving of $31,000 in the expendi- 
tures. In 1858, a law was enacted, providing 
that any city or incorporated town, including 
the territory annexed thereto for school purposes, 
might constitute a school district, by vote of a 
majority of the electors residing therein. In 
1860, this was extended to unincorporated towns 
and villages of not less than 300 inhabitants ; 
and, in 1866, to any city or sub-district contain- 
ing not less than 200. Notwithstanding the 
dissatisfaction caused by the sub-district system, 
which led to special legislation in 1867 and 
1872, the system was not abandoned ; and, ac- 
cording to the report of State Superintendent 
Abernethy, for 1875, from April, 1872, to Sept. 
15., 1873, 119 district townships, containing 901 
sub-districts, were reported as having completed 
independent organizations. From Sept., 1873, to 
Sept., 1875, about 160 additional district town- 
ships adopted the independent district system, 
thus increasing the number of independent dis- 



tricts by more than 1,000. The state board of 
education, provided for by the constitution 
adopted Sept., 1857, consisted of the governor, 
lieutenant governor, and one member elected 
from each judicial district in the state. The term 
of office was four years, and the lieutenant gov- 
ernor was the president of the board. To this 
body were committed the entire interests of the 
common school system. The first board was 
elected Oct 12., 1858. In 1864, the General As- 
sembly abolished the board, and reorganized the 
school system. Subsequent legislation also modi- 
fied it in some particulars. 

School System. — The system, at present, is ad- 
ministered by the following officers : (1) a 
state superintendent, elected for two years ; 
(2) county superintendents, also elected for two 
years ; (3) township boards of directors, con- 
sisting of three or more sub-directors for each 
township, who have the management of the 
township school fund ; and (4) a sub-director 
for each sub-district, for the local management 
of the school. By the school law of 1874, the 
county superintendent is required to visit each 
school in the county at least once in each term, 
spending one half day at each visit. In order to 
systematize and preserve the results of these 
visitations, the state superintendent furnishes 
each county superintendent with a blank con- 
taining the subjects most important to be in- 
quired into ; and these blanks when filled af- 
ford information to be incorporated in the state 
superintendent's annual report. These subjects 
are, (1) the condition of the school-houses, furni- 
ture, and out-buildings ; (2) the discipline and 
classification of the school, and the mode of con- 
ducting recitations ; and (3) the form and mode 
of keeping the daily register. The county super- 
intendent is empowered to examine applicants 
for teachers' certificates and to issue the same to 
those found qualified to teach orthography , read- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, geography, and English 
grammar, upon satisfactory evidence of their 
good moral character. The number of applicants 
thus examined in 1875, was 20,195; and the 
number of certificates awarded was 16,452; of 
which 4,797 were of the 1st grade ; 7,959, of the 
second ; 3,333, of the 3rd; and 363, professional 
certificates. 

The school revenue is derived from several 
sources : (I) A teachers' fund ; (II) A school- 
house found ; (in) A contingent fund. — I. The 
teachers' fund is derived from, (1) the interest 
on the permanent school fund of the state, ac- 
cruing from the sale of school lands appropriated 
by Congress for this purpose; (2) a county school 
tax of not less than one mill nor more than 
three mills on the dollar, levied by the board 
of supervisors on the taxable property of the 
county; (3) such additional tax on the property 
of the district, determined by the boards of 
directors, as may be needed to support the 
schools for six months or longer, if so determined. 
II. The school-house fund is derived from a tax 
for the purpose of purchasing sites and erecting 
school-houses. HI. The contingent fund is ob- 



IOWA 



475 



tained by a tax, determined by the board of direc- 
tors, sufficient to provide for rent, fuel, repairs, 
and all other current expenses required to keep 
the school in operation. The permanent school 
fund is derived from the following sources: 
(1) Five per cent upon the net proceeds of the 
public lands of the state ; (2) The proceeds of 
the sales of 500,000 acres of land granted by 
act of Congress. Sept. 4., 1841; (3) The pro- 
ceeds of all sales of intestate estates, which 
escheat to the state ; (4) The proceeds of the 
sales of the sixteenth section in each township, 
or lauds selected in lieu thereof. The aggregate 
amount of the permanent fund, in 1875, was 
$3,098,497. The school moneys are distributed 
among the districts in proportion to the number 
of children of school age — between 5 and 21 
years — residing therein. 

Educational Condition. — According to the 
report of the state superintendent for 1874 — 5, 
there were in the state 1.134 district townships, 
comprising 7,002 sub-districts; and 2,536 inde- 
pendent districts, thus making, in all, 3,670 school 
districts in the state. The whole number of 
common schools was 9,610, of which only 407 
were graded schools. The average time of keep- 
ing school during the year was 6.8 months. Other 
items of statistics are given below : 

No. of children of school age, males, 274.849 
females, 2:,s,722 



Number of children enrolled, 
Average daily attendance, 
Number of teachers, 



Total, 



males, 6,500 
females, 11,045 



.133.571 
3*4.012 
225,41.5 



Total, 18,145 

Average monthly compensation, males, $30.68 

females, $2s.;;4 

Receipts, $5,035,497.05 

Expenditures, for tuition. {2,598,439.81 
" other purposes, 2,007,309.58 

Total, ~~ $4,605,749.39 
Normal Instruction. — The establishment of 
schools for the instruction of teachers has not 
met, as yet, with the success attained in most 
other states. In 1848, a law was passed by 
which three normal schools were to be estab- 
lished in different parts of the state, which was 
divided into three districts for that purpose. For 
each district, a board of seven trustees was ap- 
pointed, with power to provide suitable build- 
ings, employ teachers, and exercise a general 
supervision over the schools. The sum of S500 
was appropriated annually, to each school for the 
payment of teachers, the purchase of apparatus, 
etc., provided the people in each district should 
subscribe an equal sum for the erection of the 
buildings. The expected pecuniary aid. however, 
not being furnished, the schools which had been 
commenced were, in a short time, discontinued. 
In 1858, a normal department was established 
in the state university, and continued until 1872, 
when it was consolidated, in the main, with the 
academic department. Since then, a chair of 
didactics has been maintained in the university 
for the purpose of affording special instruction 



to those who may design to become teachers. 
There is also a normal department in AVhittier 
College, Salem. 

Norma! institutes constitute the chief instru- 
mentality for the professional improvement of 
teachers in this state. In ls74. the General As- 
sembly enacted a law providing for the instruc- 
tion of teachers by the annual holding of an 
institute in each county. The provision for the 
regular instruction of teachers having thus taken 
definite shape, anil the necessity of uniformity 
in that instruction having become apparent, a 
course of study with a daily order of exercises, 
was prepared by the state superintendent, and 
was adopted at once. The general interest 
aroused by these meetings is illustrated by the 
following statement. In the year 1874. institutes 
were held in 89 counties ; 35 continued in ses- 
sion 4 weeks ; 26, 3 weeks ; 20, 2 weeks ; and s, 
imc week. Although attention on the part of 
teachers was voluntary, the number present 
amounted to 7.000. In 1875, it was still larger. 
The funds requisite to defray the expenses of 
these institutes are, in the main, contributed by 
the teachers themselves, being derived. (1) from 
the fee of one dollar paid by each person on 
receiving a teacher's certificate, (2) from the reg- 
istration fee of one dollar at the institute, and 
(3) from the state appropriation of §50 for each 
institute. The sum obtained from these sources 
has, in some cases, been augmented by limited 
county appropriations. 

Secondary Instruction. — In 1858. a law was 
passed, providing that the board of presidents of 
school districts in any county might determine 
whether a county high school should be estab- 
lished, and required them, if they determined 
to establish such school, to elect nine trustees 
who, together with the county superintendent, 
should constitute a board of high-school trustees, 
with power to lease or erect a building, and take 
entire charge of it ; also to draw from the 
county treasury §3000 a year for six years, and 
S1000 annually thereafter, for the maintenance 
of such school. This provision, however, though 
earnestly advocated by some, was not taken ad- 
vantage of, the majority considering it prema- 
ture in respect to both the w ants of the state and 
its financial ability. Only one school, that at 
Albion, was established under this law. This 
was continued about two years, when the funds 
expected from the state treasury not being sup- 
plied, it was discontinued, and the building was 
sold. Two attempts have since been made to 
re-enact this law in its essential features, but 
without success. In 1874. the people of Guthrie 
county decided to establish a high school, and 
this, according to the present state superintend- 
ent (1870), will soon be in operation. 

In the state superintendent's report for 1875, 
there are included returns from 112 private 
academies, seminaries, high schools, business col- 
leges, select schools, etc., which show an enroll- 
ment of 10,757 pupils, taught by 314 instructors. 
In the preparatory schools of the various colleges 
of the state, there are about 3,000 students, pur- 



476 



IOWA 



IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY 



suing the usual branches assigned for secondary 
institutions. 

Superior Instruction. — The Iowa State Uni- 
versity (q. v.) , at Iowa City, is the principal in- 
stitution for superior instruction, endowed or 
aided by the state. Other institutions of this 
grade and character are included in the follow- 
ing table : 



Burlington University. . . 

Cornell College 

• Central Univ. of Iowa. . . . 

German College 

Humboldt College 

Iowa College .' 

Iowa Wesleyan University 
Norwegian Lutheran Coll. 

Oskaloosa College 

Penn College 

Simpson Centenary Coll. . 

Tabor College 

Upper Iowa University. . . 
University of Des Moines 

Whittier College 

Western College 



Location 



Burlington 

Mt. Vernon 

Pella 

Mt. Pleasant 

Humboldt 

Grinnell 

Mt. Pleasant 

Decorah 

Oskaloosa 

Oskaloosa 

Indianola 

Tabor 

Fayette 

Des Moines 

Salem 

West. Coll. 



When 

found 

ed 



1S52 
1S57 
1854 
1S73 
1869 
1848 
1855 
1861 
1856 
1873 
1867 
1866 
1855 
1866 
1S68 
1856 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion 

Baptist 

M.Epis. 

Baptist 

M. Epia. 

Non-sect. 

Congreg. 

M. Epis. 

Lutheran 

Christian 

Friends 

M. Epis. 

Congreg. 

M. Epis. 

Baptist 

Friends 

V. Breth. 



Technical and Professional Instruction. — 
The State Agricultural College, at Ames, is en- 
dowed with the proceeds of the congressional 
land grant. Two experiments have been made 
in this institution, and are considered success- 
ful : the union of manual labor with intellectual 
development, and the co-education of the sexes. 
The course of instruction is for four years, 
and comprises civil, mechanical, and mining en- 
gineering, agriculture, horticulture, stock raising, 
architecture, military tactics, and general science 
and literature. The institutions of this class, 
for theological instruction, are the Theological 
Department of Iowa Wesleyan University, the 
German Presbyterian Theological School of the 
North-west, and the Swedish Lutheran Mission 
Institute. The law schools of the state consist 
of the law departments, respectively, of the state 
university, the Iowa Wesleyan University, and 
Simpson Centenary College. The chief medical 
schools are the medical department of the state 
university, and the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons, at Keokuk. 

Special Instruction. — The chief institutions 
for special instruction are the Iowa Institution for 
the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at Council 
Bluffs, and the Iowa State College for the Blind, 
at Vinton. Besides these, there are two state 
reform schools, one at Eldora and the other at 
Salem. At Davenport and at Cedar Falls, there 
is a state soldiers' orphan home. 
_ Educational Journals. — The first publica- 
tion in Iowa devoted to the interests of schools 
was a monthly, commenced at Dubuque, in 
January, 1853, under the title of the District 
School Journal of Education for the State of 
Iowa. This name was afterwards changed to 
Tlie Iowa Journal of Education. It was sus- 
pended in 1856. In January, 1857, a monthly 
entitled The Voice of Iowa was commenced at 
Cedar Rapids, and was made the organ of the 
state teachers' association. It was, however, soon 



suspended. The Literary Advertiser and Public 
School Advocate was published from May, 1859, 
to October, 1860. In July of the latter year, 
The Iowa School Journal,a. monthly of 16 pages, 
was started at Des Moines, and has been continued 
up to the present time (1876). Animportant in- 
fluence is attributed to it in connection with the 
schools and educational system of the state. The 
Iowa Instructor was commenced in 1859 ; after- 
wards united with the Journal, and, in 1872, 
consolidated with The Manual, a monthly, com- 
menced August 1., 1871. In January, 1874, 
The Common School was started at Davenport, 
but in 1875, it was united with the Iowa 
School Journal. 

IOWA COLLEGE, at Grinnell, Iowa, was 
established at Davenport, in 1847, and was re- 
moved to Grinnell in 1860. It was founded by 
Congregationalists and Presbyterians (who with- 
drew in 1 852), but is without any sectarian or ec- 
clesiastical control. Its productive funds amount 
to about $90,000. It has libraries containing 
about 6,000 volumes, a museum of natural his- 
tory, chemical, philosophical, and astronomical 
apparatus, etc. The cost of tuition ranges from 
•115 to $22 per year, with music, drawing, and 
painting as extras. Aid is furnished to needy 
students. The studies are arranged in the follow- 
ing departments: (1) Normal and English de- 
partment, furnishing all " English studies," or 
preparation for teaching; (2) Academy course, of 
two years, preparatory to the College and Ladies' 
courses ; (3) Ladies' course, of four years, chiefly 
consisting of college studies, like that of the best 
Eastern seminaries ; (4) College course, of four, 
years, for both sexes. This is either classical or sci- 
entific, each including modern languages, and the 
latter, some postgraduate studies. — In 1875-6, 
there were 17 instructors and 4 lecturers (in all 
the departments), and 337 students : post-gradu- 
ate 4; college course, 45 ; ladies' course, 40 ; acad- 
emy course, 68 ; normal and English depart- 
ment, 174. Seventeen states and forty counties of 
Iowa were represented by its students in 1875, 
and there is an increasing attendance from the 
eastern and middle states. The Rev. George F. 
Magoun, D.D., the present incumbent, appointed 
in 1862, has been the only president. 

IOWA, State University of, at Iowa City, 
was chartered in 1857, and organized in 1860. It 
is non-sectarian. It has productive funds to the 
amount of $220,000 ; and the value of its build- 
ings, grounds, and apparatus is $250,000. Bi- 
ennial appropriations are made by the legislature. 
It has an astronomical observatory, laboratory, 
and cabinets. The college library contains- be- 
tween 6.000 and 7,000 volumes ; the law library, 
2.500 volumes. The academical department, be- 
sides preparatory classes, has four regular courses; 
namely, classical, leading to the degree of Bach- 
elor of Arts; philosophical and scientific, leading 
to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy; and civil 
engineering, leading to the degree of Civil En- 
gineer. Both sexes are admitted, and tuition is 
free. The law department was established, as the 
Iowa Law School, at Des Moines, in 1865, and 



IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 



IRELAND 



477 



was united with the university in 1868. The 
medical department was established in 180s. In 
1874 — 5, the academic department had '21 in- 
structors and 423 students ; the law department 
had 4 instructors and 106 students; and the med- 
ical department, 13 instructors and !)4 students. 
The Rev. George Thatcher, D.D., is (l87(i) the 
president. 

IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, 
at Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, was chartered in 1855, 
grovdng out of the Mt. Pleasant CoUegiate In- 
stitute, established some years before. It is open 
to both sexes, and is under the control of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church. It has an endow- 
ment of $03,000. The libraries contain about 
3,000 volumes. The university comprises 5 de- 
partments; namely, of liberal arts, with classical 
and scientific courses, of four years each, and a 
preparatory course of two years ; of theology; of 
law ; of pharmacy and anatomy ; and of tech- 
nology. In 1874—5, there were 15 regular in- 
structors and 217 students in all the depart- 
ments. A normal department has lately been 
organized. German College (q. v.), though dis- 
tinct from the university in government, is in- 
timately connected with it in instruction. The 
presidents of the university have been as follows: 
Rev. L. W. Berry, D.D. ; Henry Jas. Harlan; 
Rev. Charles Elliott, D. D. ; Rev. G. B. Jocelyn; 
Rev. Charles Holmes, D. D.; Rev. John Wheeler; 
Rev. Jno. Spaulding, Ph. D., the present incum- 
bent (1876). 

IRELAND, an island which forms an im- 
portant part of the United K ingdom of ( > reat 
Britain and Ireland, having an area of 32,531 
sq. m., and a population, in 1871, of 5,402,759. 

Educational History. — Annals that have con- 
siderable claim to authenticity ascribe to the 
people of Ireland a remarkable progress in educa- 
tion at a very early period. Thus, it is said, that 
Ollav Fola. who reigned about 900 B. G. founded 
in Tara schools of philosophy, astronomy, history, 
poetry, and medicine, and that these institutions 
were encouraged by his successors, during many 
centuries. In the 5th century, A.D., after its eon- 
version to Christianity, Ireland was greatly cel- 
ebrated not only for its religious zeal (hence called 
insula sanctorum, isle of saints) but for its in- 
stitutions of learning. After the conflicts with 
the Saxons and Danes, the victorious king Brian 
Boru, among other efforts to improve the con- 
dition of his people, founded schools and pro- 
moted education. After the conquest of Ireland 
by the English, the first recognition on the part 
of parliament of the expediency of providing the 
means of education for the Irish people, was the 
act of 28 Henry VIII., to establish parochial 
schools. In 1570, an act was passed instituting 
a free school in every diocese. In ] 608, James I. 
commenced the establishment of Royal Free 
Schools. Various statutes were passed on this 
subject in the reigns of Charles II., William III., 
and the first three Georges ; but the main ob- 
ject seems to have been to proselytize the people 
to the Protestant faith. The Charter Schools, 
partly supported by parliamentary grants, had 



the same object. The bad effects of a policy so 
obnoxious to the Catholics, induced the parlia- 
mentary commission, in 1812, to state, in their 
report, that no scheme of education should be 
undertaken in Ireland which attempted " to in- 
fluence or disturb the peculiar religious tenets of 
any sect or denomination of Christians." Par- 
liament, for a time, endeavored to apply the 
principle by distributing its grants to the Kildare 
Society; but the plan failed, as the society en- 
forced the reading of the Scriptures in all its 
schools. The letter of Mr. Stanley, chief secre- 
tary of Ireland (afterwards Lord Derby), to the 
Lord Lieutenant, written in 1831, forms the 
charter of the Irish National System. The new 
system was based on the plan of " a combined 
literary and separate religious education," and was 
committed to a board of 7 members of different 
religious opinions. Public aid was granted on 
condition that the repairs of the school, the 
salary of the master, and half the cost of school 
requisites should be locally provided. The 
extent to which the economical condition of 
Ireland interfered with the financial proposals 
of the board, may be estimated from the fact 
that, even in 1874, while the board paid in 
aid of schools nearly £433,000, the local aid 
amounted to less than £80,000. The promise 
of a national and non-sectarian system was not 
fulfilled in the action of the board, as it per- 
mitted religious instruction to be intermingled 
with the secular, and issued text-books of a dis- 
tinctively religious character. The policy, as 
first announced, was accepted by the Catholics, 
but strenuously opposed by the clergy and laitj 
of the Established Church, and by the Presby- 
terians of Ulster. At the close of 1833, the 
number of National Schools in operation was 
789, having 107,042 pupils enrolled; at the close 
of 1839, the former had increased to 1.581, and 
the latter, to 192,971. In the latter year, ex- 
planations were made by the board which satis- 
fied the Presbyterians, who had made various 
objections to the system, in regard to the ar- 
rangements for religious instruction, and to the 
exclusion of the Bible during school hours. The 
board declared these points of objection to be 
conceded, but without any change of its rules. 
This new rendering of the rules was followed 
by an extension of the system. In 1841, there 
were 2,237 schools, and 281,849 pupils. Shortly 
after this, the Catholic hierarchy manifested 
a strong desire to acquire the control of such 
of the National Schools as contained any chil- 
dren of their own persuasion ; and the Synod of 
Thurles, which met in 1860, while giving no 
definite judgment on the National System, de- 
clared that " the separate education of the Cath- 
olic youth is, by all means, to be preferred to it." 
The more aggressive spirit manifested by the 
( 'atholics against the National System during 
the past tweni/-five years, has led the board, 
from time to time, to adopt conciliatory meas- 
ures ; such as the repeated changes in the con- 
science clause, with the view of preventing the 
alleged proselytizing tendencies of Protestant 



478 



IRELAND 



schools ; the special regulations in favor of con- 
vent schools ; the increased proportion accorded 
to Catholic representation in the hoard, which 
has been increased from two to seven, in 1831, 
to five in fourteen, in 1851 , and to ten in twenty, 
in 1861 ; and the endowment of schools, under 
Catholic management, in the neighborhood of, 
and as rivals to, the Model Schools, which are 
the special objects of denominational hostility. 
These proceedings were strongly opposed espe- 
cially by the Presbyterians, who are the warmest 
supporters of the National System ; and it must 
be acknowledged that they have failed in their 
object. No Roman Catholic dignitary has sat 
in the board since 1863, and the most recent ex- 
pression of Catholic feeling on the subject has 
been the formation, in Dublin, of a Catholic 
Union of clergy and gentry to promote the 
establishment of denominationalism in the entire 
education of Ireland. The popular feeling, how- 
ever, seems, as a rule, to be in favor of united 
education. 

National System. — Aid is granted to two 
classes of schools : those vested in the commis- 
sioners, or in trustees ; and non-vested, being the 
property of private individuals. All National 
Schools receive pecuniary aid in salaries to 
teachers, results' fees, and books, and the benefits 
of inspection and training. Vested Schools alone 
receive building grants. National Schools com- 
prise Model Schools (District and Minor), which 
are wholly built and supported by parliament, 
are under the exclusive management of the 
board, and are intended to promote united edu- 
cation, to exhibit the most improved methods of 
instruction, and to educate young persons for 
the office of teacher ; Agricultural Schools, with 
farms and gardens, which are devoted to the 
illustration and introduction of the most ap- 
proved systems of husbandry and tillage, and 
which are divided into four classes : ( L) First 
Class Agricultural Schools, subdivided into (1) 
those under the management of the board, and 
(2) those under local management; (II) Or- 
dinary Schools, subdivided into (3) those with 
farms, and (4) those with gardens ; Convent 
Schools, which receive aid as Non -Vested 
Schools, and in which the members of the com- 
munity may act as literary teachers ; Work-house 
Schools, and Schools attached to prisons, asylums, 
etc. School-houses are not to be employed as 
the stated places of divine worship of any relig- 
ious community, nor for the transaction of any 
political business ; and no emblems of denom- 
inational character are to be exhibited in them 
during the hours of united instruction. In Vested 
Schools, such pastors or other persons as shall be 
approved of by the guardians of the children, 
shall have access to them in the school room for 
the purpose of giving them instruction there ; 
in Non- Vested Schools, it is for the patrons and 
managers to determine what religious instruc- 
tion shall be given in the school room. The 
patrons and managers of all National Schools 
have the right to permit the Holy Scriptures 
(either in the authorized or in the Douay version) 



to be read at the times set apart for religious in- 
struction. — The local government of the schools 
is vested in local patrons or managers, who can 
appoint and dismiss teachers, under certain re- 
strictions. Inspectors visit their schools at least 
three times a year, communicate to the local 
managers their criticisms and suggestions, and 
report fully the results of their inspection to the 
Board. All National-School teachers are divided 
into the following classes : principals, assistants, 
junior literary assistants, work -mistresses, and 
teachers of industrial departments. There are 
also three classes of Monitors, whose term of 
service is three years, and whose rate of compen- 
sation ranges from £4 to £18 per annum. — The 
only training establishment for teachers in con- 
nection with the Board is the Institution, in 
Marlborough Street, Dublin, which was opened 
January 15., 1838. It is capable of accommodat- 
ing about 100 masters and 75 mistresses, who 
are divided into three classes : (1) the General or 
Ordinary Class, composed of teachers of National 
Schools, who have been recommended by the in- 
spectors ; (2) the Special or Extra Training Class, 
composed chiefly of teachers who have been 
selected from the General Class for additional 
training; and (3) the Extra Class, composed of a 
limited number of respectable and well-informed 
young persons who wish to qualify themselves to 
act as teachers. Teachers summoned for train- 
ing are allowed their traveling expenses, are 
provided with free board and lodging, receive a 
small weekly gratuity, and also their class salary 
subject to a deduction of £15 per annum for a 
substitute. Teachers are classified as of the 1st, 
2d, or 3d class, and promotion from one to the 
other is regulated partly by examination, and 
partly by the efficiency of their schools. Male 
teachers of the 1st class receive £58 a year ; of 
the 3d class, £32. Female teachers of the 1st 
class receive £48 ; of the 3d class, £25. The 
National School Teachers Act (1875) was de- 
signed to supplement the incomes of the teach- 
ers by granting state aid corresponding to local 
contributions. The latter, however, only amount' 
ed to £32,055 instead of £60,000, as was con- 
templated. National teachers receive,™ addition 
to their class salaries, the total amount of residts' 
fees earned in the schools, which are paid accord- 
ing to a fixed programme. Thus for children 
(4 to 6 years of age) who know the alphabet, 
and can spell and read words of two letters, the 
fee is 3s. each; for reading in the First Class, 2s., 
etc. The whole number of classes is six, besides 
the infants' class, numbered from 1 upward to 6, 
the 5th and 6th being each divided into a first and 
a second stage. The common branches of instruc- 
tion, including grammar, geography, and needle- 
work, are taught. 

Educational Condition (National System). — 
On the 31st of December, 1875, there were 7,267 
National Schools in operation (Ulster, 2,737 ; 
Munster, 1,822; Leinster, 1,551; Connaught, 
1,157). The Vested Schools numbered 2,105 ; 
the Non-Vested, 5,162. The number of chil- 
dren who attended some part of the year 1875, 



IRELAND 



479 



was 1,011,799 ; the number on the rolls, on the 
last day of the month immediately preceding 
the annual examination, was 577.541 ; anil the 
average daily attendance was 389,961. Of the 
children taught during the year, 79.2 per cent 
were Roman Catholic children. The Model 
Schools, in operation during 1875, were '29 : 
in Dublin, 3; and, in other parts of the coun- 
try, 26. The average attendance of pupils was 
8,229, out of an enrollment of 16,601, in- 
cluding 4,989 ( 'atholics, 4,747 Presbyterians, 
5,673 Episcopalians, and 1,282 of other persua- 
sions. The number of Work-house Schools un- 
der the board was 156. with 13,835 pupils en- 
rolled, and an average daily attendance of 7,143. 
The total number of students admitted into the 
Training Establishment was 294, of whom 150 
completed their training within the year. — The 
number of teachers under the board was as fol- 
lows : principals, 7,067 (males, 4,371 ; females, 
2,696) ; assistants, 3,037 (males, 713 ; females. 
2,324) ; junior literary and industrial assistants, 
177 ; work-mistresses, 325. The total amount of 
payments to teachers of every kind made from all 
sources during the year ending March 31., 1876, 
was £491,991.4s. The entire sum locally contrib- 
uted for education, in 1875, was £84,860, 4s. 9d. 
In 1875, there were 21 First-Class Agricultural 
Schools, under the exclusive management of the 
board, anil 11 under local management. The num- 
ber of school farms was 228. — In 1874 — 5, the 
evening schools numbered 138, with 10,343 pu- 
pils on the rolls, and 4,250 in average attendance. 
There were 22 industrial schools, with 1,565 pu- 
pils enrolled, and 1,397 in average attendance. 

Oilier Educational Agencies. — The Church 
Education Society, founded in Dublin, in 1839, 
as a protest against the National School Board, 
for a time gathered in a large number of pupils. 
In 1 867, it had 1,451 schools, with 63,549 pupils. 
Since then, these numbers have declined ; many 
of its schools have been transferred to Diocesan 
Educational Boards. The Kildare-Place training 
and model schools are usually attended by about 
50 students, males and females. — The Institute 
of Christian Brothers (R. C.) founded in Water- 
ford, in 1802, for the education of poor children, 
in 1876, had 291 schools, and 31,878 pupils en- 
rolled. The Incorporated Society in Dublin for 
promoting English Protestant schools in Ireland 
holds a large amount of landed and other prop- 
erty, having an income of £8,000 a year. It has 
8 boarding institutions, 6 for boya and 2 for 
girls, besides 10 day schools. — The other classes 
of schools named in the ( 'ommissioners' Report 
of 1868 are : Irish Church Mission, attended by 
1,726 pupils; Island and Coast Society, by 169; 
Wesleyan. by 720; Presbyterian, by 409; Society 
of Friends, by 117 ; Religious Orders of Men's 
Schools, by 706 ; Miscellaneous, by 954. The 
total number of private schools was 1,165, of 
which 690 were assisted by endowments. — The 
Sunday School Society for Ireland was founded 
in 1809. On the 1st of January, 1 876, there were, 
in connection with it, 2,342 schools, attended by 
184,589 scholars, and 16,560 gratuitous teachers. 



Secondary and Superior Instruction. — Of the 
higher institutions of learning, the wealthiest is 
Trinity College, in Dublin, founded in 1591. In 
its original charter, Queen Elizabeth nominated 
a provost, three fellows, and three scholars, to 
constitute, with their successors a body corpo- 
rate. The number of members has since then 
been increased; and, in 1876, consisted of a 
provost, 7 senior fellows, 26 junior fellows, and 
70 scholars. The system of instruction is super- 
intended by the fellows, together with a number 
of professors (35, in 1876). Students, after an 
examination in Creek, Latin, arithmetic, English 
composition, history, and geography, are ad- 
mitted as fellow commoners, pensioners, or sizars, 
which last class is limited to 30, and is partially 
maintained out of the college funds. The course 
of instruction extends over four years. A med- 
ical school is attached to the university, to which 
has lately been added a school of engineering. 
The college has a library of 160.000 volumes; 
and its income, in 1873, was £61,324. The 
average number of students on the books 
of Trinity College is 1,100. — In 1845, an act was 
passed by Parliament for establishing new col- 
leges in Ireland, and three colleges, called Queen's 
Colleges, were at once established under this 
act, — at Belfast, Cork, and Galway. The gov- 
ernment of each of these institutions is vested 
in a council, consisting of the president and six 
professors, elected from amongst themselves. r l he 
number of students attending the colleges, in 
]s74 — 5, was 783. — The Roman Catholic uni- 
versity of Dublin was organized by the Catholic 
bishops of Ireland, in 1854, and depends for its 
maintenance wholly upon the voluntary con- 
tributions of the Roman ( 'atholic people of 
Ireland. It has five faculties. — theology, law. 
medicine, philosophy and science, and letters. A 
number of Catholic colleges have been affiliated 
with the university. — A Presbyterian institu- 
tion. Magee College, was opened in Londonderry, 
in 1865; a Methodist College, in Belfast, in 
1868. 

/Special and Professional Instruction. — The 
Royal College of Science for Ireland was estab- 
lished in 1867, and is intended to supply a com- 
plete course of instruction in mining, agriculture, 
engineering, and manufactures. — Maynooth Col- 
lege, a Catholic seminary for candidates for the 
priesthood, was founded in 1795. All Hallows 
College, near Dublin, is intended to train mis- 
sionaries for the Catholic Church. The Pres- 
byterians have a theological school (the General 
Assembly's College) at Belfast. — The higher edu- 
cation of women, in Ireland, has been neglected ; 
but recently, amongst others, the following insti- 
tutions have been established : The Queen's In- 
stitute, Dublin, opened, in 1861, "for the employ- 
ment of educated women," the educational 
classes being modeled on those of Cheltenham 
t 'ollcge; Alexandra College, Dublin, on the plan 
of Queen's College. London; ami the Ladies' Col- 
legiate School. Belfast, opened in 1859. Trinity 
College, Dublin, and Queen's University hold 
examinations for girls and women. 



480 



ITALIAN LANGUAGE 



ITALIAN LANGUAGE. The Italian 
language has no claims commensurate with those 
of the German or the French, to a place in any 
regular course of instruction the object of which is 
general culture, and which, to that end, embraces 
the study of one or two modern languages. Its 
value for this purpose has not, however, been 
without advocates. Thus L. Gantter, the author 
of the article on the Italian language, in Schmid's 
Enci/clopadie (vol. in.), in discussing the relative 
importance of the principal modern languages 
for the German gymnasia, from an educational 
point of view, assigns the first place to English, 
the second to Italian, and the third to French ; 
and he appeals to Goethe, Niebuhr, Rauiner, 
Gregorovius, and many other celebrities to prove 
that the educational impulse which may reason- 
ably be expected from a study of the Italian 
language and literature, would prove stronger 
and more conducive to a general development of 
the mental faculties than that received from 
the study of French. This view, however, has 
found but few adherents ; and, except in Aus- 
tria, where, from practical and business consider- 
ations, the study of Italian is more extensively 
pursued than in any other country, precedence 
in the study of modern languages is given to 
English, German, and French. Italian has, how- 
ever, special importance for all students of music, 
vocal and instrumental, as well as for students 
of the fine arts. Music, in every country of the 
world, uses to a large extent technical expres- 
sions borrowed from the Italian ; the Italian opera 
is exceedingly popular in every large city of the 
world, and there is no student of the fine arts who 
is not anxious to complete his study of Italian 
art in Italy. These considerations have not 
only created a demand for instruction in Italian, 
but they are sufficiently important to recom- 
mend to students of music and of the fine arts 
a much more general study of this beautiful 
language than is to be met with at present ; and 
it is to be regretted that universities, colleges, 
academies, and especially female institutions of 
a higher grade, do not, more frequently than is 
the case at present, afford to their pupils an op- 
portunity to learn this language. 

The Italian language is one of the so-called 
Romanic languages (q. v.), and arose from the 
Latin in a way similar to that of the French. 
The new language was designated, to distinguish 
it from the Latin, Lingua vulgaris (volgare), and 
greatly varied in different parts of the country. 
Dante, in his work De vulgari eloquio, enumer- 
ated fourteen dialects, all of which, the Floren- 
tine not excepted, he declared to be unsuited for 
the literature of Italy. The written language 
was in the main fixed, as it now is, by Dante, 
Petrarch, and Boccaccio, — all Tuscans and Flor- 
entines ; and Italian literature attained its golden 
age at an earlier period than any other literature 
of modern Europe. The Italian language is 
spoken by almost the entire population of the 
kingdom of Italy, in the two little states of Mo- 
naco and San Marino, on the island of Corsica, 
in the Swiss canton of Ticino, and several com- 



munes of the cantons Grisons and "Valais, in the 
southern part of the Tyrol, in Triest and other 
cities of Istria and Dalmatia, and in the Hun- 
garian free city of Fimne. The entire territory 
in which the language is spoken contains, prob- 
ably, a population of about 28 millions. 

The Italian language is celebrated for its eu- 
phony, though many linguists prefer the Span- 
ish in this respect. Its smooth and melodious 
character is due, to a large extent, to an extra- 
ordinary predominance of vowels, every indigen- 
ous word of the language, with the exception of 
only five (il, in, con, nan, per) , ending in a vowel 
sound. This euphony is somewhat marred by 
the exuberance of the vowel i, which, in the ter- 
mination of Italian words has outgrown all just 
proportions — as much so as the German e. The 
pronunciation is very simple, as almost every 
sound is represented by only one letter or combi- 
nation of letters. It has no silent letters, and each 
of the vowels has only one sound, long or short ; 
these sounds, in the main, correspond with those 
of the German vowels. The letters k, w, y, andx 
are not found in the Italian alphabet ; and for 
the ph and th, occurring in the words of Latin 
and Greek origin, it has substituted/ and t. Like 
the French, it has lost the case-endings in the 
declension of nouns, and has introduced from the 
language of the Teutonic conquerors the definite 
article, the use of the personal pronoun before 
the verb, and the auxiliary verb. It exceeds the 
French in the richness of its augmentatives and 
diminutives, in the greater variety of the accents 
which may affect one of the last four syllables 
of the word, in its greater freedom of inversion, 
and in its freer and bolder phraseology. In a 
lexical point of view, the Italian bears a more 
striking resemblance, than either French, Span- 
ish, or Portuguese, to the common mother of 
these languages, the Latin. 

The special motives which, in a majority of 
cases, lead to a study of this language, naturally 
suggest a method of instruction different from 
that pursued in the teaching of French and Ger- 
man. The beauty of the language, which is re- 
flected in its structure and pronunciation, and 
which is so intimately connected with the lofty 
position which Italian art has attained in the 
history of civilization, should be pointed out 
with special care. Exercises in grammar and 
translation will require comparatively little at- 
tention; for not only is the structure of the 
language unusually shnple and easy, but its 
study is hardly ever begun until, in addition 
to the vernacular, the knowledge of some other 
language has been acquired. All the greater 
prominence, on the other hand, should be given 
to the practice of conversation ; for only in this 
way will the pupil fully realize the superiority 
of the language in point of beauty and eu- 
phony, and prepare himself for a visit to the 
country which, more than any other, captivates 
the affections of every artist. The literature 
of Italy scarcely admits of a comparison with 
that of Germany or France ; but the golden 
age of Italian literature presents names which 



ITALIAN LANGUAGE 



ITALY 



481 



will never fail to recommend the study of the 
Italian language to advanced scholars. Dante 
ranks with Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Goethe, 
as one of the greatest poets of the world, 
whom all civilized nations will always ad- 
mire ; and Italian would be studied, if it were 
only to read the Divina Commedia. And 
Dante is by no means the only great represent- 
ative of Italian literature, hi the middle ages, 
Italy stood for a time at the head of modern 
civilization (see Italy) ; and, though it has been 
unable to maintain this place, the literary world 
will never cease to admire Petrarch, Boccaccio 
Ariosto, Tasso. and Macchiavelli. As the ability 
to read this language is acquired by most 
students in a comparatively short time, and as 
the interest they take in Italian literature will 
chiefly center in the great names just men- 
tioned, the intelligent teacher will, as soon as it 
is practicable, begin with the reading of one of 
these authors. As the poets use a great many 
licenses in the alteration, addition, and omission 
of sounds, and also a multitude of exclusively 
poetic words, it is best for the student to be- 
gin with a prose writer; and Macchiavelli's II 
Principe or Istorie Florentine, in wdiich the 
style is as elegant as it is plain, will rarely fail 
to interest and satisfy him. hi the more recent 
periods of Italian literature, (lie writers Goldoni, 
Gozzi, Alfieri, Foscolo, Manzoni, Leopardi, Sil- 
vio fellico, Xiccolini have gained a well-deserved 
celebrity; and especially Manzoni's I Promessi 
Sposi, and Fellico's Le mie Prigioni have become 
favorite books of Italian students. 

The Italians are greatly behind many other 
nations in the philological study of their lan- 
guage. Buommatteis grammar DeUa lingua 
toscana (1648), which was adopted by the Acca- 
demia delta Orusca, only treats of letters, nouns, 
and articles. The first complete and systematic 
grammar, which has served as the basis of nearly 
all modern works, is the Ker/ule ed osservazioni, 
by Cortieelli (1785). In Germany, a good his- 
torical grammar of the Italian language has been 
written by Blanc (1844); and, in Italy, Pesavento 
has recently published a valuable comparative 
view of Latin and Italian, under the title Metodo 
Comparativo. In the English language, gram- 
mars of, and guides to, the Italian language have 
been published according to Aim's, Monteith's, 
and Ollendorff's methods, and by Biaggi, Cuore, 
Fontana, Forest!, Sauer, Thimm, Toscani, Ver- 
gani, Weale, and others. — The lexical literature 
began with the meager dictionary of Minerbi 
(1535). The first edition of the famous Voca- 
bolario degli Accademici delta Orusca, limited 
to the Tuscan dialect, appeared in 1 G02 ; the 
fifth revised edition was begun in 1843. The 
first dictionary embracing within its scope all 
the Italian dialects was by Alberti (G vols., 
1797 — 1805). Other dictionaries of this kind 
are the Dizionario delta lingua Ualiana, 
published at Bologna (7 vols., 1819-^26); the 
works by Mortara, Bellini, Codagni, and Mai- 
nardi (8 vols., 1845 — 56) ; those by Tommaseo 
and Bellini (1864) ; C'arena (12 vols., 1851—3) ; 



and Trinchera (2 vols., 1864). Italian-English 
dictionaries have been published by Graglia, 
James and Grassi, Meadows, Millhouse, Robert, 
Weale, Wessely, and others. — There are Italian 
readers for English-speaking students by Foresti, 
Roemer, and others. — The principal historians 
of Italian literature are Tirabosehi (14 vols., 
1772 — 83. and many editions since); Guinguene 
(1811—19); Maffei (1834) ; Cimoprelli (1845) ; 
Emiliano Giudici (1851); Malpaga (1855). 

ITALY, a kingdom of Europe, having an 
area of 114.409 square miles, and a population. 
in 1870, of 26,801,154. Almost the entire pop- 
ulation speak the Italian language, and belong 
to the Catholic Church. From the downfall of 
the Roman Empire, until 1870, when the annexa- 
tion of the remnant of the Papal dominions 
completed the modern kingdom of Italy, the 
country was but rarely, and only for a short 
time, united under one ruler. Generally, it was 
broken up into a number of small states, only 
connected with each other by the bond of a com- 
mon language. In the congress of Vienna, in 
1815, Italy was divided into the kingdoms of 
Sardinia and the Two Sicilies, the grand-duchy 
of Tuscany, the duchies of Parma, Modena, and 
Lucca, the Papal States, and the Lombardo- 
Yeuetian kingdom, the latter remaining with 
Austria. In 1859, all these states, with the ex- 
ception of apart of the Papal States and Yenctia, 
were annexed by the king of Sardinia, who 
then assumed the title of king of Italy. Yenctia 
was added in 18G6,and the Papal States in 1870. 
United Italy now occupies the tenth place among 
the nations of the earth, in regard to population, 
and the thirtieth in regard to area. 

Educational History. — After the destruction 
of the Roman Empire by Odoacer, in 47G, edu- 
cation in Italy was for a long time at a low ebb. 
The Ostrogoths, who, in 493, overthrew the rule 
of Odoacer, were the most intelligent among the 
German tribes, ami showed themselves receptive 
of literary impulses; but, unfortunately, their 
rule did not last long enough to test their pro- 
ductive power in the field of education. Their 
king, Theodoric the Great, who is said to have 
spoken four languages, placed at the head of his 
government one of the greatest scholars of the 
age, Cassiodorus, who founded a theological 
school, which was to connect the remnants of the 
civilization of the Romans and Greeks with 
Christian theology, and which served as a model 
for the theological schools of the middle ages. 
Having. at the age of 7(», retired to the monastery 
which he had founded, he not only taught the 
monks to devote themselves to the copying of an- 
cient manuscripts, but, by arranging the branches 
of a liberal education into the tririam and 
quadrivium,he drew up a programme of instruc- 
tion, which was adopted throughout the middle 
ages, and long after. Another statesman in the 
service of Theodoric, Boe'thius, was a still greater 
scholar than ( 'assiodorus ; and, by his translations 
of several of the works of Aristotle, as well as 
by his own works De musica and De consola- 
tione philosophies, exerted a far-reaching in 



482 



ITALY 



fluence upon the entire civilization of the middle 
ages, and became, jointly with Cassiodorus, the 
founder of the educational system of the scho- 
lastics (q. v.). The reign of the Ostrogothic kings 
is also noted for the foundation of the Benedic- 
tines (q. v.) , whose . schools, for centuries, were 
among the few places of refuge for the friends 
of education and civilization. Under the re- 
established rule of the Greek emperor, as well 
as under that of the Lombards, little was done 
for education. Pope Gregory I. was a patron of 
schools ; but, for several centuries after Ins death, 
Italy had no one who, as a scholar and teacher, 
can be compared with Bede and Alcuin. The 
elevation of Gerbert, the greatest scholar of the 
age. to the papal throne, under the name of 
Sylvester II., awakened new interest in. scien- 
tific studies ; and the great increase of power 
which the papacy attained through the energy 
of Gregory VII. and his successors, excited 
among the young Italian clergy an emulation for 
distinction which led to considerable progress in 
literature and education. In the 12th century, 
Italy became the birthplace of the modern uni- 
versities. These institutions arose as free asso- 
ciations of scholars who did not belong to the 
clergy, and were only bound together by their 
common devotion to science. The growth of the 
universities was rapid ; so that, after an existence 
of half a century, the law faculty of Bologna 
was attended by over 12,000 students. The 
medical school of Salerno also became one of 
the most famous schools of the middle ages, and 
was attended by students from all parts of the 
world. In these two schools, Bologna and 
Salerno, we see for the first time in the middle 
ages a free secular science develop itself inde- 
pendent of the church and of clerical influence. 
Besides giving to Europe its first universities, 
Italy also took the lead in the revival of classical 
studies. Dante and Petrarch, both ardent ad- 
mirers of the intellectual greatness of classic 
antiquity, became the founders of the first gold en 
age of Italian literature, which was the first 
among the literatures of Europe to attain a high 
degree of excellence. A number of teachers, 
proceeding from this school, traveled from city 
to city, in order to instruct all those desirous of 
learning. The first of these traveling teachers 
was Giovanni Malpaghino, a pupil of Petrarch, 
who counted among his pupils most of the learned 
men, who, in the beginning of the 15th century, 
raised the Boman classics from the obscurity 
which had for so long a time surrounded them. 
Emmanuel Chrysoloras, a learned Greek, was the 
first to awaken an interest in the language and 
litei-ature of his native country, wdiich he taught 
in Florence, Milan, Venice, and Borne. With 
the arrival of the learned Greeks in Italy, after 
the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire, the 
study of the Greek language received a fresh im- 
pulse, and a knowledge of that language was 
considered necessary to a complete education. 
During this time, the republics and princes of 
Italy vied with each other in protecting and pro- 
moting the cause of education. This was espe- 



cially the case at Florence, where the family of 
the Medici, particularly Coshno and Lorenzo de' 
Medici, patronized science and art with an en- 
thusiasm which has rarely been equaled in the 
history of the world. Among the many Floren- 
tine representatives of classical learning, were 
Tommaso Parentucelli, afterward Pope Nicho- 
las X., Niccolo de' Niccoli, Gemisthius, Plethon, 
Marsilius Ficinus, and Poco of Mirandola. In 
Venice, science was cultivated rather by single 
individuals than by the state. In Naples, king 
Alfonso gathered around him a number of learned 
men, among whom the names of Lorenzo della 
Valle and Antonio degli Beccadelli are best 
known. In Milan, Francisco Sforza was an active 
promoter of the sciences ; while the lesser courts 
of Mantua, Padua, and Ferrara also had a num- 
ber of men eminent in literature and science. 
The popes also called to their courts distinguished 
scholars, among whom Mafeus Vegius occupied 
a prominent position as a writer on education. 
With the election of Tommaso Parentucelli to 
the papal chair, Borne became the principal seat 
of classical learning. Under his successors learn- 
ing rapidly declined, until Leo X., again raised it 
to a higher position. The principal scholars of 
this period were Cardinal Bembo and Petrns 
Pomponatius. Italian learning from the 14th 
to the beginning of the 16th century, consti- 
tutes an important epoch in the general 
history of education. It put an end to scho- 
lasticism, and prepared the way for the schol- 
arship of Germany. Its general features are 
thus characterized by Bamner in his History of 
Pedagogy : "The learning of the middle ages, 
the scholastic especially, gave place, by degrees, 
to the classical. The Italians became enthusiastic: 
in their awakened love for the old Boman 
authors, in whom they recognized their an- 
cestors ; and their understanding of the Greek 
classics was promoted by native Greek teachers. 
After they were enabled to read Plato, a pas- 
sionate love of the beautiful arose within them, 
and likewise a corresponding abhorrence of the 
hideousness of scholasticism, which based itself 
upon Aristotle ; but, when they studied Aris- 
totle in the original, and learned how entirely 
different he is from the Aristotle of the 
scholastics, the authority of the latter began 
at once to decline. Yet the classical philologists, 
with the exception of Dante and Picus, 
overlook the depth, and the earnest love of 
truth which characterized the more eminent of 
the scholastics. And moreover, there were many 
among them who became so foolishly enamored 
of the beauty of the classical form, whether in 
prose or in poetry, that they imagined their own 
externally correct imitations of the ancients to> 
possess a worth intrinsically equal to their mod- 
els ; while such imitations, on a close inspection, 
of ten proved to be but hollow and delusive phan- 
toms without either life or spirit. After the 
elevation of the Italian language into the 
vernacular, it gradually supplanted the Latin, 
which, in the middle ages, had been treated as. 
the vernacular, and as such was subjected io the- 



ITALY 



483 



varying caprice of writers. The ancient classics, 
< 'iccro especially, then became models for imita- 
tion, but an imitation mostly of a lifeless anil ser- 
vile sort. Only a very few. Laurentius Valla, for 
instance, applied their philological attainments to 
New Testament exegesis. Toward the Hebrew 
tongue and the exegesis of the Old Testament a 
great and decided repugnance was manifested. ' I 'In- 
severe and sacred earnestness of the Old Testament 
frowned harshly upon every phase of pagan Epi- 
cureanism ; while the latter manifested no desire 
to become acquainted with its own depravity. 
Pagan sentiments, a pagan life, and writings 
imbued with paganism, were characteristics of 
Italian scholars, ami these were often united to an 
orthodox faith and a pious enthusiasm — united 
too, it may be, innocently, since the examples in 
the teachings of the clergy were such as to drown 
and deaden the voice of conscience. Against the 
lamentable corruption of the church, both in its 
head and its members, the greater part arrayed 
themselves — a few, like Dante, with holy zeal, but 
the greater part, only with mocking satire. Such, 
in brief, was the character of those Italian philol- 
ogists to whom our attention has been directed. 
And these men exerted a vast influence upon the 
learning of the Germans and Dutch. Rudolphus 
Agricola. Reuchlin. Regiomontanus, Erasmus, am I 
many other distinguished scholars went to Italy 
to perfect themselves. The Italians became their 
patterns; upon these they modeled themselves; to 
equal them, or if possible to surpass them, was 
their highest aim." In the course of the L6th 
century, Italy gradually lost her reputation as the 
foremost cultivator of classical studies. Though 
she still produced men like Ariosto and Tasso, 
Giordano Bruno and (ialileo * oililei. the character 
of her schools degenerated. Only in the province 
of fine arts Italy continued to be the teacher 
of the civilized world ; and music in particular 
was, in this and the following centuries, chiefly 
indebted to Italy for its progress. Alter the 
foundation of the order of the Jesuits, the higher 
schools in the larger portion of the Italian states 
passed gradually under their control ; and, for a 
long time, the higher classes of the nation may 
be said to have been educated by the Jesuits. 
(See Jesuits.) — The first of the Italian states 
to abolish the supervision of the schools by tin 1 
church was Sardinia. In 1729, it withdrew the 
supervision of secondary schools from the relig- 
ious orders, and provided that teachers of this 
class of schools should be educated in a college 
connected with a university. In 1772, a decree 
was published which provided for primary 
schools. The French occupation gave a decided 
impulse to education, and primary schools were 
established in every town. Upon the restora- 
tion of the old government, in 1814, the laws 
passed during the French rule were abolished: 
and. although, in 1821, an attempt was made to 
re-establish common schools, no decided progress 
was made, until, in 1844, a normal school for 
teachers was established in Turin. A law was 
passed in 1848, and revised in 1857, which sought 
to raise the schools of Sardinia to a level with 



those of < Jermany. Switzerland, and other coun- 
tries. The other Italian states were all provided 
with schools, but in none of them was much at- 
tention paid to the education of the people ; and 
their educational condition was generally admit- 
ted to be greatly interior to that of most other 
European countries. Only in Lombardo-Yenetia 
had the school system of the Austrian em- 
pire been successfully introduced, and produced 
satisfactory results. Upon the creation of the 
kingdom of Italy, in 1 859 , a school law was passed, 
which introduced the system of Sardinia into the 
annexed provinces. Since that time, the schools 
have progressed slowly, but steadily ; and it has 
been the aim of the government to break as 
much as possible the influence of the church in 
educational matters. An official report pub- 
lished in 1866 (Statistica di Regno d' Italia. — 
Tgbrusione pubblica e privates, Firenzc, 1866) 
states that, owing to the extraordinary efforts 
made by the government, the increase in the 
number of public schools, in 18(>3, amounted to 
4,363, and, in 1864, to 4.354; and the increase 
in the number of pupils, in 18G3, to 235,210, 
and, in L864, to 135,887. Nevertheless, much 
remains to be done: for. in 1S74, there were in 
Italy only 70 pupils in the public schools to ev- 
ery 1,000 inhabitants; while, in Switzerland, 
there were 155 ; in (Jermany, 152 ; in Denmark, 
L35 ; and in F ranee, 131. 

Instruction in all the grades is regulated by 
the law of Nov. 13., 1859, which was amended 
by the decrees of Sept. 22.. and Nov. 21., 1807. 
The department of education, according to the 
law of 1859, is presided over by a minister of 
public instruction, who is assisted by a secretary 
general, a supreme council of public instruction, 
and a legal counselor. The department is divided 
into three divisions, each with its own chief ; and 
these again are subdivided into two sections, each 
with its own superintendent. — 'the first division 
is the financial and economical, which has charge 
of the funds devoted to public instruction. The 
second has charge of the fine arts, antiquities, 
public libraries not connected with universities, 
the public archives, etc. The third division 
superintends the instruction given in the univer- 
sities and the special schools. Secondary, as well 
as primary instruction, instead of forming a 
separate division, has a central superintendent, 
who has entire charge of both departments of in- 
struction. A supreme council of public instruc- 
tion, consisting of fourteen ordinary and seven 
extraordinary members, is constituted under the 
presidency of the minister. This council must 
be consulted on new educational laws, on con- 
tests between school authorities, on applications 
for professorships, and on offenses committed by 
] in ifessors < >f normal and secondary schoi 4s; it may 
] propose new educational laws to the minister ; it 
examines text-books, passes judgment on students 
suspended by their rectors, and presents every five 
years a report to the minister of instruction, on 
the condition of all the branches of education. 
By the law of 1859. three general inspectors were 
appointed, — one for superior, one for secondary. 



484 



ITALY 



and One for primary, special, and normal in- 
struction. Each one of the 69 provinces of the 
kingdom has, for its highest school authority, a 
school board, consisting of the prefect as presi- 
dent, the superintendent as vice-president, and 
six councilors, two of whom are appointed by 
the ministry, two by the provincial deputation, 
and two by the magistrate of the principal city. 
The members appointed by the elective councils 
hold their office for three years, but can be re- 
appointed. They depend upon the prefect who 
is entrusted with the general direction of all the 
schools, public as well as private, and upon the 
superintendent of the province, who has the 
care of all the schools in his district ; while the 
school board enforces the laws and rules relative 
to the primary, secondary, and normal schools of 
the province. The board also orders extraordinary 
inspections of the schools ; and, in urgent cases, 
has the power to close them, but must immedi- 
ately notify the minister of the fact. 

Primary Instruction. — Primary instruction 
is compulsory throughout Italy, according to the 
law of 1859. The school age is from 6 to 14 
years ; and all parents neglecting to send their 
children between these ages to school, are liable 
to a fine. The course of instruction comprises 
four years. The schools are composed of a lower 
and a higher grade, each of two classes. Li the 
former are taught, religion, reading, writing, ele- 
mentary arithmetic, the elements of the metrical 
system, and the Italian language. In the higher 
grade, in addition to the studies of the lower, are 
taught composition, penmanship, book-keeping, 
elementary geography, the national history, and 
elementary science. Schools of the lower grade, 
one for boys and one for girls, must be main- 
tained by every commune, although the minister 
may give permission for two communes to unite, 
if they are too poor to support separate schools. 
Schools of the higher grade must be established 
in all towns with more than 4000 inhabitants. 
Communes of less than 500 inhabitants must 
provide a mixed school for both sexes, if there 
are 50 children of school age. The school term 
extends from Oct. 15. to Aug. 15. Examina- 
tions both oral and written are held every six 
months, and are directed by the municipal super- 
intendent, unless state officials interpose. Cer- 
tificates are granted promoting the candidates, 
and prizes are given to the most deserving. The 
persons conducting the examinations are, for the 
lower classes, the teachers of the classes, and for 
the next higher, as well as for the highest grades, 
the class teachers and two other teachers of the 
same or a lower grade. Religious examinations 
are conducted by the clergy, but are obligatory for 
Roman Catholic children only. Every examiner 
can add ten marks to the results of the written 
and oral examinations, on account of the con- 
duct of the pupil during the year. Six marks con- 
stitute the standard of approbation. Male teachers 
must be eighteen, and female teachers seventeen 
years old. Having passed the necessary exami- 
nation, they are appointed for three years, and 
unless notified six months before the expiration 



of their term, are considered re-appointed. Teach- 
ers may punish their scholars by admonition, 
a note of censure in the school registers, separa- 
tion from their comrades, or suspension, of which 
the parents must be informed. Harsh and of- 
fensive words, corporal punishment, and extra 
lessons as penalties are forbidden. Suspension 
for a week or expulsion can be inflicted by the 
municipal superintendent ; but each case of ex- 
pulsion must be brought to the notice of the 
mayor, and must be approved by him. The min- 
imum salaries paid to teachers in cities are 900 
and 700 lire (1 lira = $0.19.3) for the higher 
and lower grades respectively, and 600 and 500 
lire in the country. A fund to provide pen- 
sions for teachers in their old age has been estab- 
lished, to which teachers contribute two and one- 
half per cent of their salaries, and from which 
pensions equal to their salaries, are paid to all 
who have reached the age of fifty-five, and have 
taught for thirty years. A pension equal to one- 
third of their salaries is granted to those who 
are incapacitated after fifteen years of service. 
Widows of teachers receive pensions as long as 
they remain unmarried. A private school may 
be kept by any citizen who possesses the neces- 
sary diploma and a certificate of good morals. 
A written request for permission to open such a 
school must be presented to a district school in- 
spector, who may refuse it, if he sees fit. He 
has also the power to visit and inspect all private 
schools, and make such changes in their arrange- 
ment as may seem necessary. In urgent cases he 
can close the schools. No text-hooks are pre- 
scribed for private schools, but the government 
can prohibit such books as it may deem offensive. 
Besides the public and private day schools there 
are also evening schools for adults of both sexes, 
and Sunday improvement schools. The number 
of public day schools, in 1872, was 34,213 ; of 
which 18,243 were for boys ; 12,732, for girls; 
and 3,238, with mixed classes. In addition to 
these there were 9,167 private day schools, mak- 
ing the total number of primary schools 43,380. 
These schools are distributed very unequally in 
the northern and southern portions of Italy. 
Thus, in the northern province of Novara, there 
ia a school for every 368 inhabitants, and in 
Turin one for every 355 inhabitants ; while the 
southern province of Basilicata has only one 
school for 1,304 inhabitants, and Calabria, one 
for 1,400. The number of evening schools was, 
in the same year, 9,809, and of the Sunday im- 
provement schools, 4,743. Adding these to the 
43,380 schools as above, we have about 58,000 
schools affording primary instruction. The num- 
ber of pupils in the day schools, in the school 
year 1871 — 2, was 1,745,467, of whom 1,553,389 
were in the public schools, and 192,078 in the 
private schools. This number, 1,745,476, re- 
presents the largest attendance during the year, 
which generally occurs in the beginning of win- 
ter ; during the summer months, the attendance 
fell off to 1,242,053. The number of pupils in 
the evening schools for adults was 375,947, and 
in the Sunday improvement schools 153,585. 



ITALY 



485 



The number of teachers in the primary schools, 
in 1872. was 23,479 males and 20,028 females. 
making a total of 43,507. In 1873, there were 
42.1 is schools (34,781 public, 7,337 private) with 
44,430 teachers (of whom 9,329 were priests) and 
1,797,596 scholars (993,120 boys, and 804,476 
girls). In 1S74. there were 42,920 schools (35,583 
public, 7,337 private), with 45,596 teachers (8,927 
priests), and 1,836,381 pupils (1,009,020 boys and 
827,361 girls). In 1*74, the government spent. 
for elementary instruction, 232,1 1 2 lire; the pn iv- 
inces, 129,665 lire; the communes. 22,067,133 
lire; and other bodies. 611,727 lire. The normal 
schools are governed by the laws of June 24.. 
I860, and Nov.!)., 1861, and the course of study 
comprises three years. The first two years are 
devoted to a preparation for teaching in the lower 
grades; and, in the last year, the teacher is pre- 
pared for the higher grades. The course of study 
comprises religion and morality, pedagogy, the 
Italian language, exercises in composition, arith- 
metic, geometry, and book-keeping, the rudiments 
of natural history and natural philosophy, pen- 
manship, drawing, music, ami the principles of 
hygiene. For admission to the normal school, 
boys must have completed their sixteenth, and 
girls their fifteenth year. A model primary 
school is connected with almost every normal 
school, in which on certain days the students of 
the normal schools are permitted to teach under 
the direction of the professor of pedagogy. Nor- 
mal schools are of three classes: those supported 
(1) by the government, (2) by the provinces, and 
(3j by private persons. The number of normal 
schools, in 1872, was 125, of which 4S (23 for 
boys and 25 for girls) were supported by the state, 
21 (11 for boys, 10 for girls), by the provinces, 
and 56 (13 for boys and 43 for girls] were private 
institutions. The number of students in the same 
year was 6,130, and the number of teachers 845. 
A higher school for girls was founded in 1st; I in 
Milan; as it was found that a large number of 
girls attended the normal schools without any in- 
tention of becoming teachers, but with the so] • 
object of receiving a higher education. The favor 
with which this school was received, and the suc- 
cess which it met. induced other cities to provide 
similar schools. The course of study comprises 
ethics, the Italian language and literature, hy- 
giene, the natural sciences, geography, history, the 
French language and literature, arithmetic, book- 
keeping, penmanship, gymnastics, and needle- 
work. Besides these studies, which are obligatory 
for all the schools, some have also introduced the 
study of German ami English. The course of in- 
struction comprises three years in all the schools 
except in Milan, where it is four years, in order 
that more attention may be paid to natural 
science. The school in Milan was for a time five: 
but, as it was seen in other cities that a fee 
could be required without detriment to the [ 
school, a charge of 50 lire was made, which is 
the usual fee in the other cities. The conditions 
of admission are an age of 12 years, graduation 
from the primary schools, and the passing of 
an examination. The number of schools, in 1872, 



was 8; and the average number of pupils, 50. 
The largest number (124) of pupils was in Milan, 
and the lowest number (33), in Padua. Besides 
these schools, there are other high schools for 
girls, which board either all or a part of their 
pupils. These schools may be divided into five 
classes: (1) Those schools which depend im- 
mediately upon the government. These are six 
in number and board all their pupils. The course 
of study comprises, besides the studies pursued 
in the high schools for girls, music, dancing, for- 
eign languages, etc. (2) Those schools, which are 
under the direction of the government, but do 
not receive any aid from it. These are similar to 
those of the first class. (3) The schools [conaer- 
ralnri) of Tuscany. These were founded by 
Leopold I., towards the end of the 18th cent- 
ury, who endowed them with the property of 
supressed monasteries, and who gave the instruc- 
tion into the hands of lay sisters (an association 
of pious ladies who have an organization similar 
to that of convents), with whom it still remains. 
(4) The schools of St. Mary, in Sicily, which 
were founded in 1 720. and received the canonical 
institution in 1735; they were thus recognized as 
■ Cclesiastical corporations. Towards the close of 
the century, however, several of these institutions 
were reorganized by the state as lay corpora- 
tions. (5) 'I he schools connected with convents, 
which, after the suppression of the convents, 
continued to exist under the general association 

law. The total number of scl Is of these five 

classes was, in 1*72, 570 with 2.723 teachers, and 
17,158 boarding and 12.937 day scholars. The 
expenses amounted to 1,285,514 lire. 

Secondary instruction. — Secondary instruction 
in Italy is of two distinct kinds — classical and 
technical, 'the former is provided for in the 
gymnasia and the lyceums, and the latter in the 
technical schools. The classical course comprises 
eight years, of which the first five belong to the 
gymnasium, and the last three to the lyceum. 
'I he course of study in the gymnasia is as fol- 
lows: Latin is taught lu hours per week in the 

three lower, and li hours in the two higher classes; 
Italian. 7 hours in the three lower classes. 5 in 
the fourth, and 5 in the fifth class; geography, 

3 hours in the three lower classes; arithmetic, 
1 hour in the three lower, and 3 in the fourth 
and fifth classes: Greek, 5 hours : and history, 

4 hours in the fourth and fifth classes. Every 
gymnasium has six ordinary professors; that is. 
each one of the five classes has one professor for 
the literary instruction, while the sixth professor 
teaches mathematics only. The instruction in 
the lyceums is divided among seven professors, 
and comprises the following Studies : Italian, 
(i hours in the first, and 4 in the second class; 
Latin and Greek, 5 hours in all three classes ; 
history. 7j hours in the first, and 4 \ in the second 
class; mathematics, 6 hours in the first and 
second, and 2 j hours in the third class; philos- 
ophy, 4J hours in the second and third classes; 
natural philosophy and physical geography, 5, and 
natural philosophy, 9 hours in the third class. 
The programme and the course of study are de- 



486 



ITALY 



termined by the ministry of education, and are 
adapted by the faculty to each individual gym- 
nasium and lyceum. After finishing the course 
in the gymnasium or in the lyceum, the pupil 
must pass an examination for graduation. The 
provincial gymnasia and lyceums may conduct 
their own examinations for graduation, if they 
conform iu their course of studies to that of the 
royal schools ; while the private institutions of 
this class must send their pupils to the royal 
schools to be examined for graduation. The gym- 
nasia are governed by a director, and the lyceums 
by a president. The only provinces not having 
any secondary schools are Pesaro and Grosseto, 
while Milan and Venice have three. In 1874 — 5, 
there were, supported by the state, 103 gymnasia, 
with 9,296 pupils ; and 80 lyceums, with 5,132 
pupils. 

Technical instruction in Lombardy was pro- 
vided for by the Austrian law of 1818 ; but 
it was not given until 1851, when the scuole recdi 
were founded, each consisting of six classes, of 
which three formed the lower, and three the 
higher course. In the other provinces of Italy, 
with the exception of Piedmont, there were no 
such schools previous to the unification. There 
were, however, similar schools supported by the 
municipalities, or private schools governed by 
different laws. There are, at the present time, 
technical schools in all the provinces of the 
kingdom, in some, belonging to the state, and 
in others, to the towns. The government has 
its own schools in Upper Italy, the Marches, 
Umbria, Borne, and Sicily, in which provinces, 
however, there are also schools belonging to the 
towns; while in Emilia, Tuscany, and Naples, they 
belong exclusively to the towns. One-half of the 
expenses of the state technical schools, with the 
exception of those in Sicily, is borne by the com- 
munes. In the technical schools belonging to 
the towns, the government has the right of in- 
spection only. In consequence of the two grades 
into which the real schools of Piedmont and 
Lombardy were divided, the law of 1859 pro- 
vided for the erection of two schools of different 
grades, each comprising three years' instruction, 
of which the lower school is called souola tecnica, 
and the higher isliluto tecnico. By a decree of 
November 28., 1861, the supervision of the 
technical institutes was transferred from the 
ministry of education to that of agriculture, 
commerce, and industry. The course of instruc- 
tion in the technical schools comprises the Italian 
language, French, drawing, penmanship, the 
rudiments of history and geography, algebra, 
geometry, commercial arithmetic, and book-keep- 
ing. A supplementary course of one year was 
added in 1871, in which only such subjects were 
taught as were deemed requisite to supply the 
knowledge necessary in different vocations. This 
attempt succeeded admirably, wherever it was 
introduced. The technical schools are under the 
authority of a director, whose annual salary is 
2,000 lire; while the professors receive from 1,100 
to 2,000 lire each, according to the class and the 
grade they teach. For several years, instruction 



in the technical schools was free, as they were 
particularly intended to benefit the poorer classes; 
but as the better classes also sent iheir children 
to these schools, the same fees were introduced 
as in the gymnasia. The number of state tech- 
nical schools, in 1869, was 55, with 5,571 stu- 
dents and 297 hearers. The number of com- 
munal schools that are managed in strict accord- 
ance with rules governing the state institutions 
was 72, with 4,594 students and hearers ; and 
the communal schools directed in systems differ- 
ent from that of the state were 1 38 in number, 
with 1,409 students and hearers. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 63 royal technical schools, with 6,498 
students. The technical institutes, which were 
first established in Turin, Venice, and Milan, were 
originally reorganizations of the technical schools 
in those cities ; but, in consequence of their use- 
fulness, they rapidly increased. According to 
the course of study of 1872, they are composed 
of five divisions: the physical and mathematical, 
the industrial, the commercial, the agricultural, 
and the administrative. To be admitted to a 
technical institute, the student must possess a 
certificate of graduation from a technical school, 
or show that he is proficient in the studies taught 
there, and must pass an examination in various 
branches. The number of institutes, in 1872, was 
72, of which 39 belonged to the state, and 33 to 
the provinces, communes, or private persons. The 
number of teacheis, including the presidents and 
the professors, was 881 ; and the number of 
students and hearers. 4,562. The number of in- 
stitutes, in 1875, was 74. In order to promote 
secondary instruction and to accommodate such 
families as have no schools iu their own towns, 
the government supports 26 institutes in which 
the students are boarded. 

Siqierior Instruction. — There are, at present, 
17 universities supported by the state, of which 
8 (in Bologna, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Pavia, 
Pisa, Borne, and Turin) are first-class, and 9 
(in Cagliari, Catania, Genoa, Macerata, Sassari, 
Sienna, Messina, Modena. and Parma) are second- 
class, universities. Besides these, there were 4 
universities (in Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia, and 
Urbino), which are supported by the respective 
provinces. In order to be admitted as a student 
into a university, an examination is necessary, be- 
sides a certificate of graduation from a lyceum. 
In addition to the regular students, there are 
hearers, who do not require an examination, but 
only a certificate from a lyceum. The number of 
jjrofessors, and students, including hearers, in 
1874-^5, was as follows: Bologna, 81 professors 
and 557 students; Padua, 52 professors and 1,217 
students ; Palermo, 78 professors and 340 stu- 
dents; Pavia, 51 professors and 619 students; 
Pisa, 67 professors and 532 students ; Bome, 81 
professors and 470 students ; Turin, 74 profess- 
ors and 1,292 students; Cagliari, 40 professors 
and 61 students; Catania, 40 professors and 191 
students ; Genoa, 49 professors and 41 2 students ; 
Macerata, 15 professors and 106 students; Mes- 
sina, 45 professors and 94 students ; Modena, 63 
professors and 278 students ; Parma, 42 profess- 



JACOBS 



JACOTOT 



487 



•ore and 205 students ; Sassari. 2f> professors 
and (>(> students; and Siena, 28 professors and 
113 students ; for Naples, which has 118 profes- 
sors, it is difficult to estimate the number of stu- 
dents, as any native of the Neapolitan provinces 
may attend the university, upon obtaining per- 
mission from the rector. The number of stu- 
dents examined in 18(19, was 1,77."). The num- 
ber of students in the four provincial universi- 
ties, in 1S74 — ."), was 264, The largest of these, 
Ferrara, had 88, and the smallest. Uamerino, 31 
students. In addition to the universities, there 
is an institute for higher studies [Istituto di 
stttdi superiori pratici e di perfezionamento) in 
Florence, which comprises three sections. — the 
philosophical ami philological, the medico-surgic- 
al, and that of natural sciences. It was founded 
■as a university in 1348, and, in 1874 — 5, had 46 
teachers and I7ii students. 

Special Instruction. — Besides the engineers' 
-schools established in connection with the uni- 
versities of Home. Padua, and Palermo, there 
were the following technical high schools in 1 875: 
The engineers' school in Naples, with 15 teach- 
ers and 222 students ; the higher technical in- 
stitute in Milan, with 37 teachers and Is!) stu- 
dents; the engineers' School and the industrial 
museum in Turin, with 18 teachers and 185 stu- 
dents, and 5 teachers and Ills students, respect- 
ively. I Ither special schools are as follows : The 



Seminario vaticano, the CoUegio romano, the 
Couegio urbano,iot missionaries, and the Col- 
legio diScm Tomtnasod' Aquino, for Dominican 
monks, in Rome; the literary academy, in Milan, 
with 15 professors ami 41 students (ls75); a 
higher school in San Marino: numerous Catholic 
theological seminaries and colleges, a theological 
school, for the Waldensians, in Turin : Jewish 
theological schools, in Leghorn and Padua : three 
schools of veterinary science : two an hseological 
schools, in Pompeii and Koine; 13 law schools, 
besides those established in connection with the 
universities; the commercial school in Venice; 
23 nautical schools ; the higher royal agricult- 
ural schools in Milan and Portici. the provin- 
cial agricultural institutes in Caserta and Man- 
tua, the agricultural courses in nine universities, 
and the school of forestry near Florence ; the 
mining schools in Caltanisetta and Agordo, and 
the special school for the production and treat- 
ment of marble in Carrara; 25 schools of fine 
arts; numerous conservatories, schools, and in- 
stitutes of music ; the military schools in Turin, 
Modena. Naples, Milan. Florence, Parma, and 
Pinerolo. and the naval school, with two di- 
visions, in Naples and Spezia. — See Malfatti, 
Italien (in Sohmid, Encyclopadie, vol. x.) ; for 
full statistical information, see the official publi- 
cation of the Ministry of Education, and the offi- 
cial work, Italia economica (Rome, 1873). 



JACOBS, Christian Friedrich Wilhelm, 
an eminent Greek scholar of Gerniany, horn at 
Gotha. Oct. 6„ 17(14; died March 3(1.. 1847. He 
was appointed professor in the gymnasium of 
Gotha, in 17s5 ; and. in 1807, accepted a call to 
Munich to take the place of professor of ancient 
literature in the lycciini.and member of the Acad- 
emy of Science. In 1810, he returned to Gotha, 
where he was appointed librarian in chief. Jacobs 
is the author of several popular Greek and Latin 
readers, which are still extensively used, and have 
been frequently imitated and translated into a 
number of other languages [Elementarbuch tier 
griechischen Sprache, vol. i., 1805; 21st edition, 
revised by J. Classen, 1875; vol. 4., 1811 ; La- 
teinisclies Elementarbuch, 1815, in 3 vols., also 
revised by J. Classen). With Host he founded 
the Bibliotheca Graca, a collective edition of 
Greek authors with Latin notes (1826, seq.). 
Jacobs was one of the most enthusiastic admirers 
of Greek civilization, and, in a large number of 
•essays and popular works, endeavored to awaken 
among the educated classes of Germany an un- 
derstanding of, and an interest in, the spirit of 
Greek antiquity. He published a collection of 
his addresses and essays under the name Ver- 
mischte Schrifien (8 vols.. 1'823— 44). His fa- 
mous address Ueber die Eh'ziehung der Griechen 
zur Sittlichki'il (translated into Fuglish by Pres- 
ident Felton). which he delivered in Munich in 
18US, is still in high repute as a brilliant essay 
■on education among the ancient Greeks. 



JACOTOT, Joseph, a French educator, born 
in Dijon, March 4., 1770; died in Paris, July 
30., 1840. He was made professor of Latin and 
(■reck, at Dijon, about 1789, and, in 1790, was 
appointed by Napoleon to the chair of mathe- 
matics in the normal school, and shortly after- 
wards became secretary to the minister of war 
.end director of the polytechnic school. In 1792, 
he joined the army as captain of artillery, and 
as such participated in the Belgian campaign, 
lie afterwards returned to his native place, 
where he was at first professor of mathematics, 
and afterwards of Roman law. His espousal of 
the cause of Napoleon compelled him, upon the 
restoration of the Bourbons, to leave France, 
which he did in 1815, taking refuge in Belgium, 
where he supported himself for a time by private 
teaching. In 1818, he was appointed lecturer 
on French literature in the University of Lou- 
vain, and afterwards director of the Military 
Normal School, lie returned to France in 1830, 
passed seven years in \ alencicnnes, and, in 1838, 
went to Paris, where he died in comparative 
neglect. It was during his residence in Belgium, 
while attempting to teach, in French, classes the 
members of which spoke only Flemish and Dutch, 
that the novel idea of overcoming this and simi- 
lar difficulties, by a method peculiarly his own, 
first dawned upon him — a method which he 
afterwards expanded, and applied successfully to 
all studies. The central idea of the universal 
method, as it has been called, rests upon the in- 



488 



JACOTOT 



JAPAN 



timate correlation of all knowledge. In other 
words, a single fact, known thoroughly, at first 
by careful observation, and, afterwards, by 
long and repeated contemplation, becomes the 
spur, if not the actual key, to the acquisition of 
other facts. In this way, starting from a single 
truth as a center, the mind is led to extend, in 
many ways, the circle of its conquests, till the 
whole domain of knowledge is included. It will 
be seen at once that this system requires un- 
usually close attention and concentration of 
mind on the part of the pupil — two elements 
which can only be secured by a very great de- 
gree of enthusiasm and magnetic influence on 
the part of the teacher. The cause of the won- 
derful success achieved by it, in Jacotot's prac- 
tice, was, that- it compels the pupil to exercise his 
own powers thoroughly — in other words, that it 
is in entire accordance with the essential nature 
of all education, i. e., the developing of in- 
nate power. His method of procedure in in- 
structing his class at Louvain in the French 
language was to provide each pupil with a copy 
of Fenelon's Telemaque, having the French on 
one page and the Dutch translation on the other. 
With no aid from the teacher, the pupil was re- 
quired to puzzle out the meaning of the text, 
and to recite it in French, no matter how bar- 
barous the translation, at first, might be. This 
method is almost identical with that of Hamil- 
ton. (See Hamilton, James.) It has also the de- 
fects of the Hamiltonian method, the knowledge 
of a language so acquired being enough for prac- 
tical purposes, but not sufficient for a critical or 
scholarly acquaintance with it. His method of 
teaching reading was the following: The teacher 
takes a book, and opening it at any place, 
points out the first word, /pronouncing it, and 
requiring the class to repeat it. The next word 
is then pronounced with the first, the class re- 
peating as before ; then the third word, in the 
same manner, and so on. In this way, when 
each word in a sentence has, by frequent repeti- 
tion, become known by sight, the pupil is re- 
quired to find these words wherever they occur 
on the page. The words of the sentence are 
then divided up into syllables, and these syllables 
are searched for_ on the page by the pupil, 
as the words were before. The same is done 
with the letters. When the pupil has become 
perfectly familiar with the sentence, he is taught 
to write by placing before him the same sentence 
in script, and requiring him to copy it, His 
attention is then directed to each word separate- 
ly, that he may note in just what respect the 
copy differs from the original, and correct it. 
The teacher corrects nothing himself, but by 
his questions calls special attention to the point 
needing correction, and requires the pupil to 
change it. In this way, by constant repetition 
and self-help, the pupil educates himself. The 
great success achieved by Jacotot, led to his 
enunciation of several maxims which took the 
shape of startling paradoxes, reflecting rather 
the exultation of an enthusiastic nature over a 
great discovery, than the calm, dispassionate 



spirit of the careful annunciator of a new truth. 
These maxims are : " All human beings are^ 
equally capable of learning;" "Every one can 
teach ; and, moreover, can teach that which he 
does not know himself ;" and ,; All is in all." 
Each of these maxims, while contradictory on 
its face, contains a germ of truth, which, only 
by the aid of robust imaginative power and spe- 
cial pleading, may be so amplified as to cover 
the broad field comprehended by the text. In 
the practical application of his system, Jacotot's. 
directions are : Learn some one thing thorough- 
ly, and refer every thing to that. To this end, 
the pupil must repeat, reflect, and verify. Jaco- 
tot's chief educational works are Enseignement 
vniversel: Langue maternelle (Louvain, 1822) ; 
Musique, dessin et peinture (1824) ; Matliema- 
tiques (1828); and various articles in the Journal 
de V emancipation inteltectuette, a periodical es- 
tablished by himself for the advocacy of his 
peculiar views. — See Quick, Essays on Educa- 
tional Reformers (Cincinnati, 1874). 

JAPAN. The empire of Japan (Bed Nihon 
Eohu, or Dai Nippon ; Chinese, Jipun, mean- 
ing Sun-root) comprises the four large islands 
Hondo (main island), Kiushiu, Shikoku, and 
Yezo, the Liu Kiu and Kurile ( Chishima) groups, 
and nearly 4,000 small islands, many of which, 
are but reefs. The entire area is 145,500 sq. in.; 
the population, by government census of 1874, 
was reported as 33,300,675, of whom nearly one- 
half were of the agricultural class, 107,000 Liu 
Kiuans, and about 20,000 Ainos in Yezo and the 
Kuriles. The indigenous, also the state or offi- 
cial, religion is Shinto (way or doctrine of the 
gods, i. e., theology). The census of 1814 re- 
ported 128 ,1 23 shrines and 7 ,1 1 9 officials. Shinto 
is now being greatly modernized and modified 
by contact with the ideas of Christendom. Bud- 
dhism was introduced from Corea, in 552 A. D. 
After nine centuries of propagation, it became 
the popular religion, which it still is. There are 
nine great, and over twenty subordinate sects. 
The census of 1872 reported 98,914 temples and 
monasteries, 75,925 priests and monks, and 9,621 
nuns ; in all 211,840 religieux of both sexes, in- 
cluding students and families of bonzes. Christi- 
anity may also be considered one of the relig- 
ions of Japan. There are now (1870) ten native 
churches, with over 1 ,000 members, a theological 
seminary, daj' and Sunday schools for both sexes, 
and an incipient Christian literature. 

Japan was anciently inhabited, in the southern 
part, by a mixed race sprung from the waifs 
brought by the Kuro Shiwo from southern 
Asia" and the Malay Archipelago. The Ainos 
occupied the central and northern portions. 
Neither of these races ever possessed any writing 
or records, so far as is known. In 600 B. C, a. 
conquering race landed in south-eastern Kiushiu, 
and advancing northward, subdued the natives,, 
and fixed their capital near Kioto, in central 
Japan. In the seventh century of the Christian 
era, in a great battle near Morioka — the Hast- • 
ings of Japan — the Ainos were entirely defeated- 
The remnant fled across the straits of Tsugaru,. 



JAPAN 



48i> 



and have remained in a state of pure savagery. 
By the fusion of the aboriginal and conquering 
races, with the occasional addition of Malay, 
Oorean, and Chinese blood, the modern com- 
posite Japanese race has been produced. 

The national history is mainly that of educa- 
tion and development. The conquerors knew the 
use of metals and agriculture, and composed odes, 
prayers, and poetic sentiments, but had no letters 
or writings. The ancient political system was 
feudalism, the mikado being suzerain, and the 
lands being held on the tenure of military service. 
In 285 A. U., after the conquest of southern Corea, 
by the empress-regent Jrngu, YVani, a Corean, 
came to the Japanese court, and taught the heir- 
apparent Chinese letters, and, probably, the Con- 
fucian ethics. In 552, Corean missionaries in- 
troduced books, the writing of the Chinese clas- 
sics, and the Buddhist images, sutras, and canon. 
This is the greatest educational event in Jap- 
anese history. The nobles and officials learned to 
read and write; and government records, his- 
tories, and literature began to be compiled. The 
official propagation of the new faith through the 
erection of temples, monasteries, and pagodas, 
and the location of the bonzes in each province, 
near anil remote, opened a field for the school- 
master, creating a limited, but for those days 
a large, reading class. Henceforward, the his- 
tory of Japanese education is that of Japanese 
Buddhism. The most illustrious name of all 
the priest-pedagogues is Kobo (774 — 835), a 
scholar in Pali, Sanskrit, < 'hinese, and his own 
vernacular', and the inventor of the Japanese 
syllabary, or alphabet. This consists of 47 char- 
acters, abbreviated from ( 'hinese ideographs. It 
has two forms: the ''grass," script or running- 
hand, and the square or "printing" form. He 
laid the foundation of the national success of 
Buddhism, by propounding a theological system 
in which Buddhism absorbs Shinto, and by declar- 
ing that the ancient and indigenous deities were 
but various manifestations of Buddha to Japan. 
After Ivobo. Sugawara. Michizane. who died 903 
A. D., better known as Tenjin, an accomplished 
scholar, did much for the native literature and 
education. Until the twelfth century, the mikado 
ruled supreme from Nara to Kioto, both of which 
were famous educational as well as political cen- 
ters. Iu 1192, Voritomo was created Sei-4 Tut 
Shogun (the officer styled Tycoon by foreign- 
er's, from 1853 to 1868), ami fixed the military 
capital at Kamakura (about 35 miles from the 
modern Tokio). Henceforward, the government 
of Japan was virtually a duarehy, having two 
rulers, two capitals, and two centers of authority. 
Eastern Japan now became more and more civil- 
ized, and education spread apace. In general, 
only the bonzes and court nobles in Kioto con- 
stituted the learned class, the -soldiers and farm- 
ers being totally illiterate. The bonzes were 
the scribes in camp, palace, and town, and almost 
the only teachers down to the Tokugawa period 
(1004—1868). During the Hqjo rule (1219— 
1333) learning flourished. A tine library and 
school existed at Kanazawa, near Kamakura, 



besides the ancient seats in Kioto and Nara. The 
missionary tours and labors of Shinran and Ni- 
chiren, in the north and east of Japan, during this 
time tended powerfully to spread Buddhism, and 
with it letter's and writing, and to create priests 
and monastic schools. The revival of Buddhistic 
studies and the founding of rrew sects produced 
much intellectual activity. The Ashikaga period 
(1335 — 1573) was one of civil war and the 
growth of feudalism. Education and learning 
languished during this time; and ignorance, ex- 
cept irr the palace and monastery, was univer- 
sal. Under Nobunaga (1532 — 82), the relentless 
persecutor of the Buddhist bonzes, their power- 
was in every way greatly curtailed, and the 
Jesuits then irr Japan were greatly favored. The 
era of llideyoshi (Taiko) was brilliant and emi- 
nently favorable to learning and education, con- 
siderable stimulus being given by- his enterprise 
and improvements tending to tranquilize the 
country. The invasion of Corea (1592 — 8) was 
followed by a new tide of influences, which, to- 
gether with those received by contact with Euro- 
peans, gave fresh impulses to the intellectual 
life of the nation. The accession of lyevasu, in 
1604, to the shogunate, the founding of the city 
of Yedo, the centralization of the feudal system 
and military power there, and most of all. the 
profound peace enjoyed for two centuries ami 
a half, mark the period from Kilt) to IsCs, 
as the only one in which education in Japan 
has been general among all classes, arrd over 
nearly the entire empire. Next to the essentials 
or tools of arr education— reading, writing, and 
reckoning on the abacus, the Chinese classics of 
Confucius and Mencius constitute the basis of 
culture. Tin' very voluminous arrd — in the depart- 
ments of history and classic fiction, at least, — ■ 
valuable, native literature lias also been largely 
studied. Before the opening of the country to 
foreigner's, iu 1854, it is probable that seven- 
tenths of the people could read and write. In 
most of the daimios' capitals were military, gym- 
nastic, arrd literary training schools; and in ^ edo, 
Kioto, and Mito (Ibaraki) were schools of great 
learning, or imiversities. In every city, town, 
village, or even hamlet, lived one or more teachers 
or writing-masters who kept private schools. 
Many of the bonzes also taught classes of lay 
youth, or neophytes, in the monasteries. Sanskrit 
arrd Chinese were the sacred languages of the 
Buddhist ritual, while the Yamato or ancient 
classic Japanese was used by the Shintoists. 
About the time of the opium war irr China, an 
impulse' was developed to study European litera- 
ture and science through the medium of the 
Dutch language. A few Holland merchants living 
at I leshima, near Nagasaki, and the annual 1 luteh 
trading ships served Japan as a loop-hole whence 
to survey the world. It must be borne irr mind 
that the policy of closing the ports of Japan, 
then 1 iv secluding her from the world, was more a 
I lart of the Tokugawa usurpers' scheme of holding 
the actual power than the wish of the nation. 
After Perry's arrival, in 1853. the study of En- 
glish superseded that of Dutch, and the tastes of 



490 



JAPAN 



JEFFERSON COLLEGE 



the samurai, or educated armed classes, inclined 
them to favor modern science to the neglect of 
the Chinese. In 1868, a revolutionary storm, the 
elements of which had long been gathering, broke 
.at the battle of Fushimi, when the duarehy, and 
the shogunate were overthrown, and the toku- 
c/awa were reduced to their proper place as vas- 
sals of the mikado, who was restored to supreme 
power, as before A.D. 1192. The seat of govern- 
ment also was removed to Yedo (bay-door), which 
was thereafter called Tokio (eastern capital). 
Enterprises were now organized on a national 
scale, among them the present system of edu- 
cation, the scheme of which was promulgated in 
1872. According to this, the empire is divided 
into eight educational divisions, in each of which 
there is a university or dai gakko, with thirty- 
two middle schools, colleges or gymnasia; besides 
which there are two hundred and ten grammar 
schools, or academies, in the whole empire. In all 
these schools, foreign languages and the sciences 
are to be taught. The vernacular schools will 
number about 54,000, or about one for every six 
hundred of the population. According to the 
latest statistics, there are 30,000 public schools in 
operation, with very nearly 2,000,000 pupils, and 
45,000 teachers. There are also seve-i normal 
schools, the principal one being in Tokio, with 
teachers in course of training from every prov- 
ince in the empire. Both sexes enjoy equal 
privileges of education, from the primary to the 
normal school. The department of education 
[Mom Bit Sho) is one of the ten ministries 
of the imperial government. The present head 
(1876) is Fujimaro Tanaka. the foreign adviser 
being Dr. David Murray, formerly of Rutgers 
College, New Brunswick, N. J. The universities 
and technical schools are under the direct con- 
trol of the central government, while the public 
vernacular schools are under the care of the local or 
ken authorities. They are sustained in part by the 
central government, partly by special taxation 
in each ken, and partly by the contributions of 
the nobles, the rich, and the common people. 
Each of the 72 kens has a bureau of inspection, 
while examiners and supervisors are regularly 
sent out from Tokio, for the express purpose of 
keeping up and improving the standard of edu- 
cation. In addition to the schools under the 
Mom Bu Sho, nearly every government depart- 
ment has its special and technical schools. Medi- 
cine, law, and military, naval, engineering, agri- 
cultural, and optical science have each its schools, 
some of which are splendid colleges, well equipped 
with foreign instructors and apparatus. In 
elementary instruction, the Japanese have suc- 
cessfully introduced the kindergarten system 
and object teaching. The general plan and dis- 
cipline of American schools prevail ; and such 
appliances as tables and chairs, blackboards and 
chalk, slates and pencils, phonetic and ideo- 
graphic charts, colored representations and solid 
models of objects, are used — all these being- 
new ideas in Japanese pedagogics. The children 
learn to read and write the script and square 
kana syllabary, and are then taught the sound 



and sense of the most common Chinese characters. 
They also learn abacus reckoning, the use of the 
Arabic numerals, and our system of arith- 
metic. A large number of American and other 
elementary text-books have been translated, and 
the common-places of physical science are now 
taught to Japanese youth. The vernacular is 
I also studied by the help of standard reading- 
; books, grammar (a new thing), declamation, and 
the committing to memory of choice passages 
from the Japanese classics. The Chinese ethics 
j still holds its place ; but the moral ideas, sen- 
i timents, and narratives of Christendom seem to 
I be radically influencing the rising mind of the 
| nation. In the next grade of schools, foreign lan- 
! guages are begun, and Chinese writing and read- 
! ing are continued. In the middle schools, the 
studies are wholly in English, or some other 
elected foreign language, the text-books being 
those used in America or Europe, while the course 
of studies common to an American high school 
or academy is gone through with. This period 
covers four years. In the dai gakko, or univer- 
sity, the full standard of which it is expected to 
reach in the future, the students are actually car- 
ried through the curriculum of the average Amer- 
ican college, excepting in Latin and Greek, the 
place of these being filled by English and Chinese. 
At present, there is but one university in Japan 
the Kai Sei Gakko, in Tokio, which has a corps of 
about twenty American and English instructors, 
and 350 students, while the school of foreign lan- 
guages of Tokio has double this number of pu- 
pils, all under foreign instructors. Nearly two 
hundred foreigners' are employed in the edu- 
cational service of Japan. Both students and 
native teachers, as a rule, wear the foreign 
costume; and, all over the empire, the general 
method of school order, discipline, equipment, 
and architecture approaches more closely to for- 
eign models, year by year. Private schools are 
also very numerous, and exert a healthful spirit 
of rivalry with the government establishments. 
The newspaper press, publishers of books, and 
government issues of tracts of information on 
various subjects, also tend powerfully to elevate 
the intellectual status of the people. There 
are no educational journals in J apan, but the 
minister of public instruction issues a yearly re- 
port. — See Griffis. The Mikado's Empire (New 
York, 1876) ; Education in Japan, No. 2 of the 
Circulars- of Information of the U. S. Bureau of 
Education (Washington, 1875); A?i Outline 
History of Japanese Education, prepared by 
the Japanese Dept. of Education (N. Y., 1876). 
JEFEEKSON COLLEGE, a Roman Cath- 
olic institution at St. James, La., under the 
management of the Marist Fathers, was char- 
tered in 1861, and organized in 1864. It has 
good philosophical and chemical apparatus, and 
a library of 5,000 volumes. It has a collegiate 
course of 6 years, including preparatory studies ; 
a commercial course ; and a preparatory, or 
primary, course. The regular charge for board, 
tuition, etc., is $300 a year. German, Spanish, 
drawing, and music are extras. In 1875 — 6, 



JERSEY CITY 



491 



there were 12 instructors and 65 students. The 
Very Rev. J. B. Bigot, S. M., is (1876) the 
president. 

JERSEY CITY, one of the chief cities in 
the state of New Jersey, embraces part of the 
ancient Dutch town of Bergen, from which it 
was set off by an act of the legislature, January 
28., 1820, containing at that time less than 1,000 
inhabitants. It has since been increased by the 
annexation of other municipalities, also parts of 
Bergen; so that its present territory reaebe 
from the Hudson river westerly to the llackcn- 
sack river, a distance of nearly four miles, and 
from north to south, six miles. The population, 
according to the state census of 1875, was 
11(1,883; and the number of children of school 
age. that is, between 5 and 18, was ils.UOS. 

Educational History. — Probably, the first 
school of any kind that ever existed in New 
Jersey was located on the site of the school- 
house now known as School No. 11. in Bergen 
Square. It is remarkable that the first charter 
of Bergen, dated September 22.. 1668, granted 
by Sir l'hilip Cartaret, governor of the then 
province of Xew Jersey, in the sixth article 
thereof, stipulate 1, "that all persons should con- 
tribute, according to their estates and propor- 
tions of land, for (lie keeping qfafree school/or 
the education of youth." This stipulation was 
rigidly enforced, notwithstanding the objection 
and strong opposition, at various times, of certain 
persons of the baser sort, who groaned, both in 
body and spirit, when called on to pay a school 
tax The butch may thus claim equal praise 
with the Puritans of Xew England for making 
provision for the education of their children in 
the first organization of their towns. History 
has preserved the name of the first school-master. 
Engelbert Steenhuysen, a tailor by trade, came 
from Westphalia in 1659, was licensed as teacher 
in l(i(')2, and taught for 250 florins a year, pay- 
able in sea stores. His school-house was built of 
logs. — The first board of education in Jersey 
City was organized in March, 11-52. Previous 
to that time, the school (for there was but "He 
"was managed by a committee of the board of 
aldermen. Joseph McCoy was the first super- 
intendent, and held the office from 1852 to lls.Vl, 
and afterward from 1862 till his death, in 1869. 
A. S. Jewell held the office from 1855 to 1862 ; 
A. II. W'allis. a part of 1802 ; and S. B. Bevans, 
a part of liSGO and 1870. Up to this time, the 
office of superintendent was an unsalaried one. 
Merchants and other business men held it. and 
were not expected to devote much time to its 
duties. B. 0. Chapman was the first superin- 
tendent who received a salary. He held the office 
•one year, from 1*70 to 1871. Wm. L. Dickin- 
son was chosen assistant superintendent in May, 
1867, in which position he continued until 1871, 
when he was elected superintendent, which office 
he yet (187G) retains. — From the organization 
of the first board of education to 1871, — a pe- 
riod of nineteen years, the office of superintend- 
ent was filled annually by vote of the people at 
ihe charter elections ; since that time, the duty 



of filling the office has devolved upon the board 
of education, and the term of office has been ex- 
tended to three years. 

School System. — The school law under which 
the schools are now managed, was enacted in 
L873. It provides that the board of directors 
of education shall consist of twelve members, 
two from each aldermanic district, who shall 
hold office two years, one half going out every 
year. They have power, and it is their duty, to 
provide, fur the free education of children in the 
city between the ages of 5 and 18. every thing 
necessary in their opinion, except the purchase 
of lands, the erection ot buildings, and the mak- 
ing of repairs the cost of which shall exceed 
$500, the latter devolving upon the board of 
public works. The board of education is also em- 
powered to expend annually §1,0(10, to establish 
and maintain a free library for the use of teach- 
ers etc., and to provide a normal school, high 
School, and evening schools. — The entire city is 
embraced in one district, known as District 
No. 13, Hudson Co. Parents are permitted to 
exercise their judgment in selecting a public 
school in any part of the city for the education 
of their children. There are four grades of 
schools: primary, grammar, high, and normal 
schools. There are 20 primary schools; 14 gram- 
mar schools; 1 high school; and 1 normal school 
(held on Saturdays). The 14 grammar schools 
have each a primary department which is counted 
as one of the primary schools. In all of the 
larger schools, the principal is relieved of the 
work of teaching a class, and is confined to that 
of supervision and the training of the youngi r 
and more inexperienced teachers. One city su- 
perintendent, holding office for three years, gives 
all of his time to the work of supervision. 

There is no city school fund; but the state 
school fund yielded to the city, in 1S74. $10,738. 
The two-mill tax collected by the state and as- 
sessed upon the property, but distributed toeai li 
school district in proportion to the number of 
children between the ages of 5 and ll\ yielded 
.9131,002.50. The balance was raised by special 
tax. Male principals of the grammar schools 
receive a uniform salary of $2,316; of female 
principals of primary ami grammar departments 
the salary is Si. 200. No male assistants are 
employed, except in the high schools. The sal- 
aries of female assistants vary, according to their 
positions, from i?:i2f to S.'iOO. The course of 
study in the primary schools is divided into six 
grades, and embraces reading, spelling, element- 
ary arithmetic (through the fundamental rules 
and CJ.S. money), geography. writing, ami draw- 
ing. Object-teaching is prescribed for each grade. 
The course in the grammar schools is divided 
into five grades, and includes, besides advanced 
instruction in the same studies. English gram- 
mar, etymology, history and constitution of the 
United States, physical geography, algebra, nat- 
ural philosophy, and elementary science, the 
latter in each grade. The course in the high 
school is divided into an English and a classical 
course, each extending over three years. 



492 



JESUITS 



School Statistics. — The following items are 
reported for the year 1875 : 

Number of pupils enrolled IS, 737 

Average register number 10.678 

Average attendance 9.583 

Number of teachers, males 16 

" " females .247 

Total 263 

Number of pupils per teacher, primary schools 56 
" " " " grammar " 36 

Expenditures: 

Salaries $210,361.53 

Rents 2,200.00 

Books and stationery 13,133.61 

Repairs and furniture. . . . 10,613.64 
Fuel and incid. expenses. 26,001.59 

Total $262,310.37 

Besides the public schools, there are but few 
others of any great importance, with the excep- 
tion of the denominational schools supported by 
the Roman Catholics. These schools are largely 
attended. 

JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus, a 
celebrated religious order of the Catholic Church. 
It was founded by Ignatius IiOyola in the begin- 
ning of the 16th century, and spread with great 
rapidity over the entire Christian world. It ob- 
tained an influence unparalleled in the history of 
religious orders and, perhaps, hi the history of 
societies of any kind. It was abolished, in 1773, 
by Pope Clement XIV., but restored, in 1814, by 
Pope Pius VII, and has since then borne the 
brunt of battle in the severe conflict which has 
been raging between the Catholic Church and 
many of the present state governments, both 
Catholic and Protestant. The Jesuits regarded it 
as a special mission of their society to arrest the 
progress of the Reformation, and to regain for 
the church as much of the lost ground as possible. 
In order to fulfill this mission, they endeavored 
to obtain control of the instruction of the ris- 
ing generation. Their efforts to establish well- 
patronized, well-attended, and influential schools, 
met with complete success; and though the opin- 
ions which have been expressed of the merits of 
the schools of the Jesuits greatly vary, according 
to the sympathy or dislike of writers in regard 
to the order, the powerful influence which the 
Jesuits, through their schools, have exerted upon 
the history of many countries is admitted by 
all. In order to appreciate justly the educational 
principles of the Jesuits, it may be well to notice, 
first, the plan according to which the members of 
the order were, and still are, trained themselves 
as teachers. The candidates for the priesthood 
are, during the two first years, novitii scholas- 
tici; then, by binding themselves to the order by 
means of simple vows, they become scholastici 
approbali. Devoting themselves, for several years, 
to classical and philosophical studies, they are, for 
some time, employed as teachers and educators 
in the colleges, until they begin the study of 
theology, which lasts for four years. As all the 
members were thus trained as practical teachers, 
the order was, soon after its foundation, enabled 
wherever a favorable opportunity offered, to call 
into existence an astonishing number of literary 
institutions. 



All the educational institutions of the Jesuits 
are governed in accordance with the official 
course of instruction entitled ratio et instilittio 
studiorum societatis Jesu, and well known in 
history under the shorter name ratio studiorum. 
It was drawn up under the direction of the 
fifth general of the order, Acquaviva, who, im- 
mediately after his election, in 1581, was com- 
missioned by the 4th General Congregation to 
appoint for this purpose a committee of six 
fathers. In 1584, the committee in which Spain, 
Portugal, France, Austria, Germany, and Rome 
were represented, were presented to the Pope. 
Their work was revised by another committee 
of twelve members, subsequently submitted for 
revision and approbation to the fth and 6th 
General Congregations and to the Pope, and 
finally printed in 1599, in the printing office of 
the Collegium Romanum. A new edition, with 
additions sanctioned by the 7th General Con- 
gregation, appeared in Rome in 1616. After 
the restoration of the order, the 20th General 
Congregation, held in 1820, and the 21st, held 
in 1829, recommended a revision of the course 
of studies ; and the general of the order, Father 
Roothan, appointed, therefore, in 1830 a com- 
mittee of five fathers, representing the five prov- 
inces of the order, — Italy, Sicily, France, Ger- 
many, and Spain. In 1 831 , the revised course, after 
having received the approbation of the general 
and his assistants, was sent to all the members 
of the order. The changes made in the old course 
chiefly relate to theology, philosophy,. oriental 
languages, mathematics, and physics. Instruc- 
tion in theology and philosophy is not to be 
based, to the same extent as before, on Thomas 
Aquinas and Aristotle; and, in mathematics and 
the natural sciences, proper attention is to be 
given to the recent progress made in those 
branches. In the lower classes of their institu- 
tions, new provisions are made for learning mod- 
ern languages, both the vernacular and foreign, 
and for the study of history. The course of studies 
is divided into twenty sections, and embraces 
rides for the provincial, the rector, the prefects 
of studies, the professors, the scholastics, and 
the students. '1 he general of this order is the 
supreme head of all its schools and educational 
institutions; he superintends all of them, and he 
alone authorizes the establishment of new ones. 
When, in the present century, the government 
of Austria transferred to the Society of Jesus 
several gymnasia and the theological faculty of 
one of the state universities (Innspruck), the 
general of the order, Father Beckx, explicitly in- 
sisted that the superiors of the order must be at 
full liberty " to appoint members of the order, 
without a previous examination by state boards, 
directors, rectors, prefects of studies and pro- 
fessors, and to remove them and appoint others 
in their stead, as he may deem best in the sight 
of God." The head of a province of the order is 
called a "provincial"; and the first section of the 
ratio studiorum recommends to him the care of 
the schools, the appointment of competent pre- 
fects of studies and professors, and the enforce- 



JESUITS 



493 



merit of a strict observance of the entire course 
of studies. At the head of single houses or col- 
leges, is the " rector," who does not give instruc- 
tion himself, but is generally chosen from among 
the older teachers. He is appointed for a term of 
three years by the general or his representative ; 
and. after this time, is frequently transferred to 
another college. He appoints one or two prefects 
of studies, anil all must obey and revere him as 
the representative of Jesus Christ. A college of 
the first class must, as a rule, have 20 teachers 
or "regents"; a college of the second class, 30; a 
college of the third class, or a university, at least 
70. Small institutions which have not a suffi- 
cient number of teachers must be dissolved. 
With the colleges, there are generally connected 
convict or ia alumnorum (boarding-houses), in 
which students of the college receive lodging, 
boarding, and strict superintendence by a mem- 
ber of the order, or seminaries, for educat- 
ing young candidates for the priesthood- or 
knights' academies, for the exclusive education 
of the sons of nobles. Day scholars who do not 
live in any of the institutions, have to promise 
obedience to the rector and the rules, and they 
are, from time to time, visited by the prefect of 
studies in their houses. 

The schools of the Jesuits are divided into 
higher and lower classes. The former are under 
the supervision of a prcefectus generalis, or 
prcefectus studiorinii superiorum; the latter, un- 
der that of a prcefectus studiorum inferiorwm. 
The smaller colleges have only the lower classes, 
and, therefore, only one prefect. The sludia in- 
fer iwa embrace five classes: (1) Infima, also 
called ''the rudiment"; (2) Secunda, or media 
classis grammatical, also called "grammar"; 
(3) Tertia, or suprema classis grammatical, also 
called "syntax"; (4) Quartet — poetica,oi kumani- 
ttts, (5) Quinta — rhetorica. The three lower are 
designated as the three grammar, and the two 
higher as the two humanity classes. In smaller 
schools, two classes are sometimes united into 
one ; in larger schools, parallel classes are formed. 
Considerable prominence is given, in all the clas- 
ses, to the study of the Latin language. As 
much as practicable, Latin is made the medium 
of instruction ; and it is intended to give to the 
pupils such a knowledge of the language as will 
enable them to speak and write it. Father Beckx, 
the general of the order, says on this subject, in 
his correspondence with the Austrian minister of 
public instruction : " Because the Latin language 
is the language of the church, and the language of 
Christian tradition, and because in this language 
the literary treasures of all times and nations 
have been deposited, and because it has been for 
centimes developed beyond any other language, 
as the medium of faith and of science, the Soci- 
ety of Jesus has a special predilection for this lan- 
guage, and uses it as medium of instruction in 
its schools." It is expressly stated that it is not 
intended to imbue the minds of the pupils with 
the spirit of classic antiquity, and most of the 
Latin authors used in the schools of the Jesuits 
are read in expurgated editions. — The study of 



the Greek language begins simultaneously with 
the Latin, though much less time and attention 
are given to it. — Instruction in the vernacular 
language was incorporated with the course of in- 
struction by order of the 14th General ( 'ongrega- 
tion, in 1703; and. in 1756. the colleges in ( ier- 
many were advised to devote as much attention 
to Herman as to Latin and Greek. — To in- 
struction in religion, less time is devoted than in 
most other schools conducted by religious orders, 
the Jesuits being of opinion that the religious 
education of their pupils will be more promoted 
by religious exercises than by theoretical instruc- 
tion. — In the two higher classes oratorical exer- 
cises and exercises in composition receive spe- 
cial attention. — The other subjects of instruction 
were originally comprised under the collective 
name of eruditio, and it was recommended to 
use specially the hours of recreation, and the 
weekly holiday for the purpose of acquainting the 
pupils with -the elementary and most interesting 
parts of the studies. — The studia superiora 
comprise a two years' course of philosophy and 
a four years' course of theology. 

The management of the schools of the Jesuits 
is based on the fundamental principle that edu- 
cation and instruction should be most intimately 
connected, and that the education of the pupils 
is by far the most important aim of a school. 
They favor the class teaching system; for not 
only docs the class teacher teach all or most of 
the subjects of instruction in his class, but he 
takes his pupils through several or all of the 
classes. They deem it an important condition 
of the success of the teacher that he should thor- 
oughly know the character of each pupil; and 
this, they contend, is only possible in the class- 
teaching system. They believe that great care 
should be taken not to crowd the pupils, either 
in the number of subjects or the amount of time 
given to study; and they object to the courses 
of instruction adopted in most modern colleges 
and gymnasia, as attempting too much. They 
prefer short lessons, and are specially anxious 
to make learning and reciting as attractive to 
the pupils as possible. Creat stress is laid on 
thorough memorizing, and on frequent reviews 
and disputations. The last day of every week 
and the latter part of every month ami of every 
half-year are regularly devoted to a review of the 
work accomplished during this period. As the 
chief incentive to diligence, they encourage emu- 
lation, which they endeavor to stimulate by the 
distribution of prizes, by "concertations" (dispu- 
tations or literary contests) , and by the promol i< in 
of the best students to a variety of honorary ti- 
tles, which are taken from the Greek and Roman 
republics (pretors, censors, decurions, etc.). It is 
made the duty of the teacher to control his pupils 
by means of praise and encouragement rather 
than by punishment. Corporal punishment is 
to be employed only in extreme cases, and not 
by any member of the order, but by a " cor- 
rector " appointed for the purpose. 

The influence of the Jesuits upon education 
in ( 'atholic countries has been very great. Each 



494 



JESUITS 



JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY 



one of these countries, at one time or other, has 
had nourishing colleges of the Jesuits, in which, 
in particular, a large number of the children 
of the nobility and of other prominent persons 
were educated. How large a share of the order's 
activity was given to instruction, may be inferred 
from the fact that, in 1749, the order had only 
24 professed houses, but 669 colleges and 176 
seminaries. Even their missionaries in pagan 
countries were always anxious to obtain, as 
soon as possible, control of the education of 
the rising generation, by the establishment of 
colleges. Thus, the Portuguese Jesuits had, in 
1613, in Japan two colleges; and in China, Father 
Eicci established a reputation as one of the best 
scholars. Their educational labors were chiefly 
limited to schools of a higher grade : but, in 
the most celebrated of their missions, Paraguay 
(q. v.), all the youth were, for some time, un- 
der the sole educational control of the Jesuits. 
Though founded for combating Protestantism, 
they gained, as teachers, the admiration of 
many of the Protestant princes. Thus. Frederick 
the Great, of Prussia, permitted them, after 
the abolition of their order, to continue as an 
organized society, under the name of "priests 
of the royal school institute." In the 19th cent- 
ury, the communities of the Jesuits, inclusive 
of their schools, were suppressed, on the charge 
of being dangerous to the interests of the state, 
in Portugal, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, the Ger- 
man Empire, and Russia ; and they were, in 
1876, threatened with suppression in Austria- 
Hungary. They have also been expelled from 
Mexico, the United States of Colombia, and a 
number of other South American states. They, 
however, still have a number of colleges in France, 
the Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, and 
the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The Jesuits 
accompanied Lord Baltimore to Maryland, and 
were the first instructors of the Catholic settlers 
of that province. They continued to live in a 
community after the abolition of their order, 
and grew rapidly after its restoration. Their col- 
leges, in 1876, were as follows : Boston College, 
South Boston, and College of the Holy Cross, 
Worcester, Mass.; College of St. Francis Xavier, 
New York; St. John's College, New York (Ford- 
ham) ; St. Joseph's, Philadelphia ; St. John's, 
Frederick, Md .; Loyola, Baltimore ; Gonzaga, 
Washington, D. G; Georgetown, D. C; Spring 
Hill, near Mobile, Ala. ; St. Louis University, 
St. Louis, Mo.; College of the Immaculate Con- 
ception, New Orleans; St. Charles, Grand Co- 
teau, La.; St. Joseph's, Bardstown, Ky.; St. Xav- 
ier 's, Cincinnati; St. Ignatius College, San Fran- 
cisco; and Santa Clara College, Cal. In Canada, 
the Jesuits conduct St. Mary's College, Montreal, 
founded in 1848. — Among the admirers of the 
schools of the Jesuits were Lord Bacon, Descartes, 
and Chateaubriand. Says Bacon : "As it regards 
teaching, this is the sum of all direction : take 
example by the schools of the Jesuits, for better 
do not exist. When I look at the diligence, and 
the activity of the Jesuits, both in imparting 
knowledge and in moulding the heart, I bethink 



me of the exclamation of Agesilaus concerning 
Pharnabazus : ' Since thou art so noble, 1 would 
thou wert on our side.'" Ranke, in the His- 
tory of the Popes (vol. I.), makes the following- 
remarks on the educational system of the Jesu- 
its : "The Jesuits were more systematic than the 
former teachers ; they divided their pupils into 
classes. Their instruction carried the pupils in 
the same spirit from the first elements to the 
highest stage. They also supervised the morals, 
and educated well-bred gentlemen. They were 
favored by the political power. Finally, they im- 
parted their instruction gratuitously. This could 
not but be of immense advantage to them, 
especially as their results were really as great as 
their zeal. The Jesuits were learned, and, in 
their way, pious ; but no one will say that their 
science was based on a free soaring of the mind, 
or that their piety proceeded from the depth and 
the ingenuity of a simple mind. They are suf- 
ficiently learned to awaken confidence, to obtain 
reputation, to educate and retain scholars ; they 
aim at nothing further. Neither their piety nor 
their teaching enters upon free and untrodden 
roads; but it has something which characterizes 
it ; it has method. Every thing is calculated, 
for every thing has a special aim. They were 
diligent and fantastic, full of wisdom and en- 
thusiasm, respectable people whom one likes 
to approach ; without personal interest, one aid- 
ing the other. No wonder that they succeeded." 
Among the most important works on the history 
of the Jesuits are : Cretineau-Joli (friendly to 
the order), Hisloire religieuse, politique el litter- 
aire de la compagnie de Jesus (6 vols., 1844 — 6); 
Giobekti (adverse to the Jesuits), II Ge- 
suita Moderno (5 vols., 1847) ; Steinmetz, His- 
tory of the Jesuits (3 vols., 1848) ; Hubek (Old 
Catholic), Der Jesuitenorden (1873). A special 
work on the Ratio studiorum is, Her Societal 
Jesu Lehr- unci Brziekungsplan (3 vols., Lands- 
hut, 1833 — 6, friendly to the order). See also 
The Jesuits mid their Schools, in Barnard's 
German Teachers and Educators (a condensed 
translation from Raumer's Geschichte der P&da- 
gogilc); and Weickee, Has Schulwesen der Je- 
suiten nach den Quellen darqestelll. 

JOHN'S HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, at 
Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1874. It is 
named in honor of the late Johns Hopkins of 
Baltimore, who bequeathed a fund of $3,(100,000 
for its endowment and a beautiful estate of 330 
acres at Clifton, near the city limits, for its perma- 
nent site. The temporary location is within the 
city. Daniel C. Gibnan was appointed the first 
president ; and the department of philosophy was 
opened Oct. 3., 1876. The plan includes a med- 
ical department and a law department. The 
university contemplates " a combination of lect- 
ures, recitations, laboratory practice, field work, 
and private instruction." The system adopted 
"involves freedom of methods to be employed 
by the instructors on the one hand, and on the 
other, freedom of courses to be selected by the 
students," while it is " intended that the pupils 
shall have been matured by the long prepar- 



JUDGMENT 



KANSAS 



495 



atory discipline of superior teachers, and by 
the systematic, laborious, and persistent pursuit 
of fundamental knowledge." Ten fellowships, 
or graduate scholarships, were opened in 1876, 
each yielding $500 a year and renewable, to be 
best iwed for excellence in the following subjects : 
philology, literature, history, ethics and meta- 
physics, political science, mathematics, engineer- 
ing, physics, chemistry, and natural history. So 
many advanced students (152) presenting them- 
selves as applicants, twenty fellowships were be- 
stowed upon graduates of various colleges. 

JUDGMENT, Training' of. "This de- 
partment of intellectual culture needs no special 
attention, if the whole educational system, in 
other respects, is judicious and rational ; i. <., 
adapted to the individual both as to age (degree 
of maturity) and peculiarities of character or 
endowment. Where this is not the case, an effi- 
cient corrective may be applied by bringing into 
exercise the pupil's mental faculties in various 
ways and in connection with various subjects. 
The departure must be taken from the sphere of 
the pupil's experience; he must be led (1) to 
an accurate observation of particulars — minute 
details ; (2) to their collation, as preliminary to 
generalization ; and (3) to their classification 
under appropriate heads. When general prin- 
ciples or rules have been established in the pupil's 
mind in this way, his judgment will be brought 
into play in the application of the principle or 



rule to particular objects or facts. Thus, in nat- 
ural history, after the pupil has learned the 
characteristics of genera and species by a minute 
and accurate observation of individual specimens, 
he cannot, without an exercise of judgment, de- 
termine whether any particular specimen, pre- 
viously unobserved, belongs to one or the other 
genus or species. He must have a clear concep 
Son of the distinguishing qualities, both of the 
individual and of the class, in order to determine 
whether the correspondence exists or not. As 
regards concrete objects, the judgment is exer- 
cised at a very early age. and is constantly 
trained more or less by every legitimate proci 3S 
of intellectual education; but as regards abstract, 
truths, this faculty is one of the last to attain 
a full or mature development. Accuracy in 
judging depends very much on the mental habits 
formed during the period of early education. 
Habits of attention, careful observation, dispas- 
sionate, conscientious reasoning, and a profound 
and earnest love of truth, will qualify any person 
for the exercise of a sound judgment in regard 
to any subject of study or investigation. A men- 
tal character based upon such habits will be free 
from prejudice, and will readily learn to elimi- 
nate all passion from its intellectual processes; 
and, hence, its judgments being solely based 
upon the facts acquired, will be correct or the 
contrary, in proportion to the accuracy and ex- 
tent of the information possessed. 



KALAMAZOO COLLEGE, at Kalamazoo. 
Mich., under the control of the Baptists, was 
founded in 1855. It admits both sexes, and is 
Supported by tuition fees (Sis per year), and the 
income of an endowment of $80,000. It lias a 
library of 2,500 volumes, , chemical and philo- 
sophical apparatus, and cabinets of natural his- 
tory. There is a preparatory and a collegiate 
department, with three courses; namely, (1) Clas- 
sical, including < J reek and Latin: (2) Latin and 
scientific (without Greek) ; (3) Scientific (with- 
out Greek and Latin). Facilities are afforded 
for instruction in music and art. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 1 1 instructors (3 females) , and 174 
students (108 males and 66 females), of whom 27 
were of the collegiate grade. The presidents have 
been as follows: the Rev. James A. B. Stone, D.D., 
1855—64; John M. Gregory, LL. D„ 1864—7; 
and the Rev. Kendall Brooks, D. D., the present 
incumbent (1876). appointed in 1868. 

KANSAS, originally a part of the Ixntisiana 
purchase of 1 803, was organized as a separate ter- 
ritory by an act of Congress passed in .May, 1854. 
It was admitted into the Union in 1861. Its 
area is 81,318 sq. m„ and its population, accord- 
ing to the census of 1x70. was 364,399, of whom 
17.108 were colored, and 914 Indians. The state 
census of 1873 showed a gain of 67.63 per cent, 
the total population of the state at that time be- 
ing 610,863. Of the male adults 8.42 percentwere 
illiterate; and of the female adults, 13.2 percent. 



Educational History. — By the provisions of 
the constitution ratified in 1859, the legislature 
was required to "encourage the promotion of 
intellectual, moral, scientific, and agricultural 
improvement, by establishing a uniform system 
of common schools, and schools of higher grade, 
embracing normal, preparatory, collegiate, and 
university departments.'' It also provided for 
the appointment of a state superintendent, 
county superintendents, and a state board of 
commissioners. Sections of land in every town- 
ship had been, as in the case of other new states, 
set apart for common-school purposes, and sev- 
enty-two sections were reserved for the main- 
tenance of a state university. School laws have 
been passed, with modified provisions, from time 
to time by successive legislatures. A compulsory 
education law was enacted in 1874. 

School Si/stem. — The educational interests of 
the state are committed to (1) a superintendent 
of public instruction, elected for two years; (2) a 
state board of education, consisting of the prin- 
cipals of the normal schools, the president of the 
state university and of the agricultural college; 
I which body meets annually, and issues to teach- 
' era, upon examination, diplomas for life or certiti- 
! cates for three or five years; (3) a state board 
I of commissioners, composed of the state super- 
' intendent. the secretary of state, and the at- 
torney general, for the management of the per- 
manent school and university funds ; and 



496 



KANSAS 



(4) county superintendents, elected for two 
years, whose duty it is to apportion the school 
moneys, to visit schools, and to hold teachers' 
institutes. These institutes are also required to 
be held annually by the superintendent of public 
instruction, in the several judicial districts of 
the state. The schools must be kept open six 
hours per day for at least three months, the 
school month consisting of four weeks of five 
days each. The school age is from 5 to 21 years. 
By the act of August, 1874, parents are com- 
pelled to send healthy children to public or 
private schools not less than twelve weeks every 
year, under the penalty of a fine of from $5 to 
$10 for the first offense, and from $10 to $20 
for every subsequent offense. School directors 
are charged with the enforcement of this law. — 
The school revenue is derived from (1) the pro- 
ceeds of all lands granted by Congress to the 
state for the support of schools, including the 
500,000 acres granted to each new state in 1841; 
(2) all estates of persons dying intestate and with- 
out heirs ; and (3) money derived from military 
■exemptions, fines, and estrays. The amount of 
interest-bearing permanent school fund, in 1875, 
according to the report of the state superintend- 
ent, for that year, was $1,103,534.09. The 
income from all sources for the support of 
schools, amounted to $1,478,998.64, including 
$264,683.30 from state funds, and $685,162.27 
from district taxes. — The salaries of teachers 
are as follows : average monthly salary of male 
teachers, $33.98 ; of female teachers, $27.25. — 
The course of instruction according to the law 
of 1874, iucludes orthography, reading, writing, 
English grammar, arithmetic, and such other 
branches as may be prescribed by the district 
board. 

Educational Condition. — The total number 
of school-districts in the state is 4,560 ; and the 
number of school-houses, 3,715. According to the 
report of 1875, the number of persons of school 
age was 199,986 ; of whom 103,551 were males, 
and 96,435 females. The following are addi- 
tional items of school statistics : 

Number of pupils enrolled 142, GOG 

Average daily attendance 85,580 

Ntunber of teachers, males 2,448 

" " " females 2,1)35 

Total 5,383 

Receipt? $1,478,998.64 

Expenditures, for salaries, repairs, etc. $1,235,969.72 
Normal Instruction. — There are three state 
normal schools for the training of teachers. The 
first was organized at Emporia in 1865. This 
affords a two years' and a four years' course of 
study in the normal department, and has, be- 
sides, a model department, consisting of a high- 
school and grammar department, and an element- 
ary training school. The enrollment, in 1875, 
was 302 : in the normal department, 77 ; high 
school, 8; training and preparatory school, 217. 
The second normal school is at Leavenworth and 
was organized in 1870. This comprises a nor- 
mal department, which affords a thorough knowl- 
edge of all the subjects taught in the public 



schools of the state, and a model school, in which 
the art of teaching is practiced. The model 
school comprises thirteen grades or departments, 
and, in 1875, the total enrollment was 836 ; and 
the number of teachers, 12. In the normal de- 
partment, the enrollment was 420; and the num- 
ber of teachers, 7 ; the average attendance was 
about 250. This department includes two kinds 
of classes : the regular classes of the normal 
course, and the temporary classes of the institute 
course. The former study in detail all that per- 
tains to professional training ; the latter give 
their attention to all the ordinary common-school 
subjects, with only enough detail to illustrate 
methods. There are five of these short courses 
in a school year. The normal students teach in 
the grades of the city schools. The third normal 
school, organized in 1874, is located at Concordia. 
The school edifice is a fine stone structure, ca- 
pable of accomodating 300 students. The enroll- 
ment, in 1875, was, in the normal-department, 
171; in the training school, 83; total, 254. 

Secondary Instruction. — In 1873, the regents 
of the university authorized the preparation of 
a course of study for the high schools of the 
state, for the purpose of introducing uniformity 
into the school system. With this view a clas- 
sification was adopted which assigned to the high 
schools an intermediate position between the 
graded schools on the one hand, and the state 
university and agricultural college on the other. 
Three courses, each of four years, were arranged, 
— a classical, a scientific, and an English course. 
The choice as to which shall be pursued, is op- 
tional with the student. There are 66 graded 
schools in the state which have, connected with 
them, high school courses, attended by 1,066 pu- 
pils. There are two business colleges, which were 
reported, in 1874, to have 4 instructors and 179 
students, 140 of the latter being males, and 39 
females. The principal denominational schools 
of this grade are (1) St. Benedict's College (Ro- 
man Catholic), at Atchison, with 7 instructors 
and 110 students; (2) the college of the Sisters 
of Bethany (Episcopal), at Topeka, with a pri- 
mary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department; 
(3) Mt. St. Mary's Female Academy (Roman 
Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Charity, 
with 7 instructors and 26 pupils; (4) the Geneva 
Academy (Presbyterian) with 2 instructors and 
100 pupils; (5) the Western Methodist Collegiate 
Institute, at Hartford ; (6) AVashbum College 
(Congregational), at Topeka. 

Superior Instruction. — Of the institutions 
which afford instruction of this grade, the only 
one under the direct management of the state is 
the University of Kansas (q. v.), at Lawrence. 
Others are included in the following table : 



NAME 



Baker University 

Highland University. 

Lane University 

St. Benedict's College 

St. Mary's College 

Washburn College. . . . 



Location 



Baldwin City 

Highland 

Leeonrpton 

Atchison 

St. Mary'B 

Topeka 



When 
found- 
ed 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion 



1857 
1857 
1865 
1859 
1869 
1865 



M. Epis. 
PresD. 
U. Breth. 
R. C. 
R. C. 
Cong. 



KANSAS UNIVERSITY 



KANT 



497 



Professional and Scientific Instruction. — ■ 
The Kansas Agricultural College, at Manhattan, 
is designed, as its name implies, to afford instruc- 
tion in agriculture; and, to that end, it has a large 
farm of over 400 acres, by means of which the 
students are enabled to put to a practical test 
the theoretical knowledge acquired. This farm 
has been divided into orchards for pears, apples, 
etc., plots for the cultivation of grains and grasses, 
and the raising of root-crops, as on an actual 
farm. Besides this farm and the course con- 
nected with it, there are departments for the 
teaching of sewing, printing, and telegraphy. 
The literary departments of the college include a 
farmers', a mechanics', and a commercial course, 
besides special instruction for women. It is 
claimed that the full curriculum carries the 
graduates up to the point reached by the best 
colleges. The endowment of the institution was 
derived from the sale of the congressional grant 
of laud (90,000 acres), yielding, in ordinary 
years, an income of about $20,000, which it is 
expected will, before many years, be doubled. 
The attendance of students at the college, during 
the year 1874, was 208, of whom 139 were males, 
and 09 females. 

Special Instruction. — The Kansas Institution 
for the Instruction of the Blind is organized with 
a superintendent, matron, physician, and four 
teachers, and receives pupils from 9 to 21 years 
of age. It is expected that, before admission, 
students shall have previously received sufficient 
elementary instruction to enable them to go on 
with the course pursued in the institution; and, 
on tins condition, they are received without 
charge, except for clothing, traveling, and in- 
cidental expenses. 

KANSAS, University of, at Lawrence, 
Kansas, was chartered in 1804. It is supported 
by state appropriations, the income of a fund of 
$10,500, and by contingent fees of $10 per 
annum, the only charge made by the university. 
The institution owns 72 sections of land granted 
to the state by Congress, in 1861, for the sup- 
port of a state university. The grounds com- 
prise 50 acres on Mount Oriad. donated by 
citizens of Lawrence and its vicinity. There are 
two buildings, erected partly by the city and 
partly by the state. The university has chemical 
and philosophical apparatus, libraries containing 
about 2,500 volumes, and a cabinet of natural 
history. Both sexes are admitted. The charter 
provides that the university shall consist of six 
departments : (1) Science, literature, and the 
Arts ; (2) Law ; (3) Medicine; (4) Theory and 
Practice of Elementary Instruction ; (5) Agri- 
culture ; (0) The Normal Department. Of these 
several departments, — Science, Literature, and 
the Arts, and the Normal Department, are the 
only ones yet organized. These departments, 
at present, comprise seven courses of instruc- 
tion ; namely, a classical and a modem literature 
course, each leading to the degree of Bachelor 
of Arts ; a general scientific course, and three 
special scientific courses, — one in chemistry, one 
in natural history, and one in civil and top- 



ographical engineering — each of the four scien- 
tific courses leading to the degree of Bachelor 
of Science. A three years' preparatory course 
precedes a four years' course in each of these de- 
partments. A normal course was added in April, 
1870. In 1875 — 0. there were 10 instructors 
and 237 students (72 collegiate, 35 normal, and 
130 preparatory), of whom 117 were males and 
120 females. The presidents of the university 
have been as follows : the Rev. R. ~\\ . Oliver, 
D. D., 1805—8 ; Rev. John Fraser, A. M., 
1808 — 74; and the Rev. James Marvin, D. D., 
the present incumbent (1870). appointed in 1874. 
KANT, Immanuel, one of the most illus- 
trious of philosophers, was born April 22., 1724, 
at Kdnigsberg, where he died Febr. 12., 1804. 
After having been for nine years a tutor, he be- 
came in 1755, privat-docent, and, in 1770, pro- 
fessor, in the philosophical faculty of the univer- 
sity of Konigsberg. The latter position he re- 
tained until his death. The philosophical system 
of Kant, which marks one of the great turning- 
points in the history of philosophy, is designated 
by the name of critical philosophy, or criticism. 
because he was the first who, by a keen analysis 
and criticism of our power of cognition, endeav- 
ored to fix a distinct boundary line between that 
which is essential and generally valid in our 
cognition on the one hand, and that which is 
empirical, non-essential, and accidental, on the 
other. The chief tenets of his system are the 
following : (1) that we know things not in 
their essence, but in their external appearance; 
(2) that there are in the human mind, a priori, 
elements of transcendental knowledge, but that 
this transcendental knowledge does not at- 
tain, with absolute certainty, to the nature of 
things ; (3) that God, freedom, and immortality 
are postulates of practical reason ; (4) that the 
moral law is a categoricalimperalive. The prin- 
cipal works of Kant, which are still reckoned 
among the classic productions of philosophical 
literature, are, Kritik der reinen Vemunft 
(1781); Kritik der praktischen Vemvmft (1788); 
Kritik der TMheUskraft (1790); Die Religion 
innerhalb der Gr&nzen <ler blossen Vemunft 
(1793) ; Anthropologic in pragmqti&cher llin- 
sicht (1798). — As professor of philosophy. Kant 
was required to deliver, alternately with the 
other professors of the same subject, lectures on 
pedagogy. The notes which he prepared for these 
lectures, were, in the latter part of his life, revised 
and arranged by his pupil Rink, who, in 1803. 
published them under the title, Immanuel Kant 
Slier Padagogik. Kant regarded education as 
the highest and most difficult task which can be 
assigned to man. He, therefore, insisted that 
pedagogics should be made the subject of earnest 
study, that education should be freed from 
mechanism, and be elevated to an art guided by 
science. Children must not be educated, in ac- 
cordance with mere custom, for the world, as it 
now exists, but, in harmony with the idea of 
humanity, for a better condition of society in the 
future. The plan of education should not be 
narrow and restricted, but cosmopobtan. The 



498 



KENTUCKY 



development of man for the fulfillment of the 
manifold laws of his existence is regarded by 
Kant as the proper object of education. He lays 
particular stress upon practical morality, and 
requires that the teaching of religious doctrines 
should be preceded by a thorough course of in- 
struction in the principles of morality, which 
shoidd be derived from reason. The work of 
God (conscience, moral law, and reason) must 
be known, before God himself can be known. — 
Kant was a great admirer of the pedagogical 
views of Montaigne and Rousseau, and took an 
earnest interest in the career of the philantliro- 
pin. He has exerted considerable influence upon 
the development of German pedagogics ; as is 
evident from the fact that a number of the most 
devoted believers in his philosophical views dis- 
tinguished themselves as educational writers ; 
among whom may be mentioned Niemeyer, 
Schwarz, and Rosenkranz ; and even Hcrbart 
was greatly influenced by Kant. — Editions of 
the complete works of Kant have been pub- 
lished by Haetenstbin (10 vols., 1838—9 ; 2d 
edit., 8 vols., 1867 — 9), by Schubert and Rosen- 
kranz (11 vols., 1840—42, with a biography by 
Schubert), and Kjrchmann (Berlin, 1868 — 74). 
A good English translation of the Critique of 
Pure Reason has been published by J. M. I). 
Meiklejohn (in Bohn's Philosophical Library, 
1855). Recent works of value to English stu- 
dents are Mahaffy, Kant's Critical Philosophy 
for English Readers (London, 1871, et seq.) ; 
Abbott's Kant's Theory of Ethics (London, 
1873) ; and Monck's Introduction to the Critical 
Philosophy (Dublin, 1874). A new edition of 
Rink's pamphlet, Immanuel Kant uber Pada- 
gogik, with select passages from the other works 
of Kant, relating to educational topics, has been 
published by Willmami (as the 10th vol. of Rich- 
ter's Padagoqische Bibliolhek). 

KENTUCKY, one of the interior states of 
the American Union, was originally a part of the 
state of Virginia, but was set off from it as a sepa- 
rate territory in 1790, and admitted into the Un- 
ion in 1792, as the second state after the original 
thirteen. Its population, at that time, was about 
75,000; but, in 1800, it was reported as 220,595. 
Its area is 37,680 sq. m., and its population, in 
1870, was 1,321,011, its rank in the latter respect 
being the eighth. 

Educational History. — The first step taken by 
this state in the interest of education, after its ad- 
mission into the Union, was in 1798, when, by act 
of the legislature, 6,000 acres of the public lands 
of the state were given to each of the following 
institutions : Franklin, Salem, and Kentucky 
academies, and Lexington and Jefferson semina- 
ries. In 1805 and 1808, acts were passed extend- 
ing these provisions to all the counties of the 
state then existing. AVithin twenty years after the 
passage of the act of 1798, forty-six additional 
institutions were endowed by a similar grant of 
6,000 acres. Another law provided that, in ad- 
dition to this, a large tract of public land, speci- 
fied by the act, should be set apart for edu- 
cational purposes ; and the county courts were 



authorized to cause to be surveyed, located, and' 
patented, within their respective counties, the 
reserve above indicated, or elsewhere in the state, 
6,000 acres each for seminary purposes, such 
lands to be exempt from taxation. Through in- 
attention or interested legislation, however, the 
land was, in many cases, sold by the county au- 
thorities, and the proceeds were squandered ; in 
others, the funds are still held for their original 
uses by trustees. On the 18th of December, 1821, 
one-half of the net profits of the Bank of the 
Commonwealth were, by act of the legislature, 
set apart as a Literary Fund, to be distributed, 
pro rata, to the counties of the state, for the 
support of a general system of education, under 
state direction ; and one-half of the net profits 
of the branch banks at Lexington, Danville, and 
Bowling Green were, in a similar way, given to 
Transylvania University, Centre College, and 
the Southern College of Kentucky, respectively.. 
Until the failure of the bank, this last appro- 
priation yielded about $60,000 annually. In 
1836, Congress apportioned $15,000,000, surplus, 
funds in the treasury, to the older states, with 
the understanding that it was to be devoted to 
educational purposes. Of this amount, Kentucky's 
share was $1,433,757. As no condition was im- 
posed, however, that it should he used as an edu- 
cational fund, only $1,000,000 of it was set apart 
for that purpose ; and this was afterwards re- 
duced to $850,000. This was the origin of the 
permanently invested school fund of the state, 
and the interest of it was for many years the 
only constant revenue for the support of the 
public schools. In 1838, the first law for the 
establishment of a general system of common 
schools was enacted ; but for ten years little was 
done to make it effective ; and, in 1840, the state 
having entered upon a system of costly internal 
improvements by which a deficit in the treasury 
was caused, the payment of interest on the school 
bonds was refused. This was followed by the 
calling in and burning of all the school bonds. 
In 1847—8, however, an act was passed, chiefly 
through the efforts of Rev. Robert J. Breckin- 
ridge, directing the governor to issue a new bond 
for all arrears of interest due, and submitting to< 
a vote of the people a proposition to levy a tax 
of two cents on each one hundred dollars, for 
common-school purposes. The election showed 
a majority of 36,882 votes in favor of this tax. 
In 1849, upon the framing of a new constitution 
for the state, the school funds, for which the 
state had given bonds to the state board of edu- 
cation, were forever dedicated to common-school 
purposes, together with all other funds which 
might thereafter be raised for the same purpose. 
During the legislative session of 1850 — 51, afierce 
contest arose between the governor (John L. 
Helm) and the state superintendent (Rev. Dr. 
Breckinridge) as to whether the common-school 
fund should be considered a part of the regular 
state debt, the interest of which was payable out 
of the sinking fund. Dr. Breckinridge considered 
that it should be so paid, and the adoption of 
this method was of vital moment to the popu- 



KENTUCKY 



499 



larity of the public-school system, since, if it 
were not so paid, a special annual tax of $80,000 
would be necessary. After a long and heated dis- 
cussion, a bill directing the commissioners of the 
sinking fund to pay the interest of the school 
bonds was passed ; but it was vetoed by the 
governor. It was, however, immediately repassed 
over his veto, by a large vote. In 1855, the 
school tax was increased from two to rive cents 
on the hundred dollars, by a majority of 57,980 
votes out of 109,492 cast. From that time till 
1 s i > 7 , little change was made in the common- 
school system of the state. In the latter year, 
the state superintendent, Z. F. Smith, prepared 
a plan which contemplated an entire reorgani- 
zation of the system. His proposition to increase 
the school tax from five to twenty cents on the 
hundred dollars, to add a poll tax of one or two 
dollars, and to empower the people of any county, 
district, town, or city to vote an additional local 
tax of thirty cents on the hundred dollars, for 
school purposes, was accepted by the legislature, 
and carried by a large popular majority. His 
plan for the reconstruction of the schools, though 
greatly modified, was substantially embodied in 
the law enacted, and resulted in giving a fresh 
impetus to the cause of education. In 1873, the 
present school laws went into effect, and the 
beneficial results of their operation are looked 
for with very great confidence. In 1874, an 
act was passed for the establishment of a uni- 
form school system for the education of colored 
children, to be under the supervision of the 
superintendent of public instruction and the 
state board of education. This act provides that 
all taxes collected from colored people shall go 
to the support of colored schools. — The State 
Superintendents have been as follows : Joseph 
J. Bullock. D. U.. 1837—9; Hubbard H. Kav- 
anaugh. I). D., 1839 — Id; Benjamin B. Smith, 
D. D., LH40— 42; George W. Brush, 1842—3; 
Ryland T. Dillard, D. D., 184:!— 7; Robert .1. 
Breckinridge, D. D„ LL. I)., 1847— 53; John D. 
Mathews. D.D., L853— 9 ; Robert Richardson, 
A. M., 1859 -63 ; Daniel Stevenson, D.D., L863 
—7; Zach. F. Smith, 1867—71 ; Howard A. M. 
Henderson, D. D., elected in 1871. 

School System. — The general supervision and 
control of the educational interests of the state 
are intrusted to a state board of education, which 
consists of the secretary of state, attorney gen- 
eral, superintendent of public instruction, and 
two professional educators. The last three con- 
stitute a standing committee for the preparation 
of rules, by-laws, and regulations for the govern- 
ment of the schools, and for the recommendation 
of a proper course of study and suitable text- 
books — the latter to be adopted at the discretion 
of the county board of examiners. The executive 
officer of the board is the superintendent of pub- 
lic instruction who is elected for four years, and 
whose duty it is to exercise a general supervision 
over the schools of the state, to distribute an- 
nually through the state the school laws, to 
furnish blanks for reports, certificates, etc., and 
to perforin all other duties naturally devolving 



I upon the office of superintendent. The school 
J year is five months, of twenty-two days each; 
and the required age of pupils is from (! to 20 
years. Xo books, tracts, paper, catechisms, or 
publications of a sectarian character are permit- 
ted to be used in the schools in any way. — The 
state board qf examiners consists of the state 
superintendent and two practical educators ap- 
pointed by him. Their sessions are held in July 
of each year for the examination of teachers ap- 
plying for certificates. These certificates, for each 
of which the examiners are allowed to charge t hree 
dollars, entitle the recipients to teach five year's 
in any of the common schools, without re-exam- 
ination by county boards. — The ran,,/,/ commis- 
sioners are elected for two years by the county 
judges and justices of the peace, their functions 
corresponding to those of county superintendents 
of other states. — The county board qf examiners 
consists of the county commissioner and two 
competent persons appointed by him. They 
examine teachers, grant certificates, and select a 
uniform series of text-books, to be in use two 
years. 

Educational < 'ondition. — Concerning the num- 
ber of school-districts, schools, etc., advices from 
counties and districts are so imperfectly made 
up that entirely accurate statistics cannot be ob- 
tained. In the annual report of the state super- 
intendent for the year ending June, 1874, an 
approximate result is given as follows : number 
of school-districts, 4,035; districts in which com- 
mon schools are taught, 3.983 ; common-school 
houses. 3.1 1 S; private schools. 463; academies, 53; 
colleges. 25, The number of male teachers in the 
common schools was 2.75G ; of female teachers, 
1.017 ; average attendance of pupils, 114,(i03. 

Normal Instruction. — There is an incorpo- 
rated normal school at Carlisle under private 
control : but those who graduate from the course 
provided for teachers have the right, under the 
charter, to teach in the common schools of the 
state five years without examination by either 
stale or county boards. Louisville has a train- 
ing school connected with its public-school 
system; and the Frankfort public school has a 
training class. At Lexington, there is a colored 
school with a normal department under the 
direction of the American Missionary Society. 
Teachers' institutes are held in almost every 
county of the state. These institutes are con- 
ducted by professional teachers ; and, being the 
chief agency for normal instruction in the state, 
receive considerable attention. 

Secondary Instruction. — High schools for 
males and females are maintained in Louisville, 
and some other parts of the state. There are 
also academies, female seminaries and colleges, 
and commercial colleges. Of the former, 47 were 
enumerated in the state superintendent's report 
for 1874. The two business colleges at Louisville 
and Lexington, reported, in 1874, 9 instructors 
and 240 students. 

Superior Instruction. — The following table 
includes the principal colleges and universities, 
exclusive of female colleges, in the state : 



500 



KENTUCKY 



KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY 







When 


Religious 


NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomina- 






ed 


tion 


Bethel College 


Bliss elville 


1849 


Baptist 


Central University. . . 


Bichmond 


1873 


So. Presb. 




Danville 


1819 


Presb. 




New Liberty 


1839 


Ev. Luth. 


Eminence College.... 


Eminence 


1857 


Non-sect. 


Georgetown College. . 


Georgetown 


1829 


Baptist 


Kentucky University. 


Lexington 


1858 


Non-sect. 


Ky. Military Inst 


Farmdale 


1846 


Non-sect. 


E.y. Wesleyan Univ... 


Milleusburg 


1859 


M. E. So. 


St. Mary's College 


St. Mary's 


1821 


R. C. 




Bowling Green 




M. E. So. 



The female colleges are quite numerous ; chief 
among which may be mentioned Bethel Female 
College, at Hopkinsville, a Baptist institution ; 
Bourbon Female College, at Paris ; the Presby- 
terian Female College, at Bowling Green ; Bap- 
tist Female College, at Clinton ; Franklin Fe- 
male College, at Franklin; Lebanon Female 
College (Baptist), at Lebanon ; Lexington Fe- 
male College (Baptist), at Lexington; Logan 
Female College (M. E. South), at Busselville ; 
Louisville Female College (Meth.), at Louisville; 
Millersburg Female College, at Millersburg ; 
Shelbyville Female College (So. Presb.), at 
Shelbyville ; and Stanford Female College, at 
Stanford. Besides these, there are several un- 
chartered institutions which are prosecuting 
the work of higher education. Among these 
may be mentioned Warren College at Bowling 
Green: Daughters College, Harrodsburg ; Hocker 
Female College, Lexington ; the Kentucky Col- 
lege for Young Ladies, Pewee Valley ; and 
Berea College, at Berea. The last was organ- 
ized in 1858 for both sexes, without distinction 
of race. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
Scientific instruction is partially provided in 
many of the colleges already enumerated; but 
special provision in this respect is made in the 
State Agricultural and Mechanical College, at 
Lexington. The course comprises the following 
departments: (1) English language and literature; 
(2) mathematics; (3) chemistry and experimental 
philosophy; (4) natural history and political econ- 
omy; (5) mental and moral philosophy; (6) com- 
mercial training ; (7) mining and civil engineer- 
ing; (8) modern languages; (9) fine arts; (10) mili- 
tary tactics. Law is taught in a special school 
forming a part of the Kentucky University; and 
medicine in the Transylvania Medical College, 
now forming a department of the same univer- 
sity. The Louisville Medical College, Louisville 
Hospital Medical College, and the University of 
Louisville also afford opportunity for instruction 
in the theory and practice of medicine. 

Special Instruction. — The institution for deaf- 
mutes, at Danville, is one of the oldest in the 
United States, having been founded in 1823. 
It is a school for the education of deaf-mutes, 
similar to that of New York and of Hartford, 
and not an asylum. Every deaf-mute in the state, 
of sound mind, between the ages of 10 and 30, 
is entitled to its privileges for seven years, free of 
charge. It is under the control of a board of 
commissioners appointed by the governor. Its 



resident officers are a principal, matron, steward, 
and physician. Its curriculum is that which is 
common to such institutions. The Asylum for 
the Education of the Blind, at Louisville, is in- 
tended to furnish instruction to every child in 
the state, between the ages of 6 and 16, who is 
deprived by defective sight from receiving the 
education usually given iu the common schools. 
In addition to these institutions for special in- 
struction, the Kentucky Institution for the Edu- 
cation of Feeble-Minded Children, at Frankfort, 
is worthy of mention. This was re-established 
in 1874, after having been discontinued for 
some years. As its name implies, it is for 
"feeble-minded children," not for idiots. To 
such children, between, the ages of 6 and 18 
years, the state affords, through this institu- 
tion, an education free of charge. The build- 
ing is situated just beyond the city limits of 
Frankfort. 

Society J 'or the Advancement of Education. — 
On the 15th of July, 1874, a meeting was called 
at Frankfort to concert measures for establish- 
ing a school or schools for the training of teach- 
ers and the education of young men for clas- 
sical and technical pursuits. This resulted in 
the foundation of the Society for the Advance- 
ment of Education. 

State Teachers' Association. — This body holds 
annual meetings to promote the cause of com- 
mon schools and popular education, and to ele- 
vate the character and advance the interests of 
the profession of teaching. Prominent educa- 
tors from other states are usually present by 
invitation and take part in the proceedings, 
which consist of discussions in regard to school 
matters, a daily order of exercises illustrative of 
school methods, and lectures in the evening. The 
Louisville Educational Association is a body 
formed for essentially the same purpose as the 
Teachers' Association. 

KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, at Lexing- 
ton, Ky., was chartered in 1858. With the ex- 
ception of the theological department, which is 
under the control of the Christian Church, it is 
non-sectarian. It was opened as a college, in 
1859, at Harrodsburg in the building of Bacon 
College, the property of which had been trans- 
ferred to the university. By an act of the legis- 
lature, in 1865, the institution was removed to 
Lexington, the property and endowment of 
Transylvania University were transferred to it, 
and the State Agricultural College, founded with 
the congressional land grant, was made a de- 
partment of it. Li 1866. Ashland, the home- 
stead of Henry Clay, and the adjoining estate of 
Woodlands, on the border of and partly within 
the city, the entire tract containing 433 acres, 
were purchased for an experimental farm and 
the permanent site of the university. These 
grounds are now the seat of the Agricultural 
and Mechanical College. The other departments 
occupy the former campus of Transylvania Uni- 
versity, containing 20 acres in the city, with 
suitable buildings. The university has an en- 
dowment of about $400,000; the value of its real 






KENTUCKY MILITARY INSTITUTE 



KINDERGARTEN 



501 



estate is about £250,000. The libraries contain 
about 1(1,1100 volumes. It has a museum of 
natural history, an anatomical museum, and 
valuable chemical, philosophical, and astronom- 
ical apparatus. The university comprises the 
following colleges: (1) The College of Arts; 
(2) The Agricultural and Mechanical College of 
Kentucky ; (3) The College of the Bible ; (4) The 
Normal College (not yet organized) ; (5) The 
Commercial College ; (6) The College of Law ; 
(7) The College of Medicine (Transylvania 
Medical College). Tuition in the theological 
department is free ; in arts and agriculture, its 
cost is $5 per year, in commerce $30, in law 
#60, in medicine $1(1 for each professor. Each 
legislative district of the state is entitled to send 
three students to the university free of charge 
for tuition in any of the first four colleges 
named above. In 1873 — 4, the whole number 
of instructors in the various colleges was 32, and 
of students, 406. John B. Bowman, LL. D.. to 
whom the foundation of the university is mainly 
due. is (1870) the regent. 

KENTUCKY MILITARY INSTITUTE, 
at Farmdale, Franklin Co., Ky., was founded in 
1845. chartered in 1846, and placed under the 
direction and control of a board of visitors ap- 
pointed by the governor of the state, who is, ex 
(itficio, inspector of the institute. The superinten- 
dent, faculty, and cadets are constituted a </>i>/si 
military corps ; and the officers are commissioned 
tinder the seal of the commonwealth. The arms 
are furnished by the state. The institution has 
fine grounds, and buildings erected at a cost of 
more than §100,(100. The library contains .'1000 
volumes. The charge for tuition is $100 per 
annum ; for board, etc., $'200. There is a prepara- 
tory, an undergraduate, a resident graduate, a civil 
engineering, and a commercial course. The under- 
graduate course is in three divisions, requiring 
from three to five years for completion, and com- 
prises four departments, mathematics, languages, 
natural science, anil English. A certificate of pro- 
ficiency is conferred after a satisfactory exami- 
nation in the studies of a department; in the J - 
partment of languages a knowledge of two is re- 
quired, of which one must lie either Latin or Ger- 
man. The degrees of Bachelor of Mathematics, 
of Natural Science, and of English, are conferred 
after an examination in an extended course 
in the respective departments. For the degree 
of Bachelor of Languages, four languages are re- 
quired. The degree of Bachelor of Arts is con- 
ferred on those receiving certificates of proficiency 
in three departments, and of Master of Arts 
upon those who receive them in all the four de- 
partments. Upon those completing the com- 
mercial course the degree of Bachelor of Com- 
mercial Science is conferred. In the resident 
graduate course, besides mathematical, scientific, 
and linguistic studies, an elementary course of 
medicine or a professional course of law may be 
pursued. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instruct- 
ors, 51 students, and 222 alumni. The super- 
intendents have been as follows: Col. R. T. P. 
Allen, 20 yrs.; Col. E. \V. Morgan, 7 yrs.; B. B. 



and Col. Robert D. Allen, the 
present incumbent, 2 yrs. 

KENTUCKY WESLEY AN COLLEGE, 
at Millersburg, Ky., under the control of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church. South, was char- 
tered in 1859 and opened in 1866. It has a 
four years' course, with departments of English 
language and literature, history and philosophy, 
chemistry and natural science, mathematics, 
Greek, and Latin. All these are necessary to the 
degree of A. B„ and with the exception of Greek 
and Latin, to the degree of B. S. In 1H75 — 6, 
there were 5 instructors and 94 students. The 
value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
$40,000; amount of productive funds, $45,400. 
T. J. Dodd, D. D., is (1876) the president. 

KENYON COLLEGE, at Gambier. Ohio, 
is under Protestant Episcopal control. It was 
first incorporated under the title of the Theolog- 
ical Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in the Diocese of Ohio, and was opened 
for elementary instruction at Worthington. in 
1825. By a subsequent act of the legislature, 
the president and professors were constituted the 
faculty of a college, under the name of Kenyan 
( lollege ; and, in June. 1 828, the institution was 
removed to its present site. In 1840, the theolog- 
ical department was separated from the college, 
and constituted the Theological Seminary of the 
Diocese of Ohio. Auxiliary to the college, there 
is a preparatory school. The college park com- 
prises 50 acres, and contains four college buildings 
and six houses for the professors. At some dis- 
tance, are the buildings of the preparatory depart- 
ment and the theological seminary. The college 
has an endowment of $100,000, an astronomical 
observatory, and libraries containing 19,000 vol- 
umes. The value of its buildings, grounds, and ap- 
paratus is $160.0(10. h, 1873—74, there were S 
instructors and (i(i students (13 preparatory and 
53 collegiate). The number of alumni, in 1872, 
was 453. The presidents of the college have been 
as follows : the lit. Rev. Philander Chase, D. I)., 
1825—31 ; the Rt. Rev. Charles P. Mcllvaine, 
D. D., D.C.L., LL. D., 1832—40; David Bates 
Douglass, LL. I)., 184(1 — 44; the Rev. Samuel 
Fuller. D. D. (provisional), 1844 — 5: the Rev. 
Sherlock A.Bronson, I). D., 1845—50 ; the Rev. 
Thomas M. Smith. D. D., 1850—54 ; Lorin An- 
drews, LL. I).. 1854—61 ; Benj. L. Lang, A. M. 
(acting), 1861—3 ; Charles Short, LL. D., 
1863 — 7: the Rev. James Kent Stone, A. M.. 
1867—8; Eli T. Tappan, L.L.D., 1868—75; and 
the Rev. E. C. Benson, A.M. (acting), the present 
incumbent (1876). 

KINDERGARTEN (tier., children's gar- 
di'ii), a peculiar system of education, founded by 
Friedricft Froebel (q. v.), designed to precede all 
other elementary training, and to prepare the 
chili! for regular instruction by exercising all its 
powers so as to render it self-active. While the 
reformers of education before his time, Pestalozzi 
included, whose assistant he was, treated the 
youthful mind, more or less, as a passive recipient 
of truth, goodness, and beauty, it was Froebel's 
fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever 



502 



KINDERGARTEN 



it could be induced to do as a kind of amusement, 
exercising its observing faculties in connection 
with its playthings and games, and thus to create 
in it an interest in learning. He discovered, 
by means of half a century's attentive pi'actice 
in teaching, in association with many other 
excellent educators, that the faculties of most 
children are stunted in infancy and earliest youth 
by the want of appropriate mental food ; that 
every child may be developed (may develop 
itself) into a self-educator by appropriate amuse- 
ments ; and that, in this manner, pleasure may 
be made the most efficient instrument in the first 
stages of education. He studied all the plays and 
games in use from the most ancient times, in 
order to find their special adaptation to mental 
and bodily growth, and thus formed a complete 
philosophical system of early intellectual culture. 
This culture was to begin in the earliest years, 
with ball plays, accompanied by snatches of song 
and rhyme ; later, with a sphere, a cube, and a 
cylinder of wood, used for various amusing ex- 
ercises, and calculated to enliven the attention, 
and increase the self-activity of the infant. The 
two little books for mothers, which contain his 
suggestions for this purpose, disclaim any merit 
of invention ; he considers them derived simply 
from a diligent observation of the methods of 
many excellent and successful mothers. But it 
was not from books alone that he intended that 
mothers should learn how to train their children. 
They were to be educated, as young children, in 
a kindergarten, and afterwards, before graduat- 
ing from the upper classes, to learn the art of 
infant education in a model kindergarten. It 
was in this way that he hoped to render, in the 
course of time, all mothers true educators of in- 
fancy, the centers of happy family circles, and 
the priestesses of a higher humanity, so that they 
might be "in harmony with themselves, with nat- 
ure, and with God.'' — But mere family education 
being liable to one-sidedness and exelusiveness, 
social education should begin early, in order to 
complement the former. During part of the day, 
the child should be in company with many other 
children of the same age, and should engage in 
such plays as supply, in a gradually ascending 
scale, proper food for the mental and bodily 
appetites and functions, while making the com- 
pany of little ones as happy as possible. This 
can be done only under the guidance of a true 
teacher, who should be a female capable, by nat- 
ural endowments and previous study, to take 
the place, in this respect, of the mother. The 
locality should be a hall in a garden, with flow- 
ers, shrubs, trees, each .child having its own 
flower-bed, so that it may learn how to raise 
plants, and to enjoy nature. The playful occu- 
pations of the pupils comprise a great variety of 
plays in a given order which, however, should 
not be absolutely fixed, but should afford a 
healthy change, without inducing habits of im- 
perfect attention and restlessness. None of these 
occupations were the invention of Froebel ; they 
had all been practiced more or less before his 
time. But their combination into a harmonious 



whole, their adaptation for mental food in every 
direction, and their development in detail must 
be set down as Froebel's creation ; and the expe- 
rience had with them for more than twenty-five 
years, and in many hundreds of kindergartens, 
justifies the wisdom of the sytem. Although 
meeting at first with a most stubborn opposition 
on the part of governments, sects, and the teach- 
ing fraternity, the kindergarten has, step by 
step, made friends of enemies, silenced the most 
severe critics, and won favor with governments 
(in Austria, Italy, and Russia), with the Roman 
Catholic bishops (in Belgium, France, Hungary, 
and many parts of the United States), and with 
orthodox Protestants of various denominations. 
It has been endorsed by the great conventions of 
German teachers, after a protracted study of its 
residts; and, in America, by the National Teach- 
ers' Association, at the meeting held at Elmira, 
in 1873. In short, it seems to be destined to be 
universally adopted, and to be connected with 
every infant school. There is still much con- 
troversy among the followers of Froebel them- 
selves in regard to the minor details of the system ; 
and some improvement has been made upon his 
own first practical realization of the idea, which, 
from insufficiency of means, coidd not be all that 
he desired; but the indefinite perfectibility of the 
system in practical details, according to its prin- 
ciples, insures its progressive success. — The exer- 
cises of the kindergarten are alternately carried 
on in a sitting, and in a standing or walking 
position, for the sake of a salutary change, and 
are partly such as can, without special training, 
be guided by any good teacher; namely, singing; 
the reciting of child-like poetry committed to 
memory by means of the teacher's frequent 
repetition; light gymnastics, marching exercises, 
and easy ball plays ; acting the doings of men 
and animals ; all these accompanied from time 
to time with song, or turned into object lessons 
by frequent conversation on the things men- 
tioned or represented; also amusing employment 
with playthings, called gifts, of which there are 
several sets. (See Gifts.) The guidance of these 
occupations requires a practical training, on the 
part of the teacher, and a theoretical study 
which never can be too thorough, if the pupil's 
mental and moral development is to become 
what Froebel intended it to be. Each of these 
exercises serves a threefold purpose, — to produce 
forms of beauty, forms of life (such as re- 
semble things that occur within the child's ex- 
perience), and forms of knowledge (such as may 
dead to a knowledge of the qualities, quantities 
and actions of objects). The child itself is to 
produce these forms ; the teacher is not to teach 
them, but to lead his pupil by suggestions con- 
veyed in questions or conversation, so that the 
child may become inventive. To do this properly, 
Froebel has advised a method based on the law 
of contraries and their combination into a higher 
unit; but the teacher is to abstain from all 
learned lore — from using abstract expressions. 
Abstract notions and words are severely banished 
from the kindergarten; it is merely concrete 



KINDERGARTEN 



503 



facts, which the child can learn through 
the senses, aud can clothe in its own language, 
that can become familiar to it by its own mental 
assimilation. Neither is discipline to be main- 
tained by authority or by any mechanical means ; 
but by the suggestions of the teacher, and by 
the pupils' own absorption in the interest of their 
occupations. Thus children are. at an early age, 
enabled to discipline themselves through pleasant 
employment, to submit to the will of the majority 
of their equals, on the one hand, or to assert, on 
the other, their own free volition, if they can 
induce others to agree with them. Thus, they 
are to take their first lessons in moral self-govern- 
ment. 

Au objection has been urged to the general 
introduction of the kindergarten as being too 
costly ; but experience, has established the indis- 
putable fact, that a good kindergarten need cost 
no more than the best primary school. The 
genuine kindergartner — and none but such 
ought to be employed — can superintend more 
than a hundred children at a time, provided 
she begin with no more than twenty, adding 
twenty more as soon as she has a good assistant 
able to replace her ; and again twenty more, and 
so on, whenever one more assistant is prepared to 
take her place. Such assistants may be pupils 
of the training or normal school elasses, who 
wish to acquire the art of infant education, and 
n vil not be paid for their assistance. Thesepupil- 
teaehers will not, of course, by merely six months' 
help in this way. be fully able to conduct a 
kindergarten independently; but they will learn 
enough to be valuable assistants, and to become 
good educators as mothers. This is not merely an 
economical measure, but is sustained by peda- 
gogical principles. The little pupils of a kinder- 
garten, from four to seven years old, will form 
several grades, that can simultaneously be en- 
gaged only in certain occupations; while, in all 
others, they must be separately employed. As, 
then, divisions into grades are indispensable, 
and the principal teacher must go from one to 
the other, she can leave all the grades under 
the guidance of proficient assistants, taking 
the pupil-teachers along from division to divi- 
sion, thus affording them an opportunity to 
witness the greatest variety of exercises possible 
within a short space of time, and to practice 
■every one under her direction. Besides, she 
can hardly fail to receive valuable support in 
the singing, articulation, and gymnastic exer- 
cises, from the talents of some of her assistants. 
But even more important is the following con- 
sideration. It is almost impossible to carry on 
a genuine kindergarten successfully without the 
exercise of a wide spread and lively interest in it 
among the women, especially the mothers, of 
the community. So long as they do not fre- 
quently visit the institute, they will not fully 
appreciate its purposes and results ; they will 
insist that their children should begin to learn 
the alphabet; and, if that is not done, they will 
perhaps take them away to some primary school. 
Many kindergarlners of our country yield to 



the demand of the mothers, and make the alpha- 
bet and ciphering a part of the regular kinder- 
garten exercises ; but this is a positive loss to 
the children, 

A prize essay on the question, "How may 
the kindergarten lie organically connected with 
the ( Public) School,'' was. a short time ago, called 
for by the Education Society of Germany; and 
the prize was awarded to Dr. A. Richter, of 
I^eipsie. The reasons for rendering the kinder- 
garten a universal institution, which are given 
in this essay and in several others that were 
honorably mentioned, are here presented. If it 
be granted that the first education, imparted 
through a good kindergarten, is far more effect- 
ive than that obtained in a common elementary 
school, it will not do to combine a number of 
pupils that have completed their kindergarten 
course, with such pupils as come directly from 
the nursery or from the street. The two sets of 
pupils will form a most incongruous body. The 
former, possessing a more or less harmonious 
development of all their powers, and a certain 
degree of self-activity and self-control, admit of 
a more rapid course of primary teaching and 
more advanced methods of instruction than 
would be proper for children entirely untrained. 
These pupils would, therefore, be greatly re- 
tarded in their progress by being subjected to 
the same treatment as the other pupils, who 
come to school with an insufficient preparation, 
who are, perhaps, unable to understand what 
I the teai her says, and to make themselves under- 
| stood by him (or her), who need a rigid uniform- 
; ity of mechanical discipline and a preparation 
of their powers for the school exeieises. This 
difference must remain the same in the primary, 
grammar, and high school elasses: for. in all. the 
kindergarten pupils must, on account of their 
self-activity and self-control, need a different 
management from that of the others. Hence 
the need of affording to all the children who at- 
tend the elementary school, a preliminary course 
of training by means of kindergarten exercises. 
A general introduction of this system is impos- 
sible until normal schools afford the instruction 
requisite to prepare teachers for the work. 
American teachers have already recognized the 
value of the system. At a meeting of the Na- 
tional Educational Association, held in Elmira, 
in 1M73, resolutions were adopted, (1) recom- 
mending the kindergarten "as a potent means 
for the elevation of primary education, and for 
the development and promulgation of the prin- 
ciples of sound educational psychology"; (-) ur- 
ging - upon the attention of all practical educa- 
tors and boards of education the importance of 
initiating experiments with the intent to deter- 
mine the best methods of connecting the kin- 
dergarten with our current educational system"; 
and (if) suggesting that "all teachers study Froe- 
bel's system, in order to be instrumental in 
founding such institutions, and to hasten the 
advent of their general introduction.'' Efforts 
have been made by the German-American 
Teachers' Association to found a normal and 



504 



KINDERGARTEN 



KINDERMANN 



model school for the purpose of training teach- 
ers for the management of kindergartens. The 
report of the U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
tion for 187-1 enumerated 55 of these schools 
in various parts of the United States, in which 
there were 125 teachers, and 1,636 pupils. The 
experimental introduction of the system in con- 
nection with the public schools of St. Louis, in 
1874, is represented as being eminently success- 
ful. At the date of the last annual report 
of the superintendent of schools in that city 
(1874 — 5), there were 7 kindergartens connected 
with as many of the public schools ; and the 
whole number of kindergarten pupils was 457. 
The following advantages are claimed for the 
system : (1) The kindergarten children submit 
more readily to school discipline ; (2) the aver- 
age intelligence of the pupils is greatly superior 
to that of children who enter school without 
previous training ; they are more accurate in 
observation, and seize ideas with more rapidity 
and exactness than other children ; (3) in addi- 
tion to superior general development, children 
thus trained show special aptitude for arith- 
metic, drawing, and natural sciences, and can 
express what they know with greater correct- 
ness and fluency. 

In Germany, where there are, as yet, no kinder- 
gartens dependent on the state, and only a few 
dependent on communities, efforts are being 
made by the National Education Society to in- 
duce the governments to authorize a general in- 
troduction of the system, with all the steps pre- 
liminary thereto. An experiment has also been 
begun in Austria and in Wurtemberg, to establish 
Froebel's Labor School. This is a continuation 
of the kindergarten occupations through higher 
stages of development. Only about one-half of 
the school time is spent in the ordinary kind 
of primary and secondary instruction ; the re- 
mainder is devoted to recreation and occupa- 
tions, such as singing, declamation, drawing, 
modeling, gymnastics, geometrical object lessons 
and exercises, paste-board work, wood work, and 
metal work, etc. This experiment has also been 
carried on for the last five years, at a German- 
American school in Newark, N. J., on a smaller 
scale, but with very satisfactory results. 

Owing to the necessity of special skill and 
training in order to conduct a kindergarten 
efficiently, many persons who undertake this 
work fail, through want of preparation, to pro- 
duce the results designed. In this way spurious 
kindergartens have caused much complaint, and 
brought considerable discredit upon the system. 
The test of a good kindergarten is its obvious 
effect upon the pupils, in exciting cheerfulness, 
intelligence, activity, and a fondness for the school 
work. If. on the other hand, the children dislike the 
school, it is an evidence that there is a want of tact 
and skill in its management. There may, indeed, 
exist in such a school all the occupations recom- 
mended by Froebel. and each may be used ac- 
cording to the established formula ; but if the 
spirit in which the exercises are to be conducted 
is missing, if the treatment is mechanical, all the 



moral influence which should spring from the 
cheerful self-activity of the child, is lost. If too, 
the teacher shows always the calm and dignified 
deportment of the ordinary class disciplinarian, 
instead of entering with all her heart into the- 
harmless joy from which the child's self-govern- 
ment is to take a fruitful growth, and calming 
only the troublesome excess of this mirth by 
now and then a look, a word, or a gesture, she is 
not well fitted for her calling. A genuine kinder- 
garten teacher will, like the best of mothers, take 
a lively interest in remedying, as far as possible, 
the bodily, mental, and moral defects of every 
child under her care, — uncleanly and disorderly 
habits, want of attention, stammering, color- 
blindness, a bad gait or posture, imperfect artic- 
ulation, etc. She will, in this way, earn the-, 
gratitude of the children and their parents, and- 
exert a great moral influence. Her efforts in 
this respect are, in a great measure, facilitated- 
by the pliability of the child's powers, as well 
as by its desire to avoid ridicule, and to enjoy 
the society of its comrades. Abundant experience- 
teaches, that there need be no incurable cases- 
of the above kind among children who have 
the full use of their senses ; that all children, 
may learn drawing, singing, correct enunciation, 
geometry, and many other arts and accomplish- 
ments that are, by common prejudice, pro- 
nounced attainable by those only who are specially 
gifted. It is evident, therefore, that a kinder- 
gartner can hardly be too well educated ; and, 
also, that no education repays so abundantly 
its cost. — See Friedrich Froebel, Gesammelle 
pddagogische Schriften, herausgeg. v. Wichard 
Lange (Berlin, 1862) ; B. Marenholtz-Buelow, 
Die Arbeit mid die neue Erziehung nach Froe- 
bel's Methode (Gottingen, 1875) ; H. Gold- 
ammer, T)er Kindergarten (Berlin, 1874) ; Lina 
Morgenstern, Das Paradies der Kindheit,. 
(Leipsic, 1871) ; A. Koehler, Der Kindergarten, 
in seinemWesen dargestellt (Weimar, 1868); and 
Die Praxis des Kindergartens (3 vols., Wei- 
mar) ; also, the monthly periodical Erziehung 
del' Gegemcart, published in Dresden, which is- 
chiefly devoted to the cause of the kindergar- 
ten. The chief English publications are : Ad. 
Douai, The Kindergarten (N. Y., 1871) ; W. 
N. Hailman. Kindergarten Culture (Cin., 1874); 
H. Hoffmann, Kindergarten Toys (NY., 1874); 
Aug. Koehler, Kindergarten Education (N.Y.,. 
1876) ; M. Kraus-Boelte and John Krads,. 
Kindergarten Guide (N. Y., 1876) ; Mrs. Hor- 
ace Mann and Eliz. P. Peabody, Moral Culture 
of Infancy and Kindergarten Ginde (N. Y.„ 
1876) ; Jos. Payne, Froebel and the Kinder- 
garten System (London, 1874) ; Eliz. P. Pea- 
body, Education of the Kindergartner (Pitts- 
burgh, 1875) ; Johannes and Bertha Ronge, 
Guide to the English Kindergarten (London, 
1875) ; Edw. Wiebe, The Paradise of Child-- 
hood (Springfield, 1869). 

KINDERMANN, Ferdinand, one of the 
greatest educational reformers of Austria, born 
at Konigswalde, in Bohemia, Dec. 27., 1740, died 
May 25., 1801. When he was appointed, m 



KING COLLEGE 



KNOX COLLEGE 



505 



1771. parish priest of KapKtz, he found the 
school of that town, as well as the schools of 
Bohemia in general, in a most deplorable condi- 
tion. There was no discipline whatever, the 
methods of instruction were entirely mechanical, 
ami there was scarcely any attempt at classifica- 
tion. Kindermann resolved to make the refor- 
mation of the school the work of his life ; and. as 
he says himself, the first day which he gave to 
his pastoral duties, was also the first day devoted 
to the school. He taught the teacheis how to in- 
struct, and the children how to learn ; and by 
equally enlisting the interest of teacher, children, 
ami parents, met in a short time with complete 
success. The school of Kaplitz became famous 
throughout Bohemia, and even beyond its bor- 
ders ; and priests and teachers were sent there 
from various towns to study the method which 
had achieved so great a result. In 1775, Kin- 
dermann was appointed chief superintendent of 
all the German schools of Bohemia, and coun- 
cilor of the school commission. In the same year, 
he also became professor of pedagogy at one of 
the gymnasia of Prague. In his new position. 
he devoted his attention chiefly to the develop- 
ment of the normal school of Prague, through 
which he exerted the most beneficent influence 
upon the other Bohemian schools. The empress 
.Maria Theresa acknowledged his services in many 
ways, and raised him to the knighthood, un- 
der the title of Knight von Schulstein. Later, 
he was appointed bishop of Leitmeritz. — The 
method which Kindermann followed and recom- 
mended was, on the whole, that of Felbiger 
(q. v.); but, in many respects, he pursued his 
own way, laying special stress on the catechetical 
method. His desire to increase the prosperity 
of the people by the improvement of education, 
induced him to train the children of his school 
in spinning, sewing, knitting, and also in agricult- 
ure, horticulture, and the rearing of silk-worms. 
He thus became the founder of the industrial- 
school system in his country. — See Aignkr, Der 
Volks- und rndustriereformator Bisch of Ferdi- 
nand Kindermann (1867). 

KING COLLEGE, at Bristol, Tennessee, 
founded in 1868, is under the control of Presby- 
terians. It is supported by tuition fees, varying 
from $12 to $25 per term of 20 weeks, and the 
proceeds of an endowment of $30,000. It has 
a preparatory and a collegiate department. In 
1875 — 6, there were 4 instructors and 70 stu- 
dents. The Rev. James D. Tadlock has been 
the president from the commencement of the 
institution. , 

KING'S COLLEGE (London) is erected 
on a site which was given by the Crown, on the 
east side of Somerset House, in the Strand. ' Its 
foundation was owing to the strong dissatisfac- 
tion which many felt at the total exclusion of 
religious teaching from University College, which 
had opened its classes in 1828, three years earlier 
than King's. Accordingly, students at King's 
are instructed in the doctrines of the Church of 
England; although a liberal conscience clause is in 
operation, which enables Jews and other religion- 



ists to chare largely in the benefits of the institu- 
tion. No person, however, who is not a member of 
the I 'hurch of England can hold any office in the 
college, with the exception of the professorships 
of oriental literature and modern languages. In 
other respects, King's ( 'ollege does not materially 
differ from University < 'ollege, originally partak- 
ing, like it, of the proprietary character, and ex- 
hibiting the same adherence to the old studies and 
the new. There are six departments in the col- 
lege ; namely. (1) Theological ; (2) General Liter- 
ature and Science ; (3) Applied Sciences, chiefly 
engineering ; (4) Medicine ; (5) Evening Classes ; 
(0) School for boys. The arrangements of the 
college are wholly under the supervision of the 
principal, the Rev. Ctnon Barry. There is also 
a head-master of the school. 

The students at King's are either matriculated 
or occasional students ; the former being those 
who are admitted to the regular and prescribed 
courses of study, the latter those who take sucn 
classes only as suit their [imposes. In Lent 
term, 1875, there were, in the six departments, 
the following matriculated students ami pupils : 
(1)24; (2)47; (3) 70: (4i 135; (5) 86; (0) 553. 
If to these be added 38 occasional students in 
the morning, and 447 occasional students in the 
evening, the total will be 1 .400. This total would 
be much increased, if account were taken of cer- 
tain evening lectures not yet included in the 
regular system, such as the Gilbart lectures on 
banking, largely attended by clerks. — The Ap- 
plied Sciences department is highly esteemed 
by professional men. and, for some years past, 
has been attended by from 75 to 95 students. 
It has. besides other appliances, two good work- 
shops, one fur working in wood, and the other 
for working in metal. There are about 48 pro- 
fessors, besides lecturers, demonstrators, and the 
masters in the school. Many of these and of the 
old students are men of gnat eminence. Sir 
Charles Wheatstone, the joint-inventor of the 
electric telegraph, was the professor of experi- 
mental philosophy from 1834 until his death, in 
1875. The management of the college rests 
with a council of 42 governors. Of these, 24 are 
appointed by the proprietors, six retiring every 
year. The remainder are either, ex officio, gov- 
ernors or life-governors appointed by the visitor. 
The college buildings, with fittings and addi- 
tional land, cost £180,000. The endowments 
produce a yearly income of £880, which is spe- 
cially appropriated to certain fixed purposes. The 
ordinary expenditure is, therefore, defrayed by 
the fees, three-fourths of which are paid to the 
professors, the other fourth being retained by 
the college. — The college has a hospital near 
Lincoln's Inn Fields; it has also a chapel for 
divine service on Sundays and week-days. A 
small number of students reside within the col- 
lege. — See the College Calendar, and the Fifth 
Report of the Royal Commission on Scientific 
Instruction. 

KNOX COLLEGE, at Galesburg, 111., was 
founded in 183fi, and fully organized in 1841. 
The first class graduated in 1840. It is non- 



,06 



LAFAYETTE COLLEGE 



LANCASTER 



sectarian. The productive funds amount to 
$110,000 ; and the buildings, grounds, etc., are 
valued at $190,000. The libraries contain 6,600 
volumes. There are also cabinets of natural his- 
tory. The regular tuition fees vaiy from $20 to 
$30 per annum. The institution comprises a col- 
lege, a ladies' seminary, and an academy, the first 
of which includes a classical and a scientific 
course. In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors, 



and 325 students, of whom 41 were in the 
college. The presidents have been as follows : 
the Rev. Hiram H. Kellogg, to 1845 ; the Rev. 
Jonathan Blanchard, to 1858 ; the Rev. Harvey 
Curtiss, to 1863 ; the Rev. Wm. S. Curtiss, D. D., 
to 1868 ; the Rev. John P. Gulliver, D. D., to 
1872 ; Prof. Albert Hurd (acting), to 1874 ; and 
Newton Bateman, LL. D., the present incum- 
bent (1876). 



LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, at Easton, Pa., 
under Presbyterian control, was chartered in 
1826, and fully organized in 1832, with the 
usual classical course of study preparatory to 
the learned professions. The Pardee Scientific 
Department was added in 1866, through the 
munificence of Mr. Ario Pardee of Hazleton, 
whose gifts for this purpose amount to nearly 
$500,000. The college has seven dormitories, 
four of them, known as students' homes, having 
also families residing in them, and providing 
board and a home for such as desire it. It has 
five buildings of instruction and manipulation. 
The Pardee Hall of Technical Instruction, built 
and fitted up at a cost of $250,000, was dedicated 
in 1873. The chemical laboratories are perhaps 
unequaled in this country, and those of mining 
and metallurgy, mechanics and physics, are of 
the best. The department of natural history 
contains the most complete collection of the 
plants of Pennsylvania. The college has libraries 
of over 20,000 volumes, and is especially rich in 
the department of Anglo-Saxon and early En- 
glish. It maintains a reading room, in which, 
besides papers and periodicals, the reference 
books most frequently needed in each study are 
kept for constant use. The methods of instruc- 
tion in the two first years are those of the gym- 
nasium. The classes are kept in small divisions; 
and short lessons are thoroughly learned, and 
accompanied by many exercises of practice, and 
-elementary explanation, often repeated. In the 
two last years, there is more attempt to stimulate 
general investigation, and to communicate ad- 
vanced thought and methods by lectures, and by 
Tequiring the preparation of essays of research. 
It now offers five courses, of four years each ; 
namely, classical, scientific, engineering, mining 
and metallurgy, and chemistry, leading respects 
ively to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, 
Bachelor of Philosophy, Civil Engineer, Mining 
Engineer, and Analytical Chemist. Partial 
courses may also be taken, and opportunities 
are afforded for post-graduate study. A three 
years' post-graduate course leads to the degree 
of Doctor of Philosophy. A law department 
was opened in 1875. The cost of tuition is from 
$45 to $75 per year. In 1875 — 6, there were 28 
instructors and 335 students in the academic 
departments. The college has been honorably 
associated with the progress of meteorological 
science through the labors of Prof. J. H. Coffin, 
LL. D., by whom the government observations 



and the collections of the Smithsonian Institution 
have been here reduced and prepared for publi- 
cation ; also, since the election of Prof. F. A. 
March. 1855, with the study of Anglo-Saxon and 
English, in connection with comparative philol- 
ogy and history, in which it has been a leader 
(see Anglo-Saxon, and English, the Study of); 
it is also distinguished for its courses in the 
Latin and Greek of Christian writers, established, 
in 1872, by an endowment from Mr. Benj. Doug- 
lass of New York City. Since 1865, under the 
presidency of the Rev. W. C. Cattell, D.D., it has 
also become a center of scientific and teclmical 
study for the coal and iron districts of Pennsyl- 
vania and New Jersey. The presidents of the 
college have been as follows : the Rev. George 
Junkin, D. D., 1832—41, and 1844—8; the 
Rev. J. W. Yeomans, D. D., 1841—4; the 
Rev. C. W. Nassau, D. D., 1849 ; the Rev. D.V. 
McLean, D. D., 1850—57 ; the Rev. G. W. Mc 
Phail, D. D., the present incumbent, appointed 
in 1857. 

LA GRANGE COLLEGE, at La Grange, 
Mo., was chartered in 1859, and is under the 
control of the Baptist denomination. The college 
has valuable meteorological, astronomical, chem- 
ical, and electrical apparatus, a good mineralogical 
and geological cabinet, and a growing library. 
It is chiefly supported by tuition fees varying 
from $24 to $40 per year. During the present 
year an endowment of about $25,000 has been 
secured. Candidates for the ministry receive 
tuition free. There is a primary, a preparatory, 
and a collegiate department, the last having a 
classical and a scientific course. Both sexes are 
admitted. In 1874 — 5, there were 10 professors, 
143 students, and 42 alumni (24 males and 18 
females). J. F. Cook, LL. D., is (1876) the 
president. 

LANCASTER, Joseph., an English edu- 
cator, born in London in 1778 ; died in New 
York, Oct. 24., 1838. He was the promoter, 
though, probably, not the originator, of the sys- 
tem of instruction or school organization which, 
for a long time, passed under his name. Of an 
imaginative and excitable disposition, Lancaster, 
at an early age, showed the enthusiasm of a true 
zealot. Thus, when only fourteen years old, 
upon reading Clarkson's Essay cm the Slave 
Trade, he was seized with the desire to educate 
the blacks, so that they might be able to read 
the Scriptures, and, to that end, ran away from 
home, carrying a Bible and a copy of Pilgrim's 



LANCASTER 



607 



Progress in his pocket. The captain of the 

vessel, however, in which he proposed to sail. 
prudently sent him back. At sixteen, he joined 
the society of Friends; but. shortly afterward, 
having become interested in the education 
of the poor, by an observation of the scanty 
means provided for that purpose in London, he 
addressed himself to the work which became 
afterwards the business of his life. In 17117, 
Dr. Andrew Bell (q. v.) published a pamphlet, 
entitled An Experiment in Education, made at 
the. Mule Asylum of Madras, in which the sys- 
tem, variously known as the monitorial, mutual 
instruction, or, afterwards. Lancasterian system. 
was set forth. This pamphlet attracted little 
attention in England. In the following year. 
Lancaster opened a school in Southwark, and 
after conducting it long enough to discover that 
the impulse of enthusiasm with which it was 
started, was not sufficient to uphold it. began to 
cast about for some well-matured plan on which 
it could be continued. The extent to which 
Dr. Bell's pamphlet influenced him at this time 
has never been definitely ascertained, the ob- 
scurity attending the matter having been in- 
creased by his owji contradictory assertions. He 
began, however, to put into practice the prin- 
cipal features of Dr. Bell's system, and secured so 
general a recognition of its merits, that schools 
organized upon that system began to spring up 
all over tlie country. The church, alarmed at 
the success attained by a dissenter in educating 
the poor, began to open similar schools under 
the direction of Dr. Bell, a member of the 
established church, whose merits, originally neg- 
lected or overlooked, were now recognized and 
extolled. The excitement produced by this ri- 
valry was the means of adding largely to school 
revenues throughout the country ; and thus the 
cause of education was benefited, whatever the 
motives may have been which animated the 
rival factions. From 1807 to 1811, Lancaster 
traveled through the country, lecturing on the 
subject of education, and illustrating his method 
by the help of monitors who accompanied him : 
and it is said that, during one of those years, a 
new school according to liis system was opened 
every week. The enthusiasm thus created sunn 
led, however, to great pecuniary success, but with- 
out permanent benefit to the institutions which 
he had founded, since his ardent temperament 
and want of business capacity constantly sub- 
jected Mm to smous embarrassment. In 1812, 
he attempted to found a school composed entirely 
of the children of wealthy parents; but he failed, 
ami was adjudged a bankrupt. In 1818, he 
visited the United States, and was well received ; 
but his want of discretion again brought him 
into trouble. In L829, he went to Canada, where 
his fame procured him legislative aid in the fur- 
therance of his educational projects : but again 
becoming embarrassed pecuniarily, he removed 
to New York, where some friends had purchased 
for him a small annuity. A description of the 
system known as the Lancasterian, will be found 
elsewhere in this volume. (See Bell, and Moni- 



torial System.) Of the extraordinary success 
achieved by Lancaster in its application, and the 
unselfish devotion of his life to its practice, we 
have the most abundant evidence. His course of 
instruction originally included reading, writing, 
arithmetic, and a knowledge of the Bible, the fee 
for tuition being four pence a week ; while many. 
even from the first, were admitted free. Over 
the door of the school-house, we are told, was 
printed the announcement. " All that will, may 
send their children, and have them educated 
freely ; and those that do not wish to have edu- 
cation for nothing, may pay for it if they please." 
The children came to him 'like flocks of sheep." 
and his school, in London, was sometimes at- 
tended by a thousand. It became one of the 
points of interest for visiting foreigners, and of 
persons of all classes interested in the subject of 
education. The wonderful discipline maintained 
was explained by him in the rule. " Let every 
child have, at all times, something to do. and a 
motive for doing it". In applying it. some of his 
methods were certainly objectionable, especially 
his practice of giving rewards, which was carried 
to an unhealthy excess. " It is no unusual thing 
for me." he said on one occasion, "to deliver one 
or tw r o hundred prizes at the same time ; and, at 
i such times, the countenances of the whole school 
exhibit a most pleasing scene of delight, as the 
| boys wdio obtain prizes commonly walk round 
1 the room in procession, holding the prizes in 
their hands, and preceded by a herald proclaim- 
ing the fact before them.'' His ingeniously 
varied methods of punishment, also, would 
hardly be regarded with favor, if judged by the 
l»'st disciplinary standard of the present time. 
These consisted mainly of devices for bringing 
the public opinion of the orderly portion of the 
school to bear upon the offender by means of 
ridicule. This course was adopted by Lancaster 
for the purpose of avoiding corporal punish- 
ment, which he detested. His school revenue. 
j beginning with the humblest contributions of 
the poor of London, rose by slow degrees at 
first, till it finally embraced gifts of land and 
I money from noblemen of all ranks, and even 
from the king (George III.), who, in 1805, sent 
for him, and after receiving from him in person an 
account of the work that had been accomplished, 
j expressed his emphatic approval of it, and the de- 
i sire that every poor child in his dominions should 
I be taught to read the Bible, promising any aid in 
his power to promote that object. The novelty 
and economy of the plan of Lancaster insured it. 
for a time, a wonderful degree of success; but it is 
now considered to have been much overrated, and 
is of little value in our day. since it prin- 
cipally depended upon rote-teaching. In Holland. 
France, and Germany, the reaction soon set in. 
and led to very decided modifications. In Eng- 
land it is still in use as a means of relieving the 
teacher of much work not essentially educational, 
by the employment of the aptest scholars as as- 
sistants. By such employment, also, the teacher 
is enabled to select those pupils who are best 
qualified to be trained for the profession of teach- 



508 



LAND GRANTS 



LANGUAGE 



ing. The distinctive service, however, rendered 
by Lancaster to the cause of education, was the 
wide-spread interest and enthusiasm excited in 
its behalf, and his vindication of a non-sectarian, 
though Christian, system. His published works 
are, Improvement in Education (London, 1805), 
several elementary school books, and many pam- 
phlets in defense of his system. For interest- 
ing accounts of his life and labors, see Life of 
Lancaster, by William Corston; and Lord Cock- 
burn, Memorials of his own Time; also Lbitch, 
Practical Educationist's and their Systems of 
Teaching (Glasgow, 1876). 

LAND GRANTS, Congressional. See 
United States. 

LANE "UNIVERSITY, at Lecompton, 
Kan., founded in 1865, is under the control of 
the United Brethren in Christ. It has an endow- 
ment of $12,000 in notes and real estate. There 
is a preparatory and a collegiate course. Both 
sexes are admitted. In 1872 — 3, it had 2 instruc- 
tors and 81 students (70 preparatory and 11 col- 
legiate). The presidents have been as follows: 
the Rev. Solomon Weaver, 1865 — 6 ; the Rev. 
David Shuck, A. M., 1866—70 ; N. B. Bartlett, 
A.M., 1870—74 ; the Rev. David Shuck, A.M., 
again elected in 1874; and N. B. Bartlett, A. M., 
elected a second time, in 1876. 

LANGUAGE (Lat. lingua, the tongue, 
speech), according to the ordinary acceptation 
of the word, is the utterance of articulate sounds 
for the purpose of expressing thought. This 
mode of expression constitutes one of the char- 
acteristic faculties of man ; since no community 
of human beings, in historic times, has been 
found entirely destitute of language; and a broad 
line of demarcation separates every kind of 
human speech of which we have any knowledge 
from all the modes of expression used by brutes. 

But though common to men of all degrees 
of culture, and. as far as we know, in all periods 
of time, language presents an infinite number of 
varieties. The further we remove from civiliza- 
tion, the greater is the number of different lan- 
guages that are met with. "At the first attainable 
period of our knowledge of it, whether by actual 
record, or by the inferences of the comparative 
student, it is in a state of almost endless sub- 
division. The divaricating forces in linguistic 
growth are in the ascendant ; dialects go on 
multiplying, by the action of the same causes 
that had already produced them. But wherever 
civilization is at work, an opposite influence is 
powerfully operating. Out of the congeries of 
jarring tribes are growing great nations ; out of 
the Babel of discordant dialects are growing 
languages of wider and constantly extending 
unity. The cultivated languages have been and 
are extending their sway, crowding out of exist- 
ence the patois which had grown up under the old 
order of things, and gaining such advantage that 
men are beginning to dream of a time when one 
language may be spoken all over the earth. " 
(Whitney, in Life and Growth of Language.) 

The scientific inquiry into the nature of lin- 
guistic differences, and the relation of the differ- 



ent languages to each other, is of a comparatively 
recent origin. The Greeks and the Romans had 
a number of grammarians, but most of them had 
an acquaintance with only their own language, or, 
as in the case of the Romans, with two languages, 
and they were, therefore, unable to make a sound 
generalization. There is, in fact, hardly any work 
prior to the time of Leibnitz, which, considered 
in the light of the present linguistic atttainments 
of scholars, is of any intrinsic value. The ideas 
of Leibnitz, and Herder (in his prize essay On 
the Origin of Language), initiated the move- 
ment. The Empress Catharine H., of Russia, 
took great interest in it ; and the co-operation of 
her embassadors in Europe and Asia was enlisted 
in collecting the names used in a large number 
of languages for the different parts of the human 
body and for the necessaries of life. On the basis 
of the material thus collected, Ziinmermann and 
Pallas prepared, by order of the empress, Lin- 
guarum totius orbis vocabularia (3 vols., St. 
Petersburg, 1787 — 91). the first comparative 
dictionary. This was followed by the more scien- 
tific work of Adelung and Vater, entitled Mithri- 
dates (1806 — 17). AYhile these works illustrated 
the verbal affinities of languages, the introduction 
of the study of Sanskrit led to the study of 
comparative grammar. After these publications, 
Bopp, by his comparative grammar of the Indo- 
Gernianic languages, and Jacob Grimm, by his 
historical grammar of the German languages, 
became the real founders of the science of com- 
parative linguistics, or comparative philology, 
which has since been brought, chiefly by the 
labor of German scholars, to a veiy high degree 
of perfection. (See Dictionary, Grammar, Indo- 
Germanic Languages.) The comparative study 
of languages led at once, and naturally, to an at- 
tempt to divide all human speech into families, 
and to assign to every language its appropriate 
place among the languages of the world. This 
again involved the necessity of a thorough 
scientific study, not only of every language and 
dialect that is now spoken, but even of the lan- 
guages that are extinct. A marvelous amount 
of energy and ingenuity has, in the course of the 
present century; been expended for the purpose 
of solving this task. Travelers and missionaries 
have explored the languages of the most bar- 
barous and uncivilized tribes ; keen philologists 
have spent a life-time in recovering the lost key 
to extinct languages of the highest antiquity, 
like the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan ; and 
the professors of comparative linguistics have 
been indefatigable in collating all these discover- 
ies, and in using them in order to improve the 
classification of languages, and to promote our 
knowledge of the development of human speech 
in general. It must, of course, be apparent at 
first sight, that any classification of languages, at 
the present time, can only be regarded as a tent- 
ative and provisional arrangement ; but a glance 
at the labors on which all attempts at classi- 
fication are based, shows that the results which 
already have been attained are of the greatest 
importance. The best known among all the 



LANGUAGE 



509 



families of languages is the Indo-Germanic (q. 
v.), which, in its totality, has been for more than 
two thousand years the language of the ruling 
races of the world, and which embraces, by the 
side of the English, the ruling languages in every 
American and European country, except Hun- 
gary and Turkey, and the two classic languages, 
Latin and Greek, which have borne so prominent 
a part in the education of the human race up to 
its present state of civilization. The Hungarian 
and Turkish languages have been recognized as be- 
longing to two distinct branches of one common 
family called by different philologists Scythian 
(Whitney), or Turanian, or Qralo- Altaic, or Tar- 
taric, and presenting in the phonetic structure of 
all its members some striking family traits. The 
Hebrew, the sacred language of the Jewish and 
Christian Bible, appears, with the Arabic, Syriac, 
Ohaldee. Phoenician, and other tongues of western 
Asia and north-eastern Africa, as a branch of 
the Semitic family of languages, which, after 
the Indo-Germanic, is by far the most prominent 
in the history of the world, and of special im- 
portance in the history of religious thought ; since 
the founders of all the three great monotheistic 
religions, — Christianity, Judaism, and Moham- 
medanism, belonged to it. 

We have cast this cursory glance at the growth 
of language and of linguistic science before consid- 
ering language as a subject of practical education, 
because it is self-evident that the results of scien- 
tific research must, in a marked manner, influence 
and shape every course of instruction. The in- 
fluence of these results is most apparent in the 
higher stages of instruction; but the better insight 
into the nature of language thus gained can easily 
be traced in all works on the theory of education 
and in the history of elementary instruction. — The 
first stage in the development of language consists 
in the production of articulate sounds and combi- 
nations of sounds ; the second, in the connection 
of words with conceptions ; the third, in the com- 
bination of words for the expression of thought. 
(See Intellectual Emjoation.) The develop- 
ment of language in a child should not outrun 
his mental development ; it should at first follow, 
and subsequently accompany it. The child, from 
his first infancy, has a tendency to give some kind 
of expression to all the emotions of his mind. At 
first, various movements of the body, and inartic- 
ulate sounds serve for the purpose ; when the 
perceptions become more distinct, the child looks 
around for more definite expressions, and finds 
them in the word-language of those who sur- 
round him. If the child has sound organs of 
speech, the task of the educator, at first, is com- 
paratively easy. An artificial plan is neither 
necessary nor practical ; an occasional influence 
is sufficient. By hearing the names of the objects, 
actions, qualities, circumstances, and relations, 
which he perceives, correctly and distinctly pro- 
nounced, the child obtains his first knowledge of 
words, and learns to associate them with the 
designated objects. The memory, without dif- 
ficulty, retains a large number of words, and 
frequent practice soon leads to readiness of 



speech. Occasional conversations with the child 
on the objects of his attention, with little de- 
scriptions and narratives, afford him the neces- 
sary material for expressing the combinations of 
his thoughts, and aid in the development of 
his mind. Where the cultivation of speech is 
neglected in the education of a child, the intel- 
lectual development is likewise retarded. On the 
other hand, any attempt to force unduly the 
rapid development of speech, may lead to vain 
and thoughtless garrulity, or to a production of 
erroneous representations in the mind, which will 
obstruct its harmonious development. During 
this first stage of education, the mother is the 
child's natural and best teacher of language, and 
the language which the child thus learns has 
justly been called the "mother-tongue". Home 
education may receive a useful, and in many cases 
a very desirable, aid in a good kindergarten. 

The instruction provided for in \he common 
schools of modern times aims chiefly at perfect- 
ing the pupil in his vernacular language. The 
course of instruction to this end embraces ex- 
ercises in spelling, reading, writing, definitions, 
composition, English grammar, elocution, etc. 
There is still great diversity of opinion among 
educators as to the best methods of teaching 
each of these branches, and as to the relative 
position which each of them should occupy in 
the course of studies. This subject is fully 
discussed in the special articles devoted to the 
branches of instruction just enumerated. All 
educators, however, agree in regarding it as one 
of the chief aims of school education to give to 
the pupil a good knowledge of his vernacular 
language, and fluency in speaking and writing it 
' correctly. Even in those branches of study 
which neither solely nor chiefly aim at im- 
proving the linguistic knowledge of the pupil, 
as arithmetic, geography, history, etc.. even - edu- 
cator nowadays requires that pupils shall be 
trained in the correction of language, and taught 
to avoid common errors of speech. — Nothing is 
more adapted to illustrate the great progress 
which, in the course of the present century, has 
been made in the education of mankind than the 
steadily improving methods employed in teaching 
the youth of civilized countries their vernacular 
tongue. At Athens and Rome, instruction was 
given to children in reading, writing, and gram- 
mar, but it was mostly limited to the boys of 
the higher classes. Throughout the middle ages. 
Latin was the medium of instruction in all clas- 
ses of schools, partly because the popular dialects 
had not yet attained the degree of perfection 
I needed for expressing the thought of scholars, 
i Even in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, the 
| study of the vernacular language made but very 
'' slow progress, and it was reserved for the 1 9th 
J century to mature plans for imparting to the en- 
! tire population a good knowledge of their native 
tongues. Hand in hand with the progress in ele- 
mentary knowledge thus achieved, goes the more 
general demand for popular, especially periodical, 
literature, and the more active and more intel- 
i ligent participation of the masses in public life. 



510 



LANGUAGE 



LATIN LANGUAGE 



There are some countries in which the entire 
native population speak one language ; others 
in which two, three, or more are spoken by large 
bodies of the people. Among the former are 
Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 
way ; among the latter, Great Britain, France, 
Holland, Spain, Belgium, Germany, Austria, 
Hungary, Bussia, Switzerland, and the United 
States. In Switzerland, three languages, — the 
German, French, and Italian, are, to some 
extent, regarded as national languages ; in all 
the other countries, one language only has the 
character of a national language, though in some 
cases, as in Belgium, Austria, and Hungary, it 
is the mother-tongue of only a minority of the 
population. In several of these countries, the 
question to what extent any other than the rul- 
ing language should be admitted into the state 
schools as a branch, or as a medium, of instruc- 
tion, has led to animated controversies, which 
are far from being ended. From political rea- 
sons, it is natural that tile union of an entire 
people in the bonds of one common language 
should be looked upon as most desirable ; but, 
from an educational point of view, it will always 
be urged that, however desirable the universal 
knowledge of one national language by all the 
inhabitants of a country, especially a large coun- 
try, may be, the principle cannot be impugned 
that, wherever it is practicable, the education 
of young children should not dispense with in- 
struction in the mother-tongue, in order to se- 
cure an entire co-operation between home edu- 
cation and school education. As this question 
equally concerns a number of large countries, it 
is to be hoped that a solution may be found which 
will reconcile conflicting claims. — Besides the 
mother-tongue and the national language, the 
two classical and the principal modern languages 
are very extensively studied in schools of a 
higher grade. The classical languages have, to a 
large extent, lost the prominent position which 
they formerly occupied in most schemes of edu- 
cation ; the study of modern languages, on the 
other hand, appears to be steadily extending. 
From a pedagogical point of view, many educa- 
tors urge the early study of a cognate language 
as a means to promote, by way of comparison, a 
more thorough understanding of the native lan- 
guage. From a business or practical point of 
view, there is naturally a growing demand for 
instruction in the languages of several foreign 
countries. The treasures of the English, Ger- 
man, and French literatures are also stimulating, 
in an increasing ratio, the study, in many coun- 
tries, of those three languages, which, by com- 
mon consent, are regarded as exceeding all others 
in importance. — See Marcel, Language as 
a Means of Menial Culture and International 
Communication (2 vols., London, 1853) ; and 
The Study of Languages (Lond. and N. T., 
1869); W'hitnf-y, The Life and Growth of Lan- 
guage (N. T., 1875). (See also Classical Stud- 
ies, Grammar, Modern Languages, and the 
special articles on Latin, Greek, German, and 
French. 



LA SALLE, Jean Baptiste, a French 
priest and teacher, born in Beims, April 30., 
1651 ; died in Bouen, April 7., 1719. In 1669, 
he was appointed canon of the cathedral of 
Beims, and afterwards went to Paris to com- 
plete his studies. In 1671, he was ordained a. 
priest, and began at once the work of his life, 
the education and improvement of the working 
classes. His first project was the obtaining of a 
charter for a sisterhood, already established in 
Ms native place, and designed exclusively for 
the education of poor girls. This led to the foun- 
dation of a similar order designed to promote the 
education of boys, which rapidly spread through- 
out France, under the name of Brethren of the 
Christian Schools. The distinctive features of 
his system were, the bringing together of the 
I teachers in a common residence, the use of the 
: coarsest food and raiment, and vows of the 
i strictest obedience and devotion, during a pre- 
i paratory course of three years, to be renewed 
afterwards for life by those desiring it. No 
member of the order was permitted to become a. 
priest; and to prevent any aspirations in that 
direction, Latin, as a study, was forbidden till 
the age of thirty. In order to set an example of 
religious poverty to his followers, he renounced 
his prebend, distributed his money in alms, and 
constantly taught in the schools. After some per- 
secutions at the hands of secular teachers, he pur- 
chased the establishment of St. Yon, at Bouen. 
which afterwards became the central school of 
the order. In 1868, the brotherhood numbered 
10,000 teachers and 300,000 pupils, in France^ 
and in the United States, 323 teachers and 
15,000 pupils. The published works by which 
La Salle is best known, are : Les regies de la 
bienseance et de la civilite chretiennes, and Les 
douze vertus d'vn hon nutitre. 

LA SALLE COLLEGE, in Philadelphia, 
Pa., a Boman Catholic institution, founded in 
1863, is under the control of the Christian 
Brothers. It is supported by tuition fees, varying 
from $10 to $20 per quarter. It has a primary, 
an academic, a commercial, and a collegiate de- 
partment. The degrees conferred are A. B., B. S., 
and A. M. In 1875 — 6, there were 200 students 
(74 collegiate, 33 commercial, and 93 academic). 
The presidents of the college have been. Brother 
Oliver, Brother Noah, Brother Joachim, and 
Brother Stephen (the present incumbent). 

LATIN LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- 
sical languages, which as the language of one of 
the greatest empires of the world, and of one of 
the richest of literatures, and subsequently as 
the official language of the Catholic church, the 
literary language of western Europe, and the 
mother of the Bomanic languages, has been 
among the foremost agents in developing modern 
civilization. The name is derived from the Lat- 
ins, or inhabitants of Latium, in central Italy,, 
by whom it is believed by some to have been 
spoken as early as fifteen centuries before the 
Christian era. According to the researches 
of modern philology, the Latin is one of the 
two branches of the Old Italic language, which. 



LATIN LANGUAGE 



511 



with the Greek, German, Sanskrit, and others, 
is regarded as one of the chief divisions into 
which the Indo-Germanic languages (q. v.) are 
divided. The close resemblance of the Latin, 
as well as the other (Umbro-Sannntic) branch 
of the Old Italic language, to the Creek has led 
some philologists to assume that both the Italic 
and the Greek language sprang from one branch, 
now lost, which was co-ordinate with the San- 
skrit, German, and other divisions of the Indo- 
Germanic. The subjection of Italy to the rule of 
Rome, which was situated in Latiuin, gradually 
made Latin the language of all Italy. After the 
name of the people to whom it owes its eminent 
position in history, it has also been called the 
Roman language. For a long time, the Romans 
remained without a literature, the earliest work 
which is now extant dating about '240 B. 0. Of 
the preceding, ante-literary period of the lan- 
guage nothing is now left but a few fragments 
of the Salian songs, of the chant of the Arval 
brethren, and of the law of the twelve tables, be- 
sides a few epitaphs. During the next two 
centuries. Latin literature was gradually devel- 
oped, until, in the writings of Cicero, it reached 
its classic period. Though the distinction be- 
tween the elegant language of the educated 
classes (lingua u/rbana, urbanilas) and the lan- 
guage of the common and lower classes of the 
people (lingua rn*ti<;t or vulgaris, rusticitas) 
was early and broadly drawn, the literary lan- 
guage was and remained substantially the same ; 
and the natives of the provinces of Spain and 
northern Africa among the Roman writers used 
the same language as the natives of the city, 
although, in regard to the spoken language, the 
latter claimed the same prerogative as the mod- 
ern Parisians in regard to French. In the first 
century of the ( 'hristian era, the linguistic mate- 
rial was considerably enlarged by means of com- 
pounds and derivatives; in the course of the 
second century, the admission of a large number 
of archaic, ante-Ciceronian words ami forms and 
of Grecisms, put an end to the classic period of 
Roman literature. After the beginning of the 
third century, the purity of the language and lit- 
erature rapidly declined. The language of the 
common people invaded the literary language, 
provincialisms and ( irecisms became more and 
more frequent ; and although there was a revival 
of pure Latin in the literature of the fourth and 
fifth centuries, the spoken language, in constant 
contact with, and under the influence of, the 
tongues of the barbaric conquerors of the em- 
pire, gradually succumbed to that series of gram- 
matical and verbal changes which formed the 
transition into the Romanic languages. In the 
mean while, Latin had become the liturgical and 
official language of the < 'hristian Church; and, as 
the modern languages which arose in different 
countries of Europe remained for centuries de- 
void of a literary character, Latin became the 
common language of the schools and literatures of 
western Europe. It was the medium of instruc- 
tion, not only in the convent, and in the cathedral 
and collegiate schools, but also in the town 



schools, which in the 12th century, began to arise 
by the side of, and frequently in opposition to, 
the church schools. It was this latter class of 
schools for which the name Latin schools (q. v.) 
came into use. The Latin of the middle ages 
[Latinitas media and Latinitas infima) was. 
far inferior to that of the classic period of Ro- 
man literature ; and, from the 6th to the 14th 
century, not one writer can be found who, for 
the elegance of his diction, can be regarded as 
a classic. The revival of classical studies in the 
14th and 15th centuries caused, in literature, 
a return from the Latin of the Church to the 
language of Cicero and the Augustan age, wdiich 
many writers of that period strove, with some 
success, to reproduce in its classic purity. The 
Reformation, in the Kith century, banished the. 
use of Latin from divine service in Protectant 
churches ; but I^atin schools were as rigorously 
maintained in Protestant as in Catholic coun- 
tries. The s| leaking of Latin was common 
among the citizens and mechanics of towns; 
and it is reported of the family of the learned 
printer Henry Stephens that not only his wife, 
but even his domestics talked Latin. Special 
importance was attributed to the speaking of 
Latin in the schools of the Jesuits ; and also 
in Protestant states, like Prussia and Saxony, 
the gymnasia were, and partly still are. expected 
to train their pupils in speaking and writing Lat- 
in. In modern times, the growing opposition 
to the privileged position of classical studies in 
the educational systems of civilized nations, has 
diminished the study of Latin as well as that of 
(ireek. but the former still maintains a promi- 
nent, place in the higher institutions of learning 
throughout the civilized world, and. even in 
the present century, though in a decreasing ratio, 
is still used in scientific works. As the lan- 
guage of diplomacy ft began to give way to 
the French in the course of the 17th century; 
lint, in some parts of Europe, it was still, in 
the 18th century, the language of the educated 
classes and of political life. Thus, the Hun- 
garian Diet, in the middle of the lsth century, 
received Maria Theresa, when she personally ap- 
peared to ask its support, with the memorable 
acclamation : Moriamitr pro rege nostro Maria 
Tkeresia. In the Roman Catholic Church. Latin 
maintains unimpaired the high authority ac- 
corded to it as the language of the Church ; and, 
as such, it is still used by the Pope in his com- 
munications with the bishops and church mem- 
bers of all nationalities, and by the councils of 
the Church in their discussions and decrees. 

The Latin alphabet derives a special interest 
from the fact that it has been adopted for the 
English language and all the Romanic languages. 
and has thus become the medium of written ex- 
pression for the thought of a large portion of the 
civilized world. Its early history is still far from 
being fully elucidated : but recent researches, 
especially those of Kirchhoff (Abhandlwngen der 
Academie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1803) 
have shed considerable light on the subject. It 
is now commonly assumed that the Latin charac- 



512 



LATIN LANGUAGE 



ters are the offspring of the iEolo-Doric variety 
of the Greek alphabet. According to Cicero and 
Quintilian, the number of letters in the old Lat- 
in was 21, but only 20 appear in the earliest 
documents. One letter, appears, therefore, to 
have disappeared, which, according to Mommsen 
and Lenormant, was Z. The letter C, as its 
place in the alphabet, as well as its early pro- 
nunciation, indicates, was originally identical 
with the Greek T; as it gradually assumed 
the sound K, it caused the introduction of the 
letter G, which was not in the earliest alphabet, 
as well as the disappearance of the letter K, 
which maintained itself in only a very few ab- 
breviations. In regard to the pronunciation of 
Latin, grammarians, until late in the present 
century, were accustomed to remark that the an- 
cient mode of pronouncing it was almost wholly 
lost, and that modern scholars had applied to it 
those principles which regulate the pronuncia- 
tion of their own languages. The obscurity in 
which Latin pronunciation was believed to be 
enveloped, has, to a great extent, been removed 
by the learned works of Oorssen ( Ueber A us- 
spraclie, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateini- 
schen Sprache, 2 vols., 2d edit., 1868 — 70) and 
others ; and the leading representatives of Latin 
philology are approaching a remarkable unanim- 
ity in regard to this subject. It is regarded as 
probable that the Latin vowels had about the 
same sound as the corresponding vowels have in 
the Italian and German alphabets, with the ex- 
ception of o, which may have resembled more the 
sound of that letter in lord, than in note. The 
y, which only occurs in words of Greek origin, 
sounds like the Greek v, the German 'A, and the 
French u. In pronouncing each of the diph- 
thongs, the Romans distinctly uttered both of 
the vowels composing it. Thus in neuter each of 
the two vowels was distinctly heard, just as in 
the pronunciation of this diphthong in the 
modern Italian and Portuguese. The letter c 
was always pronounced like k ; the g was always 
hard as in give ; final m had an obscure sound, 
perhaps the nasal sound of the French, as in 
nom ; _ s was always like the Spanish s, having 
the sound of ss in miss ; and ph, ch, ill were, as 
the characters indicate, pronounced as the as- 
pirates p, 7c, and t. In its rules for accentuation 
and the quantity of syllables, the Latin resembles 
the Greek ; and it was thereby, like its classic sis- 
ter, enabled to develop in its poetry a rhythmical 
form which by far exceeds, in point of beauty, 
any thing that is found in any modern language. 
The inflectional part of the language, both in 
the declension of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and 
numerals, and in the conjugation of verbs, also 
characterized the Latin at first sight as a sister 
of the Greek, having many points of resem- 
blance. We meet with striking similarities in the 
rules pertaining to cases, numbers, genders, per- 
sons, voices, and modes, together with extensive 
verbal affinities. The later development of liter- 
ature among the Romans deprived the Latin 
of many of the forms which still distinguish 
the Greek, and gave to the language a touch 



of that utilitarian character which characterized 
the people. Thus, there is no dual number, no 
middle voice distinguished in its form from the 
passive, and no optative mood. Besides, in both 
the active and the passive voice of the Latin 
verb, there are fewer tense-forms than are found 
in the Greek. An additional case in the declen- 
sion of singular nouns — the ablative (which of 
all the Indo-Germanic languages the Latin and 
Old Bactrian alone have preserved), is a small 
offset in favor of the Latin, as far as fullness of 
inflectional forms is concerned. 

The study of Latin is generally begun by En- 
glish students at an early age. It almost invari- 
ably precedes that of the Greek, and generally 
the study of any foreign modern language. In 
many cases, the study of English grammar is 
either entirely postponed in favor of Latin, or 
only its most elementary rules are taught. At 
the outset, the student becomes aware that he is 
entering a new world of thought. The nouns 
which he has met. with in his English reading, 
he has found to be subject to but very few 
changes. When the word father was used in a 
possessive sense, it became father's; if used in 
the plural, fathers ; and in the plural and pos- 
sessive, fathers'. All the various relations, ex- 
cept the possessive, which a noun, either in the 
singular or plural number, may occupy in re- 
gard to other parts of the sentence, he finds, are 
expressed by means of prepositions ; as, of the 
father, to the father, until the father, etc. The 
Latin grammar presents to him quite an array 
of different forms ; as, pater, patris, patri, pa- 
trem, etc. Thus he sees that the modifications 
of thought which in English are chiefly expressed 
by means of prepositions, are indicated in Latin 
by the varying inflections of the root. It re- 
quires considerable effort on the part of the 
youthful scholar to grasp this new idea, and it is 
easily seen that this effort must tend to develop 
and strengthen the thinking powers of the stu- 
dent. — However much the methods of teaching 
Latin may differ in certain details, no one 
should dispense with a thorough drilling in the 
inflectional part of the language and in the 
principal rules of syntax. Exercises in translat- 
ing from Latin into English, and from English 
into Latin, are now quite generally connected 
with the very first grammar lessons. In accord- 
ance with the principles of modern educational 
writers, the exercises in translation are now, 
from the beginning, very properly given in most 
of the text-books in the shape of complete sen- 
tences. As it is the desire of every teacher to 
prepare his pupils for the reading of the Latin 
classics, a selection of the translation exercises 
from classic writers has obvious advantages. The 
mastery system, proposed by T. Prendergast, in 
Tlie Mastery of Languages (London, 1872), 
inverts this process, by requiring the pupils to 
study sentences instead of words, committing to 
memory carefully constructed expressions, and 
learning the inflectional forms by comparison. 
This process approximates to the natural method 
of learning language, and, it is contended, leads 



LATIN LANGUAGE 



513 



to a fluency and ease in its use which cannot be 
acquired in any other way. (See R. H. Quick, 
First Steps in Teaching a Foreign Language, 
London, 1875.) In the system of T. K. Arnold 
(q. v.), the inflectional peculiarities are learned 
gradually, as in the Ollendorff system, and al- 
most the first step taken by the pupil is an ex- 
ercise in construction. — The very large extent to 
which words of Latin origin have been re- 
ceived into English can be turned to great 
advantage by the intelligent teacher. But few 
words will be met with in the Latin exercises, 
which are not etyniologically related to words 
in the English dictionary ; and a constant ref- 
erence to this kinship not only facilitates the 
acquisition by the student of a copious Latin 
vocabulary, but at the same time enlarges his 
knowledge of English. The introduction of 
young students who have sufficiently mastered 
the elements of the language, to the Latin clas- 
sics is considerably obstructed by the want of 
good juvenile works in the literature of Rome. If 
that literature ever had its Barbaukls and Edge- 
worths, their fame has perished with their works. 
The books which for centuries have been the first 
to be read in Latin schools,— Cornelius Nepos 
and Cajsar, were certainly not written for boys 
and girls. Even in Rome, they were as little read 
by children of ten, eleven, or twelve years, as our 
children of that age are expected to read Shake- 
speare, Gibbon, or Macaulay; and it is, therefore, 
undoubtedly a pertinent question, from an edu- 
cational point of view, whether it is consistent 
with common sense to expect English boys and 
girls to read and appreciate writers whom the 
youth of the same age in their own country 
would have found too difficult to understand. 
Various attempts have, been made, in modern 
times, to supply this want, and to provide young 
Latin students with suitable reading. Sometimes 
modern imitations of the ancient Latin have been 
selected for the purpose. Such, for example, is 
Willymot's Century of Malurimis Gorderius Col- 
loquies, long familiarly known in Scotland under 
the nameof Cordery. Certain portions of the dia- 
logues of Erasmus have the same object in view. 
As the most successful attempt of the kind, many 
Latin scholars regard a little work entitled De 
Viris Ittustribus Urbis Romas, and commonly 
known in the United States as Viri Romce, by 
L'Homond, a French professor of the eighteenth 
century. This work contains the most interest- 
ing stories related by Livy, Valerius Maximus, 
Elorus, and other eminent writers, as much as 
possible in the very words of those writers, and 
is still extensively used in the United States 
Great Britain. France, and, to a less extent, in 
Germany. Attempts have also been made to 
epitomize special Latin classics for the use of 
young students; thus, in recent times, an epitome 
of Caesar, prepared by Dr. Woodford, classical 
master in Madras College, St. Andrews, has been 
in extensive use. Many of the Latin readers also 
contain attempts of this kind. — The number of 
Latin classics which are commonly read in col- 
leges and schools, is quite small. Nepos, Caesar, 



Cicero, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, among the 
prose writers; and Horace, Virgil, and Ovid 
among the poets, are universally regarded as the 
most suitable for this purpose. If we add to 
them the names of Plautus, Terence, Lucretius, 
Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Hirtius. and the 
unknown authors of the works De hello A/ri- 
cano, De beUoAlexandrino, De bello Hispaniensi, 
and Ad Herennium, of the time before Christ, 
and Phaedrus, Valerius Maximus, Vellehis, 
Mela, Curtius, Persius, the two Senecas, Lucan, 
Juvenal, Quintilian, Pliny, Florus, Suetonius. 
Gellius, Justin, and Eutropius, of the time 
after Christ, we have named all the writers of 
ancient Rome to whose works the latin reading 
of at least ninety nine out of every hundred 
students is restricted both during and after 
their school years ; and the vocabulary of these 
is, therefore, very properly regarded by the au- 
thors of modern school dictionaries as furnishing 
all the words embraced within the scope of their 
works. The reading of Latin classics constitutes 
the principal part of the study of Latin wher- 
ever it is pursued, except when oidy the ele- 
ments of Latin etymology are taught for the 
purpose of elucidating the structure of English. 
(For further remarks on the methods of reading 
latin authors, see Classical Studies.) As the 
advantages which are expected to accrue from a 
reading of the Latin classics must depend on 
the pupil's thorough knowledge of the language, 
the study of grammar and the practice of trans- 
lating from tin- vernacular into the Latin lan- 
guage should be continued throughout the course. 
Whatever portion of the whole time of a course 
of instruction may be assigned to Latin, after 
the study has been begun, it should be con- 
tinued without interruption untd the course is 
completed. — Whether exercises in Latin con- 
versation, in original Latin composition, and in 
Latin versification, should be adopted in a 
course of Latin study in colleges and classical 
schools, is obviously dependent on the amount 
of time which is allowed for this study. This 
point is now more than ever a subject of an- 
imated controversy among educators. The 
physical sciences, which, in modern times, have 
made progress far exceeding the boldest ex- 
pectations of former centuries, present claims 
to a conspicuous place in the course of in- 
struction of every grade of schools, which are, on 
;ill sides, regarded as entitled at least to a serious 
consideration. The concessions which have 
been made to these claims, have greatly affected 
the place formerly assigned to Latin. It has long 
ceased to be the general medium of instruction 
in schools of a higher grade; and fluency of Latin 
expression, either in speaking or writing, is now- 
adays rarely met with, except among Catholic 
priests, who acquire it for ecclesiastical purposes, 
and at the universities of Germany and other 
countries of continental Europe, where the can- 
didates for the academic doctorate st.01 continue, 
in many cases, to write the required essay, and 
to defend proposed theses, in Latin. In order 
to obtain this proficiency, the German gymnasium 



514 



LATIN LANGUAGE 



provides a course in Latin extending through 
nine years, the number of hours devoted to it 
weekly being, for the first seven years, 10, and 
for the last two, 8. There are few learned 
institutions in Great Britain and the United 
States which deem it advisable to require so 
large an amount of the student's time for the 
study of Latin ; since the ability to speak and 
write it with fluency is no longer reckoned 
among the objects to be accomplished by 
the shorter course. While the amount of time 
which, in various courses of instruction, may 
profitably be given to Latin is now, and will long- 
continue, an open question, intelligent educa- 
tors will not find it difficult, when once the 
amount of time has been determined, to adjust 
the course of instruction to it. Great mistakes 
are still made in this respect in many classical 
schools. Where the most difficult Latin authors 
are read by students who are not familiar with 
declensions or conjugations, or where original 
Latin compositions are required from students 
who are unable to translate simple sentences 
without mistake, the Latin course may safely be 
pronounced to have been wholly useless for the 
training of the mind, and the time given to it, 
to have been entirely wasted. The practice of 
requiring Latin addresses to be delivered, by stu- 
dents who cannot translate correctly, to audiences 
among whom there may not be a single person 
who understands the address, is exceedingly ab- 
surd. One of the most enthusiastic admirers of clas- 
sical studies, John Stuart Mill, severely reprehends 
the English schools in which "the most precious 
years of early life may be irreparably squandered 
in learning to write bad Latin and Greek verses." 
The grammatical treatment of the Latin lan- 
guage is believed to have originated with Crates 
Mallotes, a Greek embassador of king Attalus of 
Pergamus ; but nothing definite is known of his 
labors. The first grammarian of whose work 
valuable remains have been preserved to us was 
M. Terentius Varro (died 27 B. 0.), who was dis- 
tinguished as the most learned of Romans. Among 
the numerous grammatical writers who succeeded 
him, Donatus. in the fourth, and Priscianus in 
the sixth, century were especially celebrated; and 
their works served, in some respects, as the basis 
of all later works. A new period in the 
history of Latin philology began with the revival 
of classical studies in Italy, and the invention 
of the art of printing. For some time, Italy re- 
mained the chief seat of Latin scholarship, but, 
in the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries, it was outstripped 
by France, Holland, England, and Germany. 
The Latinists of Holland distinguished them- 
selves by introducing a strictly scientific method 
into Latin philology. Richard Bentley, of Eng- 
land, became the father of the science of verbal 
criticism. In Germany, the efforts of Ernesti, 
Heyne, Wolff, and others, caused an entire reor- 
ganization of Latin studies, which gradually 
led, in the course of the 10th century, to the 
acknowledged superiority of the German Latin- 
ists. The most notable German contributions 
to Latin lexicography (see Dictionaries), are the 



I comprehensive dictionaries by Freund, Georges, 
and Klotz, the school dictionaries by Ingerslev, 
Georges, Heinichen, Kreussler, the etymological 
dictionaries by Schwenck, and Vanicek (1874), 
besides a number of special dictionaries for the 
poets, the sources of jurisprudence, the histori- 
ans, and for every Latin work that is com- 
monly read in schools. Latin grammars in 
the German language have been written by 
Zumpt (13th ed., 1874; shorter grammar, 9th 
ed., 1866); Madvig (3d ed., 1875; shorter gram- 

| mar, 1857); Berger (9th ed., 1875); Ellendt (16th 
ed., 1876); Ktihner (Schidgrammatik, 5th ed.,. 
1861 ; Elementargrammatik, 38th ed., 1875) ; 
Latttnann and Miiller (Schidgrammatik, 3ded., 
1872 ; Km-zgefasste Grammatik, 3d ed., 1872); 
Middendori and Grttter (8th ed., 1870); Sibertr 
(Scliitlgrammalik, 21st ed., 1873); J. Schultz 
[SpracMehre, 8th ed., 1 874 ; Kleine SpracMehre, 
14th ed., 1875); and a host of others. An alpha- 
betical list of all the Latin grammars, dictionaries, 
chrestomathies, and other books relating to the 
Latin language which have been published in 
Germany since 1750, is given in Engehnann. 
BibliothecaPhilohgica (3d ed.,1853). — Themost 
celebrated of former lexicographers were Oale- 
pino, Robert Stephens, Facciolati, and Forcel- 
lini. (See Dictionaries.) In England, and sub- 
sequently also in the Lnited States, the Latin, 
lexicon of Ainsworth (1736) became the most, 
popular work of this class. Of the English and 
American works published in the present century, 
Leverett's lexicon (1836) announces itself as 
an " abridgment, of Facciolati and Forcellini, with 
improvements drawn from Scheller and Liine- 
mann"; the lexicon of Andrews (1S56) is based 
on Freund ; that of W. Smith (1855), on For- 
cellini and Freund ; that of Riddle and Arnold 
(American edition by Anthon), on Georges ; that 
of Crooks and Schem (1857), on Ingerslev. 
Other Latin-English dictionaries have been com- 
piled by Beard, Bullions, Entiek, Gardner White, 
and Young. — Among the Latin grammars used 
in American and English schools, besides trans- 
lations of the grammars of Zumpt, Madvig, and. 
others, are those of Adam (formerly very ex- 
tensively used in American schools ; new edi- 
tion by Gould, by Fish, and by others), Allen. 
Greenough. Andrews and Stoddard, Anthon, 
Arnold, Bartholomew, Bingham, Brooks, Brans, 
Bullions, Clark, Dillaway, Fischer, Gildersleve, 
Goodrich, Grant, Donaldson (complete Latin 
Grammar, 3d ed., 1867 ; one of the best), Hark- 
ness now extensively used in American colleges,. 
Harrison, Key (3d ed., 1862), McClintock, Mor- 
ris, Roby (2 vols., 1871—4, one of the best),. 
Rose, Ross, Ruddiman, W. Smith, Spencer,. 
Thompson, Waddell, and Weale. An excellent 
introduction to a philological study of the Latin, 
is Donaldson's Varronianvs (3d ed., 1860). A 
comparative grammar of Latin and Greek has 
been written by L. Meyer ( Vergleicliende Gram- 
matik der qrieeMschen und lateinischen Sprache, 
2 vols, 1861—5). The relation of Latin to the 
other branches of the Indo-Germanic family is 
fully elucidated in the comparative grammars 



LATIN SCHOOLS 



LAW SCHOOLS 



515 



of Bopp and Schleicher. (See Indo-Germanic 
Languages). — There are numerous editions of 
every Latin writer that is usually read in schools, 
with English notes, and in many cases with a 
special vocabulary. Collective editions of the 
Latin authors read in schools, according to a uni- 
form plan, are, among others, the Ili/iliothccn 
Classica, under the direction of G. Long and A. 
J. Macleaue (London, since lKa-t) ; the Clarendon 
Press Series, which counts among its contribu- 
tors Moberley. Ellis, W. and G. Ramsay. I'richard, 
Bernard, Walford, Browning, Wickham, Lee- 
Warncr(Oxford) ; the Catena Glassicorum, under 
the direction of Holmes and Bigg (London) ; 
the series published by ( 'base and Stuart ( Phila- 
delphia) ; the editions of several of the classics by 
Allen and Greenough, Andrews. Anthon. Brooks, 
Harkness, Schmitz, Weale, and others. The best 
collections of this kind in Germany are those 
published at Berlin, under the direction of 
Sauppe and Haupt, and at Leipsic, by the firm 
of Teubner. The latter, in 187G, consisted of H L 
volumes. — Histories of Roman literature have 
been published by Klotz (Leipsic. I84.i); Thomp- 
son (London, 1852) ; Browne (London, 1853) ; 
Munk (Berlin. 1861); Bate (3 vols., 4th ed., 
Carlsruhe, 1867) ; Bernhardy (Brunswick. 5th 
ed., 1872); Teuffel (3d. ed., leipsic, 187(> ; Engl, 
trausl.. London, 1873). 

LATIN SCHOOLS, a name given, in several 
German states as well as in the Netherlands, to 
a class of secondary schools. The name is derived 
from the fact that Latin was formerly, in these 
schools, the most prominent branch, and generally 
even the medium, of instruction. These schools 
gradually developed out of the "trivial schools," 
which, in the course of the middle ages, sprung up 
in many towns by the side of, or even in opposi- 
tion to, the convent schools, and the cathedral and 
collegiate schools. The name LaLinschool did not 
come into general use, but alternated with that of 
particular school. When, in the 1 6th century, the 
word gymnasium, and (more rarely) paedago- 
gium was applied to those Latin schools which 
were completely organized, and prepared their 
pupils for the university, the name Latin school 
was commonly reserved for the lower half of the 
institution. Only in exceptional cases (as in 
Halle), has a complete gymnasium retained the 
name Latin school, which is now generally on 
the wane. In Prussia, no distinctive name is 
any longer given to the lower classes of a com- 
plete gymnasium ; and schools containing only 
the lower classes of a gymnasium, are called 
progi/mnasia. The largest proportion of these 
schools is to be found in the kingdom of Wur- 
temberg, where many of them have only one 
or two teachers. In Bavaria, the name is still 
given to the five lower classes of the classical 
gymnasium, which is there called Studienanstalt. 
and also to those schools which only contain 
the five lower gymnasial classes. In the X ether- 
lands, the difference between Latin schools and 
gymnasia is not defined. (See Netherlands.) 
In the United States, one of the best known 
of such schools is the public Latin school of 
Boston. 



LAW SCHOOLS have been in use as a 
means of education for the bar, almost from the 
time when the bar first became a recognized 
profession. In ancient times, the schools of 
Rome, Berytus, and Constantinople, with some 
of minor importance, were the recognized nurs- 
eries of the legal profession. The most eminent 
of the Roman jurists taught in these schools. 
There is reason to believe that at least one such 
school remained at Ravenna up to a period not 
very long before the revival of the law; if. indeed, 
it was not, as some have supposed, the germ from 
which the famous school of Bologna afterwards 
sprung. From the time of Irnerius. early in the 
12th century, the history of European juris- 
prudence has been identified with that of the 
schools of law, in the states of modern Europe. 
At present, upon that continent, the law schools 
of the various universities are the recognized 
portals of the legal profession, and of the 
bench. In England, legal education was, at first, 
conducted in the same method. The arrival of 
Vacarius, an Italian teacher of law. at Oxford, 
in the reign of Stephen, marks the introduction 
of scientific jurisprudence into England. He con- 
tinued to teach for a period not definitely ascer- 
tained, but long enough to found a school which 
lias left, in its glosses and other legal writings, 
considerable traces of its existence. The Inns of 
Court, at London, were probably intended, in the 
first place, as rivals of this civilian school, and 
were devoted, from the beginning, to instruction 
in the common law. During their flourishing 
period as schools, the attendance of students 
there was very large, in proportion to the entire 
population of the metropolis and of the kingdom. 
The well-known account given by Eortescue (in 
his treatise I)e laudibus legum Anglice, cap. 4'J.) 
of the life, and mode of instruction in these 
schools, proves the importance of the position 
which they held as the chief, if not the only, 
mode of preparation for the English bar of that 
i time. Their activity in this respect seems to 
have been at its height about the time of For- 
tescue, or in the 15th century. In the 16th, 
they became rather places of gaiety ; and the 
readership and other offices were perverted to 
means of ostentatious display. The number of 
students declined ; and, from the middle of 
the 17th century, the course of instruction in 
them ceased to be any thing more than a mere 
form. Education for the bar was, henoeforth, 
conducted in the offices of special pleaders, con- 
veyancers, and other practicing lawyers ; and it 
was not until the present generation that the 
Inns of Court have again made the effort to 
resume then - original function. The Inner 
Temple led the way in this reform, by establish- 
ing, in 1833, two lectureships, one of common 
law and equity, the other of general jurispru- 
dence and international law. The latter was filled 
by John Austin, whose lectures, though only the 
first six were published in his life-time, have since 
exerted so great an influence upon the revival 
of scientific jurisprudence in England (Lectures 
on Jurisprudence, or the Philosophy of Positive 



516 



LAW SCHOOLS 



Law; edited by his widow, 1861 — 3; 3d edition 
by Robert Campbell, 1869). In 1847, another 
attempt was made to establish readerships or 
leeturerships, originating in the Middle Temple, 
by which body Mr. George Long was appointed 
reader on civil law and jurisprudence. The 
other Inns followed the example, and moot- 
courts and examinations were added by the 
lecturers. But no joint action of the four Inns 
was had until 1852, when a standing committee, 
or council of legal education, was appointed ; five 
readerships were established, in which those 
previously appointed by the several Inns were 
merged ; and students were required, before ad- 
mission, either to attend at least two of the 
courses for a year, or to pass a public exami- 
nation. In the mean time, a committee of in- 
quiry, appointed by parliament in 1846, had 
reported in favor of uniting the four Inns into a 
single law university; and, in 1854, a royal com- 
mission was appointed, which investigated the 
subject very thoroughly, and reported in favor of 
the proposed measure, and of a compulsory exami- 
nation before a call to the bar. No practical 
result, however, followed so far as the Inns are 
concerned until 1873, when these recommen- 
dations were partially carried out. The four Inns 
of Court now elect a council of legal education, 
and this council appoints a permanent committee 
of eight members, called the Committee of Edu- 
cation and Examination, to superintend the edu- 
cation and examination of students for the bar. 
The council also appoint six readers or lecturers, 
to hold office for three years, arid a certain num- 
ber of tutors for private instruction. There is 
also a paid board of examiners, six in number, 
holding office for two years, and re-eligible only 
after an interval of a year; and studentships, ex- 
hibitions, and certificates of honor are awarded 
to those who pass good examinations. But at- 
tendance on the lectures and examinations is not 
compulsory; and any person may still qualify for 
admission to the bar by passing, previous to his 
admission to an Inn as a student, examinations in 
the English and Latin languages and in English 
history, and by spending a year as pupil with a 
barrister or pleader. — All that has been said thus 
far relates only to education for the English bar 
as distinct from the body of solicitors. Admis- 
sion to this body has always been in the hands of 
common law judges and masters of the rolls; and 
the Incorporated Law Society, a very influential 
organization, succeeded, as early as 1836, in intro- 
ducing a system of examinations, preliminary, 
middle, and final, as a strict condition of admis- 
sion to the roll. Candidates are examined by a 
committee of sixteen solicitors, generally chosen 
from the council of that society, together with 
the masters of the common law courts. The 
council also appoint annually three lecturers, by 
whom lectures are delivered to articled clerks. 
Attendance at these is voluntary, but no solicitor 
can be admitted without passing the examinations 
for which they prepare the student. — In July, 
1870, the Legal Education Association, composed 
of both barristers and solicitors, and headed 



by Sir Roundell Balmer, now Lord Selborne, 
was formed, with the avowed objects of bringing 
about the establishment of a law university for 
the education of students intended for the pro- 
fession of law, and the placing of the admission 
to both branches of the profession on the basis of 
a combined test of collegiate education and an 
examination by a public board of examiners. In 
every session of parliament, from that time to 
1873, they made vigorous efforts to secure these 
objects by resolutions and bills, an account of 
which. will be found in Mr. Campbell's preface 
to his Abridgment of Austin's Lectures. Since the 
latter date, attention has been chiefly occupied by 
the very great changes in the organization of the 
courts, the methods of procedure, and the fusion 
of law and equity. The association, however, is 
still engaged in prosecuting its reforms, which 
have been materially facilitated by these changes. 
The law schools of the United States have 
no historical connection with those already men- 
tioned. Their existence is due entirely to the wants 
of that country. Before the Revolution, it was 
not uncommon for law students who could afford 
it, to go to the mother country, and prosecute 
their legal studies there, nominally in the Inns of 
Court, really in the offices where other English 
students of the time prepared themselves for the 
bar ; but the number of these was, of course, 
small, and the bar of the colonies was composed 
in a large measure, of those who had read only 
iu the office of the nearest practicing attorney. 
The number of these was comparatively large. 
In a work published at London in 1790, entitled 
A Review of the Laws of the United States etc., 
it is stated that there were at that time three 
hundred practicing lawyers in Connecticut, and 
that, "in New York, and from thence through all 
the northern states, lawyers swarmed." This natu- 
rally led the attention of thoughtful men to the 
possibility of improvement in legal education; and 
James Wilson, one of the signers of the Declara- 
tion of Independence, a member of the con- 
vention which framed the Constitution of the 
United States, and an associate justice of the 
supreme court, has the honor of having been 
the first to deliver a formal course of lectures 
upon American law. He held the law professor- 
ship in the College of Philadelphia, then the 
federal capital, and in the winter of 1790 — 91, 
delivered his first course ; a second course was 
commenced in the following winter, but was never 
completed. The college became incorporated 
with the University of Pennsylvania, in April 
1792 ; and the law school, for some unexplained 
reason.was discontinued. The lectures delivered 
by Judge Wilson are published in his collected 
works in three volumes, 8vo (Philadelphia, 1804) . 
The honor of precedence is sometimes claimed 
for the Litchfield school, next to be mentioned. 
Judge Parker, in his pamphlet on the Harvard 
law school (Boston, 1871), says that Timothy 
Beeves established the Connecticut school in 
1782 or 1784. But there is no reason to believe 
that the instruction given by Judge Beeves in 
the earlier years differed in any respect frorn^that 



LAW SCHOOLS 



517 



usually given by lawyers in their offices, till 
Judge Gould became associated with him in 

1798. The Philadelphia school was at least the 
first one formally incorporated, while that of 
Judge Reeves was the first successful one. It 
was afterwards continued by the Hon. .lames 
Gould, author of Gould's Treatise on Pleading. 
This school existed for more than thirty years. 
It was then removed to Northampton, and soon 
afterward discontinued, the professor in charge, 
John Hooper Aslnmm, having been elected to a 
position at Harvard. The Litchfield school had 
studeuts from all parts of the Union, but its j 
numbers were never large. The attendance at \ 
no time exceeded 50 ; and the total number of 
its students, from 1798 to 1827, was 730, or an 
average of about 25 per annum. The third law 
school, and the oldest now in existence in the 
United States, is that of the Law Department of 
Harvard University. A single professorship 
was established in 1815; and the school, in 1817. 
Until 1829, its success was very meager; but. in 
that year, a gift from the Hon. Nathan Dane 
established a new professorship to which Judge 
Story was elected. Professor Ashmun was as- 
sociated with him; and the Harvard School 
sprung at once to the position which it has ever 
since retained, at the head of American law 
schools. Among its professors have been the 
distinguished legal authors Simon Greenleaf, 
1832—48; Theophilus Parsons, 1848—70; and 
Kmory Washburne. 1855 — 76; besides many other 
distinguished men. Several other law schools 
were started in various parts of the country 
prior to 1830; but the only ones now surviving 
without a break of existence are believed to be 
those of Yale College, 1824. and of the Univer- 
sity of Virginia, 1825. The history of the thirty 
years from 1829 to.59. maybe summed up by say- 
ing that law schools were few and neglected, and 
that their graduates were but an insignificant mi- 
nority of the profession. Even the great name and 
influence of Joseph Story, and the success of the 
Dane Ijaw School, under his direction, formed but 
an exception to the rule, without perceptibly mod- 
ifying the general custom of legal education in 
private offices. In 1842, if we may trust, a table 
published the following year, there were only 
10 law schools in nominal existence in the coun- 
try, with 19 professors among them, and 384 
students. No school had more than three teachers; 
and some of the most frequented, like the 
University of Virginia, had only one. Harvard 
had only two, but they were Judge Story and 
Simon (ireenleaf ; and their reputation attracted 
115 students, while no other law school in the 
country had more then 75. The only schools still 
existing which date from this period are the 
following: Indiana University, at Bloomington, 
1842 ; Louisiana University, at New Orleans. 
1847; Albany Law School, now a branch of 
Union University, 1851; University of New 
York, New York City, 1857 ; Cincinnati Law 
School, 1833; Ohio State and Union Law Col- 
lege, Cleveland, 1856; Cumberland University, 
Lebanon, Tenn., 1847. The Law School of the 



University of Michigan, was established in 
L858, and that of Columbia College, in New 
York (which had previously been established 
under Chancellor Kent, but discontinued after 
a brief existence), dates its present existence 
from the same year. These are now the two 
largest schools in the country; and the date of 
their establishment may well be taken as the 
period when the more rapid growth of law 
schools began in this country. — Prior to 1858, 
the schools cannot be said to have exerted much 
influence upon legal education. Their attendance 
i was very small, and a course in them was re- 
' garded rather as an accomplishment which might 
very well be dispensed with, than as a necessary 
part of the preparation for the actual work of 
the bar; but, about this time, several causes con- 
tributed to produce a change in the system of 
legal education. The rapid development of the 
A\ est, and the number of lawyers required by its 
business gave a great stimulus to professional 
education; while it became evident that the tra- 
ditional method of instruction in offices would 
not meet the wants of the country, outside of the 
few great cities. 'I he introduction of codes also, 
and the change from a very technical practice to 
an informal one. together with the immense in- 
crease of decided cases, and the consequent loss 
of precision and fixity in the law. all combined 
to make the old method unpopular and unsatis- 
factory. An increase of teaching facilities was 
an evident necessity; and the recent growth of 
law schools has been the result, rather than the 
cause, of the change which has come over the 
whole system of professional education. The 
school at Ann Arbor was also the first to place 
its tuition fees at a rate within the means of 
most students, and thus to encourage a very 
general disposition on their part to take a course 
in the law school, as. at least, a part of their pro- 
; fessional education. The growth in numbers of 
this school was entirely unprecedented. — In 1860, 
as we learn from the United States census of 
that year, there were in the country twenty law 
schools, distributed as follows ; five in the state 
of New York, two in Indiana, and one each in 
the states of Connecticut, Illinois, Kentucky. 
Louisiana. Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, 
North Carolina, Ohio. Pennsylvania, Tennessee, 
Virginia, and, in the District of Columbia. But 
how little dependence can be placed on such 
statistics may be learned by comparing this list 
with the one prepared in the same year for the 
American Almanac, of 1 861. This gives nearly the 
same total number (nineteen), but entirely omits 
one of the New York schools, and those in Illinois, 
Missouri, and the District of Columbia, while 
adding one in each of the states of Virginia, 
Kentucky, and Mississippi. A comparison of 
both lists shows about fifteen schools that had 
what may be called a substantial existence at 
that time. Nearly all of these remain in full 
operation at present. Since that time the number 
has been more than doubled, as will be seen by 
the table we give below. Some of the most 
flourishing schools at present have been estab- 



518 



LAW SCHOOLS 



lished since that period; as, for instance, those 
at Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Iowa City, and 
Washington; and most of the older schools 
have been reorganized and improved. — The fol- 
lowing table, will show the remarkable recent 
increase of these institutions. 



Year, and source 


Number 

of 
schools 


Number 

of 
teachers 


Number 

of 
students 


1842 f American Almanac, 
for' 1843) 


10 

19 
20 

28 
30 
37 
37 
38 
41 


19 
43 


384 


1860 (American Almanac, 


1,111 


1860 (TJ. S. census) 

1870 (U. S. Bureau of Edu- 




99 
129 
164 
158 
181 
216 


1,653 


1871 (do ) 


1,722 


1872 (do.) 


1,976 
2,174 




2,585 


1875 (do.) 


2,631 



It will be noticed that, of late years, the number 
of teachers has increased much more rapidly in 
proportion than that of students. 

Organization, Course of Study, etc. — Although 
there is, in the nature of the case, no statutory 
or other rule prescribing the organization and 
conduct of American law schools, in general, yet 
a few prominent features are common to all. 
The faculty usually consists of lawyers in the 
active practice of the profession, or judges oc- 
cupying seats upon the bench; and the time 
which they give to instruction is usually but a 
small part of that required by their other duties. 
Only a few schools have yet succeeded in secur- 
ing to themselves the constant services of one or 
more resident professors who devote themselves 
entirely to the work of instruction in law. — The 
method of instruction differs in different schools, 
but is usually either by lectures, or by recitation 
from text-books. The latter are for the most part 
the treatises which have been prepared for the use 
of practicing lawyers, and very few of them are 
fit for elementary instruction. Still, the method 
of recitation is so much more effective than the 
mere delivery of lectures, that the present tend- 
ency is to an increased use of textbooks. A 
few teachers have made an effort to combine 
the two, thus affording a method really adapted 
to the use of beginners, or have prepared them- 
selves printed synopses of their lectures, or col- 
lections of cases, to be placed in the hands of 
the class for study. Attention has recently been 
drawn to this subject, and to the great waste of 
time and labor caused by the previous neglect of 
all effort toward better teaching. Another defect 
of the schools may be traced to the circumstances 
of their origin. As they grew up only to sup- 
plement the old method of instruction in offices, 
they have relied entirely upon such instruction 
for the training of students in professional 
habits, and in the details of practice. They have 
confined themselves exclusively, or almost so, to 
the task of assisting the student in memorizing 
rules of law; and a course of introductory lect- 
ures like the encyclopaedia and methodology of 
the German schools is almost unknown. Very 
few schools give their students a view of the law 



as a single and uniform system. The course is 
composed of detached fragments, in each of which 
a single topic of law is treated with no reference 
to others, and no attempt at consistent treat- 
ment by different teachers. The result, too fre- 
quently, is, that students go through a course 
with no conception of the law as a whole, and 
with no training of that power of legal judgment 
which is the first requisite of a lawyer. 

Admission. — Most of the schools throw open 
their doors to all comers, and require no partic- 
ular amount of education for admission. The 
course is intended to be taken, in all cases, at the 
very beginning of professional education. None 
of the schools require any previous knowledge of 
law, except in cases where students apply for 
advanced standing. — Two or three of the older 
schools have recently adopted a rule by which 
students are required to present a college 
diploma, or to pass an equivalent examination. 
This rule is not to take effect until the next 
college year, 1877 — 8; and its operation must 
be considered as yet an unsolved problem. 

Length of Course,- and Graduation. — The 
course of study varies in length, from a single 
session of five or six months to three years. Only 
one or two schools, however, have as yet adopted 
the latter. The majority require either a single 
year of continuous study, or a course nominally 
of two years, composed of two annual sessions of 
five or six months each. The advantage of the 
latter arrangement is supposed to lie in the op- 
portunity given to students to prosecute their 
studies in an office between the two sessions. In 
such cases students are usually admitted to the 
senior class, upon examination, and are thus 
enabled to reduce the period of actual attendance 
to one session; but, as methods of instruction im- 
prove, a tendency is manifest to insist more upon 
the discipline acquired in the school itself, and 
to make a constant term of attendance a condi- 
tion of graduation. The usual degree at gradu- 
ation is that of LL. B. It was formerly given 
as a matter of course, after the requisite period 
of attendance; but, at present, an examination 
is required in every case. This examination, in 
some schools, is conducted by the faculty ; in 
others, by a committee appointed by the courts 
of the state, or in some other manner. The extent 
and rigor of examinations, of course, vary widely 
in different institutions; but, upon the whole, they 
are so much more thorough and severe than 
those to which applicants were subjected under 
the former system, that they have undoubtedly 
done much to raise the standard of professional 
acquirements. — Quite a number of schools have, 
by law, the privilege of admitting students to the 
bar of the states in which they are situated. In 
such cases, it is usually sufficient for a graduate 
to present his diploma, and take the attorney's 
oath; though, in some instances, the diploma 
serves merely as a substitute for examination, 
and the applicant must also prove moral char- 
acter, etc. A warm controversy has recently 
been waged, in New York and some other states, 
in regard to the value and propriety of this 



LAW SCHOOLS 



LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE 519 



privilege. The schools themselves are by no 
ineaus unanimous in desiring it. The better 
opinion seems to be that it should be granted 
only in cases where the examination tor the 
degree is not left with the faculty alone, but is 
under the direction of the supreme court of the 
state, or of some other body whose position will 
guarantee its fairness and impartiality. Where 
examinations are so conducted, it certainly seems 
superfluous to require the graduates to appear 
again before such committees as are usually ap- 
pointed for local examinations. As a general rule, 
no degree but that of LL. 15., given on the com- 
pletion of the usual course, is bestowed by the 
American law schools. The Vale School, how- 
ever, now offers the degree of Master of Law 
(M. L.) to such students as pursue an advanced 
course for one year after taking the bachelor's 
degree, and the degree of Doctor of Civil Law 
(I). 0. L.) for a second year of advanced study. 
The University of Georgia offers the degree 
of Doctor of Jurisprudence to such of its 
gra luates as have pursued the practice of law 
with success, and maintained an honorable and 
virtuous character, for seven years after grad- 
uation. — The subjoined table contains a list 
of all the important law schools in the United 
States : 



School 
or Department 


Location 


- 3b a 

:£ 5'" 


sl.- 
5 la 8 

U O It) >> 

> u > c 


Uuiv. of Alabama 


Tuscaloosa, Ala. . . 


1875 


w 







New Haven, Ct.. . 


1824 


2 


35 


Univ. of Georgia 




1866 


1 


51 


HI. Wesleyau Uuiv... 


Bloomington, III, 


1874 


2 


36 


Union Coll. of Law | 
-Chic. & N. W. Univ.j 




1873 


2 


36 


McKendree College. 




1870 





40 


Lincoln University. . . 




1875 




— 


Indiana University. . . 


Bloomingt'n, Ind. 


1842 


2 


38 


Iowa Coll. of Law I 
.Simpson Cent. Coll. J 


Des Moines, la. . . 


1875 


1 


36 




Iowa City. la 


1866 


1,2 


88 




Mt.Pleasaut,Ia.. , 


1871 


— 


— 




Lexington, Ky. . .. 


1865 


2 


22 




Richmond, Ky 


1S74 


2 


— • 


Uuiv. of Louisiaua. . . 


NewOrleaus.La. . 


1S47 


n 


20 


Univ. of Maryland. . . . 


Baltimore, Md... . 


1812 


2 


34 


Boston University... 




1872 


3 


30 


Harvard University.. 


Cambridge, Mass. 


1817 


2 


37 


Univ. of Michigan 


Ann Arbor, Mich. 


1858 


2 


— 


Uuiv. of Missouri 


Columbia, Mo 


1873 


2 21 


Washington Univ 


St. Louis, Mo 


1807 


2 


24 


Albany Law School. . . 


Albany, X. V 


1851 


1 


38 


Hamilton College.... 


Clinton, N. V 


18— 


1 


— 


Columbia College 


New Yorlc, N.Y.. . 


1858 


2 


32 


Univ. of N. Y. City. .. 


New York, N.Y'.. . 


1857 


2 


36 


Kutherford College.. 


Happy Homc.N.C. 





— 


— 


Trinity College 




1867 


2 


40 


Cincinnati Law School 




1833 


2 30 


(Cincinnati College 






1 


Ohio State k Union 1 
Law College j 


Cleveland, O 


1856 


2 


39 


"Wilberforce Univ. . . . 


Xenia, 


1S72 


2 


•12 


Lafayette College.... 




1S75 


2 


2.1 




Philadelphia, Pa. 


1850 


2 -10 


University of S. C 


Columbia, S. C... 


10G8 


2 1 40 


Neophogan Law Sch.. . 


Gallatin, Tenn 


1076 


1 39 


Cumberland Univ.. . . 


Lebanon, Tonh. . . 


1817 


1 1 40 


Univ. of Virginia 


Charlotte svTe,Va. 


1825 


1 39 


Sch. of Law&Equity ] 
Wash. & Lee Univ... j 


Lexington, Va.. . . 


1871 


1,3 


— 


Univ. of Wisconsin. . . 


Madieon, Wis 


1868 


I 


38 




Washington, T>. C 


1801 


2 


C6 




Washington, D. C. 
Washington, I>. C. 


1SG0 
1870 


2 
2 


37 




34 




Washington, D. C. 


1870 


2 


36 



LAWRENCE, Abbott, born in Groton, 
Mass., Dec. 10., 17!)2 ; died in Boston, Aug. 18., 
1855. He was associated with his brother in 
business, but turned his attention also to politics, 
serving as minister to Great Britain from 184!) 
to 1852. His chief claim to remembrance in 
the educational world was his founding of the 
Lawrence Scientific .School, at Cambridge, in 
1847. 

LAWRENCE, Amos, brother of the pre- 
ceding, merchant, born in Croton, Mass., April 
22., 1786 ; died in Boston, Dec. 31, 1852. After 
a serious illness in 1831, he retired from active 
business, and devoted the remainder of his life 
to acts of benevolence, expending in this way 
over $600,000. Among the educational institu- 
tions which were the objects of his bounty, may 
be enumerated : Williams College, the Lawrence 
Academy of Groton. W abash College, Kenyon 
College, and the theological seminary at Ban- 
gor, Me. 

LAWRENCE "UNIVERSITY OF WIS- 
CONSIN, at Appleton. Wis., chartered in 
1847, is under Methodist Episcopal control. It 
is supported by tuition fees. etc.. and the income 
of an endowment of about $60,000. It has 
chemical and philosophical apparatus, a cabinet 
of minerals, botanical specimens, etc., and a li- 
brary of nearly 8.000 volumes. The regular 
tuition fees vary from £15 to $21 a year. 
The university comprises both the College and 
the Institute, and consists of six departments, 
as follows: (1) The Preparatory Department; 
(2) The Academic Department; (3) The Com- 
mercial School ; (4) 'J he ( 'onservatory of Mu- 
sic; (5) The School of Drawing and Painting; 
(6) The Juvenile Department : and the Col- 
lege (opened in 1853), which has a classical, a 
scientific, and a civil engineering course. Both 
sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 14 
instructors. The number of students was as fol- 
lows : collegiate, 102 (58 males and 44 females) ; 
preparatory, 97 ; academical, 38 ; commercial, 
45; music, 33; drawing and painting, 14; ju- 
venile, 29 ; total, deducting repetitions, 333 (185 
males and 148 females). There were 173 alumni 
(114 males and 59 females). The Rev. W. H. 
Sampson, A. M., was principal of Lawrence 
Institute from 1848 to 1853. The presidents of 
the university have been as follows : the Rev. 
Edward Cooke, D.D., 1853—61 ; the Rev. R. Z. 
Mason, LL. D., 1861 — 5 ; and the Rev. George 
M. Steele, D. D., the i resent incumbent (1876), 
appointed in 1H65. 

LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, at 
AnnviUe, Pa., under the control of the United 
Brethren in Christ, was founded in 1867 by 
the East Pennsylvania Conference of that 
church. It has an endowment of $20,000, 
but is chiefly supported by several conferences 
of the church, and by contributions and tuition 
fees. The regular fees are from $40 to $47 a 
year. The college has a beautiful campus of 
about seven acres, two fine buildings, a cabinet, 
and a library of over 1 ,200 volumes. The cur- 
riculum embraces three courses : a classical, a 



520 



LECTURES 



LESLIE 



ladies', and a scientific course. There is also a 
preparatory department. In 1875 — 6, there were 
6 instructors, and 116 students (classical course, 
30 ; ladies' course, 3 ; scientific course, 83), of 
whom 84 were preparatory. The presidents have 
been as follows : T. R. Vickroy, 1867 — 71 ; 
Lucian H. Hammond, 1871 — 6 ; and D. D. De 
Long, the present incumbent, elected in 1876. 

LECTURES, or Lecture System, a 
method of giving instruction by formal expo- 
sitions, generally written out and read to the 
learners. Hence the term lecture (from the 
Latin, meaning reading or something read). 
Lectures are, however, quite often extempora- 
neous, or delivered without previous preparation 
of the language. The lecture differs from the 
lesson chiefly in dispensing with the ordinary 
processes of the recitation room — question and 
answer, repetition, etc. The learners simply 
listen, or take notes, while the lecturer reads or 
speaks, with or without illustrations by means 
of the blackboard, maps, pictures, apparatus, 
etc. — Lectures, as a system of instruction, are 
chiefly depended on in higher education — in col- 
leges and universities, also in technical, scien- 
tific, and professional schools, because the stu- 
dents are supposed to have acquired a consider- 
able maturity of intellect, enabling them not 
only to receive knowledge without exercises 
specially designed to awaken attention or stim- 
ulate the understanding, but to exercise their 
own faculties in arranging it in their minds for 
use, — in other words, co-ordinating it with their 
previously acquired knowledge. They are, be- 
sides, supposed to appreciate the importance of 
the information communicated, so as not to need 
any special stimulus to self-activity. In element- 
ary instruction, all these conditions are reversed; 
and, therefore, the lecture system is inappropriate 
at that stage. In middle schools (secondary in- 
struction) , lectures may be used with good effect, 
in connection, or alternation, with the ordinary 
recitation processes. When the material has 
been methodically arranged, and when the state- 
ments are definite and precise, the language 
simple and forcible, and the style earnest, lectures 
may be made to subserve a very useful purpose. 
(See History.) 

LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, at South Beth- 
lehem, Pa, chartered in 1866, is under Protest- 
ant Episcopal control. It was founded by 
Asa Packer, of Mauch Chunk, who, in 1865, 
appropriated $500,000 and suitable grounds for 
the purpose. Tuition is entirely free. There 
are three fine buildings, besides houses for the 
president and professors. The library contains 
2,000 volumes. The university has a well- 
equipped observatory, a museum, and collections 
in natural history. It comprises five schools : 
(1) general literature ; (2) civil or statical en- 
gineering; (3) mechanical or dynamical engineer- 
ing ; (4) mining and metallurgy ; (5) chemistry. 
The courses are each of four years, except that for 
the degree of Engineer of Mines, which requires 
four years and a half. The studies of the fresh- 
man year and of the first half of the sophomore 



year are the same in all the courses. This- 
institution was originally designed to impart a 
technical education, and the school of general 
literature (similar to the ordinary college course) 
was added subsequently. In 1875 — 6, there, 
were 8 professors, 6 other instructors, and 113 
students. The Rev. John M. Leavitt, D. D., is. 
(1876) the president. 

LELAND UNIVERSITY, in New Orleans, 
La., chartered in 1870 and opened in 1873, 
is under Baptist control. It was especially de- 
signed for colored youth, but no one can be ex- 
cluded on account of race, color, sex, or religion. 
It is supported by contributions, tuition fees, and 
the products of 10 acres of cultivated land. The 
buildings and grounds are valued at about 
$75,000, toward which the Freedmen's Bureau 
contributed $17,500, and benevolent individuals 
and churches the residue. The cost of tuition is 
$1 per month, which is remitted to ministers and 
licentiates. An opportunity is afforded students 
to support themselves in part by labor on the 
farm. The university has an academic and a. 
college preparatory course, of three years each, a. 
college course of four years, and a theological 
department. In 1874 — 5, there were 4 instructors, 
and 96 students (63 male and 33 female), of 
whom 5 were in the college preparatory course, 
and 1 6 were pursuing theological studies. The 
Rev. Silas B. Gregory was the first president, 
who held office one year, and was succeeded by 
the Rev- L. Bartlett Barker, A. M., the present 
incumbent. 

LESLIE, Sir John, a celebrated natural 
philosopher, teacher, and author of scientific 
works, born in Largo, Scotland, April 16., 1766; 
died in Coates, Fifeshire, Nov. 3.. 1832. While 
a boy, his strong inclination for natural science 
was shown, and led to his entrance into the uni- 
versity of St. Andrews, in 1779. He afterwards 
went to the Edinburgh Divinity Hall, but de- 
voted his time there to the study of the sciences, 
particularly chemistry. In 1788, he accepted the 
position of tutor in the Randolph family of Vir- 
ginia ; but, in 1790, returned to London, where 
he attempted to establish himself as a lecturer 
on natural philosophy. Failing in this, he be- 
came a tutor in the family of Mr. Wedgewood,. 
at Etruria, Staffordshire; and while traveling in 
that capacity on the continent, made a transla- 
tion of Buffon's Natural History of Birds (1.793), 
and published an Experimental Inquiry into the 
Nature and Propagation of Heat (1804). In 
1805, after much opposition on the part of the 
clergy of Edinburgh, he was elected professor of 
mathematics in the university of that place, suc- 
ceeding Prof. Playfair; and, in 1819, on the death 
of the latter, again succeeded him, as professor 
of natural philosophy. Shortly after his election, 
in 1805, he began the publication of his Course- 
of Mathematics, followed, in 1823, by one vol- 
ume of his Elements of Natural Philosophy. 
The latter was never completed. Shortly before 
his death, in 1832, he was created a knight of 
the order of Guelph. As an able and versatile 
writer in almost every department of science,. 



LEWIS 



LIBRARIES 



521 



and an inventor of philosophical instruments, 
his merit is generally acknowledged. The inven- 
tion of a differential thermometer, a hygrometer, 
and a photometer, also of a process of artificial 
congelation, and a method for freezing mercury, 
are some of the results of his experimental labors. 
His chief publications, in addition to those men- 
tioned, are An essay mi Ike Resolution of Inde- 
terminate Et/uations (Edin., 1788); Philosophy 
of Arithmetic (1817) ; Progress of Mathemat- 
ical and Philosophical Science during the iMh. 
Century, the fifth dissertation in the Encyclopte* 
(Ha Britannica. 

LEWIS, Dio, an American physician and 
author, born in Auburn, N. Y., March 3., 1823. 
He was educated at Harvard, and practiced 
medicine at Port Kyron and Buffalo. While 
in the latter place, he published a medical maga- 
zine in which he advocated the substitution of 
physical exercise for drugs, in the prevention 
and cure of disease. In 1863, he established in 
Boston an institution for the training of teach- 
ers according to his new system of physical edu- 
cation. The necessity of such education he has 
advocated for many years, and sought to intro- 
duce it into the public-school system of the 
United States. Shortly after the destruction of 
his school buildings by tire, in 1868, he gave up 
his school, and devoted himself to lecturing, 
principally on hygiene and temperance. His 
published works are, New Gymnastics (Boston. 
1862); Weak Lungs, ami how to make them 
strong (Boston, 18(i3) : Talks about People's 
Stomachs (1870); Our Girls (New York, 1*71); 
and Chats with Young Women (Sew York. 
1874). 

LEWISBURG, University at, an in- 
stitution at Lewisburg. I'a, under Baptist con- 
trol, was founded in 1S47. It is supported by 
tuition fees, room rent, and the income of an 
endowment of 8130,000. Its library contains 
about 5,000 volumes. The institution has a 
cabinet of geology and mineralogy, collections 
in natural history, and philosophical and 
chemical apparatus. The cost of tuition in 
the collegiate department is $30 a year. This 
department has a classical and a scientific course. 
Connected with the university is a preparatory 
department, an English academy, and a female 
institute. In 1875 — (>, the collegiate department 
had 6 instructors. The number of students was 
118; namely, collegiate, 66 ; preparatory, 31 ; 
academy, 21. The presidents of the university 
have been the Rev. Howard Malcom, D. D., 
1 851 — 8 ; and the Rev. Justin R. Loomis, LL. D., 
the present incumbent, appointed in 1858. 

LEWIS COLLEGE, at Glasgow, Mo„ 
founded in I860, is under Methodist Episcopal 
control. It is supported by tuition fees, which 
vary from §30 to $40 per year, mid by the liber- 
ality of its founders, the Lewis family of I toward 
county. It has a library of about 3.000 volumes, 
and comprises a primary, an academic, a prepar- 
atory, and a collegiate department, the last hav- 
ing a classical and a scientific course. Oppor- 
tunity is also afforded for theological and musical 



instruction. Both sexes are admitted. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 5 instructors and 88 'Studeuts. The 
presidents have been as follows : the Kev. I). A. 
McCready, (2 years) ; the Kev. Joseph Barwick, 
A. M. (2 years) ; the Rev. L. M. Albright, A. 
M. (1 year) ; the Rev. James C. Hall. A. M., 
the present incumbent, appointed in 1871. 

LIBERAL EDUCATION, literally, that 
which is suited to the condition and wants of a 
freeman or a gentleman, that is, extending be- 
yond the practical necessities of life ; hence, 
contrasted with a practical education, or that 
which is designed to fit for mechanical or busi- 
ness pursuits. A liberal education embraces 
within its scope instruction in all those branches 
which collectively are called (he humanities (q. v). 

LIBERIA, a republic of western Africa; area, 
9,500 sq.m.; population, estimated at 71S.O00, 
of whom about 700,0011 are uncivilized negroes. 
The settlement of Liberia was commenced 
in 1822. by liberated slaves from the United 
States, under the auspices of the American 
Colonization Society; and, in 1847, it was pro- 
claimed a free and independent state. Its con- 
stitution has for its model that of the United 
States. Of the numerous tribes comprising the 
native population the Mandingos are the most 
remarkable. They all possess considerable in- 
telligence, and not a few of them are educated. 
They are found on the whole eastern frontier of 
the republic, and extend far into the interior of 
Africa. Like most of the interior tribes of 
Africa, they are Mohammedans, and have schools 
and mosques in every large town. They lead 
and write, and many speak, the Arabic language. 
I'esides the Mandingos, the only tribe that have 
reached any degree of culture are the Veys, on 
the west coast. They have a syllabic alphabet, 
invented by themselves. A mission school has 
been established among them at Totocareh. by 
the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United 
States. There were also, in 1872, 15 day schools, 
under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, and a training school for Baptist mis- 
sionaries, at Yirginia. A regular system of 
public schools has been organized, comprising 
elementary and high schools, and a college. The 
statistics are very meager in regard to the com- 
mon schools. The county of Mesurado had, in 
1870. 36 public schools, with 37 teachers and 
1.155 pupils. — See Stockweix, The Republic of 
Liberia (X. Y., 1808), and Ri.yden (a negro 
professor in Fourah Bay College, Sierra Leone), 
The Republic if Liberia, its Status anil its 
Fields, in the Methodist Quarterly Review 
(1872). 

LIBRARIES constitute one of the most 
important instrumentalities for stimulating the 
intellectual improvement of the people, as well 
as for the mental and moral training of pupils 
in schools. This has been recognized in the 
legislation of many of the states of the Amer- 
ican Union, by making provision for supplying 
the schools and school-districts with libraries of 
interesting and useful books. In 1827, Governor 
Clinton, of New York, recommended the estab- 



522 



LIBRARIES 



LICENSE 



Iishment of school-district libraries ; and, in 
1835 , a law was passed by the legislature of 
that state which permitted school-districts to 
raise money by tax for the support of libraries. 
In 1838, further provision was made by author- 
izing an annual appropriation of $55,000 from 
the general school fund for this purpose, on con- 
dition that the districts would raise an equal 
sum. In 1875, the legislature of this state re- 
duced the appropriation to $50,000. Massachu- 
setts enacted a permissory law in 1837, and, in 
1842, granted a premium of §15 to each district 
which raised an equal sum by taxation. Maine, 
Connecticut, New Jersey, Ohio, Michigan, Illi- 
nois, Wisconsin, and California have passed acts 
similar to that of New York. These provisions 
have, however, been found inadequate ; and, in 
some of the states, township libraries have taken 
their place. Such libraries, administered as a 
part of the common-school system, have been 
established in Michigan, Indiana, and Wisconsin ; 
but the results are said not to be wholly satis- 
factory. In Massachusetts, the library has been 
separated from the school system, being made 
public, or open to all. In 1851, a law was 
passed authorizing " cities and towns to establish 
and maintain public libraries," and the system 
thus inaugurated has proved eminently success- 
ful. In 18(59, there were 58 public Libraries in 
the state, wholly or partly maintained by taxa- 
tion. At the present time, there are, probably, 
more than three times that number. " Public 
libraries," says the U. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, in his report for 1874, "are now univers- 
ally regarded by school officers and friends of 
education as an indispensable complement to 
our system of free schools, and no educational 
report can now be considered complete which 
does not recognize their importance." 

The value of a school library will depend up- 
on the character of the books of which it is 
composed, and the uses to which it is applied. 
A large and expensive collection of books is not 
needed ; but the books should be instructive and 
interesting to children, so that through their 
perusal they may not only obtain useful infor- 
mation, but imbibe a taste for reading. By this 
means, an antidote may, in part at least, be ap- 
plied to the influence of the trashy, exciting, and 
sensational literature, which so greatly abounds 
at the present time, and which is so apt to cor- 
rupt both the minds and morals of the young. 
" A library," says How to Teach (N. Y., 1874), 
" is the indispensable supplement to the system- 
atic mental instruction given in the class-room. 
If, for instance, care be taken and opportuni- 
ties sought during the lessons in geography, his- 
tory, or in any of the departments of science, to 
introduce some little book from the library, and 
to read a few interesting paragraphs illustrating 
the lesson, a brief notice and commendation of 
the book at the close of the exercise, with a few 
hints as to how best to read it, will utilize many 
a valuable work that might otherwise remain 

untouched upon the shelves A teacher has 

failed in one of the most important of all his 



functions, if, being in possession of a good school 
library, he has not fixed, in at least some of his 
pupils, the habit and love of self-culture, by 
leading them to become habitual readers." 

LICENSE, Teacher's, a legal permission 
to give instruction, generally in a public school. 
This license is usually conferred after exami- 
nation, and attested by a certificate, either tem- 
porary or permanent, which is evidence to 
employing school boards that the holder is a 
qualified teacher, sometimes called a certificated 
teacher. The object of such a license to teach 
is to protect the interests of the community 
against the evils arising from the employment 
of incompetent persons by those who might not 
be able to test the qualifications of applicants, 
or who might, from favoritism or corrupt mo- 
tives, be willing to employ as teachers persons 
not possessing the requisite qualifications. In 
the United States, the requirement that all teach- 
ers should be duly examined and licensed previ- 
ous to appointment is almost universal. The 
practice in regard to the mode of examination, 
and the forms and grades of the certificate, 
varies considerably in the different states, for 
information in regard to which, see the titles 
of the states, respectively. In all an unqualified 
attestation of moral character is required, in ad- 
dition to literary and professional qualifications. 
(See Walsh, The Lawyer in the School-Room, 
N. Y., 1871, s. v. The Law as to the Teacher's 
Morality.) State certificates, that is, certifi- 
cates issued by state boards of education or state 
superintendents, entitle the holders to teach in 
any part of the state without an examination 
before county, town, or district boards or officers. 
Such certificates are, however, usually overruled 
by city boards of education, who make an ex- 
amination and license by their own officers — 
usually the city superintendent — a condition of 
employment. In some States, the standard for a 
license is fixed by the state board of education 
or by the superintendent; in others, each locality 
fixes its own standard. This gives rise to a great 
want of uniformity, which has often been in- 
veighed against as prejudicial to the interests of 
teachers and of the profession. American teachers 
have been, and still are, to a diminished extent 
however, subjected to great wrong and injustice 
by being obliged to pass examinations before in- 
competent persons, that is, persons who have 
neither scholarship nor professional knowledge, 
either theoretical or practical. The examiners in 
the rural districts are rarely teachers, and hence 
cannot but imperfectly determine the teacher's 
qualifications, except, indeed, elementary schol- 
arship and moral character. At the meeting of 
the National Educational Association, in 1872, 
this subject was discussed, and the following 
decided upon as the proper conditions for award- 
ing teachers' certificates : (1) a comprehensive 
system of state, city, county, and town boards 
of examination ; (2) such boards to be composed 
of school superintendents and professional teach- 
ers ; (3) a graded series of certificates from life 
diplomas down to annual certificates, to be 



LICENSE 



LIEBER 



523 



granted only upon actual examination ; (4) legal 
recognition by each state of professional certifi- 
cates and normal school diplomas issued in other 
states. In the state of New York, the superin- 
tendent of public instruction can issue his cer- 
tificate only to those who have been found on 
examination qualified to receive it; and it is his 
duty to appoint examiners, at such times and in 
such places, as he may deem necessary, for the 
purpose of examining candidates. (Sec New 
York.) 

The English Elementary Education Act (1870) 
provides that "before any grant is made to a 
school, the Education Department must be satis- 
fied that the principal teacher is certificated ;" 
and that "teachers, in order to obtain certificates, 
must be examined, and must undergo probation 
by actual service in school;" that is, "after suc- 
cessfully passing their examination, th. j y must, 
as teachers continuously engaged in the same 
schools, obtain two favorable reports from an in- 
spector, with an interval of one year between 
them ; and if the first of these reports be not 
preceded by service of three months (at the least) 
since the examination, a third report, at an in- 
terval of one year after the second report, is re- 
quired ; if the second (or third) report is favor- 
able, a certificate is issued. Teachers under pro- 
bation satisfy the conditions which require that 
schools be kept by certificated teachers." The 
Scotch Education Act (1872) provides that "no 
person shall be appointed to the office of prin- 
cipal teacher in a public school, who is not flu- 
holder of a certificate of competency." Those 
who hold university degrees are entitled to re- 
ceive the certificate without further examination 
in the studies in which they were examined for 
the degree. Too great laxity seems to exist in 
the granting of these certificates ; as appears 
from the following statement of the Educational 
News (Edinburgh. June 3., 1876) : "A gradual 
deterioration in the value of certificates has been 
going on for the last twenty years, under pre- 
tence of making it the badge of practical skill 
rather than of literary attainments and scientific 
knowledge of the principles of teaching ; and so 
thorough hits been the transformation, that it 
now affords no evidence whatever of the posses- 
sion of knowledge, and next to none even of 
practical skill ;" which strong statement is based 
on the fact, as alleged, that " the Education De- 
partment seems bent on interfering with the 
intentions of parliament in this matter by grant- 
ing certificates 'without examination,' although 
the act unmistakably makes examination a nec- 
essary condition of granting a certificate." — In 
Austria, most of the teachers are compelled to 
spend four years in the normal schools, after 
which they are required to pass an examination 
before an independent commission appointed by 
the government, before they can obtain a license 
to teach. In France, the teachers of private as 
well as of public schools are required to obtain a 
license by passing an examination before the 
governmental officers ; and their schools are also 
subject to official supervision. In the German 



' states, persons are prohibited from keeping 
schools without being licensed ; and to obtain a 
license are required to pass an examination ; 
upon which they receive certificates showing the 
grade of school they are qualified to teach : and 
they are interdicted, under a severe penalty, from 
issuing a prospectus for any higher school. Sim- 
ilar legal provisions exist in Sweden, Denmark, 
and some other European countries. 

LIEBER, Francis, a noted publicist and 
teacher, born in Berlin, March 18.. 18(1)1: died in 
New York, Oct. 2., 1872. He entered the uni- 
versity of Jena, in 1811). but left it in 1821 ; and, 
after traveling on foot through Switzerland, em- 
barked at Marseilles for Greece, where he entered 
the Greek army as a volunteer. Returning to 
Rome, he became an inmate of the family of 
Niebuhr, the historian, then Prussian ambassador; 
and wrote therein 1822, an account of his so- 
journ in Greece, which was published in Leipsic 
( 1823). He returned to Berlin, and entered the 
university of Halle, but was arrested and im- 
prisoned at Kopenick, where he wrote a number 
of poems, which, upon his release, at the inter- 
cession of Niebuhr. were published under the 
name of Franz Arnold. Being threatened with 
another arrest, he left Germany, in 1 825, and fled 
to England, where he supported himself for a 
year as a private teacher. While in England, he 
contributed to German periodicals, and wrote, 
in I uiinan.an article on the 1 ancasterian method. 
In 1 S27, he came to the United States, lectured 
on history and politics, and. shortly after, began, 
at Hnston, to edit the Encyclopaedia Americana, 
which was published, in 13 volumes, in Phila- 
delphia (1828—32). By invitation of the trus- 
tees of Girard College in Philadelphia, he fur- 
nished a plan of education and instruction for 
that institution, and afterwards went to reside 
in that city. In 1835, he was appointed to the 
chair of history and political economy in the 
South Carolina College, at Columbia, a position 



which he held till l8:i(i. These were the most 
fruitful years of his life. Here he wrote his 
Manual',,/ Political Ethics (Boston, 1838—9), 
commended by Kent and Story, and adopted 
by Harvard College as a text-book : Legal and 
Political Hermeneutics (Boston, 1839) ; a trans- 
lation of Ramshorn's Latin Synonyms (1839); 
<h-cat Events described by Ureal Historians 
(X. Y., 1847) ; essays on the Use of the Study 
of Latin and Greek, as Elements of Educa- 
tion ; on the Study of History and Political 
Economy as branches <f a superior education; on 
Laura Bridgman's vocal sounds; Oivil Liberty 
ami Sebf-Governmeni (Phila., 1853); and numer- 
ous other essays, letters, and reports. In 1857, 
he was appointed to the chair of history and 
political science in Columbia College, X. V.. and 
remained in that position till his death. The 
labors of Dr. Lieber were of great importance, 
and their value has been fully recognized both 
in the United States and in Europe. Although 
passing most of his life in the professor's chair, his 
commanding ability gave him a reputation such 
as is usually the reward of long public service. 



524 



LILY 



LOCKE 



LILY, William, a celebrated English schol- 
ar and teacher, the friend of Erasmus and Sir 
Thomas More, was born at Odiham, Hants, in 
England, in 1466, and died in 1523. He was 
educated at Oxford University, and, soon after 
arriving at manhood, traveled in the East to 
obtain a knowledge of the Greek language, and 
subsequently studied for a time at Rome, and 
also at Paris. On his return to England, he ac- 
quired a very high reputation for scholarship, 
being the first teacher of Greek in London ; and, 
in 1512, he was appointed by Dr. John Colet, 
dean of St. Paul's church, London, high master 
of St. Paul's school, then recently established 
through the dean's munificence. This position 
he filled until his death. He published several 
educational works, but is chiefly noted for his 
Latin grammar (Brevissima Insiitulio seu Ratio 
Grammatices Cognoscendce, 4to, London, 1513), 
one of the most celebrated of text books. In the 
compilation of this work, Colet, Erasmus, and 
Cardinal Wolsey had a share ; the English rudi- 
ments being written by Colet, the preface to 
the first edition by Wolsey, and the Latin syn- 
tax chiefly by Erasmus. This book was thus 
the joint production of four of the greatest 
scholars of the age. Few school books have 
had so long a career, or have passed through so 
many editions, being used to this day in St. 
Paul's school. King Henry VIII. ■wrote an 
introduction to grammar, making Lily's gram- 
mar the basis ; he also caused a law to be en- 
acted prescribing this as the grammar to be ex- 
clusively used in all the schools of the kingdom ; 
and, accordingly, it remained the accepted gram- 
matical standard in English schools for more 
than three centuries. Hence it bore on its title- 
page, Quam solum Regia Majestas in omnibus 
scholis docendam prcecepit. This grammar is 
also noteworthy as being the basis of the first 
English grammars. — See Puller, History of the 
Worthies of England (1622) ; Samuel KNicm, 
Life of Dr. John Colet (1724) ; Dibdin, The 
Biographical Decameron (London, 1817); Jor- 
tin, Life of Erasmus (1758 — 60). (See also 
Grammar, English.) 

LINCOLN COLLEGE, at Greenwood, Mo., 
was founded, in 1869, by the United Presbyte- 
rians. The grounds comprise five acres, reserved 
for the site of a college when the town was laid 
out. The building was erected through the efforts 
of the Rev. Randal Ross, A. M., who has been the 
president of the board of directors from the first. 
The college is supported by tuition fees of $30 
a year. It has a classical course of four years, 
and a scientific course of three years ; both sexes 
are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instruct- 
ors and 75 students. 

LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at Lincoln, 
111., under the control of the Cumberland Pres- 
byterians, was organized in 1867, and chartered 
in 1872. The value of its buildings, grounds, and 
apparatus is $475,000; the amount of its produc- 
tive funds, $834,000. The libraries contain 22,000 
volumes. Both sexes are admitted. There is a 
preparatory, a classical, a Latin-scientific, a scien- 



tific, and a select course. A theological depart- 
ment has also been organized. In 1873 — 4, there 
were 12 instructors and 386 students (332 pre- 
paratory and 54 collegiate). 

LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at Oxford, in 
Chester Co., Pa., opened in 1856, is under 
Presbyterian control. It is especially, but not 
exclusively, designed for colored students. The 
value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
$125,000. The grounds include 80 acres, and 
contain four university buildings and four pro- 
fessors' houses. The library contains 3,500 vol- 
umes. The university has valuable philosophical 
apparatus and a mineralogical cabinet. It has a 
collegiate department, a normal, preparatory, and 
business department, and a theological, a law, and 
a medical department. In 1874 — 5, there were 
10 instructors and 147 students (74 collegiate, 
57 preparatory, and 16 theological. The Rev. 
Isaac N. Randall, D. D., is (1876) the president. 

LINDSLEY, Philip, an American edu- 
cator, born at Morristown, N. J., in 1786; died 
at Nashville, Tenn., in 1855. After graduating 
at the College of New Jersey, in 1804, he was 
for three years tutor in that institution. In 1813, 
he became professor of languages, and, in 1817, 
vice-president of the college. In 1823, he was' 
chosen president of the institution, but he de- 
clined. In 1824, he accepted the thrice-tendered 
presidency of the university of Nashville, which, 
through his efficient administration, attained a 
very high rank among American colleges. So 
great was the reputation which he acquired in 
that position, that no less than ten different col- 
leges offered him the presidency. He retired in 
Oct. 1850, and spent the last four years of his 
life at New Albany, teaching part of the time, 
in the theological seminary of that town. His 
works have been edited by L. J. Halsey (Phila.). 

LING, Peter Henrik, a Swedish poet, and 
the founder of a system of gymnastics for the 
cure of disease, was born in Ljunga, Nov. 16., 
1776, and died in Stockholm, May 3., 1839. Un- 
der the name of hinesipathy (movement cure), 
his system has been put into practice to some 
extent in other countries, but, like many similar 
discoveries, has not fully answered the expec- 
tations of its too sanguine advocates. In 1813, 
the Royal Central Institution of Stockholm was 
established for the purpose of carrying out this 
system, ling being appointed director. His 
Elementary Principles of Gymnastics was pub- 
lished after his death (Stockholm, 1840). 

LINGUISTICS. See Language. 

LOCKE, John, an illustrious English philos- 
opher, born at Wrington, in Somersetshire, Aug. 
29., 1632; died at Oates, in Essex, Oct. 28., 1704. 
His education began at Westminster School, 
from which he passed, in 1651, to Christ Church, 
Oxford, where he graduated in 1658. He applied 
himself to the study of medicine with such suc- 
cess as to win the special approbation of Dr. 
Sydenham, the greatest medical authority of his 
time. In 1664, he went to Berlin, as secretary to 
the British envoy, SirWilliam Swan, but returned 
within a year to pursue his studies at Oxford. 



LOCKE 



525 



His perplexity, at this time, as to the choice of 
a profession, was very great, three being open 
to him. A preferment in the church was offered 
him by the duke of Orinond ; inducements to 
continue in diplomatic service, either in Spain or 
Germany, were, also, made to him ; while his 
own inclinations were toward the practice of 
medicine, for which he had shown special aptitude. 
While engaged in the study of experimental 
philosophy, in connection with his medical 
studies, he formed the acqaintance of Lord 
Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury. This 
nobleman's life is believed to have been saved 
by Locke's skill ; and at this time an intimacy 
sprung up between them, which led to Locke's 
taking up his residence at Lord Ashley's house 
in London, where he applied himself to the study 
of politics and philosophy. There he met the 
earl of Northumberland, the earl of Halifax, 
the duke of Buckingham, and others of the 
most eminent persons of that day. In KJtiS, he 
accompanied the earl of Northumberland on a 
tour in France, and, on his return, was em- 
ployed by Lord Ashley, then chancellor of the 
exchequer, to draw up the constitution of the 
province of Carolina. In 1(170, he began to 
form the plan of his great work, the Essay con- 
cernimi the Human Understandiiir/, though this 
was not published till twenty years Liter. In 
1675, he visited France for the benefit of his 
health, where, at Montpellier, he became ac- 
quainted with the earl of Pembroke, to whom, 
many years after, he dedicated his Essay. lie 
returned to England in 1679; but, in 1682, when 
the Earl of Shaftesbury who had been charged 
with treason, left the country, Ixjcke accompanied 
him, taking up his residence in Amsterdam, 
where, in conjunction with Limborch, Le Clerc, 
and others, he founded a literary society for the 
weekly discussion of important questions. In 
1686, he published in French a A r e/« Method of 
a Commonplace Book, and, in 1688, his letter 
On Toleration. In the latter year, he returned 
to England, in the fleet which conveyed the 
princess of Orange, and shortly after (169(1) 
published his celebrated Essay. The success of 
this work, largely aided by the violence with 
which it wasattacked, was very great, six editions 
appearing in 14 years, besides translations of it 
into Latin and French, which gave the author a 
European reputation. In 1693, appeared his 
Thoughts Concern in;/ Education. This work, 
the value of which has been variously estimated 
by distinguished critics, is of special interest to 
educators, inasmuch as it was the first attempt, 
in England, to deal with the subject of education 
in a comprehensive and practical way. It was 
written as a guide to the education of a young 
gentleman, in this respect resembling Montaigne's 
essay on the same subject. Indeed, Locke's work 
was an amplification, through in no sense an im- 
itation, of Montaigne's. The subject is considered 
from the beginning, and rules were laid down not 
only for mental and moral development, but for 
physical training, Locke's education as a physi- 
cian especially qualifying him for the latter. | 



Some of his recommendations in this respect, 
have, of course, become antiquated by the prog- 
ress made in physiology and hygienic knowl- 
edge since his time ; but. as a whole, it remains, 
to this day, a trustworthy guide. His views in 
regard to early influences, the force of habit, 
manners, etc., do not differ materially from those 
now entertained. In regard to the training of 
children, his observations concerning the time at 
which it should be begun, the means to be em- 
ployed, and the objects to be kept in view, are, 
in all essential respects, in accordance with the 
views now generally held. Many objections to 
Locke's teachings have been made by modern 
educators. For instance, he has placed himself 
oil record as entirely opposed to corporal punish- 
ment, except for obstinacy ; and even for this 
he would have the punishment so ordered that 
"the shame of the whipping and not the pain, 
should be the greatest part of the punishment." 
In the controversy which springs up period- 
ically on this subject, therefore, Locke's great 
authority, as a guide to educators, would probably, 
by one side, be seriously questioned. A more 
serious objection is, that the motive presented to 
children for doing right — the approbation of 
their ciders — is not a sufficiently exalted one. 
It may be said, however, in defense of Locke, that 
it was not his intention to present a psychologic- 
al theory of education, but a practical plan for 
educating the young. The reasoning faculty in 
children is very rarely developed sufficiently 
to make an explanation of motives of any use in 
educating them. Whipping being discarded by 
Locke, there seemed to him only one way ti > incline 
children to do right — that of rewards, or of ap- 
pealing to their love of approbation. He care- 
fully guards himself here, by explaining that the 
reward or the approval must not be given for 
any "particular performance that they show an 
aversion to, or to which they would not have 
applied themselves without that temptation". 
"But", he says, "to make the sense of esteem or 
disgrace sink the deeper, and be of the more 
weight, other agreeable or disagreeable things 
should constantly accompany these different 
states ; not as particular rewards and punish- 
ments of this or that particular action, but as 
necessarily belonging to, and constantly attending, 
one, who, by his carriage, has brought himself 
into a state of disgrace or commendation." It 
is doubtful whether anj' more powerful agent can 
be brought to bear practically in influencing the 
child, it has, indeed, been doubted whether any 
higher motive for doing right, can be presented 
to the majority of adidts, than this of the ap- 
probation of their fellows, which is usually 
known as public opinion. To attempt to in- 
fluence children, therefore, exclusively by higher 
motives, would hardly be practical, or productive 
of benefit. That Locke was not forgetful of these 
higher motives, however, the followingwordswill 
show: "Concerning reputation, I shall only re- 
mark this one thing more of it; that though it 
be not the true principle and measure of virtue 
(for that is the knowledge of a man's duty, and 



526 



LOCKE 



LONDON UNIVERSITY 



the satisfaction of it is to obey his Maker, in fol- 
lowing the dictates of that light God has given 
him, with the hopes of acceptation and reward), 
yet it is that which conies nearest to it, and, 
being the testimony and applause that other 
people's reason, as it were, by a common con- 
sent, gives to virtuous and well-ordered actions, 
it is the proper guide and encouragement of 
children, till they grow able to judge for them- 
selves, and to find what is right by their own 
reason." His disapproval of public schools, also, 
is not in accordance with our modern view, but 
of this there are two extenuating circumstances, 
— one. the fact that his essay was intended to 
be used in the education of a young nobleman ; 
the other, that the public schools, in Locke's day, 
were so inferior to those of to-day, that his cen- 
sure can hardly be construed as applying to the 
latter. His slight opinion of the classics, also, 
must be modified in our estimate of it, by the 
same fact mentioned above, that it was the edu- 
cation of the man of affairs that he had in view, 
and not that of the scholar. His recommendations 
in regard to the study of natural philosophy, in- 
terspersed, as they are, with theological con- 
siderations and directions concerning "spirits", of 
course, show the confusion of mind in regard to 
this subject, prevalent in his day, and furnish no 
guide for that branch of study at the present 
time. His high opinion of the value of history, 
civil law, English law, style, and letters will, by 
many, be thought to show the bias produced by 
his long association with them, and the station of 
the pupil for whom his treatise was intended ; 
while his depreciation of music, as part of a liberal 
education, is accounted for by the low state of that 
art during his time, and will hardly be acepted 
now as a true statement of its merits. Not- 
withstanding the objections which can be urged 
against Locke's method, owing to the changed 
condition of society, the great progress that has 
been made in many branches of learning, and the 
creation of new ones, his treatise remains a 
memorable contribution to the literature of the 
great subject of which he treats, and a landmark 
in its history. That it is not without errors and 
short-comings, and that he was conscious of them, 
his own concluding words will show : ''Though 
I have now come to a conclusion of what ob- 
vious remarks have suggested to me concerning 
education. I would not have it thought that I 
look on it as a just treatise on this subject. There 
are a thousand other things that may need con- 
sideration ; especially if one should take in the 
various tempers, different inclinations, and par- 
ticular defaults that are to be found in children; 
and prescribe proper remedies. * * * * Each 
man's mind has some peculiarity, as well as his 
face, that distinguishes him from all others ; and 
there are possibly scarce two children who can 
be conducted by exactly the same method. * * * 
But having had here only some general views in 
reference to the main end and aims in education, 
and those designed for a gentleman's son, whom, 
being then very little, I considered only as white 
paper or wax to be molded and fashioned as one 



pleases, I have touched little more than those- 
heads, which I judged necessary for the breeding 
of a young gentleman of his condition in general, 
and have now published these my occasional 
thoughts, with this hope, that, though this be 
far from being a complete treatise on this sub- 
ject, or such as that everyone may find what will 
just fit his child in it, yet it may give some small 
light to those whose concern for their dear little 
ones makes them so irregularly bold, that they 
dare venture to consult their own reason in the 
education of their children, rather than wholly 
to rely upon old custom." 

L'HOMOND, Charles Francois, a French 
priest and educator, was born, in 1727, at Chaul- 
nes: died at Paris, inl794. Hewas for some time 
at the head of the College d'Inville at Paris, and 
from there passed to the College du Cardinal 
Lemoine where he was for twenty years teacher 
of the sixth class. After becoming professor 
emeritus, he devoted his time to the compilation 
of school books, many of which attained a very 
wide circulation. His work De viris illustrious 
urbis jRomae, is still in extensive use, not only 
in France, but in the Lnited States, England, 
Germany, and some other countries, and is re- 
garded by many distinguished educators as the 
best Latin reader that has ever been issued. In 
1860, his native town erected a statue to him. 
(See Latin Language.) 

LOMBARD UNIVERSITY, at Gales- 
burg. 111., under the control of Universalists, was 
founded as the Illinois Liberal Institute, in 1851, 
and chartered as a university, in 1853. It is 
supported by the income of an endowment of 
#100,000, and by tuition fees. The regular fees 
vary from .§15 to $33 per year. It has a large 
and valuable cabinet, and libraries containing 
over 4,000 volumes. The university embraces 
two departments of instruction, — the collegiate 
and the preparatory. The collegiate includes 
three different courses of study, — the classical, the 
scientific, and the literary course, on the comple- 
tion of which the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, 
Bachelor of Science, and Laureate of Arts are, 
respectively, conferred. Both sexes are ad- 
mitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 9 instructors 
and 94 students, of whom 25 (7 classical, 13 
scientific, and 5 literary) were in the collegiate 
department, and 69 (24 pursuing ancient and 
modern languages, and 45 English studies), in the 
preparatory department. The presidents have 
been as follows: the Bev. Paul R. Kendall, A. M., 
1851—6; Prof. J. V. N. Standish (acting), 
1856—7 ; the Rev. Otis A. Skinner, D. I)., 
1857—9 ; the Rev. J. P. Weston, D. D„ 1859— 
73; Prof. Wm. Livingston (provisional), 1873 
— 5; and the Rev. Nehemiah White, Ph.D., the 
present incumbent, appointed hi 1875. 

LONDON, University of, was created by 
royal charter bearing date Nov. 28., 1836. It 
was founded on the same principles of liberality 
as University College, London (q. v.), out of 
which it sprung. By an oversight, the first char- 
ter was granted only during "royal will and 
pleasure", and would have expired six months 



LONDON UNIVERSITY 



527 



after the death of the king. A new charter, 
therefore, not so determinable, was granted in 
the following year by Queen Victoria. The 
early constitution of the university bore a rough 
resemblance to that of the universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge, there being, on the one hand, 
colleges or teaching bodies, and, on the other, a 
university to test the quality of the teaching and 
to grant degrees accordingly. There was, how- 
ever, this capital difference, that, in the Univer- 
sity of London, the colleges, instead of being all 
in one locality, were scattered over the country, 
some of them being situated even in distaut 
colonies. In the earlier years of the university, 
every candidate, before presenting himself at the 
examination for his degree, was obliged to furnish 
a certificate showing that he had studied at one 
of the affiliated colleges for two years subsequent 
to his matriculation. In 1858, these affiliated 
institutions, which alone had die right to give 
certificates for degrees in arts and laws, com- 
prised, in addition to the universities of the 
United Kingdom and of Sydney. 37 other col- 
leges and schools. The most important of these 
were University College and King's College, 
London, and Owens College. Manchester (q. v.). 
Most of the remainder were theological colleges 
in connection with the Roman Catholics, the 
Independents, the Baptists, and other denomina- 
tions. 

The government of the university is in the 
hands of a senate, consisting of a chancellor, a 
vice-chancellor, and 3G members, or fellows; all 
of whom are appointed by the Crown for life or 
until resignation. All by-laws and regulations, 
however, have first to be submitted to the ap- 
proval of one of her Majesty's principal secre- 
taries of state. It had been proposed, as early as 
1840, to give the graduates some influence in the 
management of university affairs. This scheme, 
taken up in earnest in 1848, was agitated year 
after year, until a new charter was obtained in 
1858. This charter formed the graduates, then 
about 1,000 in number, into a corporation, giving 
them the right to meet in convocation and, to in- 
tervene by discussion and opinion in university 
affairs, to nominate one-fourth of the senate. and 
the right, along with the senate, of accepting any 
new charter or of surrendering a charter. The 
charter also gave the right to confer new degrees 
in science, in music, or in any department of 
knowledge whatever, theology always excepted. 
It is expected that the degrees in music will be 
instituted shortly. 

Whilst the draft charter was under considera- 
tion, in the earlier half of 1857, a new clause was 
introduced by the senate which provoked great 
excitement and strong opposition from all the 
affiliated colleges except one, and from a decided 
majority of the graduates. According to this 
36th clause, all persons, wherever educated, were 
io be allowed to compete for degrees, other than 
medical. The senate, notwithstanding the oppo- 
sition they met with from without, persevered 
in their course, and the new charter came into 
force on April 9., 1858. The certificate system, 



in fact had not. in many cases, been working 
well ; many whom the university would gladly 
have welcomed as candidates, were kept away : 
and the university was prevented, it was thought, 
••from an expansion commensurate to its national 
position and promise." At the same time, in- 
creased care was taken to discredit superficial 
knowledge by making the examinations more 
searching; and continuous and progressive study 
was sought to be secured by making the exam- 
inations more frequent. There had, for in- 
stance, formerly been two examinations, includ- 
ing matriculation, for 15. A. .with at least two years 
between them: henceforth, there were to be three, 
with not less than a year, in most cases, between 
them. The new clause did, in fact, constitute a 
revolution in the history of the university; but, 
after 18 years, it can hardly be said that the ap- 
prehensions of its opponents have been realized. 
Although the number of graduates now is nearly 
treble what it was 18 years ago, the value of 
the degree in public estimation has not di- 
minished but increased. Nor have the colleges 
suffered, althi mgh the former protective system in 
their favor has been abolished. The advantages 
of effective collegiate instruction will always 
speak for themselves, as will lie seen liy the fol- 
lowing statistics relating to the final examination 
for the ordinary B. A. degree in 1875. Of 106 
candidates, 53 described themselves as coming 
from certain colleges and schools ; the other 53, 
as having been prepared by private study and 
tuition. Of the college students, 17. or 32.1 per 
cent, were rejected; of the others, 28, or 52.8 per 
cent, were rejected. The comparison would be 
still more decisive, if the examinations for honors 
were taken into account. 

The first examination in the university is the 
matriculation examination (to be carefully dis- 
criminated from matriculation at Oxford or 
Cambridge) ; for this there were, in 1875, 1 ,021 
candidates, of whom 522 passed. It may be 
passed at the age of Mi: but the average age of 
candidates is 111. and sometimes, 20 years. It is 
an examination in Latin : in any two of the fol- 
lowing languages. — (heck. French. German; in 
English: in mathematics: and in natural philos- 
ophy ami chemistry. It may be regarded as a good 
test of a complete school education. One peculi- 
arity of the examination, as of the other pass 
examinations, is. that a candidate is rejected if 
he fails entirely in any one subject, however well 
he may do in' all the rest. Of those wdio pass 
this examination, about one-third go no further. 
Those who do. henceforth pursue diverging 
courses. They may proceed to prepare for de- 
grees in arts, in science, laws, or medicine. 
The university grants the higher degrees of 
Master and Doctor only after the passing of a 
further examination, which differs from the 
Bachelors' examinations by testing the depth, 
rather than the width, of the candidate's acquire- 
ments. Of all these degrees, the medical ones, in 
particular, have always had a high reputation. 
A large proportion of the leading physicians in 
London are graduates of this university. The 



528 



LORINSER 



LOUISIANA 



matriculation examination and the pass exami- 
nations for B. A. and B. Sc. are, on application 
to the senate, held, simultaneously with the ex- 
aminations in London, at various populous cen- 
ters in England, at some places in Ireland, and 
in the colonies (e. g. Canada, Mauritius, and 
Tasmania). They will shortly be held also in 
Scotland. 

An unintended omission in the charter of 
1858 made a new charter necessary in 1863; and, 
in 1867, a supplemental charter was obtained, 
conveying the right to hold examinations for 
women. There have been, at times, a majority 
in Convocation who were willing to admit wom- 
en to degrees on the same terms as men ; but 
whether the movement will be successful re- 
mains to be seen. The programme of the gen- 
eral examination for women will, next year, be 
completely assimilated to the matriculation pro- 
gramme ; and that is the amount of success 
wdiich the movement has attained so far. Wom- 
en, after passing this examination, may be ex- 
amined for certificates of higher proficiency also. 
The Reform Act of 1867 gave the members of 
Convocation the right of returning a represent- 
ative to Parliament : the first member for the 
university is the Right Hon. Robert Lowe. 
Convocation, in March, 1876, numbered 1,663 
members. The entire number of graduates is 
nearly double this, only those of them being 
members of Convocation who are of a certain 
standing, and have paid the prescribed fee. 

The estimate of the expenses of the univer- 
sity, for 1876 — 7, is as follows : salaries (of the 
registrar and his assistant, of the clerks, etc.) 
£2,765 5s 8d ; examiners, £5,300 ; exhibitions, 
scholarships, prizes, and medals, £1.972 10 s.; 
incidental expenses, £520; total. £10,557 15s. 8d. 
If from this be deducted £4,500, which it is 
estimated the fees will yield during the same 
period, it will be seen that the university is a 
yearly charge to the country to the extent of 
about £6,000. It must be added that the beauti- 
ful new buildings in Burlington Gardens, which 
are the first home of its own the university has 
had, and which were opened by the Queen in 
1870, were built entirely at public cost. The 
earl of Burlington, now the duke of Devonshire, 
was the first chancellor of the university ; he 
still retains a seat in the senate. The second and 
present chancellor is Earl Granville. — See the 
yearly Calendar of the University of London, 
and the Minutes of the Semite; flie University 
of London and its Influence on Education in 
Scotland, in Frazers Magazine (Aug. 1876). 

LORINSEK, Karl Ignaz, a distinguished 
German physician, and writer on school hygiene, 
born July 24., 1796; died October 2., 1853. In 
1836, he published a pamphlet on school hygiene 
(Zum Schutze der Gesundheil auf Schulen), in 
which he severely inveighed against the condition 
of the gymnasia, asserting that the great variety 
of studies pursued, the long school hours, and 
the excessive amount of home work, tended to 
undermine the health of the pupils. This criti- 
cism of the school management gave rise to a 



bitter controversy, more than seventy pamphlets 
being written pro and con. King Frederick 
William III., of Prussia, declared himself in 
sympathy with Lorinser's views, and ordered the 
ministry of education to draw up a plan to rem- 
edy the evils described in the pamphlet. The 
minister Altenstein, however, in his decree vir- 
tually denied the charges. An important result 
of this controversy was, that gymnastics were 
again introduced into the gymnasia, and that the 
necessity of making school hygiene a subject of 
special and thorough study, was generally ad- 
mitted. The autobiography of Lorinser was pub- 
lished in 1864, by his son. 

LOUISIANA, one of the southern states of 
the American Union, was originally a part of the 
French province of Louisiana, which was ceded 
to the United States in 1803. This vast tract, 
stretching from the Mississippi river westward 
to the Rocky mountains, was at first divided into 
two territories, that of Orleans and Louisiana, 
the former including the present state of Louisi- 
ana, and the latter all the remainder. In 1812, 
the territory of Orleans was admitted into the 
Union as the state of Louisiana. The population, 
in 1810, was 76,556, of whom 34,660 were 
slaves, and 7,585 free colored persons; in 1870, 
the population was 726,915, of whom 362,065 
were whites, 364,210 colored persons, 569 In- 
dians, and 71 Chinese. 

Educational History. — While Louisiana was 
yet a territory, provision was made for the es- 
tablishment of primary schools in each parish. 
In 1819, these schools were placed under the su- 
pervision of police juries ; and, in 1821, under 
five trustees appointed by the police jury of each 
parish, from the resident land-owners. In that 
year, the sum of $800 was appropriated for the 
support of schools, and authority was given to 
increase that amount by a tax on the property 
of each parish. By an act of the legislature, in 
1833, the secretary of state was made superin- 
tendent of public education, and acted as such 
from that time until 1846. The result not 
proving satisfactory, however, a bill was passed 
in 1847, providing for the appointment of a 
state superintendent and parish superintendents, 
the collection of a one mill tax on property, and 
the establishment of a state school fund by a 
consolidation of the land grants (amounting to 
786,044 acres) and individual donations. The 
object of this legislation was to establish a free 
public-school system for all the white children 
between the ages of 6 and 16 years. Additional 
legislation, in 1855, imposed a poll-tax of $1.00 
on each free white male inhabitant over twenty- 
one years old. In 1850, there were 675 public 
schools in the state, taught by 845 teachers, and 
giving instruction to 25,793 pupils. There were 
also 142 academies, and 8 colleges. In 1860, the 
number of public schools had increased to 713, 
with 31,813 pupils ; and the school revenue 
amounted to $469,210. In 1868, the new state 
constitution provided that a state superintendent 
should be elected for four years, and that all the 
children of the state between the ages of 6 and 



LOUISIANA 



529 



21 years, should be admitted to the public schools 
or to other state institutions of learning, without 
regard to race, color, or previous condition. A 
special act to carry out these provisions was 
passed in March, 1869. This required the ap- 
pointment of a state board of education to con- 
sist of the superintendent of public education, 
one member from each congressional district in 
the state, and two from the state at large. To 
this board were committed the supervision and 
management of the educational interests of the 
state. The state was to be divided into six 
districts, with a division superintendent for each, 
whose duty it was to supervise and manage the 
schools in his district, subject to the control of 
the state board. Boards of directors for each 
district in the state were also to be appointed by 
the state board, for the purpose of establishing 
and supervising schools in their respective 
districts, subject to the authority of the division 
superintendents. A two mill property tax was 
directed to be levied, leaving it optional with 
the voters to raise by local taxation whatever 
additional funds were necessary for the erection 
or hiring of school buildings. During the earlier 
years of legislation, the sparseness of the popu- 
lation rendered the school laws, in many respects, 
inoperative ; and, during the last twenty years, 
political disturbances ending finally in civil war, 
by producing class distinctions founded on color, 
made the work of education in the state a matter 
of great difficulty. Since the establishment of 
the school system, in 1870, considerable progress 
has been made. The school boards have been 
energetic and judicious ; the school funds have 
been managed with economy and prudence, 
many new schools have heen established, and an 
increased number of pupils brought under in- 
struction. The first state superintendent under 
the new law was Thomas W. Conway, who was 
succeeded, in 1872, by William G. Brown, the 
present incumbent (187C). 

School system. — The public schools, according 
to the provisions of the act of March l(i., 1870, 
are governed by the state board of education, 
which consists of a state superintendent and six 
division superintendents; there is also an assistant 
superintendent for the city of New Orleans. The 
duties of the board are to appoint parish, city, 
town, and district directors, to make all needful 
rides for the government of schools, to enforce 
the constitutional provisions relating to the ad- 
mission into the schools of all children without 
regard to race, color, or previous condition, to 
recommend a uniform series of text-books, and 
to prescribe a course of study. The state super- 
intendent is, ex officio, presidentof the board, and 
its chief executive officer. He is charged with 
the care of all educational reports and docu- 
ments, exercises a general supervision over the 
division superintendents, holding meetings with 
them in the several divisions of the state, at least 
once a year, issues teachers' certificates of quali- 
fication, apportions the school fund, examines 
and approves all plans for school buildings 
erected, and makes a report to the general as- 



sembly at each session. — Division superintend- 
ents have control of the schools in their respective 
divisions, examine teachers, issue certificates of 
qualification good for one year in the division 
where issued, hold teachers' institutes, organize 
teachers' associations, audit treasurers' accounts, 
make reports to the state board and state super- 
intendent, and exercise a general supervision 
over their respective divisions, subject only to 
the jurisdiction of the state board and the state 
superintendent. — Boards of school directors dis- 
charge all the duties usually appertaining to 
such bodies in other states. The school month 
consists of four weeks of five days each. The 
Bible is not excluded from the public schools, 
but no pupil is required to read it contrary to 
the wishes of his parents or guardians. 

Educational condition. — The total number 
of school districts in the state, in 187.'). was 47:?; 
and the number of public schools. 1.032; besides 
which there were reported 41 8 private schools. 
The whole amount of school income for the year 
was S7s:i,0(i8.95, of which $314,818.03 was de- 
rived from state apportionments. Other items 
of the school statistics are given below : 

Number of children of school age 280,387 

Number enrolled in public schools 74,846 

Number attending private schools 22,30G 

Number of teachers, males, 797 

females, 760 



1,557 
$37.00 



Total, 
Average salary of teachers per month 
Expenditures, for salaries, $573,144.44 

u other purposes, 200,247.42 

Total, $8(53,391.86 

Normal Instruction. — Although the law pro- 
vides for the establishment of a normal school in 
the state, no steps have yet been taken to carry 
out its provisions in this respect. The city of 
New Orleans had formerly a normal school : but, 
owing to the inability of the school board to 
sustain it with appropriations, it has passed from 
their control, ami is now a department of the 
New Orleans University. Straight University 
and the Peabody Normal Seminary, in the same 
city, also afford normal instruction and training. 
The division superintendents are required by 
law to hold teachers' institutes annually in their 
respective divisions. 

Secondary Instruction. — The institutions of 
this grade, in the state, are (1) private schools, 
(2) high schools, and (3) business colleges. The 
first, in 187"), reported 846 teachers and, 22,306 
scholars. Of the high schools, four are mentioned 
in the state superintendent's report forl875, three 
being established in New Orleans, and the other 
recently open at Baton Rouge. One of those 
located in New Orleans is for boys ; the other 
two, for girls, The Central High School for 
boys, is divided into six departments, as follows : 
English Uterature ; Latin and Greek ; science ; 
mathematics ; commerce, comprising penman- 
ship, drawing, and book-keeping ; and French. 
During the first year in this school, all pursue 
the same studies ; after that time, the study of the 
classics is optional. Four business colleges re- 



530 



LOUISIANA 



LOUISVILLE 



ported, in 1874, to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation, 12 teachers and 915 pupils, of -whom 
860 were males, and 55 females. Their courses 
of instruction vary from three months to a year. 
Superior Instruction. — The institutions -which 
afford opportunities for higher instruction, in- 
cluding the Louisiana State University (q. v.), 
are enumerated in the following table : 







When 


Religious 


NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomina- 






ed 


tion 


Centenary College 


Jackson 


1825 


M. Epis.S. 


Leland University 


N. Orleans 


1870 


Non-sect. 


Louisiana State Univ'ty. . 


Bat. Rouge 


1853 


Non-sect. 


New Orleans University.. 


N. Orleans 


1673 


M. Epis. 




Gr. Coteau 


1852 


R. C. 


St.Mary Jefferson College. 


St. James 


1861 


R. C. 




N. Orleans 


1869 


Evangel. 



Centenary College, the oldest in the state, is 
also one of the most efficient. The New Orleans 
University, like Straight University, makes no 
distinction of race or sex in its requirements for 
admission. It has a preparatory, a normal, a col- 
legiate, and a theological department. The Silli- 
man Female Collegiate Institute, at Clinton, 
under the control of the Presbyterians, also 
affords superior instruction. It has a collegiate 
course, and is authorized to confer degrees. 

Scientific and Professional Instruction. — 
The Agricultural and Mechanical College of 
Louisiana was opened June 1., 1874, in the 
building of the Louisiana University, in pursu- 
ance of an act of the legislature, passed in April 
of the same year, making provision for carry- 
ing into effect the purposes of the donation, by 
the United States, of public lands for the estab- 
lishment of an agricultural and mechanical col- 
lege in the state. The Chahnette battle-ground, 
in the parish of St. Bernard, where the state 
owns 200 acres of land, was selected as a site for 
the college. The only schools of theology are the 
Biblical department of New Orleans University, 
the theological department of Straight Univer- 
sity, which is open to all denominations, and 
the theological department of Leland University. 
The law department of the University of 
Louisiana performs the office of a law school, 
besides which there is a law department in 
Straight University, instructed by members of 
the New Orleans bar. By a special act of the 
legislature, a diploma from this department en- 
titles the graduate to practice in all the courts 
of the state. The same institution has also a 
medical department. 

Special Instruction. — The Louisiana Institu- 
tion for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 
at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1854. In 1874, 
it had 51 pupils, and 10 instructors. The value 
of its grounds, buildings, etc., is about $200,000. 
The Listitution for the Instruction of the Blind, 
also at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1871. It is 
represented to be in a nourishing condition. In 
1874, it had 65 pupils, and 19 instructors and 
other employes. The value of its grounds and 
buildings is about 8100.000. This institution 
includes also an industrial home for the blind. 
Besides these institutions, there is an insane 



asylum, at Jackson, supported by the state at an 
annual cost of about $40,000. 

LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, 

at Baton Rouge, La., was chartered in 1853, be- 
ing founded upon grants of land made by Con- 
gress to the state for the establishment of a 
seminary of learning. It was opened at Alex- 
andria, in January, 1860, under the superintend- 
ence of Col. (now Gen.) Wm. T. Sherman, and 
continued in operation till June, 1861, when it 
was closed on account of the war. It was re- 
opened in 1862 — 3, under the superintendence 
of Col. Wm. E. M. Linfield and Prof. Wm. A. 
Seay.but was again closed. It was again opened 
in October, 1865, under the superintendence of 
Col. David P. Boyd, who resigned in 1875, but 
is still (1876) in charge of the institution. In 
1869, the university building having been burned, 
the institution was transferred to the buildings 
of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Baton 
Rouge. This location is intended to be tempo- 
rary, until the edifice at Alexandria shall be re- 
built. The university owns state bonds to the 
amount of $138,000, on which it receives 6 per- 
cent interest. It has a library of 13,000 vol- 
umes, good chemical and philosophical appara- 
tus, and museums of natural history, fine arts, 
etc. The value of its real and personal property 
is about $160,500. The cost of tuition is 
$80 a year. An act of 1870 provided for the 
education and maintenance of two indigent 
youths from each parish, and 20 from the city of 
New Orleans, who, after remaining at the uni- 
versity four years, were required to teach school- 
in the state two years. !N o provision, however,, 
has been made recently for carrying this act into 
effect. By act of the legislature, the professors 
of engineering, mineralogy, geology, botany, and 
zoology, of this institution, are required to make 
surveys of Louisiana, in their respective departs 
ments. Several reports of these surveys have 
been made. The organization of the university 
is thoroughly military, and there are daily drills 
and parades. The course of study embraces a 
preparatory and an academic department, a spe- 
cial school of civil engineering, and a commercial 
school. The academic department has a literary 
(or classical), a scientific, and an optional course. 
The degrees conferred are B. A., B. S., B. Ph., 
A. M., and C. E. In 1872—3, there were 12 in- 
structors and 140 students. ' Since then, the 
unsettled condition of the state and the con- 
sequent withdrawal of legislative support have 
greatly embarrassed the institution ; and, in 1876, 
there were only 22 students. The number of 
graduates, from 1869 to 1874, inclusive, was 58. 
LOUISVILLE, the chief city of the state- 
of Kentucky, having a population, according to 
the U. S. census of 1870, of 100,753, of whom 
14.956 were colored persons, and 25,668 foreign- 
ers, the latter including 14,380 natives of Ger- 
many. This city has grown up during the pres- 
ent century, its population, in 1810, being only 
1,357. The town was established by an act of 
the Virginia legislature in 1 780, and called Louis- 
ville, in honor of Louis XVI., king of France, 



LOUISVILLE 



531 



imjiortant aid having been furnished by that 
country to the United States in their struggle 
for independence. 

Educational History. — Among the earliest 
efforts in the cause of education in Kentucky, 
were those made by the Roman Catholics, who 
established schools in connection with their 
churches, in many parts of the state; and it is 
probable that Louisville shared in the benefits of 
these efforts. In 1819, an institution known as 
the Seminary, gave instruction in the several 
branches of an English and classical education. 
It was under the direction of the trustees of the 
town, but was not well supported, the wants of 
the community requiring little beyond elementary 
education. In 1837, the Medical Institute was 
organized, having received an appropriation of 
$50,01)0 from the city council, and opened with 
80 students. In 1 847, the building for the Uni- 
versity of Louisville was sufficiently near comple- 
tion to permit the opening of its law department, 
the first lectures in which were delivered to 
about 30 students. At that time, there were, in 
the city, 4 large public-school buildings, and 24 
schools, of which 6 were grammar schools, — 3 
for males and 3 for females. In 1861, a high 
school for males, with all the rights and privi- 
leges of a university, was chartered by the legis- 
lature, as an institution for superior instruction, 
in connection with the public schools of the city. 
In 1862 — 3, the average daily attendance of 
pupils in the public schools was 3,851. Two 
years afterward, instruction in vocal music was 
made a part of the common-school course ; and, 
in 18G8, the study of the German language, 
which had been previously introduced, had been 
so far extended, that one-half of all the pupils 
(over 4,000) received instruction in it. In 1870, 
there were 2 high schools, and 17 schools of an 
inferior grade. The progress of the sehool sys- 
tem has been uninterrupted since that time. The 
number of pupils enrolled in the public schools 
has increased, during the ten years ending in 
1875, from 9,388 to 17,593; and the cost of the 
system, from §103,425.05 to §255,529.02. 

School System. — The public schools are under 
the management of a board of trustees, consist- 
ing of 24 members, 2 from each ward of the city. 
The chief executive officer of the system is the 
superintendent of the public schools, who exer- 
cises a general supervision over the schools, and 
makes an annual report to the board of trustees. 
There is also a superintendent of German in- 
struction, who is subordinate to the superintend- 
ent of schools, but acts under the direction of 
the committee on German, of the board of trust- 
ees. The board of examiners of public schools 
consists of the superintendent and six or more 
professional teachers, who hold principals' cer- 
tificates, selected by the committee on examina- 
tions and course of study of the board of 
trustees ; and there is also a German board 
of examiners, consisting of the superintendent 
and other persons selected by the committee. 
AU teachers are required to be at least 18 years 
of age. The schools are divided into primary, 



district, intermediate, and high schools, besides 
the evening schools and the training school for 
teachers. The studies pursued embrace all the 
ordinary common-school branches, besides Ger- 
man and music, which are taught in all the 
grades of the schools. — The length of the school 
course is designed to be 7i years in the lower 
grades, 5 years in the male high school, 4 years 
in the female high school, and 2 years in the 
training school. The support of the schools is 
chiefly derived from a city tax. The daily ex- 
ercises in each are commenced by the reading of 
a selection from the Scriptures. The legal school 
age is from 6 to 20 years. Children living out- 
side the city limits are permitted to attend the 
public schools on payment of a tuition fee ran- 
ging from §20 to §50 per annum. 

Educational Condition. — The whole number 
of schools, in 1875, was 34, as follows : 2 high 
schools, — 1 male, and 1 female, 6 intermediate 
schools, 14 district schools, 7 primary schools, 4 
night schools, and 1 training school. Of the 
schools of the lower grade, 5 are for colored 
children. The principal items of school statistics, 
for 1875, are as follows : 

Whole number of children of school age 44,827 

Whole number of pupils enrolled 17 ,593 

Number of colored pupils enrolled 2,034 

Average daily attendance 11,551 

Average attendance in the night schools 610 

Number of teachers, English 286 

" " " German 27 

" " " of music 4 

Total number of teachers 317 

Total receipts for school purposes $301,655.72 

Total expenditures $255,529.02 

Cost per pupil $19.95 

Total value of school property $847,300.00 

The course of instruction in the training school, 
or class, embraces arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
history, English grammar and composition, elo- 
cution, physical geography .physiology, astronomy, 
chemistry, and theory and methods of teaching. 
The whole number of pupils in this school, in 
1875, was 42. The Male High School contains 
five classes, including the preparatory class. The 
studies taught are comprised in the following 
departments : belles-lettres, ancient languages, 
pure mathematics, chemistry and technology, ap- 
plied mathematics, and modern languages. Any 
student who passes a satisfactory examination 
in any of these departments is entitled to a cer- 
tificate of graduation in the same. This institu- 
tion, in 1875, had an enrollment of 221 students, 
and a facidty of 6 members, including the pres- 
ident. For admission into the Female High 
School, applicants are required to pass an ex- 
amination in the branches taught in the first 
grade of the Intermediate Schools. They must 
also be at least 12 years of age. The number of 
teachers in the school, in 1875, was 424. 

Besides the institutions for superior, pro- 
fessional, and scientific instruction mentioned in 
the article on Kentucky, there are several pri- 
vate schools and academies, and 3 public libra- 
ries, having an aggregate of about 40.000 volumes. 
The Public Library of Kentucky alone contains 
20,000 volumes. 



532 



LOVE 



LUTHER 



LOVE, on the part of pupils for their teach- 
er, is one of the most essential elements of his 
success, just as antipathy (q. v.) constitutes an 
insurmountable obstacle to the exertion of any 
important educational influence. The first thing, 
therefore, which the educator should strive to do 
is to win the affection of his pupils ; if that is 
accomplished, every thing else will be done with- 
out difficulty. It is of little use to address 
merely the intellect of children. Their curiosity, 
it is true, can be excited, their attention aroused, 
and the faculties of their minds, to a certain ex- 
tent, be developed and sharpened ; but the real 
elements of character are behind all this ; and 
these cannot be affected in any important degree 
by mere intellectual training. The heart — the 
sensibilities and the will — must be reached ; 
and the key to success in this, the greatest 
office of the educator, is love. When love for 
the teacher reigns in the bosom of his pupil, 
there is entire confidence in him, a desire to obey 
him, to please him, to listen to his precepts, to 
imitate his example, both in words and in acts; 
indeed, by an inexplicable psychologic law, the 
pupil seems to be bound to the teacher by a kind 
of magnetic chain, and is subject in every tiring 
to his will. Fear, on the other hand, repels, and 
thus prevents the operation of that influence 
without which educational processes are, more or 
less, nugatory. The fear to do wrong, and of the 
punishment which is to follow it, is not, how- 
ever, inconsistent with a love of the teacher. 
(See Peak.) The latter must make himself, and 
the authority which he wields, respected ; or he 
will incur the contempt of his pupils ; and this 
is, of course, antagonistic to love. Children 
naturally recognize authority, however much 
they may strive to evade or defy it ; and its just 
and rightful exercise does not interfere with 
their warmest affections toward parents and 
teachers. Hence, love is not to be inspired by 
making improper concessions to children, for 
these they construe into weakness, which they 
despise. Minute directions may be given for the 
winning of the pupil's affections ; but these 
would be either unnecessary or futile. Love on 
the part of the teacher can alone produce love in 
the hearts of the pupils. He cannot put on a 
semblance of affectionate regard for his pupils ; 
he must feel it. Children have naturally deep 
intuitions into character, and detect hypocrisy 
almost instantly ; hence they at once discern 
whether there is any real affection in the mind 
of the teacher towards themselves, or only a mere 
pretense. Love will show itself in his appear- 
ance, his words, his manners ; every tone of his 
voice will indicate it, if it exist, and the pleasant 
smile beaming habitually from his countenance 
will, while making his own labors pleasant and 
easy, make light the hardest tasks of his pupils, 
by exciting their ambition and determination to 
accomplish it. The teacher should, however, 
never forget the relation existing between him 
and his pupils. "Some teachers," says Hart (In 
the School-Room, Phila., 1868), "in avoiding a 
hard, repulsive manner, run to the opposite ex- 



treme, and lose the respect of their scholars by 
undue familiarity. Children do not expect you 
to become their playmate and fellow, before 
giving you their love and confidence. Their 
native tendency is to look up. They yearn for 
repose upon one superior to themselves." 

LOYOLA COLLEGE, in Baltimore, Md., 
was opened in 1852, and chartered in 1S53. It 
is a Roman Catholic institution, controlled by 
members of the Society of Jesus. It has a mu- 
seum, philosophical apparatus, and libraries con- 
taining 21,500 volumes. There is a classical, a 
commercial, and a preparatory course. The cost 
of tuition, in the preparatory course, is $50 a 
year ; in the other courses, $"75. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 16 instructors and 140- students. 

LUTHER, Martin, the author of the great 
religious movement of the 16th century, was 
born at Eisleben, Nov. 10., 1483 (according to 
others, 1484), and died in the same town Feb. 
18., 1546. After attending the town school of 
Mansfeld and the Latin schools of Magdeburg 
and Eisenach, he went, in 1501, to the university 
of Erfurt in order to study law. In 1505, he 
entered the Augustinian convent at Erfurt, and 
in 1508, received the appointment of professor 
in the university of Wittenberg. There he be- 
gan, in 1517, the religious reform which made 
his name so famous. As Luther held that all 
Christians should read the Bible in their native 
tongue, the governments which adopted the Ref- 
ormation had to direct their attention to the es- 
tablishment of schools in all the parishes. Luther 
himself, in 1524, issued a powerful appeal to 
" the burgomasters and magistrates of all towns 
in the German countries," in which he urged them 
to establish schools, and to provide for the educa- 
tion of school-teachers, and the establishment of 
school libraries. He laid great stress upon the im- 
portance of religious instruction and the ancient 
languages, and made many suggestions in regard 
to an improvement of the methods of teaching, 
which were adopted by educators of the follow- 
ing centuries. His German translation of the 
Bible and his smaller catechism were generally 
introduced into the Lutheran schools, and have 
remained in extensive use up to the present day. 
The first German primer (Fibel) , which appeared 
about tins time, is by some ascribed to Luther; 
by others to Melanchthon. It contained the alpha- 
bet, and as reading exercises the ten command- 
ments, the creed, the Lord's Prayer, some pas- 
sages from the Bible, and prayers. At the end, 
the numbers from 1 to 100, and the multiplica- 
tion table were given. Many of the measures 
which were taken by Melanchthon for the refor- 
mation of schools, were, in great part, due to the 
advice and co-operation of Luther. For the 
schools winch he recommended the German 
burgomasters to establish, Luther drew up a 
comprehensive course of studies, which he sent to 
his friend Spalatin with the request to submit it 
to the elector of Saxony. This course of studies 
is either verbally contained in the Book of Visita- 
tion (Yisifctiionsbuchlein, published by Melanch- 
thon in 1528), or at least forms the basis of the 



LUTHERAN CHURCH 



533 



one published by Melanchthon. — See Gedike, 
Luther's PcLdagogik (1792); Briestlein, Luther's 
Einfluss nuf das Volksschulwesen tend den 
Reliqioitsuiiterricht (1852) ; J. Schiller, Dr. M. 
Luther vber christliche Kinderzueht (2d ed., 
1854). 

LUTHERAN CHURCH, the name of the 
religious denomination which arose in the 16th 
century, from the church reformation effected by 
Martin Luther. It has also been designated by 
the name Evangelical, Evangelical Lutheran, 
or Protestant Church, or. as in Austria, the 
Church of the Augsburg Confession. The three 
general creeds of the ancient church, and the 
Confession of Augsburg have generally been re- 
garded by Lutherans as standards of faith. In 
respect to constitution the Lutheran churches 
greatly differ. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark 
have an episcopal, most of the other churches 
a synodal or consistorial. form of government ; 
the latter, which means a government of the 
church by state boards called consistories, is, 
however, on the wane. In Prussia and some of 
the other German states, the Lutheran Church 
has been united with the Reformed I ihurch into 
one ecclesiastical organization, called the United 
Evangelical Church (q. v.) ; but the Lutherans 
to a large extent have regarded this as a mere 
confederation which does not impair or alter their 
standing as Lutherans. In Germany, as in other 
countries, the predominance of rationalistic 
views, and the almost unlimited freedom of be- 
lief or unbelief, which has been practically con- 
ceded to the clergy and members of the church, 
have, to a great extent, swept away the distinctive 
landmarks of the Lutheran denomination. It has 
been calculated, however, that of the 25 millions 
of Protestants in the I German empire, 20,000,000, 
at least, are. of Lutheran extraction. In the Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms, which have an aggregate 
population of about 8,000,000, as well as in the 
grand-duchy of Finland, and in the Baltic provin- 
ces of Russia, nearly the entire population is Lu- 
theran. Austria had, in 18(1!), a Lutheran popu- 
lation of l,365,000,and Russian Poland, 240,000. 
France has lost almost all her Lutheran pop- 
ulation by the annexation to Germany of Alsace 
and Lorraine. The entire Lutheran population 
of the world (including the Lutheran portion 
of the United Evangelical Church) has been 
estimated at about 40,000,000. In consequence 
of the close connection of church and state in 
Europe, the Lutheran Church has exerted, and ' 
to some extent still exerts, a very great influence ' 
upon the educational institutions of those, coun- 
tries in which it prevails. Universities and 
gymnasia have, however, so generally passed 
under the sole control of the state, and in the 
German churches so wide a departure from the 
official creeds of the Protestant churches has 
been generally allowed to theologians, that it 
would be extremely difficult to state in a few 
words the relation of the Lutheran Church to 
the learned institutions of the countries named. 
It may be said, however, that at present (1876) 
the universities of Rostock, Erlangen, and Leip- 



sic, in Germany, those of Copenhagen, Lund, and 
Upsal, in the Scandinavian kingdoms, and of 
Dorpat, in Russia, are seats of a strictly Lutheran 
theology. (See Germany, Denmark, Finland, 
Norway, Sweden.) 

The immigration of Lutherans into the United 
States began as early as 1621, when a few came 
to New York from Holland. Their first church 
was built in 1671. They were soon followed by 
a Lutheran colony from Sweden, and by more 
numerous emigrants from German}', who chiefly 
settled in Pennsylvania. In the 19th century, the 
immigration into the United States, from the 
Lutheran countries of Europe. — Germany, Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Norway, increased so rap- 
idly, that the number of preachers and of 
communicants, which, in 1820, was only 170 and 
35,000, respectively, rose, in 1875, to 2,669 and 
573,149. The first generation of immigrants re- 
tain their native tongue in divine worship ; of 
their descendants, a considerable number have, 
in the course of time, substituted for it the En- 
glish. Still the church, school, and family lan- 
guage of a large majority of these churches is 
even now chiefly German. Some idea of the 
proportion of the languages spoken among the 
Lutherans of the United States may be formed 
from the fact, that of their periodicals, 22 
are published in the English language, 30, iu 
the German, 5, in the Swedish, and 8, in the 
Danish or Norwegian language, like the Meth- 
odists and Baptists, the Lutherans of the United 
States arc divided into a number of independent 
bodies which. to some extent, differ as to certain 
points of doctrine. 'I he principal divisions are 
the following : 

(1) 77/1' General Synod. — This was formed in 
1^20. and is the oldest of the general bodies. 
In it the English language largely predominates. 
It allows larger liberties than the other bodies 
iu both doctrine ami practice. It recognizes the 
Augsburg Confession as the chief exposition of 
its faith, but does not impose a strict adherence 
to its text as a test of membership. 

(2) The General Council. — This was formed 
in 1867. It exacts a strict adherence to the 
unaltered Augsburg I Confession, and recognizes 
the Apology for the Augsburg Confession, Lu- 
ther's greater and smaller catechisms, the 
Schmalkalden Articles, and the Formula of 
Concord, as forming, with the unaltered Augs- 
burg Confession, the full creed of the same 
faith. 

(3) Lite Synodical Conference. — This is the 
most numerous Lutheran body in the United 
States. It is also the most strict in its inter- 
pretation of the standards, and in its rules of 
membership and fellowship. It was formed in 
1872, anil the language used in its churches and 
schools is almost wholly German. 

(4) The Southern Synod. — This withdrew from 
the General Synod during the civil war, chiefly 
for political reasons, and formed the General 
Synod South. Besides these four general organi- 
zations, there are seven particular synods, which 
are entirely independent. 



534 



LUTHERAN CHURCH 



LYCEUM 



The Lutheran bodies in the United States have 
always felt the importance of the educational work 
required of them, and have endeavored to meet 
its demands as far as they have had the means. 
In 1773, Drs. Schmidt and Hellmuth opened, in 
Philadelphia, a Latin school and a private semi- 
nary for the instruction of candidates for the 
ministry. It continued in operation for more 
than twenty years, and was finally closed by the 
necessities of war during the Revolution. In 
1787, the legislature of Pennsylvania established 
Franklin College, Lancaster, of which Henry 
Ernest Muhlenberg was the president, for the 
especial benefit of the Germans of the common- 
wealth, and as a reward for their services in the 
war. In 1791, the Church's services to education 
were further recognized by the legislature of 
Pennsylvania, by the gift of five thousand acres 
of land to the Free Schools of the Lutheran 
Church, in Philadelphia. In 1784, Johann 
Christoph Kunze, of Philadelphia, accepted a 
call to the High German Congregation, in New 
York, in the hope that he might establish a 
Lutheran theological professorship in Columbia 
College. He became professor of oriental lan- 
guages in that institution. The Lutherans at- 
tach great importance to theological instruction, 
and theological seminaries receive very great 
consideration from them. Their oldest in- 
stitutions, in fact, seem to have been at first 
theological schools, around which literary de- 
partments were afterwards formed. Hartwick 
Seminary, New York, was founded in 1816. 
The theological school there was the first pub- 
lic training school of the American Lutheran 
Church for candidates for the ministry. The 
theological seminary, at Gettysburg, Pa., was 
founded by the General Synod in 1826. Pre- 
vious to that time, the Rev. Dr. S. S. Schmucker, 
of New Market, Va., and the Rev. D. F. Schaef- 
fer, of Frederick, Md., had received a limited 
number of young men as students, and in- 
structed them in theology. The Gettysburg 
seminary celebrated, in 1876, the completion of 
the fiftieth year of its existence. It had then 
furnished thirty-nine professors to various in- 
stitutions, nearly all the editors of the Engbsh 
periodicals and reviews of the General Synod, 
and five hundred and thirty-eight ministers. 
Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa., was 
founded in 1832, six years after the theological 
seminary. The General St/nod has also the 
following higher institutions of learning : Wit- 
tenberg College, Springfield, Ohio (founded 
in 1846), to which a theological department 
(founded in 1845) is attached; Swedish- American 
Ansgari College, Knoxville, 111. (1873), with a 
theological department; Carthage College, Car- 
thage, Mo. (1871) ; and Practical Theol. Seminary. 
Marshall, Wis. (1876).— The General Synod 
South, has the care of Roanoke College, Salem, 
Va. (1854), a theological seminary at the same 
place (1830, at Lexington, S. C.,and removed to 
Salem, Va., in 1872) ; Newberry College, Wal- 
halla, S. C. (1858). North Carolina College, Mt. 
Pleasant, N. C. (1859), and the theological de- 



partment of the same (1872), are connected with 
the North Carolina Synod. The General 
Council has a theological seminary at Phila- 
delphia, which was founded in 1864. Its other 
collegiate and theological seminaries are : Muh- 
lenberg College, AUentown, Pa. (1867); Augus- 
tana College and theological seminary (the latter 
founded in 1863), at Rock Island, 111.; Mosheim 
College, Mosheim, Tenn. ; German American 
College, Rousselville, Texas; Thiel College, 
Greenville, Pa. (1870) ; Wartburg Theological 
Seminary, Mendota, 111.; and the Norwegian 
Lutheran Seminary, at Madison, Wis. (1876). 
The principal theological school of the Synodical 
Conference is the Concordia Theological Semi- 
nary, of which the theoretical department, at St. 
Louis, Mo., was founded in 1840, and the prac- 
tical department, at Springfield, 111., in 1846. 
Its other higher institutions are : Capital Uni- 
versity, Columbus, Ohio (1850), with a theolog- 
ical department (1830) ; Concordia College, 
Fort AVayne, Ind. (1840, and organized after 
the plan of a German gymnasium) ; Luther 
College, Decorah, Iowa (1863) ; North West 
University, Watertown, Wis. (1865). — The con- 
ference of the Norwegian-Danish Evangelical 
Lutheran Church sustains the Augsburg The- 
ological Seminary, at Minneapolis, Minn. The 
synod known as Graham's Buffalo Synod sup- 
ports Martin Luther College, with a theological 
department, at Buffalo, N. Y., and the Synod of 
Iowa supports the College of the Iowa Synod, 
Mendota, 111. The Lutheran almanacs give also 
lists of twenty-two classical schools and acad- 
emies and seven female seminaries under the 
patronage of the various Lutheran bodies, or 
looking to Lutherans for support. — Orphans' 
homes and schools are supported by the general 
bodies and several synods at Loysville, Zelienople, 
Rochester, Middletown, and Germantown, Pa., 
Mt. Vernon and Buffalo, N. Y., Toledo, Ohio, 
Jacksonville, Addison, and Andover, III., Vasa, 
Minn., St. Louis, Mo., Boston, Mass., Norris, 
Mich., and Andrew, Iowa. The Missouri Synod 
has a deaf and dumb institute, at Norris, Mich. — 
The Synodical Conference enumerates, among 
the conditions required for admission to, and 
membership in, its organization, the providing of 
Christian school instruction for the congrega- 
tions. Accordingly, parochial schools are gen- 
erally connected with its congregations. For the 
education of its school teachers, the Synodical 
Conference supports a teachers' seminary at 
Addison, 111., which, in 1875, had 5 instructors 
and 114 students. Three educational papers, 
in the German language, were published in 
1877, the Schulblatt and Abendschule, at St. 
Louis, and the Schulzeitwng, at Milwaukee. 

LYCEUM (Gr. Abneiov, named after the 
neighboring temple of Apollo, 2 vxeioc, a surname 
which is differently explained by Greek etymol- 
ogists), a gymnasium or public palestra with 
covered walks, in the eastern suburb of Athens, 
where Aristotle and the philosophers of his school 
taught. The Romans gave the name lyceum to 
several similar institutions, as to those in the 



LYCUEGU8 



McGUFFEY 



53£ 



Tusculanum of Cicero, and in the villa of 
Adrian at Tibur. In the middle ages, lyceum, 
denoted an institution in which the Aristotelian 
philosophy was taught. In modern times, the 
meaning of the word varies greatly in different 
countries. In Wurtemberg, it is equivalent to 
a progymnasium, or the five lower classes of a 
gymnasium ; in Alsace-Lorraine, it is still given 
to some of the gymnasia, with which a real school 
is connected ; in France, the lyceum is the highest 
secondary school and comprises eight classes ; in 
Italy, it corresponds to the three higher classes 
of the German gymnasium ; in Finland, some of 
the lyceums which have seven classes corre- 
spond to the German gymnasium, and some 
which have only four classes, to the higher clas- 
ses of the gymnasium ; in Roumania, the lyceum 
has seven classes, and equals the complete gym- 
nasium. In England and in the United States, 
the word is not applied to any class of schools, 
but is sometimes given to literary associations. 
For a fuller account of the modern lyceums see 
the articles on the several countries ; for an ac- 
count of the American Lyceum, see Holrrook, 

Josi.UI. 

LYCTJRGTJS (Greek buicovpyoc, the light- 
producer), the reputed author of the Spartan 
system of education. He is said to have lived 
in the 9th century before Christ : but so little is 
known of his life, that even his existence has 
been doubted by some, his name being regarded 
by them as the personified origin of a new era of 
culture. According to the traditional view, he 
belonged to the royal family of Sparta, and was 
guardian of his nephew, king t'harilaus. Having 
been forced by an opposing party to leave his 
country, he made extensive travels in Asia 



Minor.and in Crete, where he became acquainted 
with the laws of Minos. He was finally recalled 
to Sparta, in order to put an end to the increasing 
disorders, for which purpose he enacted the laws 
which have made his name immortal. He made 
the Spartans swear to keep his laws, until he 
should return from Delphi, where he was to ask 
the god's opinion as to their value. As the oracle 
predicted for Sparta an unfailing prosperity as 
long as these laws should be observed, he never 
returned to his native land. According to one 
legend, he starved himself to death, having pre- 
viously ordered the ashes of his corpse to be 
thrown into the sea in order that they might not 
be brought back to Sparta so as to release the 
Spartans from their pledge. That the whole of 
the political and educational system of Sparta 
was not the work of Lycurgus, is admitted 
even by those who have entire faith in the 
existence of a famous law-giver of that name. 
(See Sparta.) 

LYON, Mary, an American teacher, born 
in Buckland, Mass., Feb. 28., 1797; died in 
South Hadley, Mass., Mar. 5., 1849. In the face 
of many obstacles, she acquired sufficient educa- 
tion to enable her to teach, which she did with- 
out notable result till 1837, when she established 
at South Hadley, Mass., the Mount Ilolyoke 
Female Seminary, the first of several similar es- 
tablishments founded by her pupils. The dis- 
tinct feature of the Mount Holyoke seminary was 
the union of domestic labor with intellectual and 
moral instruction. Her published works are 
Tendencies of On- principles embraced mid the 
system adopted in tin' Mount Ilolyoke Female 
Seminary (1840); and the Missionary Offering 
(Boston, '1843). 



McCORKLE COLLEGE, at Bloomfield 
(Sago P. O.), Ohio, was founded as a high school 
in 1862 by the Rev. Wm. Ballantine, A. M., who 
has been its president from the first. It was in- 
corporated as an academy in 1868, and as a col- 
lege in 1873. It is under Associate Presbyterian 
control. Both sexes are admitted. The prin- 
cipal design of the institution is to qualify young 
men for the study of theology ; yet a general 
and thorough course of education, well adapted 
to qualify students for the pursuit of any of the 
learned professions, is given, in languages, mathe- 
matics, and the sciences. There are three depart- 
ments: a preparatory, two years ; and a classical 
and a scientific, each four years. The cost of 
tuition ranges from $18 to $30 per year. In 
1874 — 5, there were 5 instructors and 43 students. 

McCOSH, James, an eminent Scottish 
scholar, teacher, and metaphysician, born in Ayr- 
shire, in 1811. He was educated in the univer- 
sities of Glasgow and Edinburgh; and, in 1835, 
ordained a minister of the Church of Scotland, 
at Arbroath. Subsequently, while pastor at 
Brechin, he took an active part in the organiza- 
tion of the Free Church of Scotland. In 1851, 



he accepted the appointment of professor of 
logic and metaphysics in Queen's College. Bel- 
fast ; and while here distinguished himself both 
as a lecturer and a metaphysician, publishing 
Intuitions of the Mind (London. 1860), a work 
of great merit for its originality and acuteness. 
i In 1868, he was elected president of the College of 
! New Jersey, at Princeton, which position lie still 
i occupies. As an educator he has exerted a very 
; extensive influence, by the breadth and sagacity 
I of his views. His reputation as a metaphysician 
| is not exceeded by that of any living scholar, 
j In this department of intellectual research, his 
| writings have been very numerous, and, as is 
| universally conceded, are characterized by re- 
I markable depth of thought and acuteness of 
I reasoning. 

McGUFFEY, William Holmes, an Amer- 
! ican educator, born in Washington Co., Pa., 
'Sept. 23., 1800; died in Charlottesville, Va., 
May 4., 1873. He graduated at Washington 
College, in Pennsylvania, in 1826, and was 
soou afterwards elected professor of ancient lan- 
guages in Miami University, at Athens, Ohio, 
in which institution he was transferred, in 1832, 



536 



McKENDREE COLLEGE 



MAGER 



to the chair of moral philosophy. In 1836, 
he was elected president of Cincinnati Col- 
lege ; but, in 1839, he returned to Miami Uni- 
versity to take the position of president of the 
institution. In 1845, he accepted the appoint- 
ment of professor of moral philosophy and po- 
litical economy in the University of Virginia, 
where he remained until his death. While 
president of Cincinnati College, he began the 
preparation of the Eclectic Series of school read- 
ing-books, which became widely popular, more 
than a million copies, it is said, having been 
issued. It is by these that he is best known. 

M'KENDREE COLLEGE, at Lebanon, 
HI., established in 1828, was chartered in 1834, 
and rechartered in 1839. It is under Methodist 
Episcopal control. It has beautiful grounds, and 
buildings well adapted for college purposes. The 
location is healthful and easy of access. The 
libraries contain about 7.500 volumes ; and the 
apparatus is extensive. The institution is sup- 
ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- 
dowment of $45,000. Both sexes are admitted. 
The collegiate department has a classical and a 
scientific course, and there is a preparatory 
and a law department. The cost of tuition in 
the collegiate department is $24 a year. In 
1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors, and 226 stu- 
dents, of whom 129 were in the collegiate and 
8 in the law department. The presidents have 
been as follows : the Rev. Peter Akers, D. D., 7 
years ; the Rev. John W. Merrill, D. D., 3 years ; 
the Rev. James Finley, D. D., 4 years ; the 
Rev. Erastus Wentworth, D. D., 4 years; the 
Rev. Anson Cummings, D. D., 2 years; the 
Rev. Nelson Cobleigh, D. D., 5 years ; the Rev. 
Robert Allyn, D. 1)., 13 years ; and the Rev. 
John W. Locke, D. D., the present incumbent 
(1876), 2 years. 

McMINNVILLE COLLEGE, at McMinn- 
ville, Oregon, under the control of Baptists, was 
chartered in 1859. It has an endowment fund 
of $25,000. It comprises a primary, an academic, 
and a collegiate department, in which the cost 
of tuition is $18, $30, and $44 a year, respect- 
ively. Both sexes are admitted. In 1873 — 4, 
there where 6 instructors and 150 students. 

MADISON UNIVERSITY, at Hamilton, 
N. Y., under Baptist control, was chartered in 
1846. It comprises a theological seminary, a col- 
lege, and an academy. The seminary was opened 
in 1820 ; the college and academy were organ- 
ized in 1832. The college has a classical and a 
scientific course. The endowment amounts to 
$435,000. The university has extensive cabinets 
of natural history, and valuable chemical and 
philosophical apparatus. The libraries contain 
11,000 volumes. The cost of tuition in the col- 
legers $30 a year, in the academy $20 ; in the 
seminary, tuition and room rent are free. In 
1875 — 6, there were in the seminary, 5 instruct- 
ors and 33 students ; college, 9 instructors and 
87 students ; academy, 9 instructors and 89 stu- 
dents; total, deducting repetitions, 19 instructors 
and 209 students. The Rev. Ebenezer Dodge, 
D.D., LL. D., is (1876) the president. 



MADRAS SYSTEM. See Monitorial. 
System. 

MADVIG, JoLann Nikolai, a Danish 
educator and philologist, born in Svanike, on 
the island of Bornhohn, in 1804. He graduated 
at the university of Copenhagen, where he 
became professor of the Latin language and 
literature in 1829. In 1848, he was appointed 
minister of public worship, and in 1852, di- 
rector of public instruction. He has edited the 
works of Cicero, Juvenal, Livy, and Lucretius. 
In 1829, he published a pamphlet in which he 
attempted to prove that the De Orilwgraphia, 
attributed to Apuleius, and first published by 
Mai in 1823, was written as late as the 15th 
century. He has also published a Glance at the 
Constitutions of Antiquity ; The Creation, JDe- 
velopment, and Life of Language; Adversaria- 
Critica ad Scriptores Grcecos et Latinos (vol. i., 
1871); and a Latin Grammar for Schools.. 
This last was translated by the Rev. G. Woods 
(Oxford, 1859). 

MAGER, Karl, a distinguished German 
educator, was born near Dusseldorf, Jan. 1., 
1810 ; died in Wiesbaden, June 10., 1858. He 
studied in Bonn, Berlin, and Paris, where he 
early attracted attention by his talents and 
scholarship. After his return to Germany, he 
engaged in the study of the philosophical sys- 
tems of Hegel and Herbart, and in those of edu- 
cation and instruction, introduced by Pestalozzi 
and Diesterweg. For the Wegu-eiser fur deutsche 
Lehrer, edited by the latter, he wrote an essay 
on the teaching of foreign languages (1835 and 
1838), after which he became professor in the 
cantonal school, in Geneva. This position he soon 
resigned on account of a spinal disease, from which 
he found some relief in Cannstadt, a watering- 
place, near Stuttgart. In 1840, he founded the 
Pddagogische Revue, which soon became one of 
the leading journals for all questions of education 
and instruction in Germany and Switzerland. 
This was edited by him until 1849. The wish 
to test practically his theories and school books 
induced him to accept the professorship of modern 
languages (French and Germau) in the cantonal 
school of Aarau, Switzerland. After a few years, 
he resigned this position, to give all his time 
to the Pddagogische Revue, which, for his con- 
venience, had been removed from Stuttgart to 
Zurich. In 1848, he was invited by the Staats- 
minister Wydenbruck, in Weimar, to take the 
direction of the real gymnasium in Eisenach, an 
institution that had been organized according 
to his plan and ideas. He began his work with . 
his usual ardor ; but, unfortunately, his disease 
grew worse, and his health became so much 
impaired, that, in 1852, he was obliged to retire 
from his office, and, even to give up all literary 
work, thus being unable to show whether his. 
practical skill as a teacher and head of an insti- 
tution was equal to his extensive scholarship and 
the brilliancy of his writings. His death oc- 
curred a few years after his retirement. Mager 
was without doubt an eminent reformer in the 
field of education and instruction; and his coun- 



MAGER 



MAINE 



537 



try is largely indebted to him for his efforts in 
the introduction of the genetic method and the 
creation of the higher real school or real gym- 
nasium. (See Rem, Schools.) A few words 
will suffice to characterize Mager's ideas on the 
genetic method, which he calls the combination 
of analysis and synthesis. There is a method 
of development proper to every objects — a pecu- 
liar mode of growth, both in form and substance; 
this is objective method. But the term method 
has also a subjective meaning, implying the man- 
ner in which the pupil acquires knowledge, and 
hence having reference to his self-activity, which 
it is the office of the educator to stimulate, to 
restrain, or to guide. Now, psychology and ex- 
perience teacli us that the human mind has to 
go through different stages in the acquisition of 
knowledge : intuition, perception, and, finally, 
abstraction ; and the mode of instruction must 
conform to the operations of the human mind. 
Applying these principles to the study of foreign 
languages, it is obvious that grammar cannot be 
its beginning, but must be its end. Man speaks 
in sentences. The simplest form of human speech 
is not a word, but a sentence. The old gram- 
matical school said, the sum of the parts of a 
thing is the thing; but this is not true; the sum 
of the parts of a watch is not necessarily a 
■watch; only when they are combined in a proper 
manner so that they indicate time, they are a 
watch. Just so it is with language. Hence, gram- 
matical lexicography, inflections, parsing of 
■words, etc.. must be subordinate to syntax. Xmv. 
every sentence contains a verb, and the verb 
alone can form the whole sentence, though now 
more rarely than in the older languages; there- 
fore grammatical instruction must begin with 
the verb. As the simple sentence is the begin- 
ning of language, so the most developed period 
is its completion. So far for the genesis of the 
substance; but also the form of the instruction 
must follow the process of human thought — in- 
tuition, perception, abstraction — first, the lan- 
guage (example), then its rules. But the study 
of language is not merely theoretical, it is prac- 
tical also. He who learns a language, has to 
apply it, to use it; and, therefore, Mager ends 
with the free speaking and writing of the for- 
eign language. — Besides several articles in the 
Padagogische Revue, he wrote : Geschichte 
der franz/isischen Nationaffiteratur (Berlin 1837 
— 40) ; Tablet tit anfhohgique de la litterature 
francai.se conternporaine (Berlin 1837 — 40) ; 
WissenscJiaft der Matkematik nucJi heuristisch- 
genetischer Methode (Berlin, 1837) ; Ueber den 
Unterricht in fremdea Spracl/en (Essen, 1838) ; 
Die hb'here Bilrgerschule (Stuttgart, 1840) ; 
Deuisches Elemental- werk, Sprach- tend Lese- 
buch (a posthumous work, completed and edited 
by Charles Sehlegel, Stuttgart, 1866) ; FranzS- 
sisckes Sprach- und Lesebuch, revised by Charles 
Sehlegel, Stuttgart, 1802) ; Die maderite. Philo- 
logie und die. deitischen Feb iden (Stuttgart, 1 844) ; 
Die gem tische Methode (Zurich, 1846); Die En- 
cyMopiidie, das Si/stem des Wissens, ein Lese- 
buch (Zurich, 1847). 



MAINE, until 1820 a part of Massachusetts, 
has an area of 35,000 sq. m., and a population, 
according to the census of 1870, of 629,915, 
found mostly in the southern half of the state. 

Educational History. — This will embrace 
(I) The establishment of schools ; (II) The main- 
tenance of schools ; (III) The supervision of 
schools. 

I. The school system of Maine, when it became 
a distinct state, in 1820, was the same as that 
of the parent state, Massachusetts. In the con- 
stitution of Maine, the duty of the state to pro- 
vide its people with the means of education, and 
its right to control public education throughout 
its entire extent, are asserted in the following 
article : "A general diffusion of the advantages 
of education being essential to the preservation 
of the rights and liberties of the people, to pro- 
vide this important object, the legislature are 
authorized, and it shall be their duty, to require, 
the several towns to make suitable provision, at 
their own expense, for the support and mainte- 
nance of public schools; and it shall further be 
their duty to suitably endow, from time to time, 
as the circumstances of the people may author- 
ize, all academies, colleges, and seminaries of 
learning, within the state, provided that, at the 
time of making any donation, grant, or endow- 
ment, the legislature of the state shall have the 
right to grant any further powers, to alter, limit, 
or restrain, any of the powers vested in any such 
literary institution, as shall be judged necessary 
to promote the best interests thereof." — r lhe 
school law of Maine remained the same as that 
of Massachusetts until the second legislature, in 
1821, enacted a general school law differing from 
the former one only in requiring 7 each town to 
raise, by a tax on polls and property, a sum of 
not less than forty cents for each inhabitant, to 
be apportioned among the several districts in the 
town, and annually expended for public schools, 
instead of requiring each town, as in the original 
law, to sustain its schools for a certain prescribed 
length of time each year. The district system 
had become fixed in the school law of Massachu- 
setts previous to the separation, and it has been, 
up to the present time, recognized in the school 
law of Maine. At first, the towns, at their annual 
meetings, elected agents for the several districts; 
later, districts 'were allowed, on the vote of towns, 
to choose their agents, and agents were allowed 
to expend, at their own discretion, 10 per cent of 
the school money for repairs. A return of sta- 
tistics to the office of the secretary of state was 
required; and abstracts of these were made, and 
transmitted to the various districts. The bank 
tax of one-half of one per cent on the capital 
stock of state banks was divided among the va- 
rious towns according to the number of persons 
between the ages of four and twenty-one years 
of age, for the benefit of public schools; and 
power was given to districts, in 1827, and still 
further, in 1842. "to classify scholars and to grade 
their schools." The district system has proved 
unfavorable to the highest degree of efficiency 
in schools, and a few years since a law was en- 



538 



MAINE 



acted authorizing towns to abolish school-districts 
and to adopt a uniform township system. A law 
was enacted in 1873, encouraging the establish- 
ment of free high schools at the joint expense of 
town and state. 

II. The public schools of Maine have always 
been free. Their support has been derived from 
(1) Taxes ; (2) The income of permanent funds. 

(.1) Taxes. — The sum of forty cents for each 
inhabitant, required by the law of 1821, to be 
raised annually for the support of schools, was 
increased by subsequent legislation, in 1854, to 
sixty cents, in 1865 to seventy-five cents, and in 
1868 to one dollar. In 1872, a law was enacted 
assessing annually a tax of one mill per dollar 
upon all the property of the state, according to 
the valuation thereof, to be distributed to the 
several towns of the state according to the num- 
ber of persons of school age in each town. Up- 
on the passage of this act, called the Mill Tax 
Law, the per capita tax was changed from one 
dollar to eighty cents for each inhabitant. — For 
many years, a large sum was added to the school 
fund annually by a tax upon deposits in the 
state banks. This amounted sometimes to 80,000 
dollars in a year. With the change from state to 
national banks, this sum decreased until it be- 
came nothing. In 1872, a tax of one-half of one 
per cent was assessed upon deposits in savings- 
banks, to be distributed among the several towns 
of the state according to their school population. 
Many towns raise by taxation a larger sum than 
is prescribed by the law, and "any school district 
maintaining graded schools is authorized to raise 
for the support of these schools a sum of money 
not exceeding that which it receives from the 
town, in addition thereto." 

(2) Income of Permanent Funds. — These funds 
are state and local. The state fund is derived 
from the proceeds of the sales of twenty town- 
ships of public lands formerly set apart for school 
purposes, increased from year to year by the ad- 
dition thereto of unexpended balances of school 
money. The local funds are derived in part from 
the sale of lands assigned to towns for the sup- 
port of schools, and in part from various other 
sources, such as bequests, etc. An amount equal 
to six per cent of the permanent school fund is 
distributed to the schools each year. This fund 
at present amounts to $400,558. 

III. Supervision of Schools. — Notwithstand- 
ing the emphatic statements of the constitution 
as to the rights and duties of the state in regard 
to public education, there was in the law a great 
lack of the elements of an effective system until 
1846, when, in response to determined action of 
the friends of education, a law was passed estab- 
lishing a state board of education consisting of 
one member from each county, chosen by the 
school committees of the county in joint con- 
vention, with a secretary chosen by the board. 
Wm. Q. Crosby, afterwards governor of the 
state, was secretary of the board from 1846 to 
1849. He then resigned, and was succeeded by 
E. M. Thurston, who served until the abolition 
of the board, in 1852. Great good was effected 



by this board of education. County institutes 
were held, and were attended by large numbers 
of teachers. Teachers' associations were organ- 
ized in every county of the state. Better school- 
houses wei*e built, and the standard of teaching was 
raised ; moreover, the state owes several improve- 
ments in the school law to this period of its his- 
tory. In 1852, an act was passed directing the ap- 
pointment by the governor of a school commis- 
sioner for each county, thus replacing the board 
of education by a much less efficient agency. In 
1853, this law was repealed, and the office of state 
superintendent was created, the superintendent 
being appointed by the governor and the coun- 
cil. The following is a list of the successive state 
superintendents, with the dates of their appoint- 
ment to office : Charles A. Lord, June 26., 1854; 
Mark H. Dunnell, March 27., 1855 ; John P. 
Craig, Feb. 28., 1856 ; Mark H. Dunnell, Jan. 
29., 1857 ; Edward P. Weston, March 5., 1860 ; 
Edward Ballard, May 8., 1865: Warren Johnson 
March 30., 1868 ; and Wm.' J. Corthell, the 
present incumbent, Oct. 26., 1876. 

In 1869, acts were passed directing the ap- 
pointment, by the governor and the council, of a 
board of county supervisors for a term of three 
years, and making provision for county institutes. 
In 1872, the first of these laws was repealed ; and, 
three years later, the second was also repealed. 
The efforts of the friends of education to secure 
more efficient means for the training of teach- 
ers were for a long time fruitless. For several 
years appropriations were made by the state to 
academies for the maintenance of normal depart- 
ments. The results proving unsatisfactory, the 
first state normal school, located at Farming- 
ton, was established by an act of the legislature, 
approved March 25., 1863 ; and the school went 
into operation Aug. 24., 1864. The second state 
normal school, located at Castine, went into oper- 
ation Sept. 7., 1867. A state teachers' associa- 
tion was organized in 1859 ; but it was not con- 
tinued, holding its last session in 1864. Another 
association was organized in 1867, and still holds 
annual sessions. Of county and town associa- 
tions, there are very few. 

School System. — The public schools of the state 
are under the supervision of the state superintend- 
ent of common schools and the town superintend- 
ing school committees. There is no intermediate 
agency. The state superintendent is appointed 
by the governor and council for the term of three 
years, " or during the pleasure of the executive." 
It is his duty to exercise a general supervision 
over the schools of the state ; to advise and di- 
rect town committees in the discharge of their 
duties, devoting all his time to the duties of his 
office ; to collect and disseminate information 
as to the school systems of our own and other 
countries ; to prescribe the studies for the com- 
mon schools of the state, town committees hav- 
ing also the right to prescribe additional studies, 
and to make a report to the governor and coun- 
cil, annually prior to the session of the legislature. 
The superintending school committees examine 
all teachers, and employ teachers for the school- 



MAINE 



539 



districts when authorized to do so by the town. 
They direct the general course of instruction, se- 
lect a uniform system of text-books, and exercise a 
general supervision and control over the several 
schools of the town. They are required to make 
a written report of the condition of the schools 
in their respective districts, for the preceding year, 
at the annual town meeting, and to transmit a 
copy thereof to the state superintendent of com- 
mon schools. They are also required to make an 
annual statistical report to the state superintend- 
ent on or before the first day of May of each 
year. Supervisors, and members of the school 
committee, receive for their services If 1.50 a day, 
besides the necessary traveling expenses. 

A town, at its annual meeting, or at a special 
meeting called for that purpose, may determine 
the number and limits of school-districts therein ; 
but these districts must not be altered, discon- 
tinued, or annexed to others, except upon the 
written recommendation of the municipal officers 
and of the superintending school committee. A 
town may abolish its school-districts; and it must 
thereupon take possession of all the school prop- 
erty therein, levying upon the town a tax equal to 
the appraised value of such school property, and 
remitting to the tax payers of each district the 
appraised value of the property thus taken. The 
town must annually expend for the support of 
schools the amount received from the state school 
fund, under penalty of forfeiture of itsshareof the 
fund for the ensuing year ; and it must raise and 
expend annually for the support of schools, ex- 
clusive of income from any other source, at least 
eighty cents for each inhabitant, or forfeit not less 
than twice, nor more than four times, the amount 
of its deficiency, and also its share of the state 
school fund. The assessors and the school com- 
mittee may annually apportion among the smaller 
districts of the town, in addition to their per capita 
share of the school money, 20 per cent of money 
raised by the town and of that received from 
the state, in such a manner as to give them equal 
educational advantages with the larger districts. 

The town may provide school books to pupils 
of the public schools at cost, or free of cost. It is 
required to choose a school committee of three 
for a term of office of three years, one to go out 
of office each year, or a supervisor instead of 
school committee. Towns are empowered to make 
such by-laws, not repugnant to the laws of the 
state, concerning truants and children between 6 
and 17 years of age not attending school, and 
having no regular and lawful employment, as are 
most conducive to their welfare and the good 
order of society. Children under 1 5 years of age 
cannot be employed in a cotton or woolen manu- 
factory without having attended scliool a pre- J 
scribed portion of the year next preceding, and 
no person under the age of 16 can be employed 
by any corporation more than ten hours a day. 
A law was passed in 1875, compelling the at- 
tendance at school for at least twelve weeks 
each year, of all children between the ages of 6 
and 15 years, unless excused by the school 
•officers, for reasons prescribed in the act. 



Every school-district is a corporate body, and 
all school property therein belongs to the dis- 
trict, and is under its full control ; but all 
plans for the erection or reconstruction of a 
school-house voted by a district must be ap- 
proved by the school committee. Each school- 
district, at its annual meeting, chooses a moder- 
ator, a clerk, and an agent, unless by vote of 
the town the agents are chosen in town meet- 
ing. Two or more districts may unite to sup- 
port a union school for advanced scholars, or to 
maintain a graded school ; and a district main- 
taining a graded school may choose a committee 
to classify and grade the pupils therein. "Wher- 
ever, in the opinion of the school committee, a 
school-district unreasonably neglects or refuses 
to raise money to provide proper school build- 
ings or grounds, the matter may be brought be- 
fore the next town meeting, and the town may 
vote to raise the money by a tax upon the dis- 
trict, to be expended by a committee appointed 
by the municipal officers. A school-district may 
appropriate a sum not exceeding 10 per cent 
of its school money for any year, for the pur- 
chase of a school library and school apparatus : 
and adjacent districts may unite for this pur- 
pose. The school agent attends to the finan- 
cial affairs of the district, and employs teachers, 
unless by vote of the town they are employed 
by the school committee. The agent may, at 
his discretion, expend for repairs, each year, 
10 per cent of the money apportioned to the 
district- 
Any town establishing and maintaining a free 
high school for at least ten weeks in any one year, 
is entitled to receive from the state one-half of the. 
amount actually expended for instruction, not 
however exceeding $500 from the state to any 
one town. Two or more adjoining towns may 
unite in sustaining such a school ; and so long as 
any town shall decline to avail itself of the pro- 
visions of this act. any school-district, or union 
of school-districts, in the town may do so. — 
Every teacher of a public school is required to 
keep a register containing the names and attend- 
ance of his pupils, and a record of such other 
facts as may be required by the blank forms 
provided for annual or other reports; and he is 
required to leave such register completed, and 
signed by the school committee, as a condition 
of receiving his salary. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts returned in 1875, was 3,953; and 
the number of parts of districts, 308. The num- 
ber of towns in the state was 421, and the num- 
ber of these which have abolished the district sys- 
tem was 25. The country schools are generally 
ungraded. In the cities and larger villages, pri- 
mary and grammar schools are maintained ; and. 
in the cities and a few of the larger villages, high 
schools have also been established. There were 
maintained, in 1875, for one or more terms, 157 
free high schools, at an annual cost of $116,308, 
of which the state paid $38,633. There are no 
returns by which the number of graded schools, 
or departments in each grade, can be ascertained. 



540 



MAINE 



For the support of public schools there was 
paid, in 1875, $1,261,297, from the following 
sources : 

Permanent school fund $22,193 

Local funds 25,585 

Total from funds $47,778 

Municipal taxation for current 

expenses ' $662,558 

School mill-tax 224,579 

Savings-bank tax 145,935 

For free high schools 116,308 

" supervision 36,968 

" normal schools 15,500 

To prolong schools 11,671 

Total taxation $1,213,519 

Total current expenses $1,261,297 

There was also expended for new school- 
houses in 1875, $110,725 ; and hereafter $13,000 
for the support of normal schools will be taken 
annually from the general school fund, instead 
of being made a special appropriation. 

The following are other important items of 
school statistics for 1875 : 

The number of teachers : 
In summer, males, 171; females, 4,426; total, 4,597 
In winter, males, 1,984; females, 2,475; total, 4,459 
The average wages per month, excluding board, 
was of 

Male teachers $36.96 

Female teachers 17.16 

The average cost per month of teach- 
ers' board was $9.52 

Whole number of scholars between 4 and 21.. 221,447 

Number registered in summer schools 117,821 

Number registered in winter schools 130,343 

Average attendance in summer schools 95,058 

Average attendance in winter schools 105,625 

Average length of schools for the year 
(5^ days to a week) 21 weeks 1 day. 

Normal Instruction. — The date of establish- 
ment of the two state normal schools has been 
given in the historical sketch. For their support 
$13,000 is drawn from the common-school fund 
each year. The law establishing these schools 
prescribes that they "shall be thoroughly devoted 
to the work of training teachers for their profes- 
sional labors," that " the course of study shall 
include the common English branches in thorough 
reviews, and such of the higher branches as are 
especially adapted to "prepare teachers to con- 
duet the mental, moral, and physical education 
of their pupils," and "that the art of school 
management, including the best methods of gov- 
ernment and instruction, shall have a prominent 
place in the daily exercises of said schools." 
Candidates for admission must be, if females, 16 
years of age ; if males, 17 ; they must pledge 
themselves to teach in the public schools of Maine 
for as long a time as they shall have remained 
connected with the normal school, and pass a 
satisfactory examination in reading, spelling, 
writing, arithmetic, geography, and English 
grammar. The course requires two years for 
its completion, and comprises the usual studies 
of an English high-school course, together with 
history of education, school laws, and didactics, 
and practice teaching. The schools are sup- 
plied with libraries and apparatus, and with 
models and copies for free-hand drawing. — The 
normal schools are under the direction of a 
board of trustees consisting of seven members, 



five of whom are appointed by the governor and 
executive council for a term of three years, the 
governor and the state superintendent of schools 
being, ex officio, members of the board. 

Secondary Instruction (comprehending the 
high schools and the academies). — Of the high 
schools an account has already been given. The 
right and duty of the state to aid institutions of 
this class is explicitly asserted in the constitution; 
and, in its early history, many academies received 
grants of public lands. Several academies were 
incorporated by Massachusetts before Maine be- 
came a state. For many years the elements of 
an effective system were lacking in the public 
schools of the state ; and the academies, always 
tuition schools, effected much good. The period 
from 1830 to 1850 was perhaps the period of 
their greatest influence. Since the latter date r 
improvements in the public-school system, and 
other causes, have led to their decline, and some- 
have been incorporated with the public-school 
system as high schools. Several have been en- 
dowed by religious denominations, or made pre- 
paratory schools for the several colleges of the 
state. Of these the most prominent are Maine 
Wesleyan Seminary and Female College, at 
Kent's Hill, the East Maine Conference Semi- 
nary, at Bucksport, both conducted by the Meth- 
odists ; the Westbrook Seminary, by the Uni- 
versalists ; Waterville Classical Institute, He- 
bron Academy, and Houlton Academy, — prepar- 
atory schools for Colby University, Maine Central 
Institute, at Pittsfield, and Nichols Latin School 
at Lewiston, — preparatory schools for Bates 
College, and Hallowell Classical Institute, a 
preparatory school for Bowdoin College. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
Most of the academies of the state were origi- 
nally founded by the efforts of religious denom- 
inations. The most prominent have been named 
in the preceding section. Of parochial schools, 
there are none but a few small Roman Catholic 
schools in connection with local churches. 

Superior Instruction. — Bowdoin College 
(q. v.), the oldest college in Maine, situated at 
Brunswick, received its charter in 1794, with a 
grant of five townships of land. It derives its 
name from James Bowdoin, governor of Mas- 
sachusetts in 1785. The board of trustees and 
the board of overseers met in 1801 and elected 
a president, and a professor of languages. At 
the installation of these officers, in 1802, 8 stu- 
dents were admitted, and in 1806 the first class, 
consisting of 8, was graduated. It has now an aca- 
demical faculty of 15, and numbered, in 1875 — 6, 
148 students. — Waterville College, located at 
Waterville, was established in 1820 ; and a few 
years since, the name was changed to Colby Uni- 
versity (q. v.), in honor of Gardner Colby, a bene- 
factor of the college. It has a faculty of 12, and 
91 students. Bates College (q. v.), located at 
Lewiston, was founded in 1863. It is named in 
honor of Joshua Bates, a benefactor of the college- 
It has a faculty of 7, and numbers 96 students. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — Un- 
der this head are included Theological Schools,. 



MANHATTAN COLLEGE 



MANN 



541 



Medical Schools, and Scientific Schools, of which I 
the following is an enumeration : — The Theolog- I 
ical Seminary (Congregationalist) at Bangor, I 
was organized in 1819. In the year 1875 — (i, it ' 
had 39 students. The Theological School of 
Bates College (Free Baptist.) was organized in 
1870. In the year 1*75 — 6, it had 25 students. 
The Medical School of Maine was organized in 
1 8120. By act of the legislature it is placed 
under the superintendence and direction of the 
Board of Trustees and Overseers of Bowdoin 
College. In the year 1875 — (i, it had 93 stu- 
dents. The Maine State College of Agriculture 
and the Mechanic Arts, situated at Orono. was 
established upon the basis of the congressional 
grant of public lands for such instruction. In 
the year 1875 — 6, it had in its various courses 115 
students. The Scientific I tepartment of Bowdoin 
College should also be named among the scientific 
schools. Its course of study is four years, parallel 
with the classical course, and its students, in 
1875 — 6, numbered 50, already included in the 
enumeration of Bowdoin College. 

Special Instruction. — There is a State Reform 
School for boys at Cape Elizabeth, and one for 
girls, at Gardiner. There is a Soldiers' Orphan 
School at Bath. 

Educational Literature. — No works have been 
published upon the schools of Maine, with the 
exception of the reports of the secretary of the 
board of education and of the superintendent 
of common schools. The Maine Teacher, a 
monthly, published for several years, was followed 
by the Maine Journal of Education, which was 
merged, in 1874, in the New England Journal 
of Education. 

' MANHATTAN COLLEGE, a Roman 
Catholic institution in New York City, under 
the direction of the Christian Brothers, was 
chartered in 1863. It comprises a collegiate, a 
commercial, and a preparatory department. The 
library contains about 10,000 volumes. In 
1874-— 5, there were, in all the departments, 48 
instructors and 694 students. Bro. Paulian is 
(1876) the president. 

MANITOBA, a province of the Dominion of 
Canada; area 13,923 sq. m., population, in 1870, 
11,963. This portion of the Dominion was first 
visited by the French, for the purpose of estab- 
lishing trading posts at various points. In 1 767, 
it was for the first time visited by English 
traders. It subsequently belonged to the 1 1 ud- 
son Bay Company, who, in 1869, gave up their 
territorial rights to- the imperial government, 
which, in 1870, transferred them to the Canadian 
government. The schools of this province are 
divided into two sections : one for Protestants, 
and one for Roman Catholics. Each section has 
its own superintendent, but there is only one 
board of education, in which both sections are 
represented. The forms of prayer prescribed in 
Ontario, and the reading of the Scriptures, or i 
the saying of the Lord's Prayer are employed in 
opening and closing each session of the Protest- 
ant schools. The school hours are required to 
be not less than five per day, for five days in the | 



week ; and the school year is divided into two 
parts of 100 days each. — The legislative grant, 
which, in 1874, amounted to §7,000, is divided, 
according to law, between the two sections in 
proportion to the relative average attendance of 
pupils at the schools of each. In 1874, it was, 
however, for some reason, divided equally be- 
tween the two sections. In 1874, there were 22 
Protestant schools, with 1,248 pupils enrolled, 
and an average attendance of 635. The number 
of Catholic schools was 21, with 998 children 
enrolled, and 21 teachers. — The Manitoba Wes- 
leyan Institute was opened in 1873. It prepares 
its pupils to enter any of the universities, the 
course of studies comprising, besides the common 
English branches, Lstin, Greek, mathematics, 
French, and German. It is governed by a board 
of management, appointed by the Methodist Con- 
ference of Canada. Manitoba College, in Winni- 
peg, was incorporated in 1873. Its affairs are 
conducted by a board appointed by the general 
assembly of the Presbyterian Church. The cur- 
riculum of study of the college is divided into 
three courses : a regular, a commercial, and a 
special course. The regular course fits for ma- 
triculation, and for first-year examinations in 
the University of Toronto, for matriculation in 
law or medicine, as well as for entrance upon 
the courses of civil engineering and agriculture, 
and for commencing the study of theology in 
any of the Canadian colleges. A preparatory 
department has been organized in connection 
with the college. St. .John's College, belonging 
to the Episcopal Church, has also a preparatory 
department and a theological school connected 
with it. The Roman ( 'atholics have a college at 
St. Boniface; and the Sisters of Charity have also 
a large convent at St. Boniface, an academy for 
young ladies, an orphanage, and four missions 
in the province. — See Marmno, Canada Edu- 
cational Director;) for 1876; Lovell's Gazetteer 
of British North America, 1873. 

MANN, Horace, one of the most celebrated 
of American educators, born in Franklin, Mass., 
May. 4., 1796; died in Yellow Springs, Ohio, 
Aug. 2., 1859. The cause of education in Amer- 
ica is deeply indebted to this remarkable man. 
Rarely have great ability, unselfish devotion, 
and brilliant success been so united in the course 
of a single life. More rarely still, has the prep- 
aration for that success been made under such 
discouraging circumstances of poverty, want of 
opportunity, and ill health. To say that the 
childhood and youth of Horace Mann were 
passed in poverty, is only to repeat the story 
common to the early lives of very many 
eminent men. The degree of poverty, how- 
ever, in his case, appears to have been excep- 
tional ; his biographer telling us "that it was the 
misfortune of the family that it belonged to the 
smallest district, had the poorest school-house, 
and employed the cheapest teachers, in a town 
which was itself both small and poor." The 
hard manual labor to which he was subjected 
giving him no time for recreation, in either sum- 
mer or winter, weighed upon his naturally 



542 



MANN 



buoyant spirits, and left an ineffaceable impres- 
sion on his memory. Many years after, lie 
speaks of this want of happiness in his child- 
hood as an "irretrievable misfortune." Left 
fatherless at the age of thirteen,, he remained at 
home, with no opportunities for cultivation 
beyond those furnished by the few and unsuit- 
able books of the household, and the ancient 
histories and theologies contained in a small 
library which had been given to his native town 
by Franklin. Always thirsting for knowledge, 
he declares that, up to the age of fifteen, he had 
never received more than eight or ten weeks' 
schooling in any single year. He remained at 
home till the age of twenty, eagerly treasuring 
up every thing that could add to his scanty 
store of information. About that time, having 
snatched some knowledge of Latin and Greek, 
and of English grammar, from an itinerant school- 
master, he presented himself, after six months 
of such intermittent schooling, for admission to 
the sophomore class in Brown University, and 
entered it in 1816. Illness — the consumptive 
habit bequeathed him by his father — now inter- 
rupted his work, and compelled him to leave. 
Poverty succeeded, requiring him again to ab- 
sent himself during the winter, in order to teach 
school for his support while in college. In spite 
of these drawbacks, however, he graduated in 
1819, with the first honors, conceded by the 
unanimous consent of both faculty and class- 
mates. He immediately entered a law office; but 
had been there only a few months, when he was 
offered the position of tutor of Latin and Greek 
in the college he had just left. He accepted, 
principally on account of the facilities it gave 
him for self-improvement ; and at once began a 
course of study, to be carried on simultaneously 
with his teaching. His method, in the latter, 
already foreshadowed his fitness for the teacher's 
vocation. In 1821, he resigned his position as 
tutor, and entered the law school at Litchfield, 
Ct., where he remained about a year. Leaving 
it, he was admitted to the bar in 1823, and 
immediately opened an office for the practice 
of law. During the fourteen years of his pro- 
fessional practice, the probity which was so 
marked a characteristic throughout his life, was 
always apparent. In 1827, he entered political 
life, having been elected representative for the 
district of Dedham, in which he resided ; and 
to this office he was successively re-elected till 
1833, when he removed to Boston, where, shortly 
after, he was elected to the state senate, serving 
four consecutive terms, during which time, he 
was twice chosen the presiding officer. Through- 
out his legislative career, Mr. Mann took an 
active part in all discussions relating to internal 
improvements, temperance, and education. The 
state lunatic asylum at AVorcester was almost 
entirely his creation, he having suggested it, and 
carried it, almost single-handed, through the 
various stages of legislation. His services in 
this respect were so generally recognized, that he 
was appointed chairman of the board of com- 
missioners for its erection, and, on its comple- 



tion, chairman of its board of trustees. In 
1835, he was appointed by the senate one of a 
committee to codify the statute laws of the state, 
and assisted in their publication. In 1837, the 
legislature appointed a board of education, to 
revise and re-organize the common-school system 
of the state. In view of the laborious duties 
inseparable from this work, the good judgment 
required for its successful issue, and the great 
length of time necessary for its completion, it 
was no ordinary compliment that, on the organ- 
ization of the board, Mr. Mann was chosen its. 
secretary. Ihere is complete evidence, however, 
that he fully comprehended the magnitude of 
the work before him ; but, having found, at last, 
a congenial field of labor, he did not hesitate. 
Becognizing the necessity of entire devotion to- 
his new undertaking, and the necessity, also, of 
an unbiased position in regard to it, he declined 
re-election to the senate, left political life entirely, 
gave up all professional engagements, and placed 
himself simply in the position of a citizen of his. 
native state. From this stand-point, he ap- 
proached the work before him, and, for twelve 
years, applied himself solely to his duties as 
secretaiy. Notwithstanding the sacrifices he 
had made, however, for the purpose of freeing 
his work from any suspicion of partisan bias, the 
difficulties he had to encounter were appalling. 
The abuse of enemies, open and covert; the 
jealousies, not only of political partisans, but of 
religious denominations, educational associations,, 
and private schools ; the opposition of tax-pay- 
ers ; and, more than all, the deep-rooted conserv- 
atism, which, through indolence or ignorance, 
or both combined, resists all change, constituted 
a formidable opposition which might have well 
led him to decline the duties that now devolved 
upon him. On the other hand, the aid on which 
he was to depend was often lukewarm, seldom 
enthusiastic. His method of procedure was com- 
prehensive and effectual, fie began the pub- 
lication of a periodical on his own account — 
Tlie Common-School Journal, in which he gave 
in detail his views concerning general school 
management, and methods of instruction and 
training ; while he visited all parts of the state, 
conferring with teachers, attending conventions, 
and delivering lectures and addresses. His most 
effective instrument, however, was the annual 
report, which the duties of his position required 
him to make to the board. In these reports, of 
which there are twelve, the entire subject of 
education is treated in a practical and exhaustive 
manner. The sound judgment, wide experience, 
and comprehensive grasp displayed in these 
papers, constitute them a classic on the subject 
of which they treat ; while their clear and vigor- 
ous statements, apt illustrations, and felicitous, 
style carry conviction even to careless readers, 
and amply justify his selection as the instrument 
for working out the great reform proposed. 
Their publication and broad-cast dispersion over 
the state, gradually changed the current of pub- 
lic opinion, and raised up friends in every quar- 
ter. Not without opposition, however, were all 



MANN 



MANNERS 



543 



these changes effected. Tn 1840, in the midst of 
his manifold wearying and distracting labors, a 
bill was introduced into the legislature, calling 
for the abolition of the board of education, thus 
undoing the work of three years, and remanding 
the schools to their former condition. Happily 
the bill, though sustained by a majority of the 
committee, was defeated. The publication of 
his seventh annual report gave rise to a fierce 
opposition. Up to this time, his reports had 
treated the subject of education in a philosoph- 
ical way, with a constant reference to first prin- 
ciples, and with illustrations drawn from the 
practical experience of every reader. His seventh 
report, however, gave the result of his observa- 
tions in Europe, singling out Prussia for special 
commendation, and comparing her system of in- 
struction with that of his native state, to the 
disadvantage of the latter. A rancorous hostil- 
ity, founded on national jealousy, was the im- 
mediate result, and Mr. .Mann found himself, his 
motives, ami his work assailed by means of let- 
ters, newspapers, and pamphlets in the most 
violent manner. The result of this attack, how- 
ever, was that the attention of the public was 
specially called to the subject under discus- 
sion, without impairing the work of the board, 
either in its extent or its efficiency. In 1848, 
Mr. Mann was elected to Congress to fill the 
vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy 
Adams ; and, in November of the same year, 
was re-elected. In 1800, though failing of the 
nomination, he was elected again as an independ- 
ent candidate. It was thought by many, per- 
haps by Mr. Mann himself, that by re-entering 
the field of politics at Washington, he might in- 
fluence the government to establish a bureau of 
education either independently, or in connection 
with the Smithsonian Institution. This, how- 
ever, was not accomplished. Leaving politics, 
therefore, he accepted the presidency of Antioch 
College, where he hoped to be able to effect 
something in the way of further reforms in the 
pursuit he had most at heart. In the organiza- 
tion of this institution, his shaping hand is again 
recognized; and the objects attained before his 
death, which happened a few years after, are 
said to have satisfied him of the feasibility of his 
plans. The great glory, however, of Mr. Mann's 
career — that which is now acknowledged to be his 
distinctive work — was the reform accomplished 
in the Massachusetts common and normal school 
system, during his labors in the board of educa- 
tion. His twelve annual reports led to many 
radical reforms, which extended beyond the bor- 
ders of his native state ; and the knowledge on 
the subject of education which they contain ren- 
ders them a necessary part of every school library. 
Mr. Mann's other published works are : A Few 
Thoughts for a Young Man (1850); Slavery, 
Letters and Speeches (1851) ; Lectures on In- 
temperance (1852) ; Powers and Duties of 
Woman (1853) ; besides numerous reports, 
lectures, and addresses. A complete edition of 
his works with a biography (Life and Works of 
Horace Mann, 2 vols.) was published in Cam- 



bridge, in 1867; a selection from his works 
(Thoughts selected from his Writings), in 1869. 
A biography was published by his wife, Mary 
Peabody-Mann (Boston, 1865). His lectures on 
education were translated into Erench by Eugene 
de Guer, with a preface and biographical sketch, 
by Laboulaye (1873). 

MANNERS, the genuine or simulated 
manifestations of disposition towards each other, 
which occur in the intercourse of human beings. 
The ordinary use of the word manners re- 
stricts it to those personal aud visible peculiar- 
ities of deportment which characterize the inter- 
course mentioned. The agents commonly em- 
ployed for this purpose are the eye, the voice, lan- 
guage, and gestures. "When persons are brought 
together without previous knowledge of each 
other, or with no common ground of taste or ex- 
perience between them, custom has prescribed a. 
conventional code of formal manners, character- 
ized as etiquette, which serves to relieve the 
awkwardness of the situation. That this, how- 
ever, is temporary in character, and not intended 
to survive its original uses, is evident from the 
fact, that after it has, in great measure, been laid 
aside, any attempt to revive it, as the exclusive 
medium of kindly expression, is regarded as just 
cause for reseutment. The fugitive character of 
mere etiquette can never constitute it an equiv- 
alent for that abiding kindliness of disposition 
which finds expression in genuine politeness. 
Manners, therefore, are more decidedly moral in 
their nature than a superficial observation would 
lead us to suspect ; hence the usual association 
of " morals and manners." The basis of agree- 
able manners is that humanity, or feeling of 
brotherhood, which, in a greater or less degree, 
pervades the human race, and which every cent- 
ury, by its multiplied means of communication, 
is tending to extend and strengthen. It is, there- 
fore, essentially Christian ; and pleasant man- 
ners may be regarded, not as an accomplishment 
merely, but as one of the legitimate ends of a 
thorough education. In social intercourse, agree- 
able manners are far more powerful than intel- 
lectual accomplishments ; while the displeasure 
produced by rude manners often neutralizes moral 
worth, and renders mental acquisitions, however 
great, comparatively useless. Momentous issues — 
even the destiny of a lifetime — may hang upon 
the apparently unimportant question of man- 
ners. To educate thoroughly, therefore, and 
neglect the means by which that education is to 
be made effective, is self-evident folly. Beyond 
the ordinary rules of etiquette, no set rules can 
be given for the production of good manners ; 
since, in addition to the moral basis above re- 
ferred to, they are largely dependent upon tem- 
perament ; but, no precept is half so powerful in 
furtherance of this end, as the daily example of 
the teacher, the parents, or other persons with 
whom the pupil is brought into daily contact. 
The indirect though constant insistence upon the 
claims of every individual to respect and kindly 
attention, which results in a practical recognition 
of this by the pupil, together with the daily 



544 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS 



MARYLAND 



example referred to, constitute, perhaps, the 
most effective method for the grafting of agree- 
able manners on the conduct of the pupil. — See 
Gow, Good Morals and Gentle Manners (Cin. 
and N. Y., 1873). (See also Moral Education.) 

MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS. See In- 
dustrial Schools. 

MAP-DRAWING. See Geography. 

MARIETTA COLLEGE, Marietta, Ohio, 
was founded in 1835. It is supported by tuition 
fees and the income of an endowment of $115,000. 
The libraries contain 27,000 volumes. The cost of 
tuition is $38 per annum. There are several schol- 
arships exempting the holders from the payment 
of tuition, and aid is extended to candidates for 
the ministry. The college has four buildings and 
valuable cabinets and apparatus. There is a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate department. In 1875 
— 6, there were 9 instructors and 162 students, of 
whom 82 were of the collegiate grade. The num- 
ber of graduates in the classical course is 421; 
in the scientific course, 11. The presidents have 
been as follows : the Rev. Joel H. Linsley, D. D., 
1835^6 ; the Rev. Henry Smith, D. D., LL. D., 
1846 — 55 ; and the Rev. Israel Ward Andrews, 
D. D., LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed 
in 1855. 

MARYLAND, one of the thirteen original 
states of the American Union, having an area 
of 11,124 sq. m.; and a population, according to 
the census of 1870, of 780,894, of whom 605,497 
were whites, 175,391 colored persons, 4 Indians, 
and 2 Chinese, hi respect to population, the 
state ranks as the 20th. 

Educational History. — In many counties of 
the state, free schools were established as early 
as 1723, when an act was passed " for the en- 
couragement of learning, and erecting schools in 
the several counties of this province." Under 
it, a " public free school" was established at the 
county-seat of Calvert county (Battle Creek), 
which existed without a rival for fifty-two years. 
In 17 75, another school was established at Lower 
Marlboro', the efficiency of which was, in 1779, 
increased by the addition to its funds of the 
proceeds from the sale of the buildings and 
lands of the first school. Though this is one of 
the earliest schools on record in the state, Talbot 
county claims to have had the first absolutely 
free school. Between the years 1750 and 1753, 
the Rev. Thomas Bacon established a charity 
working school in the parish of St. Peter, which 
continued in existence to the time of the Revo- 
lution, when the building in which it was kept, 
was converted into a home for the county poor. 
No general interest appears to have been aroused 
on the subject of education till 1825, when the 
legislature passed an act " to provide for the 
public instruction of youth in primary schools." 
The offices of state superintendent, county com- 
missioners, and school inspectors were created 
by this law ; and a system of public schools for 
the city of Baltimore was authorized to be 
established by the mayor and common council, 
for which purpose they were empowered to levy 
a tax. In 1827, the office of state superintend- 



ent was abolished. For some years from this 
time, little mention is made of the schools of 
the state, and little action was taken for their 
benefit outside of the city of Baltimore. In 
1828, six school commissioners were appointed 
to establish a system of city schools. The next 
year, three schools were opened ; the following 
year, two more, the highest number of pupils up 
to that time being 402. In 1839, the first high 
school was opened; and, in 1840, the number of 
common schools had increased to nine. In 1840, 
there were 127 academies or grammar schools, 
with 4,178 pupils ; and 567 common and pri- 
mary schools, with 16,982 pupils. In 1850, of 
104,438 educable children in the state, only 
34,467 attended school, for which there was an- 
nually expended $225,260. The school fund, in 
1852, was $148,509. In 1864, the constitution 
gave a generous recognition to the cause of edu- 
cation, for the first time, by decreeing that free 
schools should be opened in every school district, 
and taught six months every year. A state 
board of education was created, consisting of 
the governor, lieutenant-governor, speaker of the 
house, and state superintendent. Local super- 
vision was to be exercised by school commission- 
ers, and an annual tax was levied upon the 
property of the state for the creation of a school 
fund. Acting on this suggestion, the state super- 
intendent prepared a detailed plan for a system 
which was adopted in 1865, and continued in 
operation till 1868. It was then superseded, 
and the school system of the state has been 
variously modified since that time, principally in 
1868, 1870, and 1872. Under the system estab- 
lished in 1865, Rev. L. Van Bokkelen was the 
state superintendent ; and on the change of the 
system, in 1868, M. A. Newell, principal of the 
state normal school since 1865, became, by the 
operation of the law, the state superintendent. 
This position he still holds (1876). 

School System. — The care of the schools, at 
present, is confided to a state board of education 
which consists of the governor, the principal of 
the state normal school, and four persons ap- 
pointed by the governor with the consent of the 
senate. These four persons are appointed for 
two years, and must be chosen from among the 
presidents and examiners of the county boards, 
one of whom must be a resident of the eastern 
shore. The members of the board are, ex officio, 
trustees of the state normal school. The prin- 
cipal of this school is the executive officer of the 
board, his office corresponding to that of state 
superintendent. The boards of county school 
commissioners consist of three, or five members, 
according to the size of the county, who are ap- 
pointed for two years by the judges of the cir- 
cuit courts. They elect a person, not of their 
number, to act as secretary, treasurer, and ex- 
aminer, and when necessary, an assistant exam- 
iner in the larger counties. The county com- 
missioners fix teachers' salaries, and decide what 
text-books shall be used. District school trustees, 
three in each district, are annually appointed by 
the county commissioners. They have the more 



MARYLAND 



545 



immediate supervision of the schools in their 
respective districts, subject to the county com- 
missioners and the state board. A special board 
6f trustees is appointed by the enmity board for 
each colored school. County examiners arc re- 
quired to visit the schools under their jurisdiction 
at least twice every year, and to make quarterly 
reports to the county board. Teachers must be 
graduates of the normal school, or have a certif- 
icate from the state board, or the county exam- 
iner. Teachers' institutes must be held, once a 
year, for five days, in each county. For this 
purpose, time is allowed from the school session, 
and a portion of the traveling expenses is paid. 
These institutes are presided over by the county 
examiner, or by the principal or a professor of the 
normal school. The law, also, encourages asso- 
ciations in districts and counties, and state teaeh- 
i ssociatious. One school, in each district, 
must be kept open ten months each year, the 
sessions, of five hours each, to be held five days 
of each week. The school age is from 6 to 21 for 
whites, and, in the city of Baltimore, from li to 
20 for colored persons. For the latter, separate 
schools have been established in each election dis- 
trict. These are supported by state appropriations, 
private gifts, and special taxes for the purpose 
levied upon the colored people. 

The school revenue is made up of a state 
school tax. a free-school fund, an academic fund, 
and a county tax. The state tax is limited to 
ten cents on the $100 ; the county tax is levied 
by the county officers at a rate varying from ten 
to twenty-five cents on the $100. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
schools in the state, in 187.">, was l,s4(i, — in the 
city of Baltimore, 125 ; and in the counties, 
1,721. The other principal items of school sta- 
tistics, for 1875, are the following : 

Number of different pupils enrolled 143,003 

Highest number enrolled in one term 112,399 

Average attendance 69,259 

Number of teachers 2,723 

Receipts (except citv of Baltimore) : 

State school tax $330,110.11 

Appropriations to col- 
ored schools 81,170.16 

County taxation 368,962.39 

Other sources 135.757.51 

Total T. ' $922,000.17 

Expenditures (counties): 

Teachers' salaries. . . .1609,035.07 
Buildings, repairs,etc. 105,175.65 

Other expenses 209,898.23 

Total $924,108.95 

Expenditures in the city of Baltimore. . . . 716,938.82 



Total in the state SI, 041,047.77 

Normal Instruction. — A state normal school 
was established in Baltimore in 1866, to which 
200 pupils, upon the recommendation of the city 
or county commissioners, are admitted free, if in- 
tending to teach in the state; otherwise, payment 
for tuition is required. An appropriation of 
$100,000 has recently been made by the legis- 
lature for a new building, which is now in proc- 
ess of erection. The number of instructors, in 
1874, was 10; number of pupils, 174, — 9 males. 



1G5 females. The number of graduates was 21. 
There is also a normal school for the education 
of colored teachers, which was organized in L866. 
It received, in 1*74. an appropriation of $2,000 
ii hi the state. The number of instructors was 
4; number of pupils. 24(i. — 115 males. 131 fe- 
males. The number of graduates was 5. There 
has been formed, also, in Baltimore, a normal 
class for the schools of that city, which has re- 
ceived very favorable notice from the school 
board. — Teachers' institutes constitute a part of 
the system. Fourteen were held, during 1875, 
in different counties. The principal of the state 
normal school or the local examiner is. by law, 
the presiding officer, the tendency to substitute 
the latter officer for the former increasing as the 
number of competent examiners increases. "The 
good results of the institutes." says the annual 
report for 1875, "have been as marked in Mary- 
land as in any other state of the Union." 

Secondary Instruction. — The provision for 
this purpose, by the establishment and mainte- 
nance of high schools, has been somewhat re- 
tarded by the existence of the old academies of 
the state which, by receiving from the state an- 
nual appropriations too small to maintain them 
in a condition of efficiency, and yet too large to 
permit of their extinction, act as a bar to prog- 
ress in the means of secondary instruction. The 
old law provides that each academy shall edu- 
cate one pupil free of charge for every $100 
received from the state. This was intended to 
encourage the academies, and. at the same time, 
to educate a few of the most deserving poor. 
The first object seems not to have been attained, 
at least not to the extent expected; while the sec- 
ond has failed entirely, on account of the estab- 
lishment of the public schools. Another result has 
been, that these academies have become, in many 
cases, entirely anomalous in character, holding, 
in sonic places, the position of elementary schools, 
in others, that of high schools, so that it is diffi- 
cult to classify them in the school system of the 
state. The city college of Baltimore is the prin- 
cipal high school of the state. It numbers 10 
professors and 400 students. Its English course, 
alone, furnishes a good commercial education ; 
while the full course is an ample preparatory 
one for entrance into any college or university. 
Two female high schools are also located in Bal- 
timore, with 30 teachers, and an attendance of 
7b'l pupils. Their courses of study are for four 
years each, and give instruction in the ordinary 
branches of a. good English education, besides 
the accomplishments of drawing and music. 
Many other academies and secondary schools ex- 
ist hi the state: but the reports from them are 
Incomplete or entirely wanting. In 1874, as far 
as heard from by the V . S. Bureau of Education, 
they gave employment to 24,1 teachers, and had 
an attendance of 3,694 pupils. There are. through- 
out the state, a number of private schools and 
academies, the courses of study in which are 
various, furnishing all degrees of preparation, 
from that necessary to enter commercial life to 
that required for admission to college. 



546 



MARYLAND 



Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
Several of these exist in the state, but from the 
amount of instruction imparted, they are more 
properly classed under the head of schools for 
secondary instruction. 

Superior Instruction. — The following table 
contains the principal institutions of this grade. 



NAME 



College of St. James . . . 

Frederick College 

Johns Hopkins University 

Loyola College 

Mt. St. Mary's College. 

Eock Hill College 

St. Charles's College 

St. John's College 

Washington College 

Western Maryland College 
Woodstock College 



St. James 

Frederick 

Baltimore 

Baltimore 

Eniniettsmirg 

Ellicott City 

Ellicott City 

Annapolis 

Chestertown 

Westminster 

Woodstock 



When 
found- 
ed 



1842 
1797 
1S76 
1852 
1808 
1867 
1848 
1789 
1783 
1867 
1867 



Denomi- 
nation 

M. Epis. 
Non-sec. 
Non-sec. 
B. C. 
B. C. 
B.C. 
B. C. 
Non-sec. 
Non-sec. 
M. Prot. 
B. C. 



St. John's College reported, in 1874, 11 pro- 
fessors, 130 students, and 8 graduates. Its course 
is the usual collegiate one of four years. Six 
scholarships are provided at this college for each 
senatorial district, the holders of which are en- 
titled to rent of room and tuition free; and board 
is furnished free to two of them from each dis- 
trict, who agree in return to teach in the state, 
after graduation, not less than two years. For 
the latter purpose, $10,000 of the $25,000 annual- 
ly appropriated by the state, is devoted. The 
Western Maryland College reported 13 professors 
and 131 students, of whom 61 were females, for 
whom there is a three years' course of study. This 
college also, has several state scholarships. Wash- 
ington College had 2 professors, 27 students, and 
3 graduates. It supports 6 state scholarships as 
provided by the act of 1874. Mt. St. Mary's 
college had, in 1873 — 4, 13 professors, and 182 
students. Besides the usual collegiate course, it 
has a theological course, in which 34 students, 
in addition to the number above mentioned, re- 
ceived instruction. St. Charles's College had 12 
professors and 180 students. It is intended only 
for students proposing to enter the church. 
Woodstock College, with 102 students, is exclu- 
sively Roman Catholic. For additional informa- 
tion in regard to these institutions, see the re- 
spective titles. In 1874, six institutions claiming 
to be colleges for women, were, reported to the 
U. S. Bureau of Education. They numbered 
58 instructors and 664 students. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
Agricultural College in Prince George's Co. was 
established in 1865, with a fund of $110,000, the 
proceeds of 210,000 acres of land, granted by 
Congress to the state. It has a farm of 300 
acres connected with it, and furnishes partial 
tuition free to twelve students from each con- 
gressional district. It has a preparatory and a 
collegiate department, and has 9 professors and 
91 students. Mt. St. Clement's College, at Ilches- 
ter, and St. Mary's Theological Seminary, at St. 
Sulpice, both Roman Catholic, afford instruction 
in theology, besides the theological departments 
of the other colleges. A school of law forms a 
part of the University of Maryland, while the 



professions of medicine, surgery, etc., are repre^ 
sented by the College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons, and the College of Dental Surgery, at 
Baltimore, the Maryland Dental College, the 
Maryland College of Pharmacy, and the schools 
attached to the Washington University and the 
University of Maryland. 

Special Instruction. — The Institution for the 
Education of the Deaf and Dumb was opened at 
Frederick, in 1868, and, in 1874, had 11 instruct- 
ors of all kinds, and 1 04 pupils, of whom 68 
were males, and 36, females. The course of study 
extends over seven years, and comprises the 
branches usually taught in the public schools, 
together with instruction in several kinds of 
manual labor. The study of written language 
receives special attention. It is found that com- 
paratively few of the pupils remain to complete 
the course. The whole number of pupils in- 
structed in the institution since its opening is 
146 ; of these the number who have engaged in 
teaching in similar institutions, is very small. — 
The Institution for the Instruction of the Blind 
at Baltimore was organized in 1853. Pupils be- 
tween the ages of 9 and 18 are received, and 
may be educated free, upon the recommendation 
of the governor. The instruction afforded is 
that of a common-school course, with special 
instruction in vocal and instrumental music. 
Such branches of trade or manual labor also are 
taught as are specially suited to the condition of 
the blind. The value of its grounds, buildings, 
and apparatus is estimated at $255,000. The 
Maryland Institution for Colored Blind and 
Deaf -Mutes was established in 1872, in Balti- 
more. The faculty consists of 4 instructors. 
The number of pupils during the year 1874 was 
12, — 5 males and 7 females. — The McDonough 
Institute was organized in 1873 by private mu- 
nificence to give "instruction in the Christian 
religion, a plain English education, music, and 
the art of husbandry or farming to poor boys 
of good character, of respectable associations in 
life, residents of the city of Baltimore." It has 
an endowment fund of $725,000, with which it 
is estimated that 250 boys can be maintained 
and educated ; special instruction in religion, 
and useful branches of manual labor, in addition 
to that given in the English branches, is provided 
for colored girls by the St. Francis Academy of 
Baltimore. It was established by the Oblate 
Sisters of Providence, a religious order founded 
in 1825. The Peabody Institute, with an orig- 
inal endowment of $300,000, afterwards increased 
to $1,000,000, is located in Baltimore, and fur- 
nishes facilities for advanced instruction in art, 
by means of a library, a gallery of paintings, and 
yearly courses of concerts and lectures. 

Teachers' Associations. — The Maryland State 
School-Teachers' Association has been in existence 
about ten years. It holds an annual convention 
at some convenient point in the state for the 
discussion of such questions as pertain to the 
welfare of the teachers, or the cause of educa- 
tion. Day and evening meetings are held, the 
exercises consisting of debates upon subjects 



MARYVILLE COLLEGE 



MASSACHUSETTS 



54? 



affecting the schools, recommendations of im- 
proved methods of instruction, and listening to 
papers previously prepared by members desig- 
nated for the purpose, or to casual addresses by 
distinguished educators from other states. 

MARYVILLE COLLEGE, at Maryville, 
Tenn., founded in 1819, is under Presbyterian 
control. The grounds comprise 66 acres, beauti- 
fully situated, and contain three new buildings, 
erected at a cost of $50,000. The college has a 
library of 3,000 volumes, and valuable chemical 
and philosophical apparatus. It comprises a col- 
legiate, a preparatory, a normal, a ladies', and 
an English course. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 in- 
structors and 137 students, of whom 27 were of 
collegiate grade. The Uev. P. M. Bartlett. 1). D., 
is (I,s76) the president. 

MASON, Lowell, an American composer 
and teacher of music, born in Med field, Mass., 
January 8„ 17!)'-' ; died in Orange, N. J., August 
11., 1872. He manifested, at a very early age. 
a fondness for music, and adopted it as his pro- 
fession, teaching it successfully and organizing 
choirs and musical associations. In 1821, he 
made his first effort at musical publication, the 
Boston Handel and Ha/dn Collection of Church 
Music In 1827, at the instance of several gen- 
tlemen interested in the improvement of church 
music, he removed from Savannah to Boston, 
where he devoted himself more particularly to 
the training of children's voices. His efforts 
were highly successful, resulting in a general 
awakening, to the value of music, of the com- 
munity in which he dwelt, and paved the way 
for its introduction into the school system of the 
city and state, and to the formation of the Boston 
Academy of Music. Mr. Mason hail been success- 
ful for many years, as a practical teacher of vocal 
and instrumental music, by the use of what is 
now known as the arbitrary or text-book method, 
when, about 1827, at the instance of his friend 
Mr. Woodbridge, he turned his attention to the 
method of Pestalozzi. For a long time, he re- 
sisted its conclusions, his own method, pursued 
with success for many years, appearing to furnish 
a practical refutation of its utility. He consented, 
at last, however, to make the experiment of 
publicly teaching a class according to the new 
method; and the success attending it was so 
great, that he frankly accepted the result as 
conclusive, and always afterwards pursued it, 
continuing the practice for more than thirty 
years. A lecture given in 1830, by Mr. Wood- 
bridge, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
tion, illustrated by a class of Mr. Mason's pupils, 
called renewed attention to the subject of music, 
and led to the formation of large classes among 
the children of the public schools, in which the 
study of music has now become a striking fea- 
ture, and from which it has spread throughout the 
state and the Union. In 1837, Mr. Mason visited 
Europe, where he examined the different systems 
of musical instruction, with a view to improve- 
ment. The result of his observations, however, was 
to confirm him in his opinion of the wisdom of 
the method of Pestalozzi ; and, on his return, he 



applied the method more carefully and rigorously 
than before, with the most satisfactory results. 
In 1855, the University of New York conferred 
on Mr. Mason the degree of Doctor of Music. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the thirteen 
original states of the American Union, having 
an area of 7,800 sq. m. and a population, accord- 
ing to the census of 1870, of 1.457,351, of whom 
1 3,1)47 were colored. Though ranking, accord- 
ing to population, as the 7th state in the Union, 
and in size as the 35th. its influence has always 
been very great in every thing that pertains to 
education, literature, and general improvement. 

Educational History. — This topic will be 
treated under the three following heads : (I) The 
establishment of schools ; (II) 'i he mode of main- 
taining them ; (111) The mode of supervising 
them. 

I. As far back as 1 635, the people of Boston 
expressed by vote their appreciation of the need 
of a school, and requested "Brother Philemon 
Purmont to become school-master for the teach- 
ing and nurturing of children." The following 
year, a small subscription "was made by some of 
the citizens for the maintenance of a school, 
] laniel Maud being chosen to conduct it. The 
general court, also, authorized an appropriation 
of £400 for the establishment of a '•Bchoole or 
colledge whereof £200 to bee paid the next yeare, 
and £200 when the worke is finished, and the 
next court to appoint wheare, and what building." 
The next year the court directed that the college 
should be established at Newtown. The first 
educational ordinance of the colony is dated in 
1(142. By it. the selectmen of every town are 
enjoined to have a "vigilant eye over their breth- 
ren and neighbors, to see. first, that none of them 
shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their 
families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- 
selves or others, their children and apprentices so 
much learning as may enable them perfectly to 
read the English tongue, and knowledge of the 
capital laws, upon penalty of twenty shillings 
therein." By the law of 1647, it was ordered by the 
court, that every township of fifty householders 
should appoint one of their number to teach all 
children that might be sent to him to read and 
write, the wages of such teacher to be paid either 
by the parents or guardians of the children sent, 
or by the inhabitants in general ; the penalty at- 
taching to the disregard of this ordinance for 
one year to be £10. It was also ordered that 
every town of one hundred families should 
maintain, in addition to its common school, a 
grammar school for the fitting of pupils to enter 
the university. In 1650, Ezekiel Cheever came 
to reside in Ipswich, taking charge of the gram- 
mar school there. In 1661, he removed to 
Charlestown, and became principal of the Town 
Free School, which position he filled till 1670, 
when he removed to Boston, where he. took 
charge of the first school founded in the state, 
continuing his labors there thirty-eight years. 
From 1650, the time of his teaching in the 
Ipswich school, which he made " famous in all 
the country," down to 1708, he contributed 



548 



MASSACHUSETTS 



powerfully to the fame of Massachusetts as an 
educational center, and encouraged, more than 
any other man, that love of learning, the prac- 
tical activity in behalf of which has always been 
a characteristic of the state. (See Cheever.) 
Further enactments were made, from time to 
time, as required by the wants of the growing- 
colony. Thus, in 1683, all towns of five hundred 
families where required to maintain two gram- 
mar schools and two writing schools; and any 
town failing to support a grammar school, was 
required to pay at first £10, and afterwards £20 
to the nearest school kept in compliance with the 
law. During the provincial period, these laws 
substantially were kept in force. The constitu- 
tion of 1780 made special mention of the impor- 
tance of education ; and after the revolution, 
when new townships were created, a lot was re- 
served in each for a school. In 1789, a general 
act of the legislature directed that, in every 
town, schools should be maintained in which 
children should be taught to read and write, and 
to receive instruction in the " English language, 
arithmetic, orthography, and decent behavior." 
It was further directed that towns should be 
divided into school districts which were after- 
wards erected into corporations, with power to 
sue and be sued, and to hold property for the 
use of the Schools ; that towns of 200 families, 
instead of 100, as before enacted, should consti- 
tute the basis for the maintenance of grammar 
schools ; that the teacher should have a certificate 
of good moral character ; and, lastly, that pupils 
should be permitted to pass from the common 
school to the grammar school after a certain pro- 
ficiency had been attained. For the violation of 
this law, penalties in money were imposed, gradu- 
ated according to the size of the towns disobey- 
ing. In compliance with this law, the town of 
Dedham was, in 1818, indicted, tried, and con- 
victed for neglecting for a year to keep and sup- 
port a grammar school for the instruction of 
children in the Greek, Latin, and English lan- 
guages. This was the first law in which women 
were recognized in Massachusetts as teachers. 
In 1824, the law was modified somewhat in favor 
of towns having a population of less than 5,000, 
the maintenance of a grammar school being 
waived in this case, and a common school being 
accepted in its stead, if the inhabitants so de- 
sired. In 1832, incomplete returns showed that 
the sum of $1.98 per pupil was the average annual 
expenditure ; and, in 1834, it was ascertained that 
five-sixths of the educable children of the state 
received instruction in the public schools, the re- 
mainder attending private schools. In this year 
(1834) a law was passed prohibiting children 
under 15 years of age from working in factories, 
unless they had attended school for at least three 
months during the preceding year. In 1837, 
the state board of education was created, and 
Horace Mann was elected its secretary (June 29., 
It was made the duty of the secretary, 



1837 



" to collect information of the actual condition 
and efficiency of the common schools and other 
means of popular education ; and to diffuse as 



widely as possible, throughout every part of the 
commonwealth, information of the most ap- 
proved and successful methods of arranging the 
studies and conducting the education of the 
young." Up to that time, though much had been 
done, throughout the state, for the cause of edu- 
cation, the great lack of uniformity, in system 
and action, had deprived the results of much of 
their practical usefulness. This uniformity the 
board set itself vigorously to work to supply. 
Mr. Mann, in particular, labored long and ear- 
nestly for the attainment of this object, withdraw- 
ing himself entirely from politics and the prac- 
tice of his profession, and devoting himself for 
twelve years to the work. (See Mann, Horace.) 
The result of the labors of the board was a uni- 
form common-school system, which was adopted 
by the legislature, and which has continued in 
force to the present time. In 1839, two normal 
schools were opened, — one at Lexington, and 
the other at Barre. These were first designated 
slate normal schools in 1842 ; and their number 
has been increased gradually, according as a ne- 
cessity for their establishment has been recog- 
nized. In 1846, the first law making education 
compulsory in this state was passed ; being ren- 
dered necessary, in the opinion of the legislature, 
by the fact that the number of persons in the 
state who were unable to read and write was 
rapidly increasing, the presence of which class 
had always been regarded with distrust. Previ- 
ous to 1819, accurate information in regard to 
the schools had not been obtainable ; but, in 
that year, a law was passed, specifying that the 
income of the permanent school fund should be 
apportioned among those cities, towns, and dis- 
tricts only which had raised by taxation the sum 
of $1.50 for the education of each child between 
the ages of 5 and 15 years. By thus making 
the amount raised for each child the unit of ap- 
portionment, definite statistical information as 
well as accuracy of appropriation, was insured. 
Various changes and amendments of minor im- 
portance were made in the school laws from this 
time to 1857, when the state constitution itself 
was altered in the interest of free non-sectarian 
education. By this amendment it is provided, 
that " no person shall have the right to vote, or 
shall be eligible to office under the constitution 
of this commonwealth, who shall not be able to 
read the constitution- in the English language, 
and write his name, unless prevented by physical 
disability from complying with the requirement, 
and unless he already enjoys the right to vote. 
All moneys raised by taxation in towns and 
cities for the support of public schools, and all 
moneys appropriated by the state for the sup- 
port of common schools, shall never be appropri- 
ated to any religious sect for the maintenance 
exclusively of its own schools." In 1869, upon 
petition of several citizens of the state, an act 
was passed amending a previous act so as to in- 
clude drawing in the common-school course, and 
providing, in addition, that every city and town 
having more than 10,000 inhabitants, should 
make annual jjrovision for giving free instruc- 



MASSACHUSETTS 



549 



tion in industrial and mechanical drawing to 
pupils over fifteen years of age. 

II. There have been live sources of inoorne 
for the support of schools and colleges: (1) In- 
dividual gifts; ('J | Tuition fees, or rate bills; 
(3) Taxes ; (4 ) The income of permanent funds; 
(5) Special appropriations. 

(1) Individual Gifts. — The first mention made 
in the history of the state, of a fund for the es- 
tablishment of a school, was that of a gift, in the 
shape of a subscription, made in 1636, by several 
wealthy citizens of Boston, for the school, of 
which Daniel Maud was teacher. This example 
was followed, in 1638, by the Rev. John 1 larvard, 
who bequeathed £779 and a library of 300 vol- 
umes to the college already founded at New- 
town. A year after, the name of 1 larvard Col- 
lege was given to it in his honor; and the name 
of Newtown was changed to Cambridge, in com- 
pliment to the English university of that name. 
of which some of the settlers were graduates. 
Since that time, the history of education in the 
state, particularly since the Revolution, is 
adorned by continual gifts made by enlightened 
citizens for the establishment, maintenance, or 
improvement of schools or colleges. Chief among 
these benefactors may be mentioned, Samuel 
Appleton, John Lowell, jr., Amos Lawrence. 
Abbott Lawrence, Nathaniel Thayer. Edmund 
D wight, and George Peabody. Probably no 
state has produced a larger number of pecuniary 
contributors to the cause of education. 

(2) Tuition Fees.— The earliest method employed 
for the payment of the teacher was that of a fee 
charged to each parent or guardian, according to 
the number of children sent. This method con- 
tinued in force for a century and a half after 
the first school law was passed. Even after 
towns were compelled by law to maintain a 
free school by a special yearly tax, th3 original 
method was continued in many country districts 
down to a very late day. These fees took 
different forms according to locality, in the cities 
and large towns being usually in money ; in the 
country, consisting of board for the teacher, con- 
tributions of fuel, etc. 

(3) Taxes. — The first educational law passed 
by the a ilonv — that of 1 (147 — provided that 
the teacher should be paid either by the parents 
or masters of the children taught, or by "the 
inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the 
major part of those that order the prudentials 
of the town shall appoint ; provided that those 
that send their children be not oppressed by 
paying much more than they can have them 
taught for in other towns." Through every 
period of the subsequent history of this state, 
taxation has been, to a considerable extent, re- 
sorted to as a means of supporting schools. As 
already stated, the towns were obliged, under 
stringent penalties, to support schools : and this. 
of course, could only lie effected by paying taxes. 
In 1827, the legislature. in the school law of that 
year, authorized the towns to raise as much 
money as they might deem necessary for school 1 
purposes. The method of raising money for the 



support of public schools has varied from time 
to time, but, the plan generally adopted prior to 
the establishment of the' school fund, in 1834, 
was by taxation of the polls and estates of the 
people of the towns and school districts, without 
any substantial aid from the government. Since 
the establishment of the school fund, more or 
less aid has been furnished by the state for the 
support of the common schools. 1 luring the 
period from 1835 to 1845, the amount raised an- 
nually by tax for the wages of teachers advanced 
from $325,320 to $§00,000. The statute of L839 
required that 81.25 should be raised for every 
child between the ages of 4 and 16, and actually 
expended for the purpose of instruction in each 
town ; but. in 1845, more than $3 for every 
child of that age was actually raised by tax in 
53 towns, and more than $2 in 190 towns, the 
average being $2.99. 

(4) 77/e liiriiiae of Permanent Funds. — The 
first trace of any thing like a permanent fund 
for school purposes is found at a very early day, 
when the public money derived from the Cape 
• 'oil fisheries was applied to the maintenance 
of schools. The revenue from this source was, 
of coarse, uncertain : but the intelligence of the 
people seems to have been relied on to furnish, 
from time to time, by special act of the legislature 
or direct taxation, whatever funds were necessary, 
till 1834, when a most important step was taken 
for placing the public school system of the state 
on a firm financial basis, by the establishment 
of a permanent school fund. Chapter 1 (ill of 
the laws of that year provided that this fund 
should consist of the amount in the treasury de- 
rived from the sale of lands in the state of 
Maine, with fifty per cent of all money to be 
received from the sale of lands in the same state 
after January 1.. 1835; and all money derived 
from the claim of the state on the government 
of the United States for military services and 
not otherwise appropriated. This fund was not 
to exceed 81.000,(1(1(1. and the income only was 
to be used for the support of common schools ; 
no city, town, or district receiving more than it 
hail raised for the same purpose. This created 
almost immediately a permanent fund of 
$500,000, which was increased from that amount, 
in 1835, to $800,000, in 1845. At the close of 
the year 1850, the amount of the fund was up- 
wards of $986,001 l ; at the end of 1*53. it had 
been increased, by the sale of lands in Maine, to 
Sl.244.2s4; in 1854, it was S1.501.743.U2. In 
L859, this fund was further increased by the 
proceeds derived from the sale of public lands 
in Boston. At the end of 1863, it amounted to 
$1,870,970; in 18(14, to $2,196,827.18; and at 
the close of 1874, $2,117,732.82. By an act of 
the legislature, passed in 1854. one half of the 
income derived from this fund is applied to the 
support of the common schools, the other half 
being used for the maintenance of normal 
schools, teachers' institutes, repairs of school 
buildings, the salary of the secretary of the board 
of education, printing, etc. Any surplus, re- 
maining after the payment of expenses, is to be 



550 



MASSACHUSETTS 



added to the fund. For some time, the principal 
of the fund was increased by these unexpected 
balances, but at present this is not the case. By 
a liberal interpretation of the law, various sums 
of money were, from time to time, drawn from 
the income of the permanent fund for the pur- 
pose of aiding, in an indirect, way new normal 
schools, till it was discovered that the income 
was becoming insufficient, and the half devoted 
to the support of common schools was being en- 
croached upon. This was due to the increase in 
educational wants produced by the growth of 
the state in population, and has been remedied, 
from year to year, by special acts of the legis- 
lature. 

(5) SjjecialAppropriations. — The first special 
appropriation made for educational purposes was 
that of 1636, by which £400 was devoted to the 
founding of a school or college. The appropria- 
tions from that time to the present have been 
many, and for various purposes, and have in- 
creased rapidly in number with the growth of the 
state, being most frequent as we approach the 
present time. Thus, in 1836, the foundation of 
school libraries was made secure by an act of 
the legislature, which authorized the expenditure, 
in each school district, of $50 the first year, and 
$10 each succeeding year, for their establishment 
and maintenance. In 1837, $10,000 was appro- 
priated for the establishment of two normal 
schools, a like sum having been contributed for 
the same purpose by Hon. Edmund Dwight ; 
and, in 1842, $6,000 was appropriated annually 
for three years to continue these schools. In 
1873, a special act of the legislature set apart the 
sum of $7,500 to establish a state normal art- 
school in Boston. 

III. The supervision of the common schools of 
the state appears to have been committed to the 
selectmen at the first, afterward (in 1826) to school 
committees appointed in the different towns. In 
1837, the reorganization of the public-school 
system was undertaken by the board of educa- 
tion. The secretary of the board, Horace Mann, 
in his first annual report, makes special mention 
of the unsatisfactory maimer in which the schools 
were supervised, laying great stress upon the 
need of properly qualified school committee- 
men. " They occupy," says the report. " a con- 
trolling position in relation to our common 
schools. They ai - e the administrators of the 
system ; and, in proportion to the fidelity and 
intelligence exercised by them, the system will 
flourish or decline." One of the most important 
duties imposed upon the school-committees (by 
the law of 1826) was to obtain evidence of the 
good moral character of all instructors, and to 
ascertain their "literary qualifications and ca- 
pacity for the government of schools." The law 
expressly required every teacher to obtain, from 
the school committee of the town, a certificate 
of his qualifications before opening the school. 
The laxity with which this part of the law was 
enforced received severe animadversion from 
Mr. Mann, in the report above referred to. The 
employment by the board of education of state 



agents constitutes a peculiar feature of the Mas- 
sachusetts system. Their duties, as defined by 
the general statutes of the state, are " to visit 
the several towns and cities, for the purpose of 
inquiring into the conditions of the schools, con- 
ferring with the teachers and committees, and 
lecturing upon subjects connected with educa- 
cation." In 1850, the legislature appropriated 
$2,000 to the board for this purpose ; and ac- 
cordingly, six agents were employed to visit the 
towns in the early summer. Among these, were 
N. P. Banks, and S. S. Greene, the latter after- 
wards of Brown University. The experiment 
was eminently successful ; and accordingly, the 
legislature, in 1851, made a similar appropriation 
for two years, which was renewed in 1853, 1855, 
and 1857, with the authority in the last instance 
to expend a sum not exceeding $4,000 in one 
year. B. G. Northrup was sole agent from 1860 
to 1867, when he was succeeded by Abner B. 
Phipps, who has continued in office till the pres- 
ent time (1876). The legislature of 1871 made 
a special appropriation of $10,000, for this 
purpose, payable from the "moiety of the in- 
come of the school fund appropriated to gen- 
eral educational purposes." This opened a 
way for the employment of a state director 
of art-education, to which position Walter 
Smith was appointed in 1871. In 1875, the 
legislature made an appropriation, for the same 
purpose, of $14,000. payable from the state treas- 
ury, and thus enabled the board to increase the 
number of its agents. — The following named 
persons have filled the office of secretary of the 
board of education since its creation in 1837 : 
Horace Mann, until 1 848 ; Barnas Sears, from 
1848 to 1855 ; George S. Boutwell, from 1855 
to 1861 ; Joseph White, from 1861 to the pres- 
ent time (1876). — Teachers' Institutes were first 
organized in 1845 ; and, in 1846, the legislature 
for the first time made an appropriation for 
their support. 

In 1850, the first truant laic was passed, which 
simply authorized the towns to make needful 
by-laws concerning habitual truants, and re- 
quired the towns that availed themselves of the 
act to appoint truant officers empowered to carry 
the law into execution. This law was amended 
in 1862, making it obligatory upon the towns to 
enact by-laws concerning truants ; and such is 
the law at present. An amendment, made in 
1873. requires the school committee, instead of 
the town or city, to appoint the truant officers, 
and fix their compensation. This is the duty of 
the committee independently of the action of 
the town ; since there are other laws besides 
those relating to truancy which only the truant 
officers can execute. 

School System. — The control of the educa- 
tional interests of the state rests immediately 
with the legislature. All information, however, 
in regard to the schools, colleges and other in- 
stitutions of learning, on which its action is 
based, is derived from the annual report of the 
state board of education, which is composed of 
the governor, lieutenant governor, and eight 



MASSACHUSETTS 



551 



persons appointed by the governor, who hold 
office for eight years, one retiring each year. To 
this board is entrusted the care and management 
of the school system, subject to the enactments of 
the legislature, to whom the board annually re- 
ports its proceedings and the condition of the 
schools. — The secretary qftke board is its chief 
executive officer, performing the duties usually 
devolving upon the superintendent of public in- 
struction in other states. There is also a general 
agent and such other agents as the board may 
deem necessary, whose duties are to visit the 
schools, deliver lectures, confer with school com- 
mittees and teachers, and generally to act as rep- 
resentatives of the secretary. — Each town elects 
a school committee consisting of three persons (or 
any multiple of three), whose duty it is to super- 
intend the public schools in the town, apportion 
the school money among the schools or districts, 
•examine and license teachers, select the text- 
books to be used, and visit every school once a 
month during the school session, and make an 
annual report to the town or to the board of 
education. For this service they receive not less 
than one dollar for each day actually spent in 
the performance of their duties, with whatever 
additional compensation may be allowed by the 
town. In the cities and some of the larger towns. 
the school committee appoints a superintendent, 
who, as its agent, performs most of the duties 
above enumerated. The salary of the superin- 
tendent is fixed. by the school committee, who 
by appointing this officer relinquish all claim 
to compensation for their own services. — Pru- 
dential committees are elected in some of the 
towns, consisting of one person in each district, 
who must be au actual resident. The duties 
performed are similar and supplementary to 
those of the town school committee. — Parents 
an 1 guardians are required, under a penalty of 
S2d, to send tli -ir children between 8 and L2 
yens of age, to school at least 20 weeks each 
year, six weeks of which must be consecutive. 
The only exemptions are cases of poverty, 
physical or mental incapacity on the part of the 
child, or when the child is otherwise provided 
for. The truant officers are required to see that 
truant children, absentees from school, and va-- 
grants, are sent to school ; and the education of 
orphans and the children of drunken parents is 
compulsory on the cities and towns in which 
they reside. — The school age is between 5 and 
1 5 years; and the public schools of the state are | 
free to all persons of school age. without regard 
to religion, race, or color. — The daily reading 
of a portion of the Scriptures is required in 
every school. — The school /'inn/, which, on the 
1st of January LsTC, amounted to $2,065,238.80, 
is iii charge of a board of commissioners, con- 
sisting of the secretary of the board of education, 
and the treasurer aud receiver-general. One moi- 
ety of it is distributed among the towns in pro- 
portion to the school population of each, and the 
other is applied to the support of normal schools, 
teachers' institutes, etc. A special fund is pro- 
vided for the education of Indians. 



Educational Condition. — The number of 
elementary public schools in the state, in 1^75, 
was 5,551 : the Dumber of high schools, 208 ; of 
evening schools, 99; incorporated academics. 63; 
of private schools and academies, 369; of schools 
in state charitable and reformatory institutions. 
12; making a total of 6,302 schools. The es- 
timated value, as returned by committees, of 
school houses and grounds, was $20,856,777.50. 

The amount of money received for the sup- 
port of the schools was as follows : 
Income "i state school fund. $98,613.45 
Amount raised by taxation, 

including only wages of 

teachers, fuel, and care of 

fires and school rooms 4,35S,523.59 

Income of funds appropriated 

for the support of public 

schools at the option of 

towns 52,050.31 

Voluntary contributions of « 

board, fuel, apparatus, etc. 30,787.32 
Income of local fund 120,286.32 

$4,050,260.99 
Expenditures on public schools alone, ex- 
clusive of the repairing and erecting of 
school-houses aud the cost ot school 

books $4,668,472.09 

Amount expended in 1S74 for erecting 

school-houses $1,148,133.65 

Average wages per month, male teachers. $88.37 
female "teachers $35.35 

The other most important items of the school 
si nit sties for the year 1874: — 5 are the follow- 
ing :— 

Number of children of school age 294,708 

No. of all ages, enrolled in the public 

-ell, ,, lis 302,118 

Average attendance during the year 216,861 

Xuinber under 5 years ol age enrolled. . . . 'J.:ls:; 

Number over 15 years of age enrolled. . . . 32,986 

Xuinber of teachers, males 1,169 

" ' '• females 8.047 

Total "~ 0.216 

Average length of school term 8 mo. 17 days 

Normal Instruction. — There are five normal 
schools in the state, exclusive of the Kormal 
Art-School in Boston. The fiist two were 
established in 1839, at Lexington and Barred nit 
were afterwards removed. — the first to Newton, 
and afterwards to Framiiigham : the second, to 
Wcstfield. Three have since been established, — 
at Bridgewater, Salem, and Worcester. 

The normal school at Framingliam was opened 
in 1853, and is exclusively for females. The 
number of pupils in attendance, during the year 
1874 — 5. was. the first term. 117: the second 
term, 116 ; the number of graduates was 35. 
The normal school at Salem is also for females. 
The number of pupils, in 1874 — 5, was. first term, 
211 ; second term, 228: number of graduates, 58. 
The normal school at Bridgewater is for both 
sexes. The number of pupils, in 1*74 — f>, was, 
first term, 151, — 37 males, 114 females; second 
term. Hit), — 45 males, and 115 females; number 
of graduates, 49, — 9 males, and 411 females. The 
normal school at Westfield is for both sexes. 
The number of students in attendance was, 
winter term, 135, — 11 males, 124 females; sum- 
mer term, 126, — 11 males, 115 females; num- 
ber of graduates, 42, — 3 males, 39 females. The 



552 



MASSACHUSETTS 



normal school at Worcester was established in 
1874. The number in attendance the first year was 
93. The intention is to make these schools com- 
plete, in all aids to a higher education, with spe- 
cial reference, however, to the career of the grad- 
uates as teachers. For this purpose, libraries, 
laboratories, cabinets of specimens, and courses of 
lectures have been provided; and each of the 
schools is visited annually by a board of visitors 
who report to the secretary of the state board 
of education. — The Normal Art-School, at 
Boston, was established in 1873, and grew out 
of the necessities first made apparent by the 
attempt to carry out the law of 1870, which 
provided that every city or town containing 
more than 10,000 inhabitants should establish 
and maintain a school for the teaching of 
mechanical and industrial drawing. This law 
was inoperative from the want of competent 
teachers to conduct such schools ; and with the 
view to supply this want, the Normal Art-School 
was founded. The number of pupils the first 
year was 133. This number was increased, in 
the second year, to 239, — 8-1 males, and 155 fe- 
males. The establishment of this school was in 
answer to a petition made to the legislature by 
the manufacturing and mechanical interests of 
Boston, in which it was represented that those 
interests were suffering from a lack of skilled 
employes. The ease with which graduates from 
this institution have found employment since 
their graduation is considered ample proof of 
the wisdom shown in its establishment. — Teach- 
ers' Institutes were first organized in 1845. From 
this time to 1874 inclusive, 242 institutes have 
been held, averaging 8 annually. The annual 
average attendance has been 1,060, or 133 at 
each institute. The average cost of each institute 
is about $3,000 ; average cost of each teacher 
attending, between $2 and $3; total annual cost 
to the state for eight institutes, about $2,550. 

Evening Schools. — In addition to the schools 
for primary instruction enumerated, there are 
evening schools in many of the large towns and 
cities, the opportunities afforded by which are 
eagerly sought by many whose early educational 
privileges have been neglected. The reports an- 
nually made in regard to them show a larger 
attendance of adults than in other schools, and 
of pupils of both sexes, drawn principally from 
the mechanical and laboring classes. Their sessions 
being short, and held generally during only the 
winter months, and the attendance being fluct- 
uating, the results are, of course, not as satis- 
factory as in other schools. The instruction im- 
parted also is necessarily elementary in character. 
By an act of the legislature, in 1870, all towns 
and cities of 10,000 and over are required to 
support free evening drawing schools ; and 23 
schools of this class are now open. 

Secondary Instruction. — The number of high 
schools, incorporated academies, and private 
academies in the state has already been stated as 
208, 63, and 369 respectively. Of 151 towns 
numbering over 500 families, and therefore re- 
quired each to maintain a high school, 6 only 



had failed to comply with the law, while 40 such 
schools were maintained in 38 towns not required 
to do so. The high schools are of various degrees 
of excellence, ranging from about that of the 
ordinary grammar school to that of the best pre- 
paratory school for admission to college. It is 
estimated that about one third are of this latter 
class, students passing from them into college with- 
out difficulty. The former class numbers also 
about one third, their condition of comparative in- 
feriority being attributed to the want of teachers 
and apparatus, and to the mixed character of 
the pupils. The remaining, or middle third, 
furnish their pupils with only a tolerable prepa- 
ration for college, but with a good English edu- 
cation. The state includes among its academies 
and private schools, a very large number of in- 
stitutions for the education of girls. All these 
various schools draw their pupils largely from 
other states, the high reputation of Massachusetts 
in respect to education securing for them an ex- 
tensive patronage. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — Of 
schools of this class, a comparatively small num- 
ber is reported, the intellectual instruction usu- 
ally given in such schools being furnished by the 
many non-sectarian or public schools of the state. 

Superior Instruction. — The institutions in 
the state for supplying a higher education are 
numerous, and have always sustained an envi- 
able reputation. Their number and efficiency, 
and the completeness of their outfit in all the 
means necessary for furnishing a liberal edu- 
cation, have long rendered them the objects of 
just state pride. They have been, also, the re- 
cipients of a greater amount of private munifi- 
cence, proportionally, than those of any other 
state. Special mention is made of the most im- 
portant of these institutions in other parts of 
this volume. Their names are given below : 







When 


Religious 


NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomina- 






ed 


tion 


Amherst College 


Amherst 


1821 


Cong. 


Boston College 


Boston 


1864 


K. C. 


Boston University 


" 


1873 


M. Epis. 


Coll. of the Holy Cross 


Worcester 


1843 


ft. C. 




Cambridge 


1638 


Non-sect. 


Tnfts College 


Hertford 


1854 


TJnivers. 


"Williams College 


Williamstown 


1793 


Cong. 



Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
This includes principally institutions for the 
study of science, law, medicine, and theology. 
Many of the colleges just enumerated under the 
head of superior instruction have departments 
or courses in which the subjects classed as pro- 
fessional or scientific may be pursued, but there 
are in addition the following : 



NAME 


Location 


When 
found- 
ed 


Religious 
denomina- 
tion 


Andover Theol. Seminary 

Mass. Agricnlt. College.. 
Mass Inst, of Technology 
Newton Theol. Institute. 
New Church Theo. School 


Andover 

Cambridge 

Amherst 

Boston 

Newton Cen. 

Waltham 


1808 
1867 
1867 
1861 
1825 
1866 


Cong. 

Episcopal 

Non-sect. 

Non-sect. 

Baptist 

N. J. Ch. 



MASTER OF ARTS 



MATHEMATICS 



553 



Special Instruction. — The Clarke Institution 
for Deaf-Mates was established at Northampton 

in 1867. Pupils are instructed in the ordinary 
branches of an English education, besides philos- 
ophy, zoology, chemistry, and drawing. There 
is attached to the institution, also, a cabinet shop 
in which many of the pupils work a part of each 
day. Though founded by private benefaction, 
it. receives an annual appropriation from the 
state, the amount from the latter source being, 
in 1875, $11,415. The number of pupils during 
the year was 50 ; the number of instructors, 8. 
The Boston Day-School for Deaf-Mutes was 
founded in 1869. It is a city free school for both 
sexes, and is supported entirely by taxation. The 
number of pupils, in 1874 — 5, was 63; the num- 
ber of instructors. 7. The Perkins Institution and 
Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind was estab- 
lished in 1829. Samuel G. Howe being its first 
superintendent. (See Howe. S. G.) The total num- 
ber of pupils admitted into it since its foundation 
was, in 1874 — 5, 865. All blind children who 
are residents of the state, who are suitable sub- 
jects for instruction, and who are recommended 
by tli? governor, are received for education. The 
ordinary branches taught in the common schools 
of the state form the course of study; to which is 
added instruction in music and in some branch 
of manual labor. In addition to the original 
donation made by its founder, it receives from 
the state an annual grant of $30,000. Besides 
the residents of the state who are educated 
gratuitously, it receives pupils from other states, 
upon payment of a certain annual sum. The 
number of instructors and employes was 55 ; the 
number of pupils, 156. There is also a school 
for idiotic and feeble-minded youth in Boston, 
founded in 1848, the number of instructors and 
employes in which, in 1874 — 5, was 16, of pupils 
118 ; a privats institution for the same purpose, 
founded in Bang in 1K48. with 50 instructors 
etc., and 75 pupils ; and one for backward and 
peculiar children, in Fayville, with 7 instruc- 
tors and 8 pupils. There are nine industrial 
and reform schools in different parts of the state 
for the reformation of children, principally those 
between the ages of 7 and 17 years, who have 
been committed for poverty, truancy, vagrancy, 
and petty crimes. « 

MASTER OF ARTS. See Degrees. 

MASTERY METHOD. See Latin LAN- 
GUAGE. 

MATHEMATICS.— The term mathematics 
is the Latin word mathematica, or the Greek 
word fia&T)/taTiKa, anglicized. The Greek word 
was derived from /lav&avu, to learn; whence 
/indijvir, learning. Both the Greeks and the 
Romans used the word mathematica as we do 
the word mathematics. The use of the plural 
form indicates that this department of human 
knowledge was formerly considered not as a 
single branch, but as a group of several branches, 
much as we use the phrase the mathematical 
sciences. This group of sciences is subdivided 
into pure mathematics and mi. ceil, or applied, 
mathematics. In this article we are concerned 



mainly with the former. — The branches of pure 
mathematics are arithmetic, algebra, the calculus, 

and geometry. In this classification, the calculus 
is made to include the infinitesimal cahuius, the 
calculus of finite differences, and the calculus of 
variations; while geometry includes the com- 
mon or special geometry, <ieu<->-ol (analytic) 
geometry, descriptive geometry, trigonometry, 
conic sections, and the new science of quafir- 
u ions. — No attempt to give a philosophical defini- 
tion of the department of knowledge embraced 
under the term mathematics, has as yet been so 
successful as to be generally accepted. The state- 
ment that " mathematics is the science of quan- 
tity " is often flippantly repeated as a defini- 
tion, but it can scarcely serve for that purpose. 
I 'omte defines mathematical science, as the sci- 
ence which has for "its object the indirect 
measurement of magnitudes, and constantly 
proposes to determine certain magnitudes from 
others, by means of the precise relations existing 
between them." It is not a little singular that, 
while this great thinker rules geometry out of 
the realm of pure mathematics, he bases his 
definition of the science exclusively on the 
geometrical conception. That he does so is espe- 
cially apparent in the discussion from which he 
deduces the definition. Moreover, it is not clear 
how the abstract principles of the science can be 
included in this definition. Such propositions as, 
"The product of the multiplicand and the multi- 
plier is equal to the sum of the products of the 
parts of the multiplicand into the multiplier ;" 
| "The root of the product of several quantities 
equals the product of their like roots ;" " The 
bisector of any angle of a triangle divides the op- 
posite side into segments which are proportional 
to the adjacent sides;" etc., are scarcely embraced 
in ( 'omte's definition without an unjustifiable ex- 
tension of the signification of its terms. We pro- 
pose the following definition: Pure mathematics 
is a general term applied to several branches of 
science which have for their object the inves- 
tigation of the properties and relations of quan- 
tity — comprehending number, and magnitude 
as the result of extension — and of form. It will 
be observed that this definition embraces that 
of Comte. inasmuch as the measurement of 
quantities, or the determination of unknown 
from known quantities, is effected by an in- 
vestigation of their relations; but, on the other 
hand, we can scarcely say that all investiga- 
tions of the relations of quantities are for the 
purposes of measurement, or of determining un- 
known quantities from known. — But the chief 
purpose of this article is to inquire as to the 
place which mathematical studies should occupy 
in our courses of elementary instruction. In 
such an inquiry, the leading considerations are, 
(I) For what purpose should these studies be 
pursued in such courses? (II) To what extent 
should they be pursued? and (III) "What gen- 
eral principles should govern our methods of 
teaching? 

I. Mathematical studies should be pursued in 
elementary schools primarily as a means of mental 



554 



MATHEMATICS 



discipline. Notwithstanding all that Sir William 
Hamilton has said, and the formidable array of 
names which he adduces in support of his views, 
it may still be claimed that there is no single 
line of study pursued in schools, which develops 
the mind in so many ways, and is so well adapted 
to every stage of mental growth, as mathemat- 
ical studies. It has been asserted, and quite gen- 
erally conceded, that the power of observation 
is not developed by mathematical studies ; while 
the truth is, that, from the most elementary 
mathematical notion which arises in the mind of a 
child to the farthest verge to which mathematical 
investigation has been pushed and applied, this 
power is in constant exercise. By observation, 
as here used, can only be meant the fixing of 
the attention upon objects (physical or mental) 
so as to note distinctive peculiarities — to recog- 
nize resemblances, differences, and other relations. 
Now, the first mental act of the child recogniz- 
ing the distinction between one and more than 
one, between one and two, two and three, etc., is 
exactly this. So, again, the first geometrical 
notions are as pure an exercise of this power as 
can be given. To know a straight line, to distin- 
guish it from a curve ; to recognize a triangle 
and distinguish the several forms — what are 
these, and all perceptions of form, but a series 
of observations? Nor is it alone in securing 
these fundamental conceptions of number and 
form that observation plays so important a part. 
The very genius of the common geometry as a 
method of reasoning — a system of investigation 
— is, that it is but a series of observations. The 
figure being before the eye in actual representa- 
tion, or before the mind in conception, is so 
closely scrutinized, that all its distinctive feat- 
ures are perceived; auxiliary lines are drawn (the 
imagination leading in this), and a new series of 
inspections is made; and thus, by means of direct, 
simple observations, the investigation proceeds. 
So characteristic of the common geometry is this 
method of investigation, that Comte, perhaps 
the ablest of all writers upon the philosophy of 
mathematics, is disposed to class geometry, as to 
its methods, with the natural sciences, as being 
based upon observation. Moreover, when we con- 
sider applied mathematics, we need only to notice 
that the exercise of this facidty is so essential, 
that the basis of all such reasoning, the very 
materials with which we build, have received 
the name observations. Thus we might proceed 
to consider the whole range of the human facul- 
ties, and find for most of them ample scope for 
exercise in mathematical studies. Certainly, 
the memory will not be found to be neglected. 
The very first steps in number, — counting, the 
multiplication table, etc. , make heavy demands 
on this power ; while the higher branches re- 
quire the memorizing of formulas which are 
simply appalling to the uninitiated. So the 
imagination, the creative faculty of the mind, 
has constant exercise in all original mathematical 
investigation, from the solution of the simplest 
problem to the discovery of the most recondite 
principle ; for it is not by sure, consecutive steps, 



as many suppose, that we advance from the 
known to the unknown. The imagination, not 
the logical faculty, leads in this advance. In fact, 
practical observation is often in advance of log- 
ical exposition. Thus, in the discovery of truth, 
the imagination habitually presents hypotheses, 
and observation supplies facts, which it may re- 
quire ages for the tardy reason to connect logic- 
ally with the known. Of this truth, mathemat- 
ics, as well as all other sciences, affords abundant 
illustrations. So remarkably true is this, that 
to-day it is seriously questioned by the majority 
of thinkers, whether the sublimest branch of 
mathematics — the infinitesimal calculus — has 
any tiring more than an empirical foundation, 
mathematicians themselves not being agreed as 
to its logical basis. — That the imagination, and 
not the logical faculty, leads in all original in- 
vestigation, no one who has ever succeeded in 
producing an original demonstration of one of 
the simpler propositions of geometry, can have 
any doubt. Nor are induction, analogy, the 
scrutinizing of premises or the search for them, 
or the balancing of probabilities, spheres of 
mental operation foreign to mathematics. No 
one, indeed, can claim a pre-eminence for math- 
ematical studies in all these departments of in- 
tellectual culture, but it may, perhaps, be claimed 
that scarcely any department of science affords 
discipline to so great a number of faculties, and 
that none presents so complete a gradation in its 
exercise of these faculties, from the first prin- 
ciples of the science to the farthest extent of its 
application, as mathematics. There are, however, 
two respects in which, probably, special pre- 
eminence may be claimed for mathematics as a 
disciplinary study ; namely, training the mind to 
the habit of forming clear and definite concep- 
tions, and, of clothing these conceptions in exact 
and perspicuous language. Tins pre-eminence 
arises, in part, from the fact that, in this 
branch of knowledge, the terms convey exactly 
the same meaning to all minds. Thus, there can 
be no difference between the conceptions which 
different persons have of five, six, a straight 
line, a circle, a perpendicular, a product, a 
square root; or of the statements, that 3 and 5 
make 8, that the sum of the angles of a plane 
triangle is two right angles, etc. The concep- 
tion in each case is definite, and the language 
may be perfectly clear. That this is not so in 
most other sciences, no one needs to be told. 
Can we be sure that all have the same concep- 
tion of the metaphysical terms idea, perception, 
reason ? Can any one discriminate infallibly be- 
tween an adjective and an adverb; between do wny, 
hirsute, and pubescent? Are the conceptions 
designed to be conveyed by the terms schistose, 
fissile, slaty, laminar, foliated, squamose, so dis- 
tinct that no two mineralogists will ever inter- 
change them ? Is the meaning of a Greek text 
always unequivocal ? Is it an easy matter for 
any two persons to get exactly the same concep- 
tion of the causes which led to a certain political 
revolution ; can either be absolutely certain, from 
any language which he can use, that no one will 



MATHEMATICS 



555 



mistake his conception? — That the habit of 
mind which rests satisfied only with clear and 
definite conceptions, and the power of speech 
which is able to clothe such conceptions in lan- 
guage perfectly unmistakable, are most impor- 
tant attainments, need not be argued; and 
these are exactly the ends which mathematical 
studies, properly pursued, arc adapted to secure. 
In this hasty review, nothing has been said di- 
rectly of these studies as a means of developing 
the reasoning faculties, since it is generally con- 
ceded that pure mathematics is practical logic, 
and that pupils, who do not learn to reason by 
their study of mathematics, fail of the most im- 
portant end of such study. 

Doubtless, the common answer to the question. 
Why should mathematical studies be pursued in 
schools? would be, for their practical value; by 
which is meant, their direct application to the 
affairs of life, as in reckoning bills, computing 
interest, measuring distances, volumes, areas, etc. 
It is, indeed, true, that, in the every-day affairs 
of life, to the accountant, and to the man of 
business, a certain amount of arithmetical 
knowledge is essential — that surveying, civil 
engineering, mechanics, navigation, geography, 
and astronomy, are based on geometry. But, let 
it be observed, that only a special few practice 
the arts last named, and that for the masses 
embraced in the former specifications, a very 
limited amount of arithmetical knowledge is all 
that they are required to apply. And still 
further, while it is, indeed, necessary that the 
business man should be able to add, subtract, 
multiply, divide, and compute interest, skill in 
these operations can never form the basis of prac- 
tical success in life, except in the case of mere 
clerks. Many of the most sagacious business 
men would make wretched work with their 
ledger columns, and they know too well their own 
deficiencies to risk themselves in any important 
numerical computations. Indeed, the elements 
of practical success in life are quite other 
than a specific knowledge of any branch of sci- 
ence whatever, however indispensable a certain 
amount of such knowledge may be in particular 
callings. The conclusion, therefore, is, that the 
important point is not, how much mathematical 
knowledge can be crammed into the minds of 
pupils, but by what methods of teaching and 
study such habits of mind can be secured, as 
will make the pupils most efficient in performing 
the duties of life. 

II. To ii'liat extent should mathematical stud- 
ies be pursued in our elementary courses? — 
Were we to judge from the practice of most 
schools, we should conclude that mathematical 
studies ought to occupy from one-third to one- 
half of the pupil's time throughout his school 
life, unless, indeed, a slight exception is to 
be made in favor of other studies for the last 
two years of a college course ; that is, that read- 
ing, spelling, writing, geography, grammar, his- 
tory, literature, rhetoric, logic, the whole domain 
of natural science, including the physical consti- 
tution of the human system, chemistry, languages, 



metaphysics, political economy, — all these, and 
whatever else goes to make up the furniture, and 
secure the discipline, of a well-cultivated mind, 
are only to receive as great, or at most twice as 
great, a part of the pupil's time, as his mathemat- 
ical studies. And this is no exaggeration, as will 
be obvious from an inspection of the curriculum 
of a graded school, or college. For the first six 
or seven years of the ordinary graded public 
school course, if we include the oral lessons, in 
number and form, of the lowest grade, arithme- 
tic forms one of the three main studies for the 
entire course ; and, in not a few cases, there are 
two arithmetical exercises, one in mental (oral), 
and one in written arithmetic, or one in arithme- 
tic and another in algebra, each day, constitut- 
ing, in such cases, fully one-half of the school 
work. 1 hiring the entire course of the high or 
preparatory school, either algebra, higher arith- 
metic, or geometry constitutes one of the studies, 
except for a part of one year ; but this exception 
is much more than made up by the large rela- 
tive amount of 'time which the pupil's mathe- 
matical studies usually occupy, and by the fact 
that not unfrequently some two of these studies 
are pursued at the same time. In the college 
course, one of the three regular studies for the 
first two years is, almost invariably, mathematics. 
— So far. reference has been had exclusively to 
pure mathematics, including only arithmetic, al- 
gebra, geometry, and perhaps a little of general 
(analytical) geometry and the calculus. What- 
ever of applied mathematics, including surveying, 
navigation, mechanics, astronomy, etc.. is to be 
studied, must find additional time in the course. 
The question then arises, can the legitimate. 
purposes for which mathematical studies should 
be pursued, be secured in any less time ? In or- 
der to answer this, let us observe the exact pro- 
portion of time usually given to the pure mathe- 
matics in a course of training extending through 
the ordinary college course. Arithmetic has from 
one-half to one-third of the pupil's time in 
the elementary schools. In the high-school or 
academic course, to obtain any creditable knowd- 
ei Ige of algebra, geometry, and plane trigonometry, 
and to review the arithmetic, at least one-third 
of the time is consumed. Passing into the col- 
lege with this knowledge of mathematics, the 
student finds one-third of the time, for the first 
two years, scarcely adequate to secure a respect- 
able knowledge of higher algebra, geometry, 
and trigonometry, the elements of the general 
geometry, and the infinitesimal calculus; and 
whatever of applied mathematics is learned, as 
of surveying, mathematical drawing, mechanics, 
astronomy, etc., must find a place in the other 
two years of the college course. Now. all this is 
simply inevitable, unless relief can be found in 
the course prior to entrance upon college work. 
If, however, the inordinate demands of arithme- 
tic can be so abridged (see Arithmetic), that the 
grammar school course shall include, at least, 
eighteen months' study introductory to algebra 
ami geometry, the high school can save this time 
for other studies, and also secure such thorough- 



556 



MATHEMATICS 



ness in preparation, that the student's course in 
college will be far more rapid and satisfactory 
than at present. With the quality of prepara- 
tion now secured, it should be borne in mind, 
that the student comes to college having, it is 
true, been over the requisite amount, but with 
so little of the real strength and knowledge which 
that course should impart, that, if he does jus- 
tice to his mathematical studies for the first two 
years, nearer one-half than one-third of his time 
is consumed upon them. By rigidly confining 
the study of elementary arithmetic to its proper 
domain, giving a year in the grammar school to 
an introduction to algebra, and half a year to 
the definitions and facts of plane geometry, the 
pupil may come to the high school so thoroughly 
prepared in the elements of the three great 
mathematical studies, — arithmetic, algebra, and 
geometry, that between two and three years in 
the high school will be amply sufficient to secure 
such further proficiency in these branches as is 
consistent with the course here marked out. 
Moreover, if the pupil's school life closes with 
the grammar school, the course thus secured will 
be of far more value to him in after life, both 
for practical uses and as a discipline, than the 
ordinary one. (See Arithmetic, Algebra, and 
Geometry.) — In the above, it will be observed, 
that the general geometry and the infinitesimal 
calculus are included in the college course. The 
elements of the former are usually required, al- 
though it is quite common (for no good reason) 
to make the latter elective. By omitting the 
calculus, the graduate leaves college without ever 
having looked into one of the sublimest depart- 
ments of human knowledge, or having even 
the remotest idea of the language and methods 
of the mechanics and astronomy of the day, or 
being able to read an advanced treatise upon 
any scientific subject as treated by the modern 
mathematician. Nor can the beauty and power 
of the general geometry be appreciated without 
a knowledge of the calculus. Thus the pupil 
who is allowed, at his option, to leave this out 
of his course, leaves college a hundred years be- 
hind his time, in one of the leading departments 
of human knowledge. 

III. What general principles should govern 
our methods of teaching mathematics? — This 
topic has been quite fully treated in the separate 
articles Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, 
to which reference is made. It is proper to 
add here, that, from first to last, the methods 
should be such as will give absolutely clear per- 
ceptions and conceptions, and secure facility, 
accuracy, and elegance in expression. These ends 
are of vastly more practical importance than 
the mere ability "to get the answer" of special 
problems. The notion which prevails among 
some teachers, that if the pupil learns the proc- 
ess, and becomes expert in it, he has obtained 
every thing that is essential, and that, whatever 
of the rationale may be desirable will be, in 
some way, induced by this mechanical process, 
is an exceedingly vicious one. In the first 
place, it is far more important that the pupil 



should be able to comprehend the logic, and to 
express his ideas in intelligible language than 
merely to solve any number of problems, since 
the former ability he will have occasion to use 
every day of his life, while he may never need 
the latter at all. But we are not driven to the 
alternative of securing culture at the expense of 
mechanical skill ; the very best means to acquire 
expertness in mathematical manipulations is 
that which secures the best results in culture. 
No greater intellectual monstrosity probably 
ever presents itself than he who is usually 
known as a mathematical genius ; that is, one 
who has a wonderful ability to do what nobody 
else can do, or cares to do — to solve knotty and 
often senseless mathematical problems. On the 
contrary, the object of mathematical study should 
be to develop men with cultured minds, not to 
make them mere computing machines. 

Mathematical Literature. — It is designed, un- 
der this topic, to point out to the teacher a few 
treatises which may be helpful to him in extend- 
ing his knowledge of the subjects of arithmetic; 
algebra, and geometry beyond the mere rudi- 
ments ; in becoming acquainted with the history 
of these branches ; and in providing material 
for use in class-room work. It is rather to men- 
tion a few works which are presumed to be acces- 
sible to the teacher than to furnish an extended 
list of authors. The best catalogues of writers 
on algebra and geometry accessible to teachers 
are those in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The 
list of writers on algebra contains 171 names, 
and extends from 360 A. D. into the present 
century. The catalogue of geometrical writers 
covers the period from 272 A. I>. to the middle 
of the present century. — By far the most com- 
plete history of arithmetic with which we are 
acquainted is the article by Dr. Peacock in the 
Encyclopaedia Metropolitcma (vol. i. of Pure 
Science, pp. 369 — 482). The Encyclopaedia 
Britannica also contains a fair history of this 
branch, together with as good an outline of the 
history of algebra and geometry as the teacher 
can usually find accessible. The Algebra of 
AVallis, an English mathematician (1616 — 1703), 
has a history of the subject prefixed. — Of 
Mathematical Dictionaries, mention may be 
made of those by Hutton (London, 1815); 
Barlow (London, 1814); and Davies and Peck 
(X. Y., 1856). — Montucla's History of Mathe- 
matics (4 vols., 4to), besides being too volumi- 
nous for most readers, is brought down only to 
the beginning of the present century, and is 
only to be had in Latin or French. A more 
recent work is Geschichle der Maihematik, by 
Poppe (Tubingen, 1828), to be had only in 
German. Among other works in the German 
language, especial reference should be made to 
Diesterweg's Wegweiser (Essen, 1851). This 
may be called a treatise on the Tlieory and 
Practice of Teaching, discussing not only the 
philosophical principles of pedagogy, but treat- 
ing, quite in detail, methods ancf even text- 
books. In the second volume (pp. 343 — 394), 
may be foimd a full list of German text-books 



MATRICULATE 



MEDICAL SCHOOLS 



557 



on arithmetic, in connection with the discussion 
of methods. The succeeding chapter treats in 
like manner of geometry. — Among arithmetics 
not now specially candidates for popular favor. 
the following will be found interesting and val- 
uable in a teacher's library : An Introduction to 
Arithmetic on the Lancasteiian plan, by John 
Baton (Albany, 1817); Dana P. Colbum's 
Arithmetic will be found exceedingly suggestive 
to the practical teacher: Window's Gomputist's 
Manual contains a large amount of practical 
matter very usefid to the teacher ; ( 'liases 
Arithmetic furnishes a vast amount of material 
which can be utilized by the teacher in the reci- 
tation room ; Sangster's Arithmetic (Montreal. 
18f>4) will be found quite instructive in many 
respects. To these the intelligent teacher will add 
the various series offered to the public by lead- 
ing educators in the United States. — In algebra, 
among English works, Todhunter's Algebra, 
and Theory of Equations; Bland's Examples; 
Wood's. Young's, Hind's, and Bonnyeastlc's trea- 
tises on algebra will afford not only the elements 
of the subject, but an exhaustless mine of ex- 
amples for practice. Peacock's Algebra (2 vols.. 
Svo, London) is one of the most celebrated 
theoretical treatises. Serret's is one of the best 
French treatises. Cirode's and ( 'omberousse's 
are also valuable. Haekley's Algebra (X. V., 
1849) will be found valuable for reference, being 
one of the most complete ever published in this 
country. In reference to geometry, it may be sug- 
gested that every teacher should read President 
Hill's two little books. First Lessons in tleome- 
try, and Second Book. Most English writers on 
the elements of geometry have contented them- 
selves with editing Euclid with slight modifica- 
tions. The student who wishes a knowledge of the 
modern methods in elementary geometry, will 
find Mulcahy's work quite satisfactory. Hunch,' 
et Comberousse, a French treatise (2 vols., 8vo), 
is the most complete modern treatise on element- 
ary geometry with which we are acquainted, 
and is a complete thesaurus of examples fur in- 
dependent work. All of De .Morgan's (English) 
mathematical works are exceedingly valuable, 
containing treatises on algebra, geometry, the 
calculus, and other branches. In regard to the 
relative value of mathematical studies, see Sir. 
WlI.I.IAM HAMILTON, I tiseussii in s on PhUoSOphy 

ami Literature i X. V.. 1858), art. On the Study 
of Mathematics as an Exercise of Mind; J. S. 
Mill, Examinations of Sir William Hamilton's 
Philosophy ( L865); < Ieote, Review of this work 
(18(is) ; Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. 
xiii.; Whewell, On the Principles of English 
University Education (Lond., 1838): T. II. Saf- 
ford. Modern Mathematics in the < 'oik ge ' 'ourse, 
in Proceedings of National Educational Asso- 
ciation, at St. Louis, 1871; T. Hill. True Order 
of Studies (N. V., 1870); Todiicxter, The Con- 
flict of Studies (Lond., 1873). 

MATRICULATE (Lat. matricula, a public 
roll or register), to admit to membership in a 
college or university, by enrollment. (See Col- 
leoe, and University.) 



MEDICAL SCHOOLS. The earliest prop- 
agation of medical science was effected by 
means of tradition, and not untd much later by 
written records. The oldest instructors wire the 
priests in the temples of .Ksculapius. Hippocrates, 
among the Greeks, Galen, among the .Romans, 
and Avieenna. among the Arabs, were the first 
savants that brought into scientific shape the 
written fragments left by their predecessors. The 
study of their works was the main source of med- 
ical knowledge for centuries. The ancients had 
no special medical schools, but their schools gave 
scientific and philosophical instruction in general. 
Such institutions could be found in Athens, 
Alexandria, Rome, and other cities. The name 
medical school was first used in the 9th century 
in the city of Salerno, where an association of 
several medical teachers, of the Greek, Jewish, 
Latin, and Arabian nations, lectured on the heal- 
ing art. Their method, substantially, consisted in 
the reading and explanation of the old Greek, Ro- 
man, and Arabian parchment scrolls. After the 
foundation of universities, in the 13th century, 
the medical schools, as a rule, were united with 
them. (See University.) The earliest were those 
of Naples and Messina, founded in 122-4, by the 
emperor Frederick II. of Germany. The division 
into faculties was first made in Paris, Prague, 
and Vienna. Highly celebrated medical schi ols 
of the early middle ages were, together with thi Be 
above named, at Ix j ipsic, Basel, Montpellier. I o- 
logna. Padua, J'avia, and Salamanca; at the last 
named of which, the Jews and Arabs taught 
mathematics and medicine. In all these institu- 
tions, the writings of the ancient, physicians 
named above formed the basis of teaching; and 
only with the development of anatomy, did the 
scientific efforts attain a higher degree of perfec- 
tion. In 1308, the Great Conned of Venice pro- 
vided, by a special decree, that the medical pro- 
fession of the city shoidd, once a year, make the 
dissection of a human body; and, about 1320, 
the first work on anatomy , based on his own dis- 
sections, was written by Mondini di Luzzi. It 
was first printed in Padua, 1478, and for a long 
time was held in the highest esteem. Still, the 
dissection of human bodies remained a very rare 
occurrence, a special permission of (lie pope hav- 
ing to be obtained in each case. The real father 
of anatomy was Andreas Vesalius, professor in 
Basel; where his celebrated work, De humani 
corporis fabrica, was edited in 1403. Surgery, 
the child of anatomy, remained, for a long time. 
in the hands of empirics; and it was not until 
the 17th or 18th century, that it was taught 
scientifically, in universities. The cultivation and 
development of anatomy also changed the meth- 
od of teaching, in the medical schools, from a 
simple lecturing to a more demonstrative course; 
and, \\ ith the accumulation of material for teach- 
ing, it was natural that medical science should 
be more and more divided into specialties, for 
which separate instructors were appointed. The 
first stationary clinics were organized at Ley den. 
by Boerhaave, in the first half of the 18th cent- 
ury, and at Vicuna, by his pupil Van Swieten. 



558 



MEDICAL SCHOOLS 



These two, together with Van Haen and Johann 
Peter Frank, were the founders of the practical 
method of medical instruction. Previous to them, 
the professors, of surgery for instance, lectured 
before their audience for years, without even 
touching a patient with the knife. This to us, 
nowadays, seems hardly comprehensible. The 
first clinic of obstetrics was established in 1720, 
in Paris, by Gre'goire. A very celebrated school 
of midwifery was founded, about 1730, at Stras- 
bourg, and first conducted by the renowned 
Johann Jacob Fried. Separate clinics for other 
specialties, as ophthalmology, otology, skin and 
venereal diseases, etc., are of more recent date. 

Tn Germany, every medical school constitutes 
a faculty of a university ; this is also the rule 
in the other European countries, England ex- 
cepted. Considering the degree of preparatory 
instruction, Germany ranks highest. The stu- 
dents,after having gone successfully through the 
gymnasium, receive a certificate of maturity, 
that enables them to matriculate in the medical 
faculty of any of the German universities of 
the German Empire, Austria, and Switzerland. 
No time is fixed for the duration of the course 
of studies; but, generally, it takes five years. At 
the end of the first or second year, the student 
has to undergo an examination in natural philos- 
ophy; and, at the end of the whole term, a rigid 
examination (rigorosum), theoretical as well as 
practical, takes place for the degree of M. D. 
Besides this, the several states require what is 
called a Staatsexamen (state examination) before 
granting a license for practice. In aU the German 
universities, the students have absolute freedom 
to select such lectures, and to follow them in such 
order, as they please. Very nearly the same are 
the arrangements in the universities of Austria, 
Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, 
the Netherlands, and Belgium. — France has 
only three medical faculties (Paris, Montpellier, 
and Nancy) and 21 so-called ecoles preparatoires. 
At the former, the docteurs en medecine el c7/i- 
rurgie are educated ; the latter train an inferior 
class of physicians [officiers de santi), licensed 
for practice only in certain departments. In 
France, no freedom of instruction exists. The 
lectures and their order are strictly prescribed. 
The time of study is fixed at 3 years for the offi- 
ciers de sante, and at 4 years for the degree of 
M.D. — England has preserved the old independ- 
ent institutions of the middle ages. The state 
has no influence upon the education of medical 
students ; and only a weak control is exercised 
by the General Medical Council of London — 
the highest medical authority of Great Britain. 
This body appoints the corporations that have 
the right to educate and license physicians. All 
medical schools are private institutions main- 
tained by private means. Twenty-three so-called 
"licensing bodies" (7 in England, 11 in Scotland, 
5 in Ireland) bestow the privilege of practicing 
the art, the qualifications for which may be ob- 
tained at 45 medical schools. Of these, 27 are in 
England (11 in London alone), 8 in Scotland, 
and 10 in Ireland. The licensing bodies require 



4 years' study, and a certificate showing the 
scientific acquirements of the applicant to be 
sufficient for the study of medicine. The differ- 
ent degrees that may be obtained at the English, 
universities are Bachelor of Medicine (M. B.),. 
Bachelor of Surgery (B. S.), Master in Surgery 
(M.S.), and Doctor of Medicine (M. D.). Simi- 
lar to the English medical schools are those of 
India and Australia. — In Italy, 17 universities 
are maintained by the state, and 5 by municipal 
and provincial corporations. Perfect freedom of 
instruction is allowed, the only control exercised 
over the students consisting in 6 several exami- 
nations in the different branches of medical sci- 
ence ; after passing which the license is granted. 
For the diploma laurea di dottore in medicina 
e chirurgia, a separate examination is required. — 
Turkey has a medical school in Constantinople, 
divided into a military and a civil department, 
and organized after the French model. The same 
is the case with the medical academy in Cairo, 
Egypt, established by Mehemet Ah, in 1827. 

Medical Education in America. — For more 
than a century after the American colonies had 
been planted, they did not contain an institution 
of medical learning. Medical instruction was 
alone conveyed in the irregular form of medical 
pupilage. A few physicians, in different parts 
of the country, eminent for their skill and popu- 
larity, attracted to themselves numerous pupils, 
who enjoyed the advantages of the library and the 
conversation of their preceptor, compounded his 
medicines, and occasionally attended him in his 
visits; these preceptois, after three or more years, 
signed certificates of attendance which supplied 
the place of diplomas. In some sections, a system 
of apprenticeship existed ; the young medical 
pupil being indentured for a period of time, often 
as long as seven years. Those students who as* 
pired to a regular degree in medicine, and the 
high public favor accorded to it, were obliged to 
cross the ocean and to attend one of the European 
universities, a step not unfrequently taken by 
those able to afford the great expense of such a 
course. In some of the larger towns, an occasion- 
al private course of lectures on anatomy, surgery, 
etc., was attempted with success; and these paved 
the way for the regular and orderly organization 
of medical colleges. The first medical faculty in 
the country was instituted in 1765, under the 
auspices of the College of Philadelphia, which was 
afterwards merged in the far-famed University 
of Pennsylvania. In 1767, a second school was 
founded in New York, as a department of King's 
(now Columbia) College, having six chairs, from 
which lectures were, from the outset, read upon 
anatomy, theory and practice of physic, surgery, 
chemistry and materia medica, and midwifery. 
These two faculties, the only ones established be- 
fore the Revolution, were possessed of very 
meager means and appliances of instruction, but 
they placed their standard of requirements very 
high, much higher than it has since been, or is 
even now, held. The principal rules of the 
New York faculty were (1) a preliminary exami- 
nation, in Latin and some branches of natural 



MEDICAL SCHOOLS 



559 



philosophy, was required of all matriculants who 
had not taken a degree in arts ; (2) after three 
years' study and one complete course of lectures, 
the bachelor's degree was allowed ; (3) after an- 
other year and a second full course, students 22 
years of age were admitted to examination for 
the doctorate ; and they were required to pub- 
lish and publicly defend a thesis on some medical 
subject. The examinations were conducted after 
the pattern of the University of Edinburgh, the 
regnant medical school of that day. These 
schools were broken up by the Revolutionary 
war. in 177(>, at which time they had graduated 
about 50 physicians. With the return of peace, 
these institutions were resuscitated ; and other 
faculties were formed in different parts of the 
country, principally as departments of previous- 
ly existing literary colleges or universities, — that 
of Harvard in 1782, Queen's in 1702, and Dart- 
mouth in 1796. They did not at once enjoy the 
attendance of large classes, for the country was 
impoverished and distressed by the effects of a 
long war ; anil they exercised with caution and 
reserve their privilege of conferring medical de-' 
grees, so that, with the close of the 1 8th century, 
their graduates did not exceed 253 in number ; 
and the honorary M. D. was but seldom granted. 
Among the eminent names allied to these pio- 
neer movements are those of Morgan, Rush, 
Jones, Bard, Romayne, Hosack, Warren, and 
Nathan Smith. During the opening quarter of 
the present century, as national prosperity re- 
vived, and learning began to flourish and students 
to multiply, a great degree of energy marked the 
progress of medical education. In 1825, the 
number of schools had increased from four to 
sixteen, well-distributed, geographically, in twelve 
states, principally the Northern and sea-board 
states. Three were south of the Potomac, and 
two west of the Alleghanies. They were, as a 
rule, affiliated with some previously existing col- 
lege, but the practice of seeking private, inde- 
pendent charters had commenced; these charters 
were readily granted by the legislatures of the 
various states. The American medical college 
then began to take shape and direction, the same 
essentially that it retains at this day. Govern- 
ment, as a rule, withheld all support, endowment, 
or control ; and what little protective legislation 
had previously been enacted was then, or soon 
after, repealed ; practical anatomy was a felony 
by statute ; the populace were still inimical to 
dissection, the last mob-rising being as late as 
1820. Thrown upon their own resources, and 
recognizing the necessities of the land for prac- 
titioners, the colleges broke away from the line 
of European tradition, at once increasing the 
facilities and lowering the standard of medical 
education. The minimum of requirements was 
pretty uniformly adopted ; preliminary qualifica- 
tions were not demanded; the time of study was 
shortened ; examinations became less difficult ; 
the printed thesis and its public defense were 
remitted except on special occasions ; and, about 
1812, the primary degree of M. B. ceased, and 
all diplomas declined in appreciation. Identified 



with this formative period, are the names of 
Physick, Mott, Drake. Mussey, Caldwell, God- 
man, McDowell. Knight, and Childs. Unprom- 
ising as this system, or want of system, in 
medical education, seemed to the conservative 
and educated part of the profession, and despite 
protests, in great variety, made as early as 
1827, against the degenerate tendencies of the 
now developed American plan, the status of in- 
struction grew worse rather than better. ( ii;n- 
tered colleges of an inferior grade, often-tinies 
short-lived, multiplied. — duplicated even in the 

'same town; indeed, from 1825 to 1850, their 
number almost trebled. In some, inferior pro- 
fessors lectured to benches promiscuously filled, 

; the regulations were lowered, the lecture-term 
was reduced to three months, and the attendance 
even then was not obligatory, and few candidates 
were rejected. It is even said that diplomas, 
with lithographed signatures, were sold. About 
this time (1850), largely through the instrumen- 
tality of the American Medical Association, the 
demand for reforms gradually made itself felt. 
No radical change of plan has been adopted 
or is immediately probable, but a progressive 
growth from within is manifest. Schools of the 
poorer quality are still unduly multiplied; there 
are now over 60 of all grades, about 30 others 
having been discontinued. The time of study, and 
the length of the lecture-term, are yet too short, 
although additional courses have been added 
which are for the most part optional, and the 
number of branches taught has been increased. 
The instructor is still also the examiner of the 
candidates for graduation, although some visiting 
censors have been appointed. The curriculum, 
nominally the same as 50 years ago, is vastly im- 
proved by the introduction of clinical teaching, 
by demonstrative methods and illustration that 
excite the admiration of critics from abroad, 
and in a few cases by the grading of classes. The 
superior appointments of the more modern 
schools facilitate the work of the student, and 
many of them have their buildings close to the 
hospitals. The study of anatomy by dissection 
is now as easy as formerly it was difficult. The 
American plan favors the production of a superi- 
or teaching corps. The success of a school is 
ordinarily in direct proportion to the merits of 
professors ; the brightest and most progressive 
minds, therefore, are diligently sought out, and 
a fruitful emulation is excited among them to 
render their lectures at once practical and popu- 
lar. Prom these and other considerations, the 
conclusion is inevitable — that the colleges of the 
United States are destined to advance, however 
defective their origin and place may be. In 1874, 
the number of instructors was 780 ; of pupils, 
over 7,000, of whom 2,000 were graduated as 
doctors in medicine ; one student in ten had pre- 
viously obtained a degree in arts or science. In 
the above enumeration and description, only the 
"regular" schools are included. In this century, 
these schools have graduated fully 75,000 candi- 
dates. In regard to the education of women as 
physicians, a favorable sentiment has been grow- 



560 



MEDICAL SCHOOLS 



MEIEBOTTO 



ing up, and some progress has been made, three 
good schools being in operation. In the medical 
faculties of South America and the British do- 
minions, the scale of regulations is higher than in 
the U. S., both as to preliminary qualifications 
and the term of study. In Brazil, there are two 
departments of medicine; in Canada, there are six, 
some of them quite small and poorly sustained. 
The subjoined table contains a list of the med- 
ical colleges and departments in the U. S. 



Medical College 




c U 


■— u 


S « 


or 


Location 


-c c 


ra = 


St >• 


Department 




o 


> ° 


£.5 




1S5S 


9 


21 


Med. C. of the Pacific !San Francisco, Cal. . 


1858 


3 


20 


Univ. of California San Francisco, Cal. . 


1864 


1 


40 






1812 

1855 
1S31 


3 
2 


34 




17 


Univ. of Georgia 






Savannah Med. Coll . . 


Savannah, Ga 


18a3 


2 


16 


Northwestern Univ. . . 


Chicago, ni 


1869 


3 


39 


Bush Med. Coll 




1844 


3 


20 


"Woman's Hosp. M. C. 




urns 


2 


32 


M. C. of Evansville. .. 




1847 


1 


23 


Coll. of Physicians and 










Surgeons of Indiana 


Indianapolis, Ind. .. 


18V 4 


2 


16 




Indianapolis. Ind. . . 


1809 


2 


22 




Iowa City, Iowa 


IH6H 


•>. 


20 


Coll. of Physicians and 










Surgeons 




185U 


2 


16 


Ky. School of Medicine 




1862 


2 


20 






1874 








1874 
1869 


1 

2 


30 


Louisville Med. Coll. . 


24 


Univ. of Louisville. . . 




1887 


2 


20 


Univ. of Louisiana. . . 


New Orleans, La 


1834 


3 


16 


Med. School of Maine, 














mo 


3 


16 


Coll. of Physicians and 












1871! 




22 


Univ. of Maryland 


Baltimore, Md 


1807 


2 


20 






1832 


2 


36 




Boston, Mass 

Ann Arbor, Mich. . . 


1782 
1S50 


3 
3 




Univ. of Michigan .... 


26 


Detroit Med; Coll 




1868 


3 


40 


Univ. of Missouri .... 




1873 


2 


40 


Kansas City Coll. of 












Kansas City, Mo. . . . 


1869 


2 


21 




1840 


2 


24 


St. Louis Med. Coll. . . 




1841 


3 


22 


Dartmouth College . . . 


Hanover, N. H 


1796 


3 


44 




Albany, N. Y 


1839 
1860 


I 


'M 


L.I. Coll. Hospital... 


Brooklyn, N. Y 


36 




Buffalo, N. Y. 


1847 


3 


20 


Bellevue Hospit. M. C. 


New York, N.Y 


1861 


3 


37 


Coll. of Phys. and Sur. 


New York, N. Y 


1807 


3 


32 


Free M. C. for Women 


New York, N. Y 


1871 


3 


26 


Univ. of City of N. Y. . 


New York, N. Y 


1841 


3 


32 


Women's Med. Coll. of 










the N. Y. Infirmarv. 


New York, N.Y 


1864 


3 


35 






1872 


3 


39 


Cincinnati College oi 










Medicine and Surg. . 


Cincinnati, Ohio... 


1851 


3 


40 


Med. Coll. of Ohio 


Cincinnati, Ohio... 


1819 


3 


20 


Miami Med. Coll 


Cincinnati, Ohio... 


1352 


3 


21 


Cleveland Med. Coll.. 


Cleveland, Ohio 


1843 


2 


40 


Univ. of Wooster 


Cleveland, Ohio 


1869 


2 


20 


StarlingM.C.andHosp. 


Columbus, Ohio 


1847 


2 


22 


Univ. of Willamette. . 




1867 


3 








1870 
1824 


3 
2 


!)7 


Jefferson Med. Coll. . . 


Philadelphia, Pa 


22 


Univ. of Pennsylvania 


Philadelphia, Pa 


1765 


3 


24 


Women's M. C. of Pa. 


Philadelphia, Pa 


1S5U 


3 


32 


Med. Coll. of S. C 


Charleston, S. C. . . . 


1826 




32 


Univ. of S. C 


Columbia, S. C . 


1868 




36 


Univ. of Nashville and 




Yanderbilt Univ.. . . 


Nashville, Tenn 


1850 




20 


Tex. Med. C. andHosp. 


Galveston, Tex 


1S73 


2 


16 


Univ. of Vt 


Charlottesville.Va. . 
Richmond, Ya 


1809 
1894 


2 


16 






Med. Coll. ofVa 


1S51 


2 


37 




Washington, D. C. . 


1851 


3 


20 




1868 


3 


40 




Washington, D. C. . . 




3 


22 



Dental Colleges. — In the United States, the 
first institution of this kind was the Baltimore 
College of Dental Surgery, which received its 
charter in 1839. In 1876, there were in the 
U. S. the following dental schools : 



Dental School 




c «j 


.So 


w £ 


or 


Location 


JZ c 


K *i 


Si* 


Department 




2- ^ 
o 


o H 
> 


£.5 




New Orleans, La.. . . 


1S67 


2 


17 


Baltimore College of 










Dental Surgery 




1840 


2 


23 


Maryland Dental Coll. 




1873 


2 


26 


Boston Dental College 




1867 


3 


16 


Dental School of Har- 










vard University 




1868 


2 


20 


Missouri Dental Coll. 


St. Louis, Mo 


1865 


2 


17 


N.Y. Coll. of Dentistry 


New York, N.Y 


1866 


2 


20 


Ohio Coll. of Deut.Sur. 


Cincinnati, Ohio. . . . 


1845 


2 


22 


Pa. Coll. of Dent. Sur. 


Philadelphia, Pa.... 


1856 


2 


36 


Phila. Dent. Coll 


Philadelphia, Pa.... 


1863 


2 


36 


Amer. Dental College 
Univ. of California. . . 




1873 
1873 


2 


12 







Homoeopathic Colleges. — The homoeopathic 
system of medicine was first definitely propound- 
ed by Hahnemann (born in Meissen, Saxony, 
1755 ; died in Paris, 1843). The first homoeo- 
pathic college was founded at Allentown, Pa., by 
Dr. Wesselhoeft, but it no longer exists. In 1876, 
there were in the United States the following 
homoeopathic colleges and departments : 



Homoeopathic 




-a 


■ Z v 


~j a 


College or 


Location 


_c ■- 


- - 


y >, 


Department 




c 


z* 


> C 


ChicagoHomceop.Coll. 
Hahnemann Med. Coll. 




1876 


3 


9,9 










and HoBp. of Chicago 




1860 




29 


Iowa State University 


Iowa City, Iowa 


1876 


3 


30 




Ann Arbor, Mich. . . 


1873 
1874 


3 
3 


36 


Univ. of Michigan. . . . 


36 


Honiceop. M. C. of Mo. 




1868 


2 


20 


Missouri School of 












New York, N.Y 


1876 
1860 


3 
3 


18 


N. Y. Homceop. M. C. 


24 


N. Y. Med. Coll. and 










Hosp. for Women.. 


New York. N. Y 


1863 


3 


28 


PulteMed. Coll 


Cincinnati, Ohio.... 


1872 


3 


28 


Homceop. Hosp. Coll. 


Cleveland, Ohio 


1849 


2—3 


21 


Hahnemann Med.Coll 










of Philadelphia 


Philadelphia, Pa 


1869 


2—3 


20 



In Europe, there are chairs of homoeopathy 
in the universities of Munich, Germany, and of 
Buda-Pesth, Hungary; also, a school of homoeop- 
athy in London, England. 

MEIEROTTO, Joliann Heinrich. Inid- 
wig-, a German educator, born August 22., 1742; 
died September 24., 1800. He was appointed, 
in 1771, professor, and, in 1775, rector of the 
Joachimsthal Gymnasium, in Berlin ; in which 
position he was eminently successful, being called 
the King of Rectors. While a member of the 
school council, he traveled through the provinces 
of Prussia, Silesia, and Posen, and displayed great 
talent in organizing common schools. Besides 
numerous works on various subjects, he wrote a 
Latin grammar constructed on a plan which bore 
some resemblance to the methods of Jacotot and 
Hamilton, and which attracted considerable at- 
tention at the time of its introduction, but soon 
fell into disuse. 



MELAXCHTON 



MEMOR1ZIXG 



561 



MELANCHTHON, Philip, one of the 
church reformers of the 16th century, and one 
of Germany's greatest schoolmen and educators, 
was born at Bretten, a little town near Heidel- 
berg, Feb. Hi.. 1497; died at Wittenberg, April 
19., 1560. In recognition of the extraordinary 
influence which he exerted upon the schools 
of Germany in his own and the following cent- 
uries, he lias been honored with the title of Pros- 
ceptor Germanics. After the death of his father. 
in 1507, he was taken into the family of his 
grandmother, who was a sister of the celebrated 
Keuehlin, and lived at Pforzheim. Reuchlin. 
who frequently visited his sister, was delighted 
with the progress of young .Melanchthon. gave 
him books, and, after the fashion of the times. 
changed his original name Schwarzerd into 
the Greek Melanchthon. At the age of only 
twelve years, Melanchthon was sent to the uni- 
versity of Heidelberg, which two years later, in 
1511, gave him the baccalaureate degree, but, 
in 1512, by reason of his extreme youth, de- 
clined to confer upon him the degree of Master. 
While at Heidelberg. Melanchthon took charge 
of the studies of the two sons of Count Liiwen- 
stein, and sketched, probably for their use, the 
first outlines of a grammar of the Greek lan- 
guage. In 1512, he went to the university of 
Tubingen, where he was involved in the struggle 
between the old and the new era, and with the 
energy anil ardor of youth strove to compass all 
branches of knowledge. In 1514, at the age of 
seventeen, he was made a Master, and at once 
began to lecture on Latin classics. His career 
as an author began about the same time ; for, as 
early as 1516, he published an edition of Terence, 
and. in 151b, his Greek grammar, at the close of 
which he announced " that he intended, in con- 
junction with a number of his friends, to edit 
the works of Aristotle in the original". At the 
same time, he attended mathematical and med- 
ical lectures, and studied the science of law. 
In 151s, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 
upon the recommendation of Reuchlin, ap- 
pointed him professor of Oreek in the university 
of Wittenberg. When lie left Tubingen, Simler, 
his old teacher, said of him : " As many learned 
men as the university can boast of, they are, 
nevertheless, none of them, learned enough to 
form a suitable estimate of the' learning of him 
who is about to leave us.'' Melanchthon entered 
Wittenberg Aug. 25., 1518, and remained there 
until the close of his life, laboring for 28 years in 
intimate connection with Luther. He lectured 
on the most diverse subjects. — the Old and 
the Xew Testaments, dogmatics, the Greek ami 
I^atiu classics, ethics, logic, and physics. His 
fame spread throughout Europe: and the number 
of his hearers reached at times as high as two 
thousand, embracing not only Germans, but 
Frenchmen, Englishmen, Poles, Hungarians, 
Italians, and Greeks. Among the distinguished 
educators who were formed under his teaching, 
were Trotzendorf and Neander. He was often, 
and in various ways, appealed to for counsel in 
school matters. The people of Xuremberg having 



I resolved to establish a gymnasium, invited Me- 
lanehthoii to become its rector. He declined this 
invitation, lest he might seem to be ungrateful to 
the Elector; but consented to take a leading pan 
in the inauguration of the gymnasium, which took 
place in 1526. At the third centennial celebra- 
tion of this event, in 1826, a statue of Melanch- 
thon was erected ill front of the building, but 
the most important event of bis life in connec- 
tion with school matters, was his visitation, in 
1527. of the churches and schools of Tlniringia. 
undertaken by order of the Elector, John the 
Constant, and through the influence of Luther. 
In company with Myeonius and Justus Thomas, 
lie traveled over the whole country, and, in 1528. 
published his Report, or. Book of Visitation, a, 
work of great importance in the history of edu- 
eation in Germany. This book describes the be- 
ginnings, as yet crude, of a high-school system 
in that country, without organization, or well- 
regulated activity. Melanchthon was a prolific 
author of text-books, which were universally 
introduced, and were perpetuated through many 
editions. They comprise a Greek and a Latin 
grammar, two manuals of logic, one of rhetoric, 
one of ethics, and one of physics, all character- 
ized by great clearness of expression. Under 
the title Declomationes, we have a collection of 
Melanchthon 's orations, which contain a treasure 
of educational wisdom. The best edition of 
Melanchthon s numerous works is that of Bret- 
schneider and Bindseil, in the Corpus Reformat 
torvm 1 2s vols.. 1834 — 60). His life has been 
written by Ledderhose (Heidelberg. 1847 ; trans- 
lated into English by Krotel) ; Schmidt (1861): 
and many others. 

MEMORIZING, committing to memory, or, 
as it is sometimes called, learning by heart, 
generally implies repetition or rote-learning; 
though it need not be without an understanding 
of what is memorized. The law of repetition 
has an important application in many processes 
of instruction that are addressed, wholly or in 
part, to the memory. The mere memorizing of 
words or sentences, in order to produce a show 
of knowledge is a great abuse. Children may, 
however, be required to commit to memory some 
statements which they do not perfectly under- 
stand, such complete understanding requiring a 
more mature degree of intellectual development. 
"No doubt', says Calderwood (On Teaching, 
Edin., 1874), "all children must commit to 
memory a good many things they do not rightly 
understand. Such storing of the memory be- 
longs less or more to all study." This is the view- 
also of Thring (Education mill School, Lon- 
don, 1864): "There should be a clear perception 
how far it is wise to explain, and to proceed on 
the principle of making a boy thoroughly under- 
stand his lessons, and how far they should be 
looked o.n as a mere collecting of material and a 
matter of memory. It must be borne in mind 
that, with the young, memory is strong, and 
logical perception weak. All teaching should 
start on this undoubted fact. It sounds very 
fascinating to talk about understanding every 



562 



MEMOET 



thing, learning every thing thoroughly, and all 
those broad phrases, which plump down on a 
difficulty, and hide it. Put in practice, they are 
about on a par with exhorting a boy to mind he 
does not go into the water till he can swim." The 
method referred to in this citation is the other 
extreme from mechanical word memorizing, and 
while not as injurious, or as likely to be adopted, 
is equally unphilosophical. The extent to which 
memorizing is to be carried, and the branches of 
instruction to which it is to be applied, constitute 
important subjects for the exercise of the teach- 
er's judgment and intelligence. (See Concert 
Teaching, Memory, and Rote-Teaching.) 

MEMORY is often represented as a distinct 
faculty of the mind ; but this may do harm in 
education. The mind is one, and has no sepa- 
rate faculties distinct from each other, the term 
faculty being used merely for the sake of con- 
venience. It is important to turn away from 
this mode of conception, and to look at the 
phenomena as they arise in the mind. An ob- 
ject and a mind come into connection ; what is 
the result ? An impression is produced on the 
mind, or more correctly the mind forms an im- 
pression of the object. What becomes of this im- 
pression ? A new object presents itself, and then 
the impression disappears before the new impres- 
sion which the mind forms of the new object. Has 
the former impression disappeared altogether? 
No. We believe that, in some way or other, 
it still remains in the mind. If a similar ob- 
ject were to come before the mind, it would be 
conscious that it had formed an impression of it 
before, and the two impressions would blend into 
one. We have here, then, a peculiar power of the 
mind to retain what it has once had ; and this 
power does not apply merely to perceptions or 
other intellectual acts, but to feelings and desires. 
A longing for an object has been aroused within 
us. The longing is displaced for a time by some 
other pressing passion. But the longing is still 
in the mind; and when the appropriate causes of 
excitation occur, the longing will come back, and, 
it may be, blend with the new longing which 
helps to awaken it, or repel the new longing 
which has aroused it by contrast. This then is 
the first feature of memory. The soul has the 
power of retaining feelings, volitions, perceptions, 
and thoughts. The question has been raised, 
can these feelings, volitions, and thoughts en- 
tirety and absolutely vanish from the mind? A 
categorical answer cannot, from the nature of 
the case, be given to this question ; but, certain 
facts render it likely that the mind retains every 
thing, and that it is merely the power of resus- 
citation which is defective. Many circumstances 
which seem to have been entirely forgotten, are, 
under peculiar conditions, recalled to the memory. 
It is said that often, when persons have been 
drowning, they have seen, as in a rapid vision, 
their past life in multitudinous details which 
they had entirely forgotten. People, in diseases 
of the brain, have remembered languages, which 
they had learned in early days, but which they 
seemed to have lost completely. Facts like these 



point to the indestructibility of that which has 
once had a place in the soul. — But besides the 
power of retention, there is the other power of 
reproduction ; and it is to this power that the 
educator has to direct his attention. What are the 
means of strengthening the reproductive power 
of the minds of children ? We have to look at 
the conditions of its exercise ; and, in this con- 
nection, we must consider the four following 
principles : (I) It is plain that the impression 
will be reproducible in proportion to the strength, 
and vivacity with which it is first made. This 
strength depends partly on the natural capacity 
of the child, partly on whether the stimulus 
in the object is such as to produce a strong 
impression. The educational inferences from 
this statement are numerous. Thus it follows 
that wherever a real object can be presented 
to a child, it should be used in preference to 
any picture of it, and that a picture of it is 
better than a mere verbal description. More- 
over, if more than one sense can be employed, so 
much the better. If any object is to be re- 
membered, the child will remember more easily, 
if he can touch, smell, and taste it, as well as see 
it. This arises partly from the fact that these 
direct sensations produce strong impressions, but 
partly also from what we call our second prin- 
ciple of memory: — (II) Eveiy means should be 
used to concentrate the attention on the object. 
If we wish to make a child remember an object, 
the object must be allowed to lie before the 
child's eye or mind for some time. In the percep- 
tion of every object the process is somewhat as 
follows : the perception or sensation has first to 
displace the preceding perception or sensation. 
It then gathers strength and occupies for a time 
the whole mind. But, soon after, another object 
of perception or of thought presents itself ; and 
the mind will occupy itself with this. This new 
perception will weaken, and finally expel, the 
other. Each perception is connected with two 
other perceptions or mental acts — with the one 
which it expels and the one by which it is ex- 
pelled. Now, the power of reproducing the men- 
tal act depends not merely on the strength with 
which the act is executed at its central moment, 
but also on the strength of the connections which 
it may form with the antecedent and subsequent 
acts ; and this strength depends partly on the 
time and attention with which they can be kept 
together in the mind ; for, in every mental act, 
there are subsidiary simultaneous acts which 
scarcely reach the point of consciousness. For 
instance, when I examine a house, there is some 
slight perception of the intermediate space be- 
tween me and the house, of the objects, such as- 
trees, which may be in that space, and of the sky 
which is overhead. These pass from the one 
definite perception to the other, and in a latent 
state help to recall the one, when we get the 
other. The strength of the connection is in- 
creased, if there be a natural connection between 
the two mental acts, such as that of cause and 
effect, means and end, or if there be some points 
of resemblance between them, or some points of 



MEMORY 



563 



contrast. But. in all cases, time must be given 
to let these points of resemblance or contrast 
flow over, as it were, from the one to the other. 
The danger to which the educator is here ex- 
posed, is that of attempting to do too much and, 
therefore, doing what he does too hurriedly. 1 le 
must be patient. He must try to intensify the 
impression by allowing the various senses to deal 
with it, and he can thus concentrate attention 
longer on it than he could otherwise do. And 
he must, as far as possible, bring only two objects 
or two ideas at a time before the pupil's mind. 
These should be held together for some time ; 
and they should, if it is possible, be naturally 
connected. Of course, there are occasions in 
which this is neither possible nor advantageous. 
There are some occasions in which the teacher 
must pass over a good deal of matter in a short 
time. He does not wish his pupil to remember 
the whole, nor would it be good for the pupil to 
do so ; but these cases should be limited to those 
of necessity. And a warning should be given 
against the danger of indulging too much in 
reading books which, awakening the interest 
strongly and thus disturbing the nervous sys- 
tem, do not demaud of the reader an accurate 
recollection. This is specially true of novels. 
The frequent and rapid reading of these works, 
iu which the reader has no stimulus and no occa- 
sion to remember the incidents accurately, fills 
the mind with a great number of vague mem- 
ories. These memories render indistinct what 
ought to be distinct, for they abstract so much 
of the valuable power that the mind possesses 
for reproduction: and the habit of reading with- 
out caring to remember, is apt to transfer itself 
to the books and acts which ought to have the 
closest attention. — (III) There must be frequent 
repetition. An object or thought is reproducible 
easily, when it has been made to occupy a large 
apace in the mind. The power of reproduction is 
limited by time, and the mind can only reproduce 
within certain limits in this respect. If, therefore, 
an object is to be reproduced, the faded impres- 
sion must be renewed ; aud the renewal of the 
impression strengthens its hold. It is thus that 
a fact may become indelibly imprinted on the 
memory. The value of the repetition cannot be 
overestimated, but great care must be taken not 
to make it wearisome. — (IV) The power of re- 
production greatly depends on the state of the 
health. That there is a very close connection 
between this power and the body, is proved most 
conclusively by the numerous instances collected 
by Dr. Abercrombie, in which abnormal states 
of the brain were accompanied by abnormal 
developments of memory. When, therefore, a 
child forgets, it must not be always attributed to 
carelessness. A child learns a word on Monday, 
and knows it with perfect accuracy; but when he 
comes, on Tuesday morning, to repeat it. lie finds 
he cannot. In all probability, the impression was 
too weak to last a whole day, and to resist the 
many and more interesting ideas which have 
intervened ; but the lesson is not lost. The orig- 
inal impression is there ; the teacher patiently 



and pleasantly renews the impression; and the 
old blends with the new, and strengthens, until 
repetition fixes it in the mind forever. But it 
may be merely a temporary suspension of the 
child's power of reproduction, in consequence of 
illness ; and there is no surer sign of latent dis- 
ease than when a child, generally ready and 
quick, stumbles and forgets. (Some physiologists 
go the length of affirming that, owing to the 
freshness of the nervous system, the exercise of 
the memory should be assigned to the morning; 
while other mental efforts, such as those of 
imagination, should be reserved for the evening. 
These four principles lead not only to the power 
of reproduction, but to the power of ready and 
accurate reproduction. In order that the mem- 
ory may embrace a wide range of subjects, it is 
essential that the mind should devote itself to 
such a range of subjects. The power of reprodu- 
cing a subject depends upon the frequency and 
strength with which it has come before the 
mind. It is, therefore, not quite correct to say, 
that a person has a good or a bad memory. Every 
one has many kinds of memory. If he has exer- 
cised his mind in words, he will remember words; 
if he has given much attention to numbers, he 
will remember numbers ; if to any other class of 
ideas, he will remember such ideas. But. however 
great his practice in numbers may be, that prac- 
tice will not enable him to remember words; and 
the converse is also true. The teacher must care- 
fully exercise the pupil in each group of notions, 
if he expects him to remember them readily and 
accurately. Perhaps, one of the questions which 
deserve careful consideration in education is 
what ought to lie forgotten. The human mind 
is limited in its range, and cannot reproduce 
every thing. Ought it to put into its store-house 
any thing that it cannot hope to reproduce? We 
think that it ought. Where the aim is to pro- 
duce in the pupil a clear idea or notion, many 
particulars must be adduced which, studied atten- 
tively for a short time, will render the notion 
clear and distinct ; but it is not necessary that the 
mind should retain all these particulars. This 
is the case, for instance, in geography. In order 
to form a correct notion of a country, many par- 
ticulars must be carefully weighed; but. after the 
notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely 
drop a great deal of the knowledge which he has 
temporarily mastered, deeming it enough to 
know where he can get the knowledge when he 
wants it. Again, when the object is to inculcate 
a great principle of action, the same course may 
be pursued. If, for example, a teacher wishes 
to impress upon his pupils the true idea of tolera- 
tion, he may choose many incidents in history 
to bring it home to their minds, and may go into 
the minutest details of these incidents in order 
to awaken interest ; but he succeeds in his pur- 
pose, if he leaves a strong and accurate general 
impression, even though the pupil forgets most of 
the details which have been given him. The power 
of forgetfulness is one that can also be directed, as 
well as the power of reproduction. It is, indeed, 
true that the greater the effort to forget any 



564 



MBMOBT 



thing, the more surely is it impressed on the 
memory; but this holds true mainly in those mat- 
ters in which there is a strong personal element; 
and just as a man who sleeps in a room where a 
clock strikes can make up his mind not to take 
any notice of the striking of the clock in his 
sleep, so, in the impersonal matters of the intel- 
lect, we can make up our minds to let such and 
such facts fall into oblivion. Kant distinguished 
memory as the mechanical, the ingenious, and 
the judicious. The mechanical is employed when 
the only bond of connection is, that the two things 
are in the mind at the same time, the one im- 
mediately succeeding the other. This is what is 
called committing to memory, or learning by 
heart. Such kind of memory must be frequently 
used in early education. It is important for the 
teacher to note its character. It depends on 
simultaneity and succession, and any disturbance 
of these circumstances disturbs the memory. For 
instance, it would be very difficult for anyone at 
first to repeat the Lord's Prayer backwards. He 
has learned it forwards ; he has not learned it 
backwards. A boy learns amo, I love. He may 
not have mastered / love, amo. If you ask him the 
Latin word for death, he cannot tell you ; but if 
you ask him the meaning of mors, he can tell you. 
The third method— that which Kant calls the 
judicious, is no doubt the best; since by it, things 
are remembered by means of their natural con- 
nection in thought. Thoughts can be grouped, and 
one of a group suggests the other. Phenomena 
stand in the relation of cause and effect. The 
cause will suggest the effect, or the effect the 
cause.— As an example of the second kind, may 
be mentioned mnemon ics; which is an attempt to 
introduce an artificial connecting link. Two ideas 
are unconnected, but they may be linked by a 
third which is familiar to the mind. Thus a clock 
has no real connection with hope; but, having re- 
solved to make a speech, I fix on three objects in 
the hall, with which I arbitrarily connect the three 
heads of my discourse. The first,, for example, 
is a pillar in the hall, and with it I connect the 
idea of faith ; this will be my first head, and, 
•when I see the pillar, I shall know how to begin. 
Hope is my second and I have but to look at 
the clock to recall it to mind; and a third object 
in the room, in the same manner, will remind 
me that my third head is charity. Mnemonic 
systems may be divided into three classes : 
(1) those which connect the ideas with localities, 
such as the parts of a room, tablets divided into 
different compartments, etc. ; (2) those in which 
the ideas are connected with letters or words ; 
and (3) those in which an attempt is made to 
seize hold of some natural connection ; for in- 
stance, hair, mourir, naiire, plaire, rire, vivre, 
are irregular French verbs, having no connection 
with each other ; but the meanings may be so 
arranged as to be easily suggestive of each other; 
thus, die suggests live, live suggests to be born, 
to be bom suggests laugh, laugh suggests please, 
and please suggests hale. Now, if two of these 
ideas be kept steadily in the mind together, they 
will remain united in the mind, and afterwards 



the one will suggest the other. None of these 
mnemonic systems are likely to be of much use 
to the teacher. They, indeed, often add to the 
task of memory; they are apt to create confusion, 
after a time, and they tend to displace intelligent 
memory. The only case in which some good may 
be got out of them is in connection with dates. 
There is no doubt that dates are far more dif- 
ficult to remember than letters or words ; and, 
therefore, a temperate use of letters or words for 
fio-ures may be recommended. — One of the most 
noted systems employing letters is the old one 
of Grey's Memoria Technioa (1730). The letters 
employed are as follows : 



a e i o u au oi ei on y 

12 3 4 5 6 7 R 9 

o d t f I s V It » . z , 

Here a and b stand for 1 ; e and d, for 2 ; % and i , 

for 3; and so on. 

These letters are assigned arbitrarily to the 
respective figures, and may very easily be re- 
membered. The first five vowels in order natu- 
rally represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The diphthong au, 
being composed of a (1) and u (5), stands for 6 ; 
oi for 1, being composed of o (4) and i (3); ou for 
9, being composed of o (4) and u (5). The diph- 
thong ei will easily be remembered for eight, being 
the initials of the word. In like manner with the 
consonants ; where the initials can conveniently 
be retained, they are made use of to signify this 
number ; as I for three, / for four, s for six, and 
n for nine. The rest are assigned without any 
particular reason, unless that possibly p may be 
more easily remembered for 1 or septem. k for 
8 or «™, d for 2 or duo, 6 for 1 as being the 
first consonant, and I for five, being the Roman 
letter for 50, than any others that could have 
been put in their places. A much more ingenious 
and more effective system, is that taught by F. 
Fauvel-Gouraud [Phreno-Mnemoiechny, or Art 
of Memory, N.T., 1845; with Dictionary, for a 
ready application of the system), which was a 
modification of Fainagle's New Art of Memory 
(London, 1812). In this, as in other systems, the 
underlying principle is the law of association of 
ideas ; and, in order to facilitate this association, 
arbitrary facts and dates are translated into the 
expressions of ideas or thoughts. Numbers are 
transformed into words and sentences by the fol- 
lowing arrangement of equivalents : 

0123456 7 89 

s t n m i- ! ch k f p 

7 . d g (soft) g (hard) V b 

th sil 

J 

The vowel and the aspirate h, with the quasi 
vowels, w and y, are not represented; and hence, 
in forming a word for the mnemonic representa- 
tion of a date or other number, any of these can 
be used. Thus the number 32 may be represented 
by man, moon, many, human, woman, etc. _ This 
feature of the system adds greatly to the facilities 
with which it may be applied. For example, 
suppose it is desired to fix in the memory in this 
way the date of the passage of the Red Sea by 
the Israelites (1491 B. C); by a careful selection 
from among the numerous words and phrases 



MENNONITES 



MERCERSBURG COLLEGE 565 



that may be taken to represent this number, 
the phrase watery bed is taken, as having some 
connection in ideas with the historical fact re- 
ferred to. Then Gouraud's association is ex- 
pressed in the sentence. "At the Passage of the 
Red Sea, the armies of Pharaoh met their death 
in a water;/ bed "; and as long as this phrase is 
remembered, the date involved in it cannot be 
forgotten. The advantage of this system is. that 
it need not bring into association heterogeneous 
ideas. In the application of it. many other cu- 
rious devices, such as homophonic analogies etc. 
are used. — Of a somewhat similar character is 
Dr. Alex. Mackay's Fuels and Dates (Edinburgh, 
1869). In this, as in Gouraud's system, every 
date is contained in a sentence which is approp- 
riate to the event. Thus the sentence which 
gives the date of Hannibal's defeat at Zama is, 
"The formidable warrior is defeated." — The art 
of mnemonics is said by Cicero to have been 
invented by the Greek poet Simonides. It is 
described by Cicero, QuintDian, and Pliny. In 
more modern times, works on the subject have 
been written by Schenkel (1593), Bruno (1582), 
Mink (1648), Grey (1730), Aretin (1*10). Fain- 
agle (1812), improved by Aimee (Paris L832), 
Bemowsky (1842), Otto (1843), Kothe (System 
der Mitemtiiiik, ( 'asscl. 18.i3). Pick (l866).Sayer 
(1867), Slater (Sentential Chronological, edit, by 
Miss Sewell, 1868), Mackay (1869), Minola, 
Nemos (1875), and many others. A short his- 
tory of Mnemonics is given in Pick's work. 

MENNONITES, a del dilation of Prot- 

testants, which originated at Zurich, Switzerland. 
in 1525. They spread to Southern Germany, 
and soon after to the Netherlands, where Menno 
Symons, a former Roman Catholic priest, joined 
them in 1535. From him they took their name, 
though he was not their founder, but only re- 
organized them. In common with the Friends, 
they practice non-resistance and abstinence from 
oaths; and. in common with the Baptists, they 
reject infant baptism, administering, however, 
baptism by pouring. In the Netherlands, in 1700. 
they numbered 150,000 members; but at present 
have only 20,000; and. in Germany and Switzer- 
land, even less than that number. In southern 
Russia, whither they have gone from Germany 
as colonists, they form a population of more 
than 30.000. Their emigration to the United 
States began in 16*3, and continued throughout 
the entire 1 Nth century. At present their mem- 
bership in the United States and ( 'anada. is esti- 
mated at 60,000. They are all of German origin, 
and most of them still employ the German lan- 
guage. Nearly all of them are farmers, being 
favorably known for their honesty, industry, and 
other domestic virtues, but greatly behind the 
age in the matter of education. Their first at- 
tempt to found a high school took place in 18(18, 
when the Ghristliehe Bildungsanstalt (christian 
institution of learning), at Wadsworth, Medina 
Co.. Ohio, was opened. It is an academy, hav- 
ing for its principal a theological teacher. Rev. 
C. J. Van der Smissen, but besides him only 
teachers of German and English grammar, mu- 



sic, and the elementary branches, '['he number 
of pupils, in 1876, was 27. Only one of the 
various divisions existing among the Menno- 
nites of this country, supports this school, which 
is under the control of an "administrative com- 
mittee." appointed by the general conference of 
the body. The other divisions of the Mennonites 
have no institutions of learning whatever. Even 
Sabbath schools exist only in a minority of the 
churches, and are of quite recent origin. In 
Europe also, little is done by the Mennonites for 
the education of the members of their order. 
They send their children to the public schools, 
but support a theological seminary of their own, 
founded at Amsterdam. in 1812, under the name 
I)e Kweekschool der algemeene Doopsgezinde 
Societeit ter bevordering run de predikdienst, 
i. e., Seminary of the General Society of Bap- 
tists for the furtherance of the ministry. This 
seminary is under the control of 12 curators, 
who are appointed by the trustees of the general 
society. It has at present (1876) 3 professors 
and about 30 students. In Germany the Menno- 
nites have an academy at Weierhof, Rhenish 
Bavaria, founded in 1*08. 

MERCER UNIVERSITY, at Macon, Ga., 
under the control of Baptists, was founded in 
1837. It has a fine building, on grounds com- 
prising about 10 acres, and is furnished with 
valuable philosophical and chemical apparatus. 
Its endowment amounts to $250,000. The li- 
braries contain about d.OOO volumes. The cost of 
tuition is $60 per annum : but provision is made 
for the free tuition of the sons of ministers and 
of candidates for the ministry. The university 
comprises a college of liberal arts, with a classical 
course of four years, and a scientific course of 
three years ; a department of theology (not yet 
separately organized) ; and a school of law. In 
1874 — 5, there were (i professors in the college, 
and 3 in the law school, and 150 students, of 
whom 7 were in the law school. The Mercer 
High School, at lYiifield. Greene Co.. and the 
Crawford High School, at Dalton, are connected 
with the university. The following named per- 
sons have been presidents of the institution : 
the Rev. Otis Smith. 1*41—2; the Rev. 
•Ino. L. Dagg, D. D.. 1843 — 50; the Rev. 
X. M. Crawford, D. D., 1850—60; the Rev. H. 
II. Tucker 1). D., 1867—71 ; and the Rev. Archi- 
bald J. Battle. D.D., appointed in 1872. 

MERCERSBURG COLLEGE, at Mercers- 
burg. Pa., founded in 1865, is under the control 
of the Reformed Church in the United States. 
It succeeded Marshall College ( founded in 1835), 
occupying its buildings and grounds. It is sup- 
ported chiefly by tuition fees and contributions. 
It has an endowment of $18,000. The libraries 
contain about 3.000 volumes. The cost of tui- 
tion is $45 per annum. There is a preparatory, 
a collegiate, and a theological department. In 
1 875 — 6, there were 7 professors and 7"> students. 
(23 preparatory, 39 collegiate, and 1 3 theoli igical). 
The presidents have been the Rev. Or. Thomas 
( 1. Apple, and the Rev. Dr. E. E. Higbee, the 
present incumbent (1876). 



566 



METHODISTS 



METHODISTS, the collective name of a 
number of Protestant denominations that have 
sprung from the peculiar religious character 
and influence of John Wesley, a Fellow of Ox- 
ford University, and . ordained as a clergyman of 
the Church of England. As 'early as 1729, while 
a Fellow at Oxford, Wesley gathered about 
him a number of persons of like character, and 
spent much time in religious worship, in the 
study of the Bible, and in active benevolent la- 
bors among the poor. Their fellow students, either 
in derision or as a happy expression of their char- 
acter, called them Methodists, a term which has 
been loosely employed not only to describe any 
who are extraordinarily zealous in religion, but 
as the recognized name of several denominations 
that can trace their origin, more or less directly, 
to the influence of John Wesley. The principal 
Methodist bodies in Great Britain are the Wes- 
leyan Societies, organized in 1740 ; the Primitive 
Methodist Church, organized 1819; the Methodist 
New Connection Church ; the United Methodist 
Free Churches ; the Bible Christian Church, and 
the British Wesleyan Reform Union. There are 
also affiliated Methodist bodies in France, and in 
Australia ; and large and flourishing missions in 
China, India, South Africa, and elsewhere, under 
the charge of British Methodists ; and bodies of 
American Methodists, which promise soon in- 
dependent and affiliated organizations. In Amer- 
ica, the oldest is the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
from which sprung, in 1844, the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, South; the African Methodist 
Episcopal Church ; the African Zion M. E. 
Church ; and the Colored M. E. Church of 
America. There are also several smaller organ- 
izations, called The Methodist Church, Methodist 
Protestant Church, American Wesleyan Church, 
Free Methodist, and Evangelical Association. All 
these bodies are substantially identical in doc- 
trine, all maintain a regular itineracy of the 
preachers ; and, in fact, the M. E. Church, and 
M. E. Church, South, embrace by far the greater 
part of all the membership among the white 
population. The general summary of Methodists 
in the United States, in 1876, gave in round 
numbers 19,000 itinerant ministers and nearly 
3,000,000 members, in Methodist Episcopal 
churches ; and 1,500 itinerant ministers and 
160,000 members, in non-episcopal Methodist 
churches. In the rest of the world, Methodists 
at the same time numbered about 5,000 itin- 
erant ministers and 1,000,000 members. Ac- 
cording to the U. S. census of 1870, the Meth- 
odists had 21,337 church edifices, 6,528,209 
sittings, and church property (edifices and 
parsonages) worth $69,854,121 ; but they have 
rapidly increased since that time. 

In Great Britain, the leading body of Meth- 
odists in England and Scotland is composed of 
the Wesleyan Societies under the control of the 
British Wesleyan Conference, which has also a 
branch in Ireland, and affiliated Conferences in 
the British colonies. As early as 1744, two 
schools, the Kingswood and the Woodhouse 
Grove, were established, which are stiD flourish- 



ing. Two theological institutions were estab- 
lished in 1838, which are largely attended, many 
of the ministers now receiving their education 
at these schools. They have also the Wesleyan 
Proprietary School at Sheffield, which is recog- 
nized as one of the colleges of the London Uni- 
versity. What are called day schools or parish 
schools are established numerously in England, 
complying with the terms required, and sharing 
in governmental assistance. Also, to fit teach- 
ers for these schools, the Wesleyans have a large 
normal school at Westminster. They have also 
a college designed expressly for the education of 
those who are preparing to be foreign mission- 
aries. By means of a Children's Fund and other 
collections, many needy students are aided .while 
securing an education. The Irish Wesleyan Con- 
ference has two vigorous schools under its charge, 
— the Belfast College and the Conventional 
School at Dublin. There are various other 
branches of Methodists in Great Britain, all of 
which manifest an increasing interest in edu- 
cation. The Primitive Methodist Church has 
a theological institute at Sunderland ; the Meth- 
odist New Connection Church, has one at Shef- 
field ; the United Methodist Free Societies, at 
Manchester ; and the Bible Christians, at Sheb- 
bear. 

In Canada, there are but two Methodist bodies, 
the one called the Methodist Church of Canada 
and Eastern America ; and the other, the M. E. 
Church of Canada. The former has a flourish- 
ing university at Cobourg, with colleges of arts, 
theology, law, and medicine ; also the Mt. Alli- 
son Wesleyan College, at Sackville, N. B. ; the 
Wesleyan Female College, at Hamilton; Home- 
stead College ; Theological College, at Montreal; 
Collegiate Institute, at Dundas ; Manitoba Wes- 
leyan Institute, and Ontario Ladies' College, at 
Whitby. These institutions have an aggregate 
property oi about one million dollars. They are 
all under the care of a board of education. The 
Methodist Episcopal Church of Canada concen- 
trates its educational interests at Belleville, where 
it has a flourishing institution called Albert Col- 
lege, which has university powers, and depart- 
ments in arts, theology, law, and medicine. There 
is also connected with it a school for females, 
called Alexandra College. 

In Australia, the Methodists have several 
flourishing academies and colleges. 

In the United States, the Methodist Episcopal 
Church was not organized till 1784; but Meth- 
odist Societies were established in New York 
and Maryland as early as 1766. Rev. Thomas 
Coke, LL. D., one of the presidents of the 
first conference, was a graduate of Oxford Uni- 
versity, and deeply interested in education. 
At this conference, a "Book Concern", which 
has -since become one of the leading publish- 
ing houses in the country, was provided for; 
and it was ordered that its profits should 
be devoted to five purposes, one of which was 
the foundation and maintenance of a college 
particularly designed for the education of preach- 
ers. A collection for this purpose was also or- 



METHODISTS 



567 



•dered to be taken in all the congregations. Thus, 
education was approved as a part of the legiti- 
mate work of the church at the time of its or- 
ganization. The college thus established was 
opened in Abingdon. Md., in 1787, and 
called, after bishops Coke and Asbuiy. Cokes- 
bury College, and was well attended till 1707, 
when the building was destroyed by fire, with- 
out insurance, causing a loss of about 850.000, a 
great calamity for the feeble church. Immediately 
collections were ordered in the societies, and the 
college was re-opened in Baltimore; but the new 
building was also soon consumed by fire. So 
disheartened was the Church by these losses that 
some hastily inferred that it was "not the business 
of Methodists to build colleges", and it was im- 
practicable to resume the enterprise at once; and, 
for twenty years, all the educational work of 
the church was carried on in a few private 
schools in various parts of the country. These 
schools were somewhat numerous, and, in some 
instances, formally recognized by the Church; but, 
for the want of system and permanent foun- 
dations, the most of what they accomplished has 
not been recorded in history. — As a kind of sub- 
stitute for theological schools, the general con- 
ference ordered that all who entered the reg- 
ular ministry should pursue for four years a 
prescribed course of literary and theological stui ly . 
an I be examined annually in the same; and their 
promotion in the conference as well as their 
ordination was dependent on their passing the 
examinations. This custom, the course of study 
having been enlarged and improved from time 
to time, is stdl practiced; and all Methodist 
ministers pursue a uniform course of reading 
and study for the first four years of their min- 
istry. This has greatly contributed to harmony 
of belief and theological culture. It has, indeed, 
be n a great educating power, every young 
Methodist preacher being specially charged to 
spend from four to six hours in study daily. 

In 1817, largely through the influence of Rev. 
Wilbur Fisk, I). 1)., of New England, an alumnus 
of Browu University, an academy was purchased 
by the Conference in New England, and opened 
as a conference seminary. Students of both 
sexes were admitted. The ensuing general con- 
ference approved the enterprise, and recom- 
mended all the annual conferences to follow 
the example. This has become the general prac- 
tiiv. The greatest educational force of Meth- 
odists has appeared in these seminaries. There 
lave been nearly a hundred of these conference 
seminaries founded, of wdiich some have become i 
extinct after doing a noble work, some have be- j 
come female colleges, and some have grown 
into regular colleges; but more than fifty 
still remain in a flourishing condition on the j 
old foundation. The buildings and funds : 
of these seminaries are valued at more than ; 
$4,000,000 ; and they employ about 5(10 teachers, j 
and are attended by about 25,000 students of! 
both sexes. They have educated at least 300,000 
pupils, mostly young men and young women j 
irom 16 to 25 years of age, many of whom have I 



' become preachers or teachers. Of late, the lead- 
ing conference seminaries are making efforts to 
secure endowments in addition to commodious 
buildings. There are but few colleges or schools 
exclusively for women under the care of the M. 
E. Church. Perhaps ten such institutions may 
be regarded as permanently founded, and as the 
property of the Church. These, for the must 
part, have good buildings, but no considerable 
endowment fund, and some of them are partly 
private property. — The first regular college estab- 
lished by the Methodists in America, except the 
Cokesbury College mentioned above, which had 
an existence of only ten years, was the Wesleyan 
University, at Middletown, Ct.. in 1831. This 
college has been remarkably successful in the 
character of its alumni, haying graduated about 
1,200 in 45 years, besides partially educating 
many more, a large portion of whom have en- 
tered the ministry. Other colleges soon sprung 
up imitating its example; and there were, in 1 877, 
at least thirty institutions having university 
charteis. about 20 of which were doing respect- 
able college work. Four or five had also added 
tn the literary college, schools of medicine, law, 
or theology. The Northwestern University, at 
Evanston. 111., has associated with it a medical 
school in Chicago. The Boston University has a 
medical, a law. and a theological department. The 
Syracuse University, in Syracuse, N. Y.. has a 
medical college: and a college of missionaries and 
a law school are a part of its plan. The buildings 
connected with all these colleges cost over 
83,000,000; theendowments are about$4,000,000, 
and the number of college students, about 2,500. 
The number of professors is about 300 ; of volumes 
in the libraries. 200,000. Several of these colleges 
are open impartially to both sexes. The num- 
ber of young women attending them and pur- 
suing thorough college courses of study, is com- 
paratively small; but the experiment has proved, 
in all respects, a success. Even the medical 
schools of the Boston and the Syracuse univer- 
sities are open equally to both sexes, and are 
; largely attended by both males and females. 

Tlie establishment of theological schools proper 
met with considerable active opposition in the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, some fearing that 
the teaching would tend to educate for the minis- 
try, as a profession, young men who had not 
been called of the Holy Ghost to this office and 
work; others maintaining that, if a young man 
were well grounded in academic and college edu- 
cation, the theological training might be well 
enough obtained by the course of study and read- 
ing furnished for young ministers, and by actual 
professional work. But, in spite of these ob- 
jections, principally through the persistent ef- 
forts of John Dempster, D. D., a Biblical In- 
stitute was opened in Concord, X. H., in 
1847, which was originally attended by stu- 
dents who had not pursued a college course 
of study. Dr. Dempster's great object being a 
school exclusively theological for young ministers 
of whatever grade of scholarship. Subsequently, 
this school was removed to Boston, and its 



568 



METHODISTS 



courses of study were greatly enlarged; it is 
now a department of the Boston University. 
In 1855, the Garrett Biblical Institute was 
opened in Evanston, 111., founded on a bequest 
by a Mrs. Garrett, of Chicago. In 1867, the 
Drew Theological Seminary was opened in 
Madison, N. J. These three theological schools 
are now largely attended by college grad- 
uates; but they furnish, as yet, but a small 
portion of those who enter the conferences as 
regular preachers. From the beginning, it has 
been the practice to admit to the ministry prom- 
ising young men, with but a limited school 
education ; but the relative proportion of college 
graduates is rapidly increasing. Several of the 
colleges offer special instruction to candidates 
for the ministry. 

In the foreign missions of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, schools have been established ac- 
cording to the exigences of the place, some ele- 
mentary, and some theological, and even medical. 
Martin Institute, at Frankfort on the Main, Ger- 
many, is a combination of a conference seminary 
with a theological school. There is also a flour- 
ishing India Theological School, at Bareilly, 
British India. Several schools are under the 
charge of the Woman's Foreign Missionary 
Society. 

Considerable effort has been made through 
the Freedman's Aid Society to open and sup- 
port schools for the freed colored people of the 
South. About twenty schools have been estab- 
lished, employing a hundred teachers, and edu- 
cating many young colored people for teachers 
and preachers. In eight years, more than half a 
million of dollars was expended for this purpose. 
Most of these schools will, probably, grow 
into permanent and strong seminaries or colleges. 

In 1869, a board of education of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church was chartered in the State of 
New York, by request of the General Confer- 
ence, designed to hold and disburse funds for 
the whole Church, particularly to aid students 
for the ministry, and especially for missionary 
work ; and also, to assist schools, if any funds 
are intrusted to it for that purpose. The board 
is designed to be as permanent as the Church it- 
self, consisting of two bishops, four preachers, 
and six laymen, appointed in sections, for twelve 
years each, by the General Conference. In 1872, 
Kev. E. 0. Haven, LL. D., was elected by the 
General Conference corresponding secretary ; 
and, since that time, many students, mostly in 
colleges and theological schools, have annually 
received some assistance from the board or its 
auxiliary societies, in obtaining an education. 
The General Conference has also recommended \ 
the observance of the second Sunday in June as 
" Children's Day," and that collections be taken 
in the Sunday-schools on that day in behalf of 
the board of education. The beneficiaries of 
the board are all pledged to repay the money 
after completing their school education. They 
receive money as a loan, not by gift. 

The General Conference of 1876 made a pro- 
vision in regard to education, which was designed 



to render the action of the Church on that subject . 
more systematic and radical than ever before. It 
makes it the duty of the presiding elder to bring 
the subject of education, in individual churches, 
before the first quarterly conference of each 
year, and secure the appointment of a commit- 
tee, of which the preacher in charge shall be 
chairman ; to organize, wherever practicable, a 
church lyceum for mental improvement ; to or- 
ganize free evening schools ; to provide a library, 
text-books, and books of reference ; to popular- 
ize religious literature by reading-rooms, or 
otherwise ; to seek out suitable persons, aDd, if 
necessary, assist them to obtain an education, 
with a view to the ministry ; and to do whatever 
shall seem best fitted to supply any deficiency 
in that which the church ought to offer to the 
varied nature of man. In this way, it is hoped 
to make educational work a part of the duty of 
every preacher and of every congregation. 

While, in the aggregate, the educational work 
accomplished by the direct agency of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church appears creditable, it 
must be acknowledged that, hitherto, the efforts 
of the denomination have not been so systematic, 
and so thoroughly wrought out, on this subject, 
as in many of its other enterprises. Its numer- 
ous Sunday-schools are all carefully organized 
and reported, and the circulation of Sunday- 
school literature is immense. Through the in- 
fluence of the Kev. J. H. Vincent, corresponding 
secretary of the S. S. Union, nearly every Sun- 
day-school in the whole Church feels the power 
of a central life and controlling spirit. The 
seminaries and colleges have acted less in con- 
cert, and some conferences have done compara- 
tively little for education ; but, at last, a con- 
dition has been reached, in which every society 
is requested to have a committee on education ; 
nearly every annual conference has an education 
society practically auxiliary to the board of edu- 
cation ; every congregation is requested annually 
to contribute for education ; and the seminaries, 
colleges, and theological schools are nearly all 
steadily receiving additions to their property; 
an increasing proportion of the ministers are 
graduates of colleges and theological schools; 
and the sentiment is strong in the Church that 
education will be far more thoroughly advanced 
in the second century of American Methodist 
history than in the first. 

The Methodist Church is decidedly in favor 
of the public-school system, particularly of the 
elementary schools attended by children residing 
at home. Several times, the General Conference 
has expressed the sentiment of the Church against 
using the funds of the state to aid parochial or 
sectarian schools. It is, however, in favor of fol- 
lowing the practice that has grown up among 
Americans, as a Christian people, of having the 
Bible read as a sacred book in the public schools; 
though some leading Methodists do not recom- 
mend even insisting upon that. This Church 
favors supplementing the work of the state by 
whatever may be deemed necessary to secure 
popular elementary education. It claims that,. 



METHODISTS 



569 



if the state does not provide for education, the 
Church should. Colleges and universities should 
not be trammeled by political partisanship or 
control. The Church is competent to establish 
and sustain colleges and universities in which 
the broadest and best culture shall be given in 
science, philosophy, and religion. Xeither of 
these should he absent from a college or a univer- 
sity ; but it is difficult to maintain them all in a 
college controlled by the state. — The literary in- 
stitutions of every grade, under the care of the 
Church, are so numerous, and their condition is 
so constantly changing that, for an exact enu- 
meration of these, attention is directed to the 
Methodist Almanac and other current publica- 
tions of the ( 'hurch. 

Wheu the Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1844, 
divided itself into two sections, that which be- 
came the Methodist Episcopal Church. South, 
retained all the schools of every grade within the 
boundary created by what was called the Plan 
of Separation . Ann mg these schools, were several 
chartered colleges of high standing. Randolph 
Macon College had been established in 1832, 
one year after the Wesleyan University at 
Middletown, Ct„ and is, therefore, next to the 
oldest Methodist College in America. Emory 
College, at Oxford, Ga., had been founded in 
1837, and Emory and Henry College, at Emory, 
Va.. in 1838. Between 1844 and the breaking- 
out of the civil war, other institutions were 
added. Centenary College, which hail been es- 
tablished by the state of Louisiana iu 1825, 
passed, in 1845, into the hands of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South. Trinity College, in 
Randolph Co., N. C, arose (1852) from a school 
commenced by the Rev. B. ('raven, D.D. Wof- 
ford College. S. ('., named after the Rev. Ben- 
jamin Wofford, who gave $100,000 for its en- 
dowment, was opened in 1855 ; Central College, 
at Fayette, Mo., in the same year; the Southern 
University, at Greenboro, Ala., in 1856; the 
Kentucky Wesleyan University, at Millersburg, 
Ky., in 1858. The civil war had a most dis- 
astrous effect upon the Methodist as well as upon 
the other literary institutions of the Southern 
states. A number of colleges and other institu- 
tions wholly perished ; others were closed during 
the greater part of the war, and have been, since 
then, but gradually revived. Thus, there were 
in the state of Alabama three colleges for males, 
all in a flourishing condition, two of which hail 
their entire endowments swept away; while the 
third, the Southern University, was greatly re- 
ilueel in its means, and only kept open in son,,; 
of its departments. Since the close of the war, 
great efforts have been made by the (.'hurch to 
enlarge her educational work. The unfortunate 
condition in which the finances of most of the 
Southern states found themselves, proved, of 
course, a great obstacle; but, more recently, great 
strides in advance have been made, and; at pres- 
ent, the Church, possesses, in Yanderbilt Univer- 
sity, at Nashville, Term., the best endowed in- 
stitution of learning iu the South. The movement 
for the establishment of this institution began in 



1871, when delegates were appointed to a con- 
vention to consider the subject of a university, 
such as would meet the wants of a church do 
tnanding a higher Christian education than 
could be obtained in the South and South-west. 
It declared that one million of dollars was neces- 
sary to perfect the plan, and refused to author- 
ize steps towards the selection of a site, until the 
public showed itself in sympathy with the move- 
ment, by a valid subscription of half that 
amount. It was early discovered that, in the 
exhausted condition of the South, so soon after 
the war, it was not practicable to pursue the en- 
terprise. The project was in abeyance, when 
Cornelius Vanderbilt. of the ( Sty of Xew York, 
donated $500,000, to which he subsequently 
added $200,000. The institution was dedicated 
and inaugurated in Oct., 1875. (See Yander- 
bilt University.) In Texas, a convention was 
called in 1869, to consider the propriety of con- 
solidating four chartered colleges of the Church, 
the oldest of which, Rutersville College, had 
been chartered in L860 by the Congress of 
the Republic of Texas. The convention met in 
1 870. resi lived upon the establishment of a united 
central institution, and declared not less than 
§500,(100 necessary to cany out the design. The 
new institution was opened, in 1874. as Texas 
University, and. in 1875, chartered as South- 
western University (q. v.). The total number of 
chartered colleges enumerated in the Report of 
the Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 1G. 
All of them are in the Southern states, with the 
exception of one in < 'alifornia, and one in Ore- 
gon. The latter. < 'orvallis College (q. v.), was 
opened in L865, and the legislation of the state, 
in 1869, placed the agricultural college of the 
state in connection with it. The Church has a 
large number of female colleges and high schools 
under her control. The Wesleyan Female Col- 
lege, at Macon, Ga., is the oldest institution of 
this kind in the United States, having been 
chartered by the Legislature of Georgia, in 1836, 
under the name of the Georgia Female College. 
The Greenboro Female College, at Greenboro, 
N. C, is only a few years younger, having been 
founded in L841. < >ther prominent institutions 
of this class are. the Montgomery Female Col- 
lege, at ( 'hiistiansbiirg. Va.; the Central Female 
College, at Lexington, Mo.; the Thomasville Fe- 
male College, at Thomasville, X. C.j the Wes- 
leyan Female Institute, at Staunton, Ya.; Dav- 
enport Female < 'ollege, at Lenoir, X*. (.'.: Mar- 
tin Female College, at Pulaski, Tenn. ; the 
Martha Washington College, at Abington, Va.; 
the Wesleyan Female College, at Murfreesboro, 
X. C. — One of the most interesting and impor- 
tant institutions in connection with the Southern 
Methodist Church, is the Culleoka Institute, in 
Mora Co., Tenn. It is a model high school, as well 
as an academy affiliated to Yanderbilt Univer- 
sity. There has always been a strong feeling in 
this Church against special schools of theology. 
Biblical instruction in connection with the reg- 
ular college course is, however, afforded in most 
Southern Methodist Colleges. 



570 



MEXICO 



MEXICO, a republic of North America; area, 
741,800 sq. miles; population, about 9,276,000, 
made up of whites, Creoles, Indians, half-breeds, 
and a few negroes. The language of the country 
is Spanish ; and the ruling religion, the Roman 
Catholic. Mexico was discovered by the Spaniards 
early in the 16th century, and was conquered by 
Cortes, 1519 — 21. It continued in the possession 
of Spain up to the beginning of the present cent- 
ury, when it established its independence. Since 
that time, it has passed through a number of rev- 
olutions and civil wars. When the Spaniards 
came to Mexico, they found there the intelli- 
gent and highly cultivated Aztecs. This people 
had been preceded by others who had also at. 
tained a high degree of civilization. In many of. 
the arts and sciences, the ancient Mexicans, 
when conquered by Cortes, had made great 
progress. Their calendar was more correct than 
that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. They 
knew how to manufacture paper, and possessed 
maps, on which even the roads were marked 
which their ancestors had used when they came 
to Mexico. The education of children was of a 
very severe character. In each family of the higher 
classes, the boys remained with their mothers 
up to the 6th or 7th year, when they received a 
carefully selected companion; and in their 10th 
or 12th year, they were sent to the temple, to be 
educated by the priests. Here they were sub- 
jected to a strict discipline, and were instructed 
in the liturgy, and in various other subjects. The 
girls were also received into the temple, which 
they did not leave until they were married. For 
the boys, there were also military schools. As in 
the other Spanish colonies, very little was done 
for education by the Spaniards. A university and 
a number of colleges had been established, in 
which the teachers were generally priests who had 
been educated in Spain. But insufficient as the 
instruction was, under Spanish rule, it became 
worse under the republic. The continual civil 
wars prevented all progress in education ; while 
the hatred for every thing that came from Spain, 
tended to destroy ad educational institutions 
previously established. Hence, the education of 
the whites, who alone had been cared for by the 
Spanish government, was now neglected ; while 
the native population continued to be neglected. 
By the law of 1846, the federal government 
transferred the care of the schools to the separate 
states, in some of which considerable progress 
has been made. Recently, the federal govern- 
ment has again established secondary schools in 
the capital, principally for the education of 
teachers. Compulsory education laws have been 
passed in most of the states ; but in some they 
are entirely inoperative. In 1875, president Lerdo 
de Tejada, in his message to congress, referred 
to education in the following words : "Public 
instruction has continued to merit particular at- 
tention. Both in the primary and in the pro- 
fessional schools, efforts have constantly been 
made to afford the elements of instruction, by 
establishing new professorships, as well as by 
providing all the instruments and other useful 



apparatus for practical teaching. With the same 
desire to obtain the most complete practical in- 
struction, various pupils of the national schools 
have continued to be sent abroad upon the suc- 
cessful conclusion of their studies." — Primary 
schools have now been introduced in almost all 
of the states. The schools are supported by the 
state governments, with pecuniary aid from the 
federal government, the municipalities, and sev- 
eral private associations, among which the Lan- 
casterian Society and the Benevolent Society 
in Mexico occupy a prominent position. The 
Lancasterian Society supplies the government 
schools with teachers. There are also, in all the 
principal cities, private schools ; but these are 
open only to the children of the rich. The plan 
of instruction comprises only the most necessary 
subjects, and the text-books are written in ac- 
cordance with this plan. In 1874, the total 
number of private schools was 8,040 ; of which 
5,691 were for boys ; 1,615, for girls ; and the 
rest were common to both sexes. Of the total 
number, 603 were supported by the federal and 
state governments ; 5,240, by the municipalities ; 
378, by private corporations ; and 117, by relig- 
ious associations ; 1,518 were private schools, in 
which tuition is paid for ; and 184 were without 
classification. The proportion of the number of 
schools to the population, was one primary school 
to every 1,141 inhabitants. The attendance, 
during the same year, was about 349,000, or 
something less than one-fifth of all the children 
between the ages of 6 and 13 years. There are 
also, in some of the larger cities, evening schools 
for adults of both sexes. The total expenditure 
for primary instruction, during the year 1874, 
was $1,632,436, of which $1,042,000 was fur- 
nished by the municipalities ; $417,000, by the 
federal and state governments ; and $173,000, by 
individuals and private corporations. 

Secondary instruction is imparted in national 
and state colleges, and in Catholic seminaries. 
The course of studies, in these institutions, com- 
prises Spanish, French, and Latin grammar, his- 
tory, geography, natural philosophy, and math- 
ematics. In some colleges, other branches are 
added ; as the English language, law, medicine, 
engineering, agriculture, and theology. In 1874, 
there were 54 state and national colleges, with 
9,337 students; and 24 Catholic seminaries.- with 
3,800 students. Law was taught in 33 of the 
colleges; medicine, in 11; engineering, in 9; 
agriculture, in 2 ; and theology, in 24. There 
were, also, 15 higher schools for girls, with 2,300 
students. The University of Mexico only grants 
diplomas, no studies being pursued there, as all 
the instruction is given in the colleges. The total 
expense of supporting the government colleges, 
in 1874, was $1,100,000, of which $200,000 
was expended in fellowships, which entitle those 
who hold them to free board and lodging in the 
college building. There were, in the same year, 
5 special schools in the federal district ; 1, of 
mines and engineering ; and 1, each, of medicine, 
law, agriculture, and the fine arts ; the last men- 
tioned was attended by about 700 pupils of both 



MIAMI UNIVERSITY 



MICHIGAN 



571 



sexes. The city of Mexico has also a school for 
deaf-mutes. — See Schmid, Pddagogische Ency- 
clopadie, art. Sad-America; Report if the U.S. 
Commissioner of Education for 1874. 

MIAMI UNIVERSITY, at Oxford, Ohio, 
was organized in 1824. It. has a preparatory, an 
undergraduate, and a post-graduate course, and 
is composed of six schools ; namely, Latin lan- 
guage and literature ; Greek language and 
literature ; modern languages and English phi- 
lology; mathematics; natural science: and philos- 
ophy and literature. The cost of tuition is $ 40 a 
year. The libraries contain about 9,000 volumes. 
The university has valuable cabinets and appa- 
ratus. In 1872 — 3, there were 6 instructors and 
86 students. The university is temporarily closed. 

MICHIGAN, one of the western states of 
the American Union, was at first included in 
the North-west Territory, set apart by the ordi- 
nance of 1787. Subsequently it formed a part 
of the territory of Indiana; but, in 1805, was 
organized as a separate territory. In January, 
1837, it was admitted into the Union as a state, 
Wisconsin Territory having been formed from 
its western portion. At the next census, in 1840, 
the population of Michigan was 212,207; in 1870, 
it was 1,184,059, of whom 11,849 were colored 
persons, and 4,926 Indians. The land area of the 
state is 56,451 sq. m. 

Educational History. — One of the first acts 
of the first legislature of Michigan, in the year 
1836, required the governor to appoint a super- 
intendent of public instruction, and made it the 
duty of such superintendent, "to prepare a sys- 
tem for the common schools and a plan for a 
university and its branches." The appointment 
was given to the Rev. John U. Pierce, who still 
lives (1876); and few men have ever lived to see 
so abundant fruit from the seed of their plant- 
ing. In 1837, he reported the "system" and the 
"plan," and both were adopted, without material 
change, by the legislature. The primary school 
law comprised 45 sections originally ; and though, 
from subsequent legislation, the same code now 
numbers nearly two hundred sections, yet the 
general features of the system have been changed 
in no essential respect. The same may be said 
of the original plan of the university ; and now, 
after a trial of forty years, the educational 
system of Michigan has the reputation of being 
one of the best in the Union. Since the adop- 
tion of the constitution, in 1850, the superintend- 
ent of public instruction has been elected bien- 
nially, with other state officers. He has a general 
supervision, without much actual power, over all 
the educational institutions of the state, includ- 
ing local colleges and incorporated private 
schools ; and all such institutions are required to 
make an annual report to him. Since the estab- 
lishment of the office, there have been eight 
incumbents, serving in the order and for the 
time here named : John I). Pierce, 5 years; F. 
Sawyer, Jr., 2 years ; C. C. Comstock, 2 years ; 
Francis W. Sherman, 6 years ; Ira Mayhew, 8 
years ; John M. Gregory, 6 years ; Warnel Hos- 
ibrd, 8 years ; and Daniel B. Briggs, the present 



incumbent,4 years. — A state teachers' association 
was organized in 1852. It holds its meetings an- 
nually, in December ; and is sustained now, as 
heretofore, by the leading teachers and educators 
in the state. — The j/rimary-school futtd of the 
state, most of which pays 7 per cent, is $3,130,- 
911.05. There are 398,080 acres of primary- 
school lands yet unsold, and held at four dollars 
per acre. 

Scliool System. — Each township has a board of 
three school inspectors, whose main duty is to 
organize and regulate the boundaries of school- 
districts. Each district has an executive board 
of three members, who make provision for such 
length of school terms, as is determined by the 
votes of the district ; but which must be nine 
months, in districts having 800 children of school 
age; five months, in districts having 30 children ; 
and three months, in all districts containing a 
number less than 30, under a penalty of forfeit- 
ure of their share of the interest derived from 
the primary-school fund (about 50 cents per ca- 
jiit(t),a.nd the tax of 2 mills on each dollar of the 
property in the district, which amounts, on an 
average, to about one dollar per child. This con- 
stitutional provision assures a school in nearly 
every district in the state. The district board 
determines the amount of taxes to be raised each 
year in addition to the statutory two-mill tax, 
and primary school money for the support of the 
school ; but taxes for building purposes must be 
voted by the district. The districts are not com- 
pelled by law to build houses ; but the greater 
portion must have a house or no school, and few 
districts are, for any length of time, without a 
school-house. The district boards make their an- 
nual reports to the inspectors, by whom these 
are collated, in the several townships, and for- 
warded to the superintendent of public instruc- 
tion. All contracts with teachers must be in 
writing, and no public money can be legally paid 
to a teacher who has not a certificate in the form 
prescribed by law. All school officers are liable to 
a fine, and district officers to removal, for delin- 
quency in the discharge of their duty. ' Parents 
are liable to a fine, if they fail to send their 
children to school three months in the year, 
while over eight and under fourteen years of age; 
but little respect is paid to tins law. Districts 
having 100 children of school age, may have a 
board of 6 trustees ; but, since the enactment of 
this provision, the powers of all districts have 
been so enlarged that these districts — styled 
grad.d-school and high-school districts — have 
hardly any superior privileges, except that they 
may establish a high school, in which a charge 
may be made for tuition, instruction in all other 
departments being free. A very small number, 
however, of the districts (nearly 300) organized 
under this law, have ever charged tuition to the 
resident pupils. These high schools are, many 
of them, of a superior grade; and pupils graduat- 
ing from them after a satisfactory examination, 
are admitted to the state university without re- 
examination. The working of the school system 
is generally satisfactory, except in regard to 



5T2 



MICHIGAN 



supervision. After eight years' trial of a county 
super inlendency, the state, in 1875, returned to 
a township superintcndency, each township (not 
including the cities) having a superintendent, 
who examines teachers, grants certificates, and 
visits' schools. The present system of supervision 
is not, however, giving that satisfaction which 
insures its long continuance. It may also be 
said that the supply of really competent teachers 
is not equal to the demand ; although a marked 
improvement in the qualifications of teachers 
was manifest under the county superintendency. 

Educational Condition. — There are (1876) 
5,411 ungraded-school districts, each employing 
a single teacher, and 297 graded-school districts 
requiring about 2,000 teachers. The graded 
schools have regular courses of study, from the 
lowest primary grade to that of the senior year 
of the high school. The whole number of school 
buildings in the state is 5,787, valued in the 
aggregate at $9,115,354. The 297 graded-school 
districts have 539 buildings-, valued at $5,775,790, 
showing an average of $10,716 each. Twenty- 
five of these buildings cost over $20,000 each, and 
several cost from $50,000 to $100,000 each. 

The support of the schools, during the year 
1874 — 5, was derived from the following sources : 
Balance from preceding year S675,S92.40 
Primary school interest hind 218,03R.29 

District taxes 2,341,923.71 

Statutory tax (2 mills on SI). 508,551.87 
Tuition of non-resident pupils 37,453.65 
All other sources 401,722.97 



Total. 



$4,183,580.89 



Expenditures during the year 1874 — 5 : 

Teachers' salaries $1,958,481.15 

Buildings 550,661.64 

Bonded indebtedness 398,106.41 

Other purposes 619,112.98 

Total S3 ,526,332.18 

The principal items of school statistics, for the 
year 1875 — 6, are the following: 

Number of children of school age (5—20) 449,181 

Number" " attending school 343,981 

Number of teachers, males 3,156 

females 9,120 

Total ' 12,27G 

Average monthly wages of teachers, males $51.29 

females.. ..$28.19 
Normal Instruction . — The state normal school, 
at Tpsilanti, was opened in 1852. It is under 
the general supervision of a board of education 
consisting of three members, elected on a state 
ticket for six years, and the superintendent of 
public instruction, ex officio. It has an endow- 
ment fund of $69,255, the balance necessary for 
its support being derived from appropriations by 
the legislature. The value of its buildings and 
other property is about $75,000. The annual 
current expenses are nearly $25,000. The num- 
ber of students, in 1875, in the normal depart- 
ment, numbered 409, — 187 males and 222 fe- 
males ; in the experimental department,' there 
were 200 pupils, making a total of 609. All stu- 
dents, on entering the normal department, are 
required by law to file a declaration of their in- 
tention to teach. The tuition fee is $10 per year; 



but each member of the lower branch of the legis- 
lature may appoint two students, residents of his 
district, who are entitled to admission, and to 
receive instruction free of charge. Many avail 
themselves of this privilege. The diploma of the 
school licenses the holder to teach in any of the 
public schools of the state. Nearly 7000 teach- 
ers have received instruction in this school dur- 
ing its existence. The board of instruction con- 
sists of a principal and 12 assistants. 

Secondary Instruction. — Under this head may 
be classed high schools and academies. There 
were, in 1874, 311 graded schools in the state. 
Of these, 144 made reports as to organization 
etc., and 84 were reported as having high-school 
departments, with an aggregate of 5,642 pupils, 
and, in 1873, 303 graduates. The subject of high 
schools has assumed unusual interest and impor- 
tance in this state, (1) on account of an effort 
recently made to have their existence declared, 
by the courts, illegal ; and (2) on account of their 
peculiar status as direct tributaries to the state 
university. The first effort failed, the court rid- 
ing that, though there was nothing in the school 
law expressly directing their establishment, there 
was nothing, on the other hand, forbidding it. 
This decision has been regarded as final, not only 
for the state of Michigan, but for other states in 
which the school law is so worded as to raise a. 
doubt on this point, (See High Schools.) The 
peculiar relation of the public high schools to the 
state university is the result of an arrangement 
by which high schools that wish to be recognized 
by the university in such a way as to permit 
their graduates to enter the latter without further 
examination, are visited and examined as to 
course of study and methods pursued, by a com- 
mittee of the faculty. This examination lasts 
one day for each school ; and, if the school is 
rejecte 1 by the committee, the reasons are dis- 
tinctly stated. If the scliool is accepted, its gradu- 
ates are admitted to the freshman class of the 
university without examination. This method 
facilitates their admission only, their continuance 
depending entirely upon their proficiency, which 
is tested by the usual term examination. The 
effect upon the high schools has been beneficial 
by raising the grade of scholarship for graduates, 
and by maintaining the schools on that higher 
level produced by the dignity of their position 
as stepjjing-stones to the university. In the latter, 
the direct effect has been uniformity of scholar- 
ship, and a decrease of necessary watchfulness 
on the part of professors and tutors, for individ- 
ual deficiencies. Though, by the old method, 
there may have been, in individual cases, greater 
proficiency at the time of admission, the great 
diversity of attainment shown by members of 
the same class was likely to be maintained to- 
the end of the college course, and the diplomas 
given to graduates had, therefore, widely differ- 
ent values. By the new method, uniformity of 
attainment, by being insisted on at an earlier 
period, produces uniformity of attainment at 
graduation. This plan, though regarded at first 
with misgiving, if not positive disfavor, is gradu- 



MICHIGAN 



573 



ally working its way to general approval. Those 
more immediately interested ill it and best capa- 
ble of j udging of its effects — the teachers of the 
schools. and the faculty of the university — regard 
its success in the near future as assured. The 
private schools of the state are reported by the 
present superintendent of instruction as "few 
and feeble, owing to the excellence of our free 
public schools." The number reported in 1873 
was 133, with 6,761 pupils. This is thought to 
be much below the actual number. Business 
colleges exist in several of the cities and towns, 
13 being reported in 1874, with 32 instructors 
and 1,506 students. Of the latter, 19(1 are fe- 
males. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
These institutions are not numerous. A few are 
reported in different parts of the state, managed 
by Catholics and German Lutherans, where in- 
struction is given to a few thousand children, but 
a vast majority of the children anil youth of the 
state find their only source of education in the 
public schools. 

Superior Instruction. — The names etc. of the 
higher institutions of learning are contained in 
the following table. For further information 
in regard to them, see the respective titles. 



NAME 



Adrian College Adrian 1859 M. Epis. 

Albion College Albion 1861 M. Epis. 

Battle Creek College Battle Creek 1875 Advent. 

(iraud Traverse College lieuzonia 1865 Cong. 

Hillsdale College Hillsdale 1855 F. W. Bap. 

Hope College Holland City 1863 Ref.(D'ch) 

Kalamazoo College Kalamazoo 1855 Bap. 

Olivet College Olivet 1858 Con.&Pr. 

University of Michigan Ann Arbor 1811 Non-sect. 

In none of these institutions is any distinction 
as to sex made in the admission of* pupils ; but 
there are, besides, several institutions specially for 
the education of females, among which may be 
particularly mentioned the following: Michigan 
Female Seminary, at Kalamazoo, under the pat- 
ronage of the Presbyterians, was organized in 
1867. and conducted on the plan of the cele- 
brated Mt. Holyoke Seminary in Mass. Its prop- 
erty is valued at 870,000, and its annual income 
is about $10,000. The Young Ladies' Seminary 
ami Collegiate Institute, at Monroe, was incor- 
porated under the laws of the state, and has been 
in operation about 30 years. It holds property 
valued at $10,000. It has a regular college 
course, besides post-graduate courses. Music, 
drawing, painting, and the modern languages are 
taught. Degrees are conferred as in colleges for 
young men. The number of instructors is 8; and 
the number of students, in 1875, was 103. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
There are two institutions for this kind of in- 
struction, — the State Agricultural College at 
Lansing, and the Detroit Medical College. Near- 
ly all the institutions, however, enumerated under 
superior instruction have departments in which 
professional or scientific instruction is given. The 
Agricultural College of Michigan was the first 
state institution of its kind established in the 




United States. By an act of the legislature, in 
1855, it came into existence and was opened for 
students in the spring of 1857. Until recently, 
it has been supported wholly by appropriations 
from the state treasury, aside from $56,320 real- 
ized from appropriated state lands. The appri ipri- 
ations from the state treasury for the college, up 
to the present time, amount to $397,787. The 
farm consists of 070 acres, situated on both sides 
of the Cellar river, three miles distant from the 
capital of the state; aud 300 acres are. under cul- 
tivation. The property of the college is valued at 
$250,000. The agricultural land grant by Con- 
gress, in 1862, gave Michigan 240.000 acres. From 
this has been realized $228,933, and the portion 
yet unsold is valued at $490,543. These avails 
go into the state treasury and constitute a perma- 
nent fund, on which the state pays 7 per cent. 
The number of students in attendance during 
the past year (1875 — 6) was 120. The students 
receive board and lodging at the institution at 
cost, which is about $2.0(1 per week ; but, quite 
one half of tins expense is met by allowances 
granted the students for manual labor performed. 
Tuition is free, and the incidental fees are a mere 
trifle. The faculty and other officci-s number 14. 
The control of the college is vested in a board 
of agriculture, the members of which are ap- 
pointed by the governor, for a term of six years. 
The governor of the state and the president of 
the college are members, ex officio. 

Special Instruction,. — The State Public School 
at Coldwater, partakes of the nature both of a 
school and an asylum. The object is to educate 
the dependent children from the poor-houses. 
It originated in 1871, when a state appropriation 
of $30,000 was made, and three commissioners 
were appointed to cany it into effect. A gift of 
20 acres in the town of Coldwater and of $25,000 
towards the buildings, led to its location at that 
place, and this was supplemented by an additional 
appropriation of $38,000 by the legislature. The 
plan of the buildings consists of a large central 
edifice, and surrounding cottages for the home 
residence of the children. It receives children 
between the ages of 4 and 10 years from the 
county poor-houses, and provides for and edu- 
cates them till good homes are found for them. 
They are strictly the wards of the state till 21 
years of age. There is an agent in each county 
whose duty it is to look after those who are in- 
dentured to. or adopted by, individuals, and, in 
case of any violation of the terms of indenture, 
to return them to the school. The school was 
opened in 1874, with nearly 200 children ; the 
number, in September 1875, was 171. The num- 
ber of officers is 18 consisting of a superintend- 
ent, teachers, matrons, etc. The aim of the insti- 
tution is, to give a fair elementary education. 
Since its establishment, the legislature has made 
appropriations for its support to the amount of 
$187,565.— The State Reform School, at Lan- 
sing, was established, in 1856, for the purpose 
of rescuing, if possible, from a life of crime, chil- 
dren and youths convicted of offenses against the 
law. It receives boys of from 10 to 16 years of 



574 



MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY 



age, and is strictly an industrial school. It is 
managed by a board of control, consisting of three 
members appointed by the governor, and is sup- 
ported by annual appropriations from the state 
treasury, and the earnings of the inmates. Five 
hours of each day are spent in school ; and four, 
in manual labor. The officers are a superintend- 
ent and an assistant, and 3 teachers, besides over- 
seers of the farm and shops. The annual ex- 
penses are from $25,000 to $30,000. The school 
has at present 220 inmates. Over 1,600 boys 
have been cared for by the institution since its 
establishment. — The Michigan Institution for the 
Deaf and Dumb, and Blind, was organized at 
Flint in 1854. About 94 acres are contained 
in the grounds and the farm connected with 
them. It is managed by a principal, steward, 
matron, assistant matron, physician, and 1 7 teach- 
ers in all departments, with a few minor assist- 
ants. In addition to the usual mental instruction 
given in such institutions, the pupils are trained 
in mechanical and industrial occupations. In 
some of these departments the sale of wares pro- 
duced has more than paid expenses, and the sur- 
plus has been devoted to the support of the libra- 
ry. About 200 inmates were receiving instruc- 
tion in 1874. 

The educational journals published in the state 
are, The Michigan Teacher, a monthly, published 
at Kalamazoo, and The School, a monthly, pub- 
lished in Ypsilanti. The publication of the 
former was begun nearly 20 years ago. Both are 
ably edited, and have a very geueral circulation 
in the state. 

MICHIGAN, University of, at Ann Arbor, 
owing its foundation to a grant by Congress, in 
1826, of two townships of land, to the territory 
of Michigan, was established by a legislative act, 
March 18., 1837, and was first opened for stu- 
dents, Sept. 20., 1842. It is a part of the public 
educational system of the state, and is governed 
by a board of regents, elected by popular vote, 
each for a term of eight years. Under certain 
conditions, the graduates of the public high 
schools of the state are admitted without 
examination. The university comprises the de- 
partments of literature, science, and the arts 
(including tli3 school of mines, organized in 1875) ; 
the department of medicine and surgery, organ- 
ized in 1850; the department of law, 1859 ; the 
homoeopathic medical college. 1875, and the 
dental college, 1875. Each of these departments 
and colleges has its special faculty of instruc- 
tion, having charge also of its management. 
The University Senate is composed of all the 
faculties, and considers questions of common 
interest and importance to them all. The de- 
partment of literature, science, and the arts em- 
braces six regular courses of four years each, 
and two shorter special courses. The regular 
courses, with the degrees that are conferred, upon 
their completion, are as follows : classical (Bach- 
elor of Arts), scientific (Bachelor of Science), 
Latin and scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), 
Greek and scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), 
civil engineering (Civil Engineer), mining engi- 



neering (Mining Engineer) . A full course in ar- 
chitecture and design was opened in 1876. The 
special courses are one in analytical chemistry, 
and one in pharmacy. On the completion of 
a two years' course in pharmacy, the degree 
of Pharmaceutical Chemist is conferred. Stu- 
dents may also pursue selected studies for any 
period not less than one term. Postgraduate 
courses are provided, leading to the degrees 
of Master of Arts, of Philosophy, or of Science, 
and Doctor of Philosophy, as well as for those 
not candidates for a second degree. After 1 877, 
the master's degrees are not to be conferred "in 
course." The technical courses of the depart- 
ment of literature, science, and the arts, are 
grouped together and known as the Polytechnic 
School. The regular courses in the professional 
departments are for two years. Both sexes are 
admitted to all the departments; but the courses 
of lectures for women, in the medical depart- 
ments, are distinct from those for men. The only 
charges made by the university are to residents 
in Michigan, an admission fee of $10, and the 
annual payment of $15; to those who come from 
other states or countries, an admission fee of 
$25, and the annual payment of $20. The num- 
ber of instructors and students in the different 
departments, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : 

Departments Instructors Students 

Literature, etc. 31 452 

Law 5 321 

Medicine and surgery 10 312 

Dental college 3 20 

Homoeopathic med. college 2 24 

Total, deducting repetitions 49 1,127 

The students in the department of literature, 
science, and the arts were classified as follows : 
resident graduates, 15 ; in the regular classes, 339; 
in selected studies, 19 ; in pharmacy, 79. Of 
these, 149 were in the Polytechnic School. The 
university grounds embrace 44J acres, and con- 
tain an astronomical observatory; a central build- 
ing, called University Hall, for the department 
of literature, science, and the arts ; buildings 
for the departments of law and medicine; a 
hospital ; a chemical laboratory ; and residences 
for the president and the professors. The observ- 
atory, erected by citizens of Detroit, was opened 
in 1854, and is supplied with the most approved 
instruments. The university museum contains 
valuable and constantly increasing collections^ 
illustrative of natural science, ethnology, art, 
history, agriculture, anatomy, and materia med- 
ica. The geological, zoological, and botanical 
cabinets together are estimated to contain about 
57,250 entries and 255,000 specimens. The li- 
braries accessible to the students contain about 
31 ,000 volumes. The university fund, being the 
proceeds of the sale of the university lands, 
amounts to about $550,000. It is held in trust 
by the state, which pays interest thereon at the 
rate of 7 per cent per annum. The present an- 
nual income of the university amounts to nearly 
$120,000. 

Previous to 1852, under the regulations then 
in force, there was no president of the university. 



MIDDLEBURT COLLEGE 



MILITARY SCHOOLS 



575 



Since that time, the office has been filled as fol- 
lows : Henry P. Tappan, I). 1)., 1852 — G3 ; 
Erastus 0. Haven, D.D., 1863—9; Henry S. 
Frieze, LL. D. (acting), 1869 — 71 ; James B. 
Angell, LL. D., appointed in 1871 and still (1876) 
in office. 

MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE, at Middle- 
bury, Yt„ founded in 1800, though not denomi- 
national by its charter, is under the direction 
of ( 'ongregationalists. The grounds, embracing 
about 30 acres, occupy a commanding eminence. 
It has productive fluids to the amount of 
£1 80,000, a library of more than 12,000 volumes, 
and valuable cabinets of natural history. The 
cost of tuition is 8-15 per annum. There are 
several scholarships, besides other beneficiary 
funds, for the aid of needy students. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 8 instructors and 53 students. Ac- 
cording to the triennial catalogue of 1871, there 
were 1,160 alumni, of whom 721 were living. 
Of the whole number 481 (274 living) became 
clergymen. The presidents have been as follows : 
the Rev. Jeremiah Atwater, S. T. D., 1800— 
1809 ; the Rev. Henry Davis.S.T. D., 1810— 17; 
the Rev. Joshua Bates, S. T. D., 1818—39 ; the 
Rev. Benjamin Labaree, S. T. D„ L. L. U., 1840 
— 66 ; the Rev. Harvey Dennison Kitchel, S. T. 
D„ 1866—1875 ; and the Rev. Calvin B. Hulbert, 
D. D., the present incumbent, elected in 1875. 

MILITARY SCHOOLS. Special institu- 
tions for the education of army officers now exist 
in all European countries, though they are of 
comparatively modern origin. The first military 
school in France was established by Louis XV., 
at Vineennes, in 1751. It was, soon after, re- 
moved to the Champ de Mars, Paris, but it has 
long ceased to exist as an institution for instruc- 
tion. The Special Military School of St. ( 'yr. 
near Versailles, was founded by Bonaparte in 
1802, and, for the first few years, was located at 
Fontainebleau. Candidates are admitted by 
competitive examination, and must be between 
17 and 20. or. if from the army, not o\er 25 
years of age. The course is for two years, and 
embraces geography, German, literature. drawing, 
legislation and administration, hygiene, topog- 
raphy, military art and histoiy, artillery, for- 
tification, and military exercises. The pupils 
pass either to the Staff School, in Paris, the 
Cavalry School, at Saumur. or to the army as 
sub-lieutenants of infantry. The St. ( 'yr School 
has about 700 pupils. The Polytechnic School, 
in Paris, opened in 1794, and organized by La 
Place in 1799, though not specially military in 
character, affords theoretical instruction in vari- 
ous military and related branches. There are 
also the Artillery and Eugineers' School, at Fon- 
tainebleau, for officers ; for the education of 
officers, the artillery schools at Valence and 
Ximes. the School for Non-commissioned In- 
fantry Officers, at Camp d'Avor ; — also the Mil- 
itary Orphan School, at X& Fleche. the Military 
School of Medicine and Pharmacy, in Paris, the 
Military Pyrotechnic School, in Bourges, and the 
Normal School for (Jymnastics, in Vineennes. — j 
In Great Britain, the most noted institutions , 



are the Royal Military Academy, at AVoolwich, 
founded in 1741. and the Koyal Military College, 
at Sandhurst, founded in 1799. The former is 
intended for officers of the artillery and engineers. 
The course is for two years and a half, and em- 
braces mathematics, elementaty chemistry and 
physics, French or German, military drawing 
and recornnoissam.ee, fortification, artillery, mil- 
itary history and geography, drills, and exercises. 
Candidates are admitted by competitive exam- 
ination, and must be between 16 and 18 years 
of age. The number of pupils is about 200. 
1 he college at Sandhurst is intended for officers 
of the cavalry and infantry. Admission is by 
competitive examination. The course is for one 
year, and embraces the elements of tactics, in- 
fantry and field-artillery drill, the regulations 
and orders of the army, accounts and correspond- 
ence, gymnastics, riding, regimental interior 
economy, military topography and reconnois- 
sance, field fortification and the elements of 
permanent fortification, and military law. There 
are 250 students. '1 he Staff College, at the same 
place, for the instruction of staff officers, former- 
ly the senior department of the Royal Military 
College, is now a distinct institution. The course 
is for two years, and embraces French, German, 
or Hindoostanee, military administration and law, 
fortification and field engineering, geology, mil- 
itary art, history and geography, artillery, riding, 
topography, reconnaissance, and military teleg- 
raphy and signaling. Admission here, also, is 
by competitive examination, open to officers 
of all arms who have served five years. The 
number of students is 40. Besides these insti- 
tutions, may be mentioned the Royal School of 
Military Engineering, at Chatham, the School of 
Gunnery, at Shoeburyness, the School of Mus- 
ketry, at Hythe, the Military Medical School, in 
London, and the Boyal Hibernian Military 
School, in Dublin. — In Germany, military in- 
struction is given in the following institutions : 
for officers, the war academies in Berlin and 
Munich (for higher scientific education, especial- 
ly for the general staff) ; for the education of 
officers, the united artillery and engineers' schools 
in Berlin and Munich, the war schools 1 at Pots- 
dam, Erfurt, Neisse, Engers, Kassel, Hanover. 
Anclam (Prussia), Metz (Lorraine), and Munich 
(Bavaria), the Prussian, the Bavarian, and the 
Saxon cadet corps ; six schools for the education 
of non-commissioned officers ; also the Medico- 
Surgical Frederick William Institute, the Med- 
ico-Surgical Military Academy in Berlin, the Mil- 
itary Veterinary School in the same place ; the 
musketry schools at Spandau and Augsburg, the 
School of Gunnery, the Superior Pyrotechnic 
School, and the Central Gymnastic Institution 
in Berlin ; and the military riding institutes in 
Hanover, Dresden, and Munich. — In Prussia, the 
senior cadet school is in Berlin, and to this the 
junior cadet schools are preparatory. The usual 
course is for four years in the junior schools, 
and two years in the senior school, from which 
the pupils pass to a war school, though some 
remain an additional year in the senior cadet 



576 



MILITARY SCHOOLS 



school. There is an examination for admission 
to the junior schools, and to the senior school for 
those who have not passed through the junior 
schools. The age of admission to the junior 
schools is about 10 years; to the senior, about 15. 
In the former, the- course embraces arithmetic, 
elementary algebra and geometry, German gram- 
mar and composition, French, Latin, Bible his- 
tory, natural philosophy, drawing, writing, his- 
tory, drill, gymnastics, fencing, and dancing: in 
the latter, geography, mathematics, physics, drill, 
fencing, imitative drawing, Latin, German, 
French, history, military drawing, religious in- 
struction, riding, and gymnastics. For the ad- 
ditional year, the branches are topography, mil- 
itary service and correspondence, science of arms, 
military exercises, fortification, tactics, military 
surveying and drawing, French, etc. Bach junior 
school has about 200 pupils ; and the senior 
school, about 700. The war schools are intended 
for officers of the infantry and cavalry, and as 
preparatory to the Artillery and Engineers' 
School. The course is for about nine months, 
and embraces musketry practice, tactics, science 
of arms, riding, fencing, fortification, military 
surveying and drawing, gymnastics, manual of 
the piece in artillery, drill in infantry exercises, 
with about six weeks' field exercise in applied 
tactics, reconnoissance, and surveying. The War 
Academy is intended for the education of officers 
for the staff, as military instructors, aud for 
other high duties. Candidates are admitted by 
competitive examination, open to officers of all 
arms of three years' active service. The course 
is for three years, and embraces French, Rus- 
sian, military hygiene and law, general, physical, 
and military geography, tactics, history of liter- 
ature, geodesy, mathematics, science of arms, 
history of the art of war, fortification, military 
administration, history, surveying, art of siege, 
chemistry, staff duty, physics, with practical field 
instruction in staff duty, surveying, field-sketch- 
ing, etc. There are about 275 students in this 
institution. The military schools of other Euro- 
pean countries are similar, in their general feat- 
ures, to those already described. — -In Austria- 
Hungary, there are the following: for officers, the 
War School (for the general staff) , the higher Ar- 
tillery and the Higher Engineering Course, the 
Preparatory Course for Candidates for the Artil- 
lery Staff, the Central Infantry Course, the Intend- 
ancy Course (affording a preparation for the mili- 
tary intendancy), all in Vienna, and the Royal 
Hungarian Landwehr-Cavahy School, at Jasz- 
bereny ; for the education of officers, the Mil- 
itary Academy, in Wiener-Neustadt (for infantry 
and cavalry), the Technical Military Academy, 
in Vienna (for the artillery and engineers) , the 
Ludovica Academy, in Buda-Pesth (for the Hun- 
garian Landwehr); preparatory to the academies, 
the Military Superior Real School, in Weiss- 
kirchen, the military inferior real schools at St. 
Polten and Guns ; the Military Medical Course 
and the Military Riding Institute, in Vienna. — 
The Russian Institutions are as follows : for 
officers, the Nicholas Academy (for the general 



staff), the Michael Artillery Academy, the Nich- 
olas Engineering Academy, the Military Jurid- 
ical Academy, all in St. Petersburg ; for the 
education of officers, six war schools (two for in- 
fantry, and one each for cavalry, artillery, and 
engineers in St. Petersburg, and one for infantry 
in Moscow), the Imperial Page Corps, in St. 
Petersburg, the Finnish Cadet Corps, in Helsing- 
fors, eleven infantry, two cavalry, and four Cos- 
sack schools for young noblemen ; as preparatory 
institutions, 17 military gymnasia and 9 military 
progymnasia ; — for special instruction, the Mil- 
itary Law School, the Military Topographical 
School, the Preparatory School for the Guards, 
the Military Surgical School, the Technical and 
Pyrotechnic School, all in St. Petersburg, and two 
gunsmithery schools. — Italy has the following : 
for officers, the War School, in Turin (for the high- 
est instruction and the general staff), the Artil- 
lery and Engineers' School, at the same place ; 
for the education of officers, the Military Acad- 
emy, in Turin (for the artillery and engineers), 
the. Military School, in Modena (for infantry and 
cavalry) ; as preparatory institutions to the Mil- 
itary Academy and Military School, the military 
colleges, in Kaples, Milan, and Florence; also 
the Normal Infantry School, in Parma, and the 
Normal Cavalry School, in Pinerolo. — Besides 
the schools for officers of the character already 
indicated, there are in nearly every European 
country regimental or battalion schools for the 
instruction of privates or non-commissioned 
officers in the common branches of learning. — 
In Brazil, military instruction is given in reg- 
imental schools, for training non-commissioned 
officers ; preparatory schools ; the Military School, 
in Rio de Janeiro ; the Depot of Artillery Ap- 
prentices, in the same place ; the Cavalry and 
Infantry School of the Province of Sao Petro 
do Rio Grande do Sul ; and the General Gun- 
nery School of Campo Grande. — In the Military 
Academy, at West Point, N. Y., founded in 1802, 
the United States has an institution second to 
none of its kind in the world. The organization, 
course, etc., are described under the appropriate 
title. (See West Point.) There is also an 
Artillery School at Fortress Monroe, organized 
in 1867. The act of Congress of 18B2, donating 
land to the states for the establishment of agri- 
cultural and mechanical colleges, includes milita- 
ry tactics among the branches to be taught in 
those institutions. An act of I860 authorizes 
the president to detail officers of experience to 
act as professors of military science in institu- 
tions of learning, having over 150 male students. 
A number of institutions have availed them- 
selves of this privilege. By the same act, provi- 
sion is made for the instruction of enlisted men 
in the common English branches of education at 
every post, garrison, or permanent camp. In 
nearly every military department, there are 
schools for instruction in military signaling and 
telegraphy. A number of academies or high 
schools in the United States are organized 
upon military principles, in imitation of West 
Point, daily drill being . required of the pupils. 



MILTON 



5TT 



Some of these are designed for boys not ame- 
nable to the milder discipline of the ordinary 
schools. Several institutions providing instruc- 
tion of a collegiate grade, in classics, modern 
languages, and scientific branches, have a similar 
organization. Of these the principal, having 
Separate articles in this work, are as follows : 
the Kentucky Military Institute, at Farmdale, 
Ky. ; Louisiana State University, at Baton 
Rouge, La. ; Norwich University, at Northfield, 
Vt. ; Pennsylvania Military Academy, at ( Ihes- 
ter, Pa. ; Texas Military Institute, at Austin, 
Tex. ; and Virginia Military Institute, at Lex- 
ington, Va. — Gen. Hazen, in contrasting (1872) 
the French and Prussian system of military edu- 
cation, remarks that only about one-third of the 
French officers are of necessity educated men, 
while, in Prussia, all must be. In the French 
schools, there is almost a total absence of moral 
control ; while, in Prussia, the opposite is true. 
In France, the great lack of a good preparatory 
•education is loudly complained of, and the almost 
total neglect of mathematical subjects in the 
special schools is noticeable ; while great atten- 
tion is paid to drawing and all practical subjects 
of a military character. In the French system, 
the entire school course is given before service 
is seen ; but, in Prussia, a certain amount of 
actual service must precede any theoretical course 
at the schools; nor is there in France, as in 
Prussia, any provision for recognizing, utilizing, 
and educating the talent of young men who 
have, by a few years' service, developed mental 
superiority. In Prussia, nothing is more strik- 
ing than the connection between the military and 
civil education of the country. The competitive 
system is almost universally objected to, and 
mathematics are thought worthy of attention up 
to the highest grades only by those of peculiar 
aptness. The Academy, which gives a superior 
education to the first men of the army, is of 
great merit and usefulness. The greatest pos- 
sible care is bestowed upon methods of study and 
instruction ; the most remarkable feature of the 
system is the attention paid to forming and dis- 
ciplining the mind and encouraging habits of 
reflection. The education is eminently practical. — 
In reference to West Point he says : -'After see- 
ing much of the best European armies, I believe 
that, at the breaking out of our war, our little 
regular army was officered by better technical 
soldiers than any army in the world ; and this 
I believe to be due to West Point." — See H. 
Barnard, Military Education ; an Account of 
Institutions for Military Education in France, 
Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sardinia, Sweden, 
Switzerland, England, and the United States 
(2 vols.). — A list of the military schools of all 
European States is given by Brachelli, Die 
Staaten Ewqpa's (1875). — See Gen. W. B. Ha- 
zen, U. S. A.. The School and the Army in Ger- 
many and France. 

MILTON, John, a celebrated English poet, 
born in London, Dec. 9., 1608; died there Nov. 8., 
1674. His father, being disinherited on chang- 
ing his religion — which had been the Koman 



Catholic, — followed the profession of a scrivener, 
by which, we are told, he "got a plentiful estate." 
Young Milton was carefully educated. .A private 
tutor gave him instruction in Latin, and perhaps 
in Greek, and imbued his mind with a love for 
poetry, and the writing of Latin and English 
verse. He next passed to St. Paul's School, where 
he was prepared for Christ's College, Cambridge, 
which he entered in 1625. Here, for seven years, 
lie devoted himself, with great assiduity, to such 
studies as would tit him for a career of author- 
ship instead of the usual one of a profession, all 
desire for which he had abandoned. At this 
time, his singular personal beauty and intellectu- 
al independence made him a marked character 
among his fellow collegians. On leaving Cam- 
bridge, in 1632, he spent five years in study and 
reading, chiefly classical, and the composition of 
poetry. The most beautiful of his shorter poems 
were written at this period of his life. In 1637, 
he set out upon his travels, visiting France and 
Italy, in both of which countries he formed the 
acquaintance of men eminent in science and 
literature. Paris, Florence and Borne were 
aim >ng the places visited by him at this time; and 
GrotiuS and Galileo, among the acquaintances 
thus formed. On receiving word of the struggle 
impending between the people of England and 
the king, he abandoned further travel, and hast- 
ened home. For several years, his energies were 
devoted to the cause of the revolution, to which 
he contributed many pamphlets, which estab- 
lished not only his great ability as a controver- 
sialist, but his mastery of vigorous and eloquent 
English prose. In 1643. he was married ; but, 
within a month, a separation took place, owing 
to incompatibility of temper. This led to an at- 
tempt on his part to change the law relating to 
marriage, in the course of which he published 
some of the the most famous of his prose pam- 
phlets. In 1644. he published his Tractate on 
Education and his Areopagitica, a Speech for 
the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing. In 1645, a 
reconciliation took place between him and his 
wife ; and, for several years, he resided in Lon- 
don, devoting himself to literature. About 1654, 
he became totally blind, the malady being hast- 
ened by his zeal in writing a defense of the people 
of England against tl e usurpations of the king. 
] lis wife dying in 1652, or 1653, he married 
again in 1656, and again in 1663. About 1665, 
he completed Paradise Lost and began Paradise 
Regained. The last years of his life were passed 
in domestic disquiet, obloquy, and the contem- 
plation of the defeat of the public measures and 
principles he had labored so long to establish. 
The prominence accorded to Milton by educa- 
tionists rests principally upon his Tractate on 
Education, addressed in the form of a letter to 
Samuel Hartlib (q. v.). In this tractate is pre- 
sented Milton's view of "a complete and generous 
education, to fit a man to perform justly, skill- 
fully, and magnanimouly all the offices, both 
private and public, of peace and war." His first 
injunction is " to find out a spacious house and 
ground about it fit for an academy, and big 



578 



MILTON 



MILWAUKEE 



enough to lodge 120 persons, whereof 20 or 
thereabouts may be attendants, all under the 
government of one who shall be thought of desert 
sufficient, and ability either to do all, or wisely 
to direct and oversee it done." Such an academy 
is to be both " school and university" — the sole 
place of instruction for the youth it contains, 
from the time of their admission to the time 
when they enter upon the duties of mature life. 
Their studies, their exercise, and their diet are 
separately considered. For the first, grammar is 
to be used as an introduction, giving special at- 
tention to the practical use of it, as in coi'rect 
pronunciation and a knowledge of the rules 
most commonly used. Advantage, also, should 
be taken to cultivate indirectly the moral sense 
by the use, as text-books, of such works as have 
become classics. For this he recommends several 
in the Greek language. He attaches great im- 
portance, also, to the personal magnetism of the 
teacher, as a means for inciting his pupils to an 
" ingenuous and noble ardor." Arithmetic is to 
be taught at this period ; and, shortly after, 
geometry. In the evening, the instruction is to be 
moral only. The next step is the study of agri- 
culture, as found in the writings of Oato, Varro, 
and Columella. These authors are chosen for the 
double purpose of acquiring a mastery of " any 
ordinary prose," and for inciting in the pupils a 
desire in after life to "improve the tillage of their 
country." It will then be proper to go on to 
the study of maps, globes, and natural philoso- 
phy. Greek should then be taken up, and in a 
short time, trigonometry, fortification, architect- 
ure, enginery or navigation, and anatomy. Medi- 
cine, both theoretical and practical, should next 
be pursued. These studies should all be supple- 
mented, as far as possible, by an observation of 
their application in practical pursuits. Moral 
instruction should now predominate. The les- 
sons inculcated should be enforced by reading 
the moral works of Plato, Xenophon, Cicero, 
Plutarch, etc., ending at evening with the Bible. 
The next study should be that of political econo- 
my, followed by politics and law. Sundays and 
evenings should be devoted to theology, church 
history, and the study of Hebrew — the latter in 
order that the Scriptures may be read in the 
original. Then follow " choice histories, heroic 
poems, and attic tragedies," with " political ora- 
tions," some of which should be committed to 
memory, and declaimed. Rhetoric, the art of 
composition, logic, and poetry next succeed; after 
which, he says, "whether they [the students] be 
to speak in parliament or council, honor and at- 
tention would be waiting on their lips." He next 
speaks of physical exercise. Wrestling and the 
use of the sword are specially commended, the 
breathing spells to be filled with music. About 
two hours before supper, the students are to be 
summoned to their martial exercises, on foot or 
on horseback, in fair weather or foul. These will 
give personal prowess and hardihood, and ac- 
custom the youths to habits of discipline, 
and the practical conduct of armiesjr Visits to 
the country, also, at favorable seasons, and for- 



eign travel, are recommended to supplement the 
studies and exercises of the academy. Lastly, the 
students' food should he "plain, healthful, and 
moderate," and served in the same house. The 
proper age in which to pursue this curriculum is 
from the 12th to the 21st year. It will be seen 
from this synopsis, that Milton's view of a liberal 
education differed widely from that of the school- 
; men of his day, in its estimate of the classics and 
natural science ; while, in many respects, it ex- 
ceeds the liberal tendencies of the most advanced 
educators of the present time. The period of child- 
hood, which is now claiming so much of the at- 
tention of the educators throughout the civilized 
world, is not, indeed, considered by him ; not, 
however, because it was overlooked, nor because 
he undervalued its importance ; but, because 
"brevity" was his "scope." On nearly all of the 
great subjects that now agitate the educational 
world, this tractate is silent. Compulsory educa- 
tion, sectarianism, the relation of schools to the 
state, the education of women, the co-education 
of the sexes — none of these are mentioned. Yet, 
if the reader of to-day, wondering at its fame, and 
doubting its claim to special consideration, will 
transport himself to Milton's time, and note the 
influences by which he was surrounded — the 
almost universal disregard of the practical in 
education, and the blind worship of book knowl- 
edge — this " Letter to Master Samuel Hartlib" 
will appear almost a daring innovation; and the 
moral courage, as well as the sagacity, of its. 
author will he unquestioned. 

MILTON COLLEGE, at Milton, Wis., 
founded as an academy in 1 844 and as a college 
in 1867, is under the control of the Seventh-Day 
Baptists. It is supported chiefly by tuition 
fees. Its endowment amounts to 86,000. The 
libraries contain about 2,100 volumes. It has 
philosophical and chemical apparatus and cab- 
inets of botany, mineralogy, etc. The academic 
department has a teachers' course, an English 
and business course, and a preparatory course ; 
the collegiate department has a classical and a 
scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 260 
students in all courses. Both sexes are admitted. 
The principals and presidents have been as fol- 
lows : the Rev. Bethnel C. Church, 1 year ; the 
Rev. S. S. Bicknell, 3 years ; the Rev. Amos W. 
Coon, 2 years ; Prof. A. C. Spicer, 7 years ; and 
the Rev. W. C. Whitford, the present incumbent 
(1876), 18 years. 

MILWAUKEE, the chief city and port of 
entry of the state of Wisconsin, was settled in 
1835, and incorporated as a city in 1846. Its 
population, according to the census of 1870, was 
89,930 ; and its school population (between the 
ages of 4 and 20 years) 27,359, which, in August 
1875, had increased to 33,919. The total popu- 
lation of the city, at present (1876), is about 
120,000. Of the school population, in 1875, the 
number attending the public schools was 30.7 
per cent; attending private schools, 21.3 per cent. 
Of the children between the ages of 4 and 15 
years, more than 75 per cent attended either 
public or private schools. 



MILWAUKEE 



579 



Educational History. — The history of the 
public schools of Milwaukee, in its general char- 
acter, does not differ greatly from that of other 
western cities which have grown into importance 
during the last thirty years. In all, the advance 
has been from the rude frontier school of the 
early settlers, in which only the rudiments of a 
common English education were taught, to the 
highly-organized system of the large city, with 
its several grades of schools, crowned with its 
high or normal school, and, sometimes, with a 
university. The first school taught in the city, 
was the private school of a Methodist minister, 
opened in the winter of 1835 — 6, in a building 
in East Water Street. The following year, the 
first public school organized under the school 
laws of the territory, was opened in Third Street. 
Since the incorporation of the city, in 1846, the 
progress of the schools has been rapid and steady. 
Two steps of sufficient importance to be noted, 
are the introduction of German as a regular 
study in the district schools, which took place in 
1857, and the introduction of drawing and 
music, in 1873. The present school system was 
organized in 1846. The first school superintend- 
ent was Rufus King, 1859 — GO. His successors 
were, Jonathan Ford, 1860—62 ; A. C. May, 
8 days in 1862 ; J. R. Sharpstein, 1862— 3 ; 
Edwin De Wolf, 1863—5; F. C. Pomeroy, 
1865—70 ; G. H. Paul, 1870—71 ; F. V, Law, 
1871 — 4 ; James Mac Alister, the present in- 
cumbent (1877), elected in 1874. 

School System. — The supervision and control 
of the public schools are vested in a board of 
education, consisting of 26 members, 2 from each 
ward, who are appointed biennially by the alder- 
men, subject to confirmation by the common 
council. The board elect annually from their 
number a president, who is required to preside 
at all meetings, and to deliver an annual ad- 
dress. The school board is required, subject to 
the approval of the common council, to establish 
and organize a sufficient number of schools for 
the accommodation of the children of the city, 
for which the common council must purchase, or 
lease, lots and buildings, erect school-houses, and 
provide the necessary furniture. The board, is, al- 
so, authorized to define the boundaries of school- 
districts, to adopt suitable text-books, which must 
be uniform, and must continue in use without 
frequent change, and to enforce uniformity in the 
system of instruction employed in the schools. 
They also elect biennially a superintendent of 
schools, whose duties are to exercise a general 
supervision over the public schools, to examine 
into their organization and condition, to suggest 
to the teachers such changes, consistent with the 
school law, as he may deem expedient, and, in 
connection with a committee of the board, to ex- 
amine teachers, to employ and classify them, and 
to dismiss them when necessary. The school law 
requires the establishment and maintenance of 
a high school, in which must be organized an 
academic department and a normal course for 
the special training of teachers for the public 
schools of the city. The course, of study in 



the academic department embraces four years; 
that in the normal course, three. Pupils from 
the district schools, who are 15 years of age or 
over, of studious habits and good moral char- 
acter, and who have passed an examination of 
the first grade, and received the superintendent's 
diploma for such examination, are admitted to 
the high school : but candidates who have not 
attended the district schools, may be admitted 
to the high school upon passing a special ex- 
amination. A certificate of graduation, entitling 
the holder to teach in the public schools, may be 
given to each student in the normal department 
of the high school, who is not less than 18 years 
of age. and who has maintained a satisfactory 
standing in that department for one year. There 
are three kinds of schools, — branch schools, dis- 
trict-schools, and the high school. The first are 
only adjuncts of district schools, and are opened 
whenever any of the latter are not adequate to 
the public needs. The work in the branch 
school is graded, but is of an elementary char- 
acter. In the district schools, there are ten 
grades, occupying about eight years. 'I he course 
of study embraces all the ordinary blanches of 
an English education, together with German 
(graded like the other studies, and taught by a 
special teacher), and music, free-hand drawing, 
and calisthenics, graded and systematically 
taught by the class teachers. There arc special 
superintendents, however, for each of these 
branches, who regularly inspect and supervise 
the work, and, in the case of drawing and music, 
hold all the examinations for promotion. In 
the high school, there are two courses — the clas- 
sical and the English — each occupying four 
years. Three grades of certificates are granted 
to teachers, examinations for which are held in 
March. June, August, and December. The 
schools are supported principally by an annual 
city tax. levied by the common council on all 
taxable property. In 1875 — 6, this tax amounted 
to 1.85 mills on the dollar. The school age is 
from 4 to 20 years. The number of schools, 
in 1875 — (i, was 21, consisting of the following: 
high school, 1; normal department, 1; district 
schools, 13 ; branch schools, 6. — The following 
are the principal items of school statistics for 
the same year: 

Number of pupils of school age 34,934 

" " enrolled in public schools. . . 13,881 

Average daily attendance 8,453 

Number of teachers 197 

Total receipts $108,949.22 

" expenditures $164,210.15 

" valuation of school property $486,500.00 

Connected with the public schools, is a teach- 
ers' library, the privileges of which are free to 
all teachers employed in the public schools, and 
to the pupils of the normal department of the 
high school. In addition to the means of in- 
struction afforded by the public schools, there 
are many private and denominational schools. 
The number of the former, in 1873, was 47, in 
which instruction was given to 7,000 pupils, the 
number of whom, in 1875, was increased, to 
9,269. 



580 



MINERALOGY 



MINERALOGY. Under the head of min- 
eral substances, or those which constitute the 
mineral kingdom, are included all inorganic 
bodies; that is to say, by strict definition, all sub- 
stances that are not the products of life. By a 
similar strictness, we might be led to say that, 
the mineral kingdom being a division of nature, 
artificial products should be excluded from it. 
Nature, however, is not to be limited by our 
verbal definitions; organisms appropriate and 
use mineral substances without altering their 
composition, or they may, in the complex 
chemical reactions of vitality, give rise to a min- 
eral substance, especially as a result of organic 
decomposition. Thus we have in bones mineral 
matter; and the carbonic acid breathed out by 
the visitor to the Grotto del Cane belongs as 
much to the mineral kingdom as that evolved 
from the floor of the cave. Again, nature rights 
fully claims as true mineral substances many 
which owe their existence to the art of man, be- 
ing altogether identical in form, composition, 
and character with those of her own production. 
We can make no distinction between the crystal 
of salt formed by. the artificial evaporation of 
brine, and a similar crystal produced by the 
natural evaporation of sea-water ; or between 
the crystals of augite formed as furnace products 
and those of volcanic origin. Hence we see that, 
in reality, the mineral kingdom embraces all sub- 
stances, in their constitution essentially inorganic, 
which occur in nature, even though they may 
have been formed under organic or under artifi- 
cial conditions ; and we thus include in this 
kingdom, not merely all solid bodies formed in 
the crust of the earth, but also all inorganic 
fluids, whether liquid or gaseous, within, upon, 
or above the earth. Among these, we are at 
once called upon to recognize the distinction be- 
tween the different kinds of molecules that are 
presented to our notice, and the different forms 
under which these are aggregated ; in ordinary 
language, we recognize materials and structures. 
To the materials we apply the term minerals. 
A material must be homogeneous; hence the 
definition of a mineral is " a natural homogene- 
ous substance of inorganic origin." To mineral 
aggregates we apply the term rocks; but as fluid 
minerals, whether gaseous or liquid, can hardly 
be said to have structure in the sense in which 
the geologist uses the term, he defines a rock as 
" any aggregation of solid mineral particles which 
constitutes an essential part of the earth's crust." 
Imbedded within rocks, we meet with certain 
mineral bodies that present forms and structures 
undoubtedly of organic origin ; to these, provided 
they are of a certain geological antiquity, is ap- 
plied the term fossil. (See Paleontology.) — 
Each mineral is theoretically assumed to be ca- 
pable of taking, under favorable circumstances, 
the form of a geometrical solid. This capability 
is due to forces inherent in inorganic matter, 
which causes its molecules to arrange themselves 
according to fixed laws about certain mathemat- 
ically related axes. A perfect crystal is thus 
the outward expression of symmetrical internal 



structure, and is defined as " an inorganic solid 
bounded by plane surfaces symmetrically ar- 
ranged, and resulting from the forces of the con- 
stituent molecules." (See Dana, System of Min- 
eralogy, vol.i.) As the molecules of different kinds 
are variously affected by the molecular forces, the 
crystalline forms of different minerals vary ac- 
cordingly. The form of the same mineral is 
always constant ; not that it always occurs in 

'• crystals of identical form, but that all its forms 
are referable, under mathematical conditions, to 

j one fundamental type. Its crystalline form is, 
therefore, regarded as an essential characteristic 
of a mineral species, which will embrace vari- 
eties resulting from modifications of the type ; 

' and, in this light, any particular crystal may be 

| regarded as a mineral individual. 'Ihe existence 
of such mineral structures is not incompatible 
with the definition of a rock given above, since 
crystals are not structures essential in the earth's 
crust. The formation of a crystal is interfered 
with by so many external and varying influences, 
that forms of exact symmetry are almost im- 
probabilities ; or, to quote Dana, " this sym- 
metrical harmony is so uncommon that it can 
hardly be considered other than an ideal perfec- 
tion." — The law that the same mineral is always 
limited to its own crystalline form is apparently 
contravened in many instances ; — thus, we may 
have minerals of similar composition, as of 
carbonate of lime, or even elements, as carbon 
and sulphur, crystallizing under two or more 
different fundamental forms (dimorphism, "poly- 
morphism) ; or, we may have minerals of differ- 
ent but related chemical composition assuming 
identical or similar forms (isomorphism, homceo- 
morphism) ; or, finally, we may have a mineral 
assuming the form of another mineral of essen- 
tially different chemical composition (pseudo- 
morphism). As the molecular arrangement 
known as crystalline structure is thus intimately 
controlled by the laws that govern chemical 
combination, the explanation of the above men- 
tioned apparent exceptions to law lies within 
the province of the chemical physicist. Thus, 
whilst the mathematician deals with the forms 
of crystals and their properties as geometrical 
solids, to the chemist and physicist must be as- 
signed that part of crystallology, or the science 
of crystals, which treats of the laws and condi- 
tions that give rise to such forms. To the 
mathematical branch, is assigned the name crys- 
tallography, to the physical, ci-ystallogeny. As 
crystalline form and chemical composition are 
the essential characteristics of mineral species, 
chemistry, physics, and solid geometry are the 
sciences upon which mineralogy is based. In 
turn, it is an essential subordinate of geology, 
necessarily throwing light upon the character 
and history of rocks. From a more general 
educational stand-point, mineralogy is important 
as making us acquainted with the results of the 
forces that are restricted in their action to in- 
organic matter, and enabling us to contrast 
them with the results of that combination of 
forces which we call vitality. The properties 



MINERALOGY 



MINNESOTA 



581 



of minerals also throw light mi physical problems 
by affording data for the discussion of questions 
affecting light, electricity, magnetism, etc. — In 
its applications to the arts, the value of mineral- 
ogy rests upon a chemical basis. It may thus 
be regarded, educationally, as supplementing 
chemistry, as complementary to geology, as of 
great technical importance to the practical chem- 
ist and as a necessary study to the metallurgist 
and mining engineer. — It will be at once apparent 
that the study of mineralogy, with whatever end 
in view, must be deferred to a late stage in ad- 
vanced education. At the same time, it may be 
noted that minerals, regarded merely as the 
materials of which the earth's crust is composed, 
offer examples of so many physical properties 
that come under the cognizance of the senses, 
either unaided or aided by the simplest experi- 
ments, that they afford excellent material for 
the cultivation of the powers of observation in 
the lower stages of education. Minerals present 
these properties in the simplest conditions, un- 
complicated, as in vegetable or animal materials, 
by the effects of vitality; and they are superior to 
artificial objects for objective teaching, because, 
if rightly used, they may be made tc> elucidate 
all that can be elucidated by the former, whilst 
they become, in addition, foundation stones upon 
which a more advanced and scientific study may 
be satisfactorily based. In this manner, they may 
be used to inculcate, in its most elementary form. 
a scientific method of research. Thus, by means 
of the physical characters of minerals, observa- 
tion, accurate as far as our unaided senses can 
make it, and exactness of thought, and conse- 
quently of speech, may be cultivated in regard 
to external form, internal structure (including 
elementary notions of crystalline structure and 
cleavage), color, diaphaneity, luster, hardness, 
tenacity, fracture, etc. Observations, elementary 
it is true, but still of a fundamental character, 
regarding specific gravity, solubility, wA fusibil- 
ity, may be induced by simple experiments with 
the balance, the test-tube, and the blowpipe. 
Such knowledge, acquired from the common 
minerals around us, will undoubtedly be a val- 
uable stepping-stone to further acquisitions. At 
a later stage, if practicable, instruction in the use 
of the blowpipe might be made to yield a further 
insight into simple chemical phenomena, and, if 
carried far enough, might be made an excellent 
starting-point for systematic scientific investiga- 
tion by analysis. 

In connection with mineralogy, attention 
should be given to lilhology, or the science of 
mineral aggregates, or rocks. This subject 
presents many points of interest both from a 
scientific and an educational point of view ; and 
in its connections, on the one hand, with geology, 
and, on the other, with mineralogy, affords the 
materials for practical study as well as useful 
mental culture, thus constituting an element of 
both technical and liberal education. The works 
necessary to the general reader for reference on 
topics of mineralogy and lithology are few ; and 
those only are here named that are perfectly ac- 



cessible. — See Dana, A System of Mineralogy; 

: and A Manual of Mi/tcrahi/u ; the former is 
the standard work of reference on minerals ; the 
latter is a brief compendium for beginners, but 
requiring adaptation to late advances; Nicol, 
Elements of Mineralogy ; Bkistow, Glossary 
of Mineralogy; Mitchell, Mineralogy, in 
Orr's Circle of the Science*, useful in presenting 
the subject of crystallography. Elementary and 
concise information will be found in the standard 
manuals of geology. (See Geology.) 

MINES, SCHOOL OF. See Scientific 
Schools. 

MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- 
TION. How far it is right or expedient for 
state governments to assume the control of the 
primary, secondary, and superior schools of a 
country, is a question which is still unsettled, 
receiving various answers in different countries. 
(See State and School.) This difference of 
views finds an expression in the way in which 
the different national governments have arranged 
the administration of those educational affaire of 
which they have taken charge. Some states have 
a special minister of public instruction who has 
charge only of the educational affairs of the 
country. Such states arc, in Europe, France, 
Italy, Russia, Norway. Turkey; among the Amer- 
ican states, only Nicaragua was reported (in the 
Gotha Almanac for lSTIi) as having a special 
minister of public instruction. In many other 
countries, one of the members of the state min- 
istry bears the title of Minister of Public In- 
struction, but performs also the duties of tome 
other department. 'I bus, in Prussia, Bavaria, Sax- 
ony, Wtirtemberg, Denmark, Greece, Sweden, 
Bolivia, Chili, and Costa Rica, the minister of 
education was, in 1875, also minister of public 
worship ; and. in some of these states, even a 
third ministerial department was connected with 
the cillice. In Spain, commerce, education, and 
public works; in Guatemala, foreign affairs and 
education ; in San Salvador, the interior and 
education, were assigned to one member of the 
ministry. In none of the other states of Europe 
or America, do any of the members of the 
ministry bear the special title of minister of edu- 
cation, cither exclusively or jointly with that of 
another ministerial department. In Belgium and 
in the Netherlands, there is a special bureau for 
educational affairs in the ministry of the inte- 
rior; and. in the same- way. in the United States, 
a bureau of education, with a commissioner of 
education at its head, as a section of the de- 
partment of the interior. In England, there is a 
committee of the council on education; in Por- 
tugal a supreme study council ; and, in the new 
German Empire, an imperial school commission. 
Fuller information on this subject may be found 
in the special articles in this work on the differ- 
ent countries of the globe. 

MINNESOTA, one of the north-western 
states of the American Union, formed a part of 
the territory of the same name, which was or- 
ganized by Congress in lK4!t. The state of Min- 
nesota was admitted into the Onion in 1858, 



582 



MINNESOTA 



taking rank as the 1 9th, in the order of admission. 
Its area is 83,531 sq. m. ; and its population, in 
1870, was 439,706, including 438,257 whites, 759 
colored persons, and 690 Indians. 

Educational History. — The importance of 
general education was recognized in Minnesota 
at the commencement of its existence, the first 
constitution of the state making provision for a 
free public-school system and a state university. 
Every township containing not less than five 
families was constituted a school - district, in 
which school trustees were annually elected i and 
the majority of the voters had authority to levy 
a tax not exceeding $500 ; besides which a 
county tax was also sanctioned for school pur- 
poses. The general direction and supervision of 
the school system was assigned to a state super- 
intendent. In 1860, there were 879 public 
schools, having 31,083 pupils, and 4 colleges 
having 366 students. The income of the public- 
school fund was $27,712, besides which $56,608 
w;is raised by taxation for the support of com- 
mon schools. In 1 858, the first normal school was 
established, by an act of the legislature ; and, in 
1860, it was organized and opened at Winona. 
This school was suspended from March, 1862, to 
November, 1864, when it was re-opened in pur- 
suance of a law passed in February of that year. 
A second state normal school was opened at 
Mankato, in 1868 ; and, the following year, 
$30,000 was appropriated by the legislature for 
a permanent building for its accomodation. A 
third normal school was opened at St. Cloud in 
1869. A state normal board was constituted by 
law to have the supervision of these institutions, 
the state superintendent being made a member, 
ex officio. The preparatory department of the 
state university was opened in 1867, but the in- 
stitution did not receive its charter till 1868. It 
was fully organized in 1870. After several years' 
experience of the system as originally established, 
the legislature, in 1873, subjected it to a thorough 
revision, prescribing the system mainly as it 
now exists. During the session of the legislature 
in that year, a bill was proposed providing for 
universal compulsory education and for the pre- 
vention of truancy; but it was not passed. — The 
state school fund, at that time, amounted to 
nearly 3 millions of dollars, realized from the 
sale of about one-eighth part of the land belong- 
ing to it. — Since 1870, the state superintendents 
have been Horace B. AVilson, who in that year 
succeeded Mark H. Bunnell, and served until 
1875 ; and Bavid Burt, the present incumbent 
(1876). 

School Si/stem. — The supervision of the edu- 
cational interests of the state is committed to a 
superintendent of public instruction, -who is ap- 
pointed by the governor for two years. His 
duties are similar to those of state superintendents 
generally ; while his powers are greater from the 
fact that he is called upon to perform the func- 
tions usually intrusted in other states to state 
boards of education. He establishes normal 
training schools, convenes teachers' institutes, 
apportions the school funds among the several 



counties twice a year, and issues to teachers, 
upon examination by himself, or by a committee 
of teachers appointed by him, state certificates. 
This officer, the secretary of state, and the pres- 
ident of the university, constitute a board for 
the recommendation of text-books to be used 
in the common schools of the state. He is also 
a member and secretary, ex officio, of the state 
normal board, which has charge of the state 
normal schools. — County commissioners are also 
chosen, whose duty it is to appoint county super- 
intendents for two years, at a salary of not less 
than $10, for each organized district. The duties 
of the latter are to examine teachers and grant 
certificates, to visit the schools in their respective 
counties once during each session, and each to 
make an annual report to the state superintend- 
ent. No one is eligible to the position of county 
superintendent who cannot obtain from the state 
superintendent a first-grade certificate. In each 
district, there is a director, a treasurer, and a 
clei'k elected for three years. Their duties are 
the same as those of such officers in other states, 
and relate to the sj>ecial and immediate wants of 
the schools under their charge. Independent 
districts may also be organized in any city , town, 
township, or village. In such cases, the govern- 
ment of these districts is intrusted to a board of 
six directors, who perform the duties usually 
belonging to the officers of school-districts. They 
also appoint three school examiners for the 
independent district, who examine applicants for 
the position of teacher. The school age is from 
5 to 21 years. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts, in 1875, was 3,362 ; the number 
of school-houses, 2,975 ; the number of winter 
schools, 2,r82; of summer schools, 2,643. The 
number of graded schools reported in that year 
was 222. 'the receipts for the support of the 
schools, were derived from the following sources: 
Balance from previous year . .8231,089.98 

Special tax collected 659,427.60 

A pportionedb}' county auditor 551,837.17 

Sale of bonds 48,870.51 

Other sources 84,856.34 

Total $1,576,081.60 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' wages $702,662.66 

Furnishing and supplies 57,568.92 

Repairing houses and grounds 54,206.98 
Purchasing sites and building 

houses 187 ,667.74 

Rent of sites and rooms 3,158.64 

Payment of distiict bonds. . . . 151,567.79 
For other purposes 132.796.30 

Total SI 289,629.03 

The other important items of the school 
statistics, for 1875, are the following: 

Pupils enrolled 107,044 

Average attendance in summer 32,660 

" winter 38,632 

" " mean, for the year 35,646 

Number of teachers in uugraded schools: 

winter, males 1,252 

females 1,147 

Total... " " 2,399 

summer, males 352 

females 1,949 



Total. 



2,301 



MINNESOTA 



583 



Number ol teachers in graded schools: 

males 120 

females 4i4 

Total.. .7 
Number of different teachers employed: 

males.... .". .1,372 

females 1,591 

Total 



.M,l 



.2,963 



Normal Instruction. — The normal schools of 
the statu are three in number, located at Winona. 
Mankato, and St. Cloud. In that at Winona, 
the course of study embraces the English lan- 
guage, mathematics, physical and natural sciences, 
political economy, vocal music, and the theory 
and practice of teaching. The number of pupils 
enrolled in the normal department was (in 1875), 
males. 75; females, 226. The number enrolled 
in the model classes was, males, 105; females, 93: 
total enrollment, 4911 ; the number in actual 
attendance in the normal department. 220. The 
faculty consists of a principal and ten assistants. 
The class of graduates of May, 1ST"), numbered 
18; the whole number of graduate?, since its 
organization, was 227. — The second state normal 
school is at Mankato. It is divided into a nor- 
mal and a model department, and has a faculty 
of one principal and five professors or assistants. 
Both sexes are admitted. Its course of study is 
similar to that pursued in the normal school at 
Winona. The number of pupils enrolled, in 1875, 
was. in the normal department, males, 63; fe- 
males. 150; in the model department, males, 30; 
females. 16. The average attendance in the nor- 
mal department was 59 ; in the model depart- 
ment, 20. There were 11 graduates during the 
year. — The normal school at St. Cloud is the 
youngest of the three state institutions, having 
been established in 1869. Its organization and 
course of study are the same as those of the two 
older schools at Mankato and Winona. It is open 
to both sexes, and has a faculty consisting of a 
principal and six instructors. The enrollment was 
as follows: in the normal department, males, 50; 
females, 124; in the model department, males, 16; 
females, 32 ; average number in the normal de- 
partment, males, 28 ; females, 64 : average in 
model department, males. 10; females, 15. In 
addition to the privileges afforded by these three 
institutions, special instruction, to those desiring 
to teach in the public schools, is given in several 
of the high schools of the state. A large number 
of teachers of both sexes is supplied annually 
from this source. — Teachers' institutes are con- 
vene 1 by the superintendent of public instruc- 
tion. and are presided overbythe superintendent 
of the county in which they are held. The effort 
made by tin' normal board to induce teachers 
and pupils in the normal schools to attend the 
annual institutes, and take part in the proceed- 
ings, has been successful. Eleven institutes were 
convened in L875, the exercises in which were 
conducted largely by the teachers and pupils of 
the schools referred to: and the increased interest 
manifested, and the good feeling produced by 
bringing together the county teachers and those 
of the normal schools, are thought to be full of i 
promise. 



Secondary Instruction. — The number of high 
schools in the state is not reported. They 
are confined principally to the cities and lai ge 
towns, many of the 222 graded schools having 
high-school courses attached. Recommendations 
have been made that the high schools be pro- 
vided with a uniform course of study so as (o 
constitute them stepping-stones to 'the state 
university, as in some other states; but decided 
action in this regard has not yet been taken. 
.Many private schools exist in various parts of 
the state, which were reported, in 1875, as em- 
ploying 145 professore and teachers, and afford- 
ing instruction to 5.447 pupils. The Baldwin 
School, the preparatory department of Macalister 
College, was incorporated in 1853. Its curric- 
ulum is reported as substantially the same as 
that of Phillips Academy, in Massachusetts. The 
St. Croix Valley Academy, at Afton, received 
its charter in 1867 ; it is supposed to be the first 
regularly incorporated academy in the state. This 
institution has fitted a large number of teachers, 
who are satisfactorily employed in the district 
schools. Among the most important private in- 
stitutions for secondary instruction, are Taylor's 
Select Graded School, at St. Paul, organized in 
Kill ; the .Minneapolis Business College, and the 
St. Paul Business College, the latter established 
in 1865. said to be the oldest and the largest in- 
stitution of the kind in this part of the North- 
west. The number of teachers, in 1875. was 6 ; 
lecturers. 3 : students. 209. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — The 
chief institutions of this character, according to 
the report of 1*75, are the Schools of the Epis- 
copal Church, at Faribault, including Shattuck 
School, a collegiate and business school for boys, 
which has a military organization, under the 
care of an experienced officer of the C. S. Army; 
and St. Mary's Hall, now in its eleventh year, 
established to provide a I hristian home for young 
ladies, with opportunities for the highest mental 
culture. The Seabury Divinity Colli ge is con- 
nected with this group of institutions ; also a 
cathedral, which cost $50,000-, in which the stu- 
dents meet for public worship. Betides these, 
there is Wesleyan Seminary, at Wasioja, under 
the control of the Minnesota conference of the 
"Wesleyan Methodists, which in 1875, had 98 
students : and St. John's Seminary, near St. 
Joseph, Stearns Co.. which is conducted by the 
Benedictine Fathers, and provides five courses of 
study: an elementary, a scientific, a commercial, a 
a classical, and an ecclesiastical course. (See below.) 

Superior Instruction. — The University of 
Minnesota (q. v.). at Minneapolis, is the only 
institution of this grade controlled by the state. 
The following table includes all the institutions 
for superior instruction : 



Carleton College Northfleld 

Hanilinp University Ked Wing 

Mai-alister College Minneapolis 

St. John's Seminary St. Joseph 

University of Minnesota . . | Minneapolis 



When 
found- 
ed 



Denomi- 
nation 

Cong. 
M. Epis. 



lsci; 

1S.-.J 

1S74 jPresb. 
1X57 iR. C. 
1870 Non-sect. 



584 MINNESOTA UNIVERSITY 



MISSISSIPPI 



Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
Seabury Divinity College, Episcopalian, and St. 
John's Seminary. Roman Catholic, already re- 
ferred to as institutions for superior instruction, 
have full courses in theology ; and besides these, 
there is Augsburg Semiuary, at Minneapolis, 
under Evangelical Lutheran control. Scientific 
instruction, in several grades and departments, is 
afforded by the State University (q. v.). 

Special Instruction. — The Minnesota Institu- 
tion for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 
and the Blind, located at Faribault, was opened 
in 1863, for residents of the state, between the 
ages of 10 and 25 years. The course of study 
embraces all the ordinary branches, with the 
special teaching of industrial pursuits. During 
the year 1875, there were 109 deaf-mutes and 21 
blind pupils in the institution. 

The only educational journal published in the 
state was The Minnesota Teacher and Journal of 
Education, which, in June, 1875, was consolidated 
with The Chicago Teacher and published at Chi- 
cago, under the title of The Western Journal of 
Education. 

MINNESOTA, University of, at Min- 
neapolis, Minn., was established upon grants 
of land by Congress for the endowment of a 
university and of a college of agriculture and 
the mechanic arts, amounting, in all. to 202,000 
acres. The first act for its organization was 
passed by the territorial legislature in 1851. 
The present charter was granted in 1868, and 
amended in 1872. A preparatory school was 
opened in 1867; and, in 1869, the first college 
class was organized. Under the organic law, the 
board of regents are authorized to establish any 
desired number of departments or colleges, the 
following, however, being specified : "A departs 
ment of elementary instruction ; a college of 
science, literature, and the arts ; a college of 
agriculture; a college of mechanic arts ; a col- 
lege or department of medicine ; a college or 
department of law.'' The colleges of law and 
medicine have not yet been organized. The de- 
partment of elementary instruction, otherwise 
designated, by virtue of a by-law of the board of 
regents, the "collegiate department," is intro- 
ductory to the permanent colleges of the uni- 
versity. It includes, together with the work of 
the freshman and sophomore classes of the or- 
dinary college courses, the preparatory depart- 
ment. The colleges provide for the junior aud 
senior years and for post-graduate courses. The 
first preparatory year has been dropped ; and a 
rule has been adopted excluding from the re- 
maining preparatory classes all students who can 
obtain the same instruction in their local high 
schools. The collegiate department offers three 
courses of study, called classical, scientific, and ! 
modern. The college of science, literature, and 
the arts presents, likewise, three courses of study: 
a course in arts; a course in science; and a course 
in literature. The college of agriculture offers 
two courses: (1) an advanced or university course, 
based on the scientific course of the collegiate 
department, leading to the degree of Bachelor of 



Agriculture ; (2) an elementary course, coincid- 
ing, to a considerable extent, with the scientific 
course of the collegiate department. The college 
of mechanic arts offers three advanced or uni- 
versity courses, leading to appropriate bacca- 
laureate degrees : a course in civil engineering ; 
a course in mechanical engineering ; a course in 
architecture. These courses are based on the 
scientific course of the collegiate department- 
Tuition is free, the institution being supported 
by the annual income of its endowment, amount- 
ing, in 1875, to $14,000, and an annual appro- 
priation of l$19,000 from the state. The univer- 
sity grounds comprise about 25 acres, well wooded 
with native trees, and contain two fine build- 
ings. There is also an experimental farm. The 
library contains nearly 10,000 bound volumes. 
The general museum comprises the collections of 
the geological and natural history survey of the 
state (carried on by the professors of the uni- 
versity), augmented by purchases and donations. 
The chemical and physical apparatus is valuable. 
Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 
16 instructors and 267 students (196 males, and 
71 females), of whom 118 were of the college 
grade; 111, preparatory; and 39, special. William 
W. Folwell, M.A., has been the president of the 
university since its organization. 

MISCHIEVOTJSNESS, as applied to the 
disposition of a child, or school pupil, is the oc- 
casional transgression of an estabbshed rule in a 
playful spirit, but without a malicious iutention. 
This disposition is usually the result of the nnion 
of humor, or love of fun, with sound bodily 
health. The exuberance of spirits thus produced 
generally finds vent in actions which are denom- 
inated mischievous. This spirit is so widely 
different from the willful breaking of rules with 
an evil intent, that the easy suppression of a con- 
tinued exhibition of it rests entirely with the 
teacher ; the good nature with which the mis- 
chievous act is accompanied generally causing the. 
perpetrator to desist on a slight warning. To- 
bring the mischievous spirit under speedy con- 
trol, two qualities only are necessary in the 
teacher : — quick discernment of its real nature, 
and tact in correcting it. The want of these 
sometimes leads to needless irritation on both 
sides, and may end disastrously to the teacher's 
influence, and, through that, to the discipbne of 
the school. If, on the other hand, the good 
humor of the transgressor is met by a similar 
feeling on the part of the teacher, the task of 
correction is usually easy, and causes no offense ; 
while, in the end, it secures a respectful obedience 
on the part of the pupil. If, however, the mis- 
chievous disposition is not corrected in this way, 
it may lead to vicious habits, which will tend to 
undermine, or permanently deprave the moral 
character. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the southern states 
of the American Union, formed at first a part of 
the Mississippi Territory, which was organized 
by act of Congress, April 7., 1798, and included 
nearly all the territory now comprised within 
the states of Mississippi and Alabama. This was. 



MISSISSIPPI 



585 



enlarged by successive additions, in 1802 and 
1812; .and, in 1817, Alabama Territory was 
formed from the eastern portion of it. and in 
the same year Mississippi was admitted into the 
Union as a state. Its area is 47,156 sq. m.; 
and its population, in 1870, was 827.922. of 
whom 382,896 were whites; 444.201. colored 
persons; 809, Indians; and 16, Chinese. 

Educational History. — The constitution of 
the state, at the time of its admission into the 
Union, recognized the importance of encouraging 
education as the means of promoting " liberty 
and the happiness of mankind;" but no effective 
or properly organized system of public schools 
was established in the state. In 1S40, the census 
returns showed that there were 382 common 
and primary schools, with 8.263 pupils, and 71 
academies, with 2,553 students. There were 
also several colleges in the state, having, in the 
aggregate, 250 students. In 1850, the number 
of public schools had increased to 762 ; and the 
number of academies, to 189. In 1860, there 
were reported 1.116 public schools, having 30.1)70 
pupils, and an income of $385,679. The number 
of academies and other schools was 169, with 
7,974 pupils; ami there were 13 colleges, with 
856 students. The state constitution of 1868 
recognized the need of providing the means of 
popular education, and hence made it the duty of 
the legislature to establish "a uniform system of 
free public schools by taxation, or otherwise, for 
all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years," 
and also, as soon as practicable, "to establish 
schools of a higher grade 1 ." The same constitu- 
tion also required the election of a "superintend- 
ent of public education," to hold office for four 
years, and also that there should be a "board of 
education," consisting of the secretary of state, the 
attorney -general, ami the state superintendent; 
and that there should beaschool superintendent 
in each county, and that school should be kept 
in each district for at least four months in each 
year. It aLso provided for a school fund from 
the proceeds of lands belonging to the state. 
granted by the United States, and the lands 
known as swamp lands, and authorized a poll- 
tax not exceeding S2 a head, in aid of the school 
fund. It prescribed the establishment of an 
agricultural college, and that " no religious sect 
is ever to control any part of the school or uni- 
versity funds of the state". In pursuance of 
these constitutional requirements, the legislature, 
at its session of June, 1 s7o, passed a school law, 
organizing the present school system, except as 
amended in some particulars by the revised code 
of 1871. — The first state superintendent under 
this law was II. R. Pease, who served till 1874: 
his successors being T. \V. ( 'ardozo, from 1874 to 
1876; T. S. Gathright, from Jan. to Sept.. 1876; 
and Rev. Jos. Barilwell. now in office (1876). 

School System. — The general supervision and 
control of the public schools of the state are 
committed to a state board of education, consist- 
ing of the secretary of state, the attorney-gen- 
eral, and the superindendent of public education. 
This board has charge of all property and funds 



devoted to school purposes, the income of 
which they pay to the local authorities. They 
make an annual report to the superintendent of 
public education, which is incorporated in his 
report to the legislature- The immediate super- 
vision and control of the schools are entrusted 
to the superintendent of public education, wdio 
is elected every four years. There is, in each 
county, a county superintendent, appointed by 
the board of education, and confirmed by the 
senate, for two years. The duties of these officers 
are similar to those of county superintendents 
in other states. Bach county constitutes a school- 
district, which is governed by a board of school 
directors, elected by the parents or guardians of 
the children attending school. The number of 
schools in each county must be one or more, 
and the school session not less than four months. 
Each city of 3,110(1 inhabitants, also, forms a 
school-district, governed, as in the case of the 
counties, by six school directors chosen by the 
resident voters. Kach county is required to 
furnish a free scholarship to each of the uni- 
versities of the state ; and to each normal school, 
as many students as it has representatives in the 
lower house of the legislature. It is provided by 
law that " the Bible shall not be excluded from 
the schools of the state". The school age is from 
5 to 21 years. 

Educational ''audition. — The number of 
schools, in 1875. was 3.434. — first grade, 764 : 
second grade, 2,670 ; high schools, 8 ; private 
schools. 606. The support of the schools was 
derived from the following sources: 

State four-mill tax $489,443.83 

City and county taxes 354,872.40 

Chickasaw fund 6S.466.6S 

Collected on loans of school funds 20.UO0.00 

Sale and rental of school lands 50,000.00 

Aid from Peabody Fund 0,500.00 

Total $987,282.86 

Expenditures: 

For teachers' salaries $557,950.44 

Salaries of county superintendents 4s, 050. 00 

Miscellaneous expenditures f0,000.00 

Total $980,000.44 

The other items of school statistics are the 
following; 

Number of children of school age: 

Whites, 141,514 

('. .lored, 170,945 

Total 318,469 

Number of pupils enrolled 108,217 

Average monthly enrollment 133,330 

Average daily attendance 100,894 

Number of teachers 4,908 

Average monthly wages of teacher? $55.47 

Normal. Instruction. — There are two normal 
schools in the state, one at Holly Springs, the 
other at Tougaloo. The first was opened in 
1870, and three years after, graduated 3 pupils. 
The limited appropriation made for its support, 
has impaired its efficiency by rendering it diffi- 
cult to secure the services of competent persons 
as instructors. The normal school at Tougaloo 
is a part of the Tougaloo University, to which 
the American Missionary Association contributed 
SI 5.000. and the state 810,000. The faculty of 
the school consists of a principal, preceptress, 



586 MISSISSIPPI UNIVERSITY 



MISSOURI 



and five teachers. Manual labor is a feature of 
the curriculum, each student being required to 
occupy himself one hour daily in this way In- 
struction is given principally in the English 
branches and mathematics. Facilities are also 
afforded for the study of vocal and instrumental 
music. There is a reference library of 1,000 
volumes, and philosophical apparatus. 

Secondary Instruction. — The reports received 
from high schools and academies have been so 
few in number as to give very little ground on 
winch to base an estimate of the work that is 
being done in this grade of instruction. 

Superior Instruction. — The chief institu- 
tions of this grade are enumerated in the follow- 
ing table: 



NAME 



Mississippi College. . . 
Pass Christian College 

Shaw University 

Tougaloo University.. 
Univ. of Mississippi . . 



Clinton 

Pass Christian 

Holly Springs 

Tougaloo 

Oxford 



When Religions 

found- denomina- 

ed tion 



1830 Bap. 
1806 K. C. 

1868 Meth. 

1869 Union. 
1844 iNon.sect. 



The report, for 1874, of the IT. S. Bureau of 
Education mentions 7 colleges for the superior 
instruction of women, of which 6 were author- 
ized to confer degrees. These colleges are located 
at Brookhaven (Whitworth), Clinton (Central 
Institute), Columbus (Female Institute), Holly 
Springs (Franklin), Meridian, Oxford (Union), 
and Pontotoc (Chickasaw). 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
Alcorn University, at Rodney, was created by 
act of the legislature in 1871, and occupies the 
site of the institution formerly known as Oak- 
land College, the oldest academic institution in 
the state. To the university was granted three- 
fifths of the proceeds of the sale of the agricult- 
ural college land-scrip, amounting to $113,400, 
besides a legislative appropriation of .$50,000 
for ten years. It is open to students of either 
race. It has an agricultural department, with 
a farm of 275 acres. Its philosophical and 
chemical apparatus is very elaborate and com- 
plete. Means for scientific instruction is also 
afforded by the College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts, a department of the University of 
Mississippi. This institution has also a law de- 
partment ; and there is a theological class in 
Tougaloo University. 

Special Instruction. — The Mississippi Institute 
for the Blind, at Jackson, is the only institution 
of this charae.er in th; state. It was founded in 
1852, and is supported by state appropriations. 

MISSISSIPPI, University of, at Oxford, 
Miss., was chartered in 1844 and opened in 1848, 
receiving the proceeds of the grant of land by 
Congress to the state for the support of a semi- 
nary of learning. In 1871, it was awarded by 
the legislature two-fifths of the congressional 
land grant for the establishment of a college of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts. The insti- 
tution possesses complete chemical, philosophical, 
and astronomical apparatus ; a cabinet of shells 
and mineralogical specimens ; collections of fos- 



sils, soils, and other geological apparatus ; be- 
sides instruments to illustrate mathematics 
and engineering, and a large farm. The library 
contains more than 6,000 volumes. The in- 
vested resources of the university do not ex- 
ceed $200,000. The income, in 1876, from en- 
dowment and state appropriations was $30,000. 
The plan of instruction embraces three general 
departments ; namely, (1) preparatory educa- 
tion (including a commercial course) ; (2) sci- 
ence, literature, and the arts ; (3) professional 
education. The second department includes 
five distinct courses of study, three of which 
are undergraduate parallel courses, two being 
post - graduate courses. The undergraduate 
courses are known as (1) The Course for 
Bachelor of Arts (4 yrs.) ; (2) The Course 
for Bachelor of Science (4 yrs.); (3) The 
Course for Bachelor of Philosophy (3 yrs.). A 
student has free choice of these courses, but the 
studies prescribed for each course are all com- 
pulsory for that course. The post-graduate 
courses are for the degrees of Master of Arts and 
Doctor of Philosophy. Under the third general 
department are embraced three professional 
schools; namely, (1) law; (2) medicine and 
surgery (not yet organized) ; (3) agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, in which the regular 
course is for four years, leading to the degree of 
Bachelor of Scientific Agriculture (B. S. A.). 
The cost of tuition in the first general depart- 
ments is $25 a year ; in the law school, $50 a 
year. In 1875 — 6, there were 13 instructors 
and 131 students. The presiding officers have 
been as follows : George F. Holmes, LL. D. 
(president), 1848 — 9 ; the Rev. Augustus B. 
Longstreet, D. D., LL. D. (president), 1849—56 ; 
the Rev. Frederick A. P.Barnard, D. D., LL. P., 
1856 — 9 as president, and 1859 — 61 as chan- 
cellor; the Rev. John N. Waddel.D.D., LL.D., 
(chancellor) 1865 — 74 ; and Gen. Alexander P. 
Stewart, the present chancellor (1876), appointed 
in 1874. 

MISSISSIPPI COLLEGE, at Clinton, 
Miss., under Baptist control, was chartered in 
1830. It has libraries containing 3,000 volumes, 
and extensive apparatus and cabinets. Its pro- 
ductive funds amount to $50,000. The regular 
tuition fee is $25 a year. The college consists 
of a preparatory department, and the following 
six schools: (1) mental and moral science, 
(2) Greek, (3) Latin, (4) mathematics, (5) natural 
sciences, and (6) English. Any student complet- 
ing the six schools is entitled to the degree of 

i A. B. ; those completing the schools of moral 
science, mathematics, natural sciences, and the 
English, to the degree of B. S.; those complet- 

! ing the schools of moral science, Greek, Latin, 
and English, to the degree of B. L. In 1873 — 4, 

i there were 7 instructors and 163 students. The 

| Rev. W. S.Webb, A. M.,is the president (1876). 
MISSOURI, one of the western states of the 
American Union, was originally a part of the 
Louisiana purchase of 1803, and on the admis- 
sion of the state of Louisiana, in 1812, formed 
part of the Missouri Territory. It was admitted 



MISSOURI 



587 



into the Union as a state, with its present limits. 
in 1821. Its area is 65,350 sq. m. : and its popu- 
lation, in 1870, was 1,721,295, of whom L,603,146 
win- whites. 118,071 colored persons, 75 Indians, 
and .'! ( ihnese. 

Educational Hintori/. — This subject will be 
considered under three heads : (I) The establish- 
ing of schools; (II) Tin' mode of maintaining 
them: (III) The mode of supervising them. 

I. The first recorded school established in the 
present state of Missouri, was an academy in the 
town of Genevieve. There arc no means of 
knowing when it was established ; but. in 1808, 
it was incorporated under a board of trustees, 
the act of incorporation requiring, "that an insti- 
tution for the education of females shall be estab- 
lished by the trustees as soon as the funds of the 
academy will admit of it : and that the trustees 
shall cause, at all times, the French and English 
languages to be taught in the said academy." In 
1812. Congress, in erecting the territory of Mis- 
souri, made general provision for the cause of 
education, which took practical shape shortly 
after in special grants of town lots and other 
lands to specially named communities, or school 
corporations ; but the territorial government, 
made no effort to establish a general system of 
public schools. It contented itself with extend- 
ing aid, encouragement, ami protection to all 
communities showing enterprise in this respect ; 
but further than this it could not prudently go. 
owing to the numerical weakness of the popula- 
tion and its widely scattered character. An act 
was approved January 22.. 1817. establishing "a 
lottery for the benefit of Potosi Academy." which 
institution consisted of two houses built and in 
part furnished by the inhabitants of Washington 
county at Mine a Burton. On the 30th of Janu- 
ary, in the same year, an act to incorporate 
trustees of this academy was approved. The 
board was to consist of seven members. Two 
classes — junior and senior — were established, 
the instruction given in the former being prepar- 
atory, that in the latter, "the English language. 
with such other languages and sciences as were 
usually taught in seminaries of learning." The 
name of the school had previously been Mine a 
Burton Academy. This is the first school men- 
tioned in the public records between 1812 ami 
1820. On the same day (January 30.. 1817), an 
act was approved authorizing the commissioners 
of public buildings, in the town of Jackson. Cape 
Girardeau Co., to convey to five persons. 
named in the act, four acres of land on which to 
erect a school-house. They were permitted to 
dispose of a portion of this land, for the purpose 
of creating a building fund. < m the same day. an 
act to incorporate a board of trustees for the 
superintendence of schools in the town (now city) 
of St. Louis was approved. The board was lim- 
ited to thirteen members, and when incorporated, 
consisted of William ( 'lark. William C. Carr, 
Thomas H. Benton, Bernard Pratte, Auguste 
Chouteau, Alexander McXair, and John P. 
Cabanne — names ever after prominent in. and 
intimately associated with, the development and 



history of St. Louis and the state. They were 
authorized to take and hold all real and personal 
property given to the schools by individuals or 
Congress, and to dispose of the same to advan- 
tage, by lease or sale. The establishment of these 
schools embraces the whole educational history 
of the eight years of territorial existence, so far 
as is indicated by the public records. Five years 
elapsed, after the formation of the state govern- 
ment, before any effort was made to establish a 
general and uniform system of public schools. 
During this period, the three academics already 
mentioned were re incorporated, with slight 
modifications and improvements of the acts of 
incorporation, and several new ones were estab- 
lished. This closed the first period of the state's 
educational history; since, thereafter, the legis- 
lature pursued the policy of encouraging edu- 
cation by the establishment of a general system. 
and by the enactment of general instead of spe- 
cial laws. In the act of Congress. March. 1820. 
authorizing the people of Missouri Territory to 
form a constitution and state government, prop- 
ositions were offered providing for the establish- 
ment and support of common schools, which 
were accepted by the state and incorporated into 
the constitution, the first section of the sixth 
article of which reads, "Schools and the means 
of education shall forever be encouraged in this 
state; and the general assembly .-hall take meas- 
ures to preserve from waste or damage sui h lands 
as have been, or hereafter may be. granted by the 
United States, for the use of schools within each 
township in the state, and shall apply the funds 
which may arise from such lands in strict con- 
formity to the object of the grant ; one school 
or more shall be established in each township as 
soon as practicable and necessary, where the poor 
shall be taught gratis." Section 2d of the same 
article provided that the assembly should take 
measures for the improvement of such land as 
had been already, or might be thereafter, granted 
by the United States, the funds accruing from 
the rent or lease of which, together with all 
other funds given for the same purpose, were to 
constitute a permanent fund for the support of 
"a university for the promotion of literature and 
the arts and sciences." The state was ad- 
mitted into the Union upon the terms of this 
constitution; and. hence, a general public-school 
system, of a high or a low grade, is one of her 
permanent institutions. The statutory provisions 
in relation to school lands and public education 
have been very numerous, being suggested from 
time to time by the condition of the rapidly 
growing state, and by the needs of its increas- 
ing population. In 18211, the legislature directed 
the several county courts to appoint five commis- 
sioners of school lands, to exercise a general 
supervision over the same, to rent or lease them, 
and to invest the proceeds, but without power to 
sell. In 1822. the act of 1820 was amended so 
as to require the appointment by the courts of 
two commissioners in each township, whose duty 
it should be to erect "a sufficient school-house for 
the benefit of education," whenever the funds 



588 



MISSOURI 



derived from the renting or leasing of the school 
lands were sufficient to justify it. In 1824, an 
act was passed by which each township was con- 
stituted a school-district, and a board of five 
trustees was appointed in each, who were em- 
powered to ''build or procure school-houses, and 
repair the same," "to appoint teachers and visit- 
ors of schools, and to make rules for the govern- 
ment of the schools." All subsequent legislation 
in regard to the common schools consists of modi- 
fications of the law of 1824. In 1835, there was 
a general revision of the statutes. Among them 
was a revised school law, reported by a commit- 
tee of three, appointed by the governor, "to form 
a system of common primary-school education as 
nearly uniform as possible throughout the state." 
By this, each congressional township constituted 
a school-district, in which three trustees were 
elected annually, who were empowered to build 
school-houses, employ teachers, and maintain 
schools six months in the year, or throughout 
the year, if a majority of the patrons petitioned 
therefor. The constitution adopted in 1865 con- 
tains still further provisions for the establishment 
of free schools for all persons in the state between 
the ages of 5 and 21, and permits the establish- 
ment of separate schools for children of African 
descent, requiring the distribution of all public- 
school moneys (not funds) in proportion to the 
number of children, without regard to color. Sec- 
tion 4. of the_state constitution requires the legis- 
lature to establish and maintain a state univer- 
sity with departments for teaching "agriculture 
and natural science," as soon as the public-school 
fund will permit. The school law was still further 
amended, but not materially, in 1870, and again 
by the new constitution, adopted in convention, 
in 1875. 

II. The earliest record of measures taken for 
the maintenance of schools in Missouri extends 
back to the school incorporated in St. Genevieve, 
in 1808. The first means employed for creating 
a school revenue was by grants of land, in 1812, 
already referred to. In 1817, the income of the 
Mine a Burton Academy was increased by the 
election of seven trustees, each of whom was re- 
quired to pay $10 as a necessary qualification 
for the office, and by a fee of $5 previously paid 
by each elector voting for said trustees. When 
the people of Missouri applied, in 1820, for ad- 
mission into the Union, Congress, for the sake 
of providing for the establishment of schools, 
submitted the following proposition : " that the 
section numbered 16 in every township, and 
when such section has been sold or otherwise dis- 
posed of, other lands equivalent thereto, and as 
contiguous as may be, shall be granted to the state 
for the use of the inhabitants of such township, 
for the use of schools"; that "thirty-six sections, 
or one entire township, which shall be designated 
by the President of the United States, together 
with the other lands heretofore reserved for that 
purpose, shall be reserved for the use of a semi- 
nary of learning, and vested in the legislature of 
said state, to be appropriated solely to the use of 
such seminary by the said legislature." This prop- 



osition was accepted, and embodied in the state 
constitution; and the same year five commis- 
sioners were appointed to rent or lease the school 
lands, and securely invest the proceeds. In 1824, 
similar measures were adopted, three commis- 
sioners being appointed in each township. They 
were authorized to assume control of and manage 
the school lands of the township, to "loan mon- 
eys," and "lease real estate." They could, also, 
on petition of two-thirds of the householders, 
levy and collect a special tax for the maintenance 
of the schools, or of those sending pupils to them, 
when the public funds were insufficient. In 1831, 
an act was passed authorizing the sale of the 
saline lands given by Congress to the state. In 
the same year, the sale of the 16th section was 
directed by law, by an agent appointed by the 
county court of each county, when three-fourths 
of the inhabitants of any township petitioned for 
such sale. The interest of the money thus de- 
rived was to be used for school purposes. The 
sale of the "seminary lands" — two entire town- 
ships — was, in 1832, directed by the legislature 
for not less than $2 per acre. It is estimated 
that $400,000 was lost by this sale alone ; and 
that the losses by injudicious sales of other lands 
belonging to the state, and by insecure investments 
of the proceeds, have amounted to a sum suffi- 
cient to have supported the public schools of the 
state forever, exclusive of any local taxation. 
The revised school law of 1835 empowered town- 
ship trustees to levy a special tax for the purpose 
of keeping the schools open as long as a majority 
of the patrons desired, whenever two-thirds of 
the voters of the school-districts demanded it. 
These trustees, also, were required to subscribe 
$1 each to the school fund. 1 he state constitu- 
tion, adopted in 1865, established a permanent 
school fund, and provided for the annual distribu- 
tion of the income of the same, together with so 
much of the annual revenues as might be necessary 
to maintain free schools three months in the year. 
These funds were to be invested in bonds of the 
United States. In case the public-school funds 
should prove insufficient to sustain free schools 
at least four months every year, power is given 
to increase the school revenue by local taxation. 
The general assembly, also, was required to re- 
duce all property in the state held for school 
purposes into the public school fund, and in the 
annual distribution to equalize apportionments 
by a consideration of the amount of county or 
city funds appropriated. The constitution, adopted 
in 1876, does not materially alter the provisions 
of that of 1865; like that, it perpetuates the 
public-school fund, setting apart annually 25 per 
cent of the state revenue, exclusive of the in- 
terest and sinking fund, for the support of the 
schools. It places in the county school fund the 
net proceeds of estrays, fines, forfeitures, and 
penalties ; while the constitution of 1 865 placed 
this in the state school fund. All moneys paid 
for exemption from military duty, also, are placed 
in the county fund. The article on Revenue and 
Taxation in the new constitution limits taxation 
for school purposes to 40 cents on the $100, un- 



MISSOURI 



589 



less increased by a majority vote of the tax-payers. 
By such vote, it may be increased, in cities and 
towns, to !i? 1 , and, in country districts, to 65 cents. 
For building purposes, it can be still further in- 
creased. 

The permanent public-school funds of the state 
are the following : 

The N' te Fund, consisting of U. S. Reg'd 
G per cent bonds, U.S. li per cent coupon 
bonds, Mo. 6 per cent coupon bonds, and 
Mo. 6 per cent certificates ot indebted- 
ness ($900,000) $2,034,354.00 

Seminary Fund (University), consist : ng 
of U. S. Reg'd, and coupon 6 per cent 
bonds $108,700.00 

Township Funds $2,079,182.96 

County Funds (including swamp land). .$2,257,716.83 

Township and county funds under the control 
of the county courts, may be invested in state or 
U. S. bonds, or loaned upon personal and real 
estate. It is an almost invariable custom to loan 
them. The proceeds, like the proceeds of the state 
fund, and '2:") percent of the revenue, are annually 
distributed to the districts in which schools were 
taught the previous year for not less than three 
months, in the ratio of school population. 

III. For many years, the method of super- 
vising the few schools and academies in the ter- 
ritory was by local trustees, specifically named 
for the purpose, or elected by the people. Their 
power, also, was very great, comprehending al- 
most all that is now divided among several 
grades of officers. Thus, the board appointed, 
in 1817, to supervise the schools of St. Louis, 
was authorized not only to establish schools, but 
to take and hold all real and personal property 
given to the schools by individuals cr by Con- 
gress, and to dispose of the same to advantage by 
lease or sale. In 1820, the division of duties first 
appears, county commissioners being then ap- 
pointed to manage the school lands; but, in 1*24, 
the boards of trustees are again required to as- 
sume control of the school lands, in addition to 
their other duties, among which duties was that 
of appointing visitors to the schools. These visit- 
ors were nine in number in each district. They 
were required to visit the schools once in three 
months, to examine teachers, and to issue certifi- 
cates of qualification, without, which no one was 
allowed to teach, and to exercise a general super- 
visory power. In 1835, the revised school law 
placed the supervision of the schools in the hands 
of three trustees annually elected for the purpose 
in each school-district, who reported to the 
county courts, the latter reporting biennially to 
the secretary of state. The first system of gener- 
al supervision of the schools was inaugu- 
rated at this time, the law constituting the 
governor, the auditor, the treasurer, and the at- 
torney-general, a state board of education. In 
1853, an act was passed, requiring the election 
of a state superintendent. The constitution 
adopted in 18G5, created a state board of educa- 
tion, to consist of the secretary of state, the at> 
torney-gencral, and the superintendent of public 
schools, the latter being chairman of the board 
and eligible for four years. In 1874, the school 



law was again changed, the general supervision 
of the schools remaining with the state board, 
and the immediate supervision with district 
directors. The state superintendents have been 
as follows: (1) I'eter 0. Glover (of "Common 
Schools"), elected by the legislature in 1839, for 
two years. After his term the office was abol- 
ished, and its duties devolved on the secretary 
of state. In 1853. the office was re-established, 
and (2) John W. Henry (of "Public Instruction) 
was appointed by the governor to serve until 
after the election, in 1854. when (3) F. C. Da- 
vis was elected. He was succeded by (4) Wil- 
liam B. Starke, elected in 1856, and reelected in 
SS58 and 1860. From December, 1861, to March, 
1 863, the duties of the office were discharged by 
the secretary of the state, who, at the latter date, 
became, by law, superintendent, ex officio. In 
1865, the office was restored, and (5) James 
L. Robinson was appointed by the governor 
superintendent of public schools. The succeed- 
ing incumbents have been : (6) T. A. Parker, 
elected in 1866 for four years (office then consti- 
tutional) ; (7) Ira Divoll. elected in 1870, died in 
1871 ; (8) John Monteith, appointed to fill the 
vacancy ; and (9) Richard I>. Shannon, elected 
in November, 1874, and still in office (1876). 

School System. — The general control of the 
educational interests of the state is lodged with 
a stale board of education, which consists of the 
secretary of state, the attorney-general, and the 
state superintendent. In addition to a super- 
visory power, it is charged with the duty of 
investing all moneys received by the state for 
educational purposes. The state superintendent 
is elected for four years, and is chairman of the 
state board. lie has general jurisdiction over 
the whole school system, with power to compel 
all school officers to furnish him with any statis- 
tics or information respecting their trusts he may 
deem proper. In addition to the duties usually 
performed by this officer, he is required to estab- 
lish needed schools whenever the proper officers 
fail to do so. He makes an annual report to the 
legislature, or to the governor when the legislature 
is not in session. County commissioners — one 
in each county — are elected biennially, in April. 
Their duties are to examine teachers, grant certif- 
icates (graded, limited to one county, and valid 
for one or two years) , and exercise a general 
supervision over the schools of the county. Dis- 
trict directors, three in number, are elected for 
three years, one being chosen annually. They 
are required to examine into, and report upon, 
the condition of the schools, to purchase the nec- 
essary apparatus and furniture, to employ teach- 
ers, and to make all regulations requisite for the 
proper organization and management of the 
schools. They may borrow money when neces- 
sary for the maintenance of the schools, at a rate 
not exceeding one per cent of the taxable proper- 
ty of the district, for teachers' salaries ; and not 
exceeding the same rate, for buildings and inci- 
dental purposes ; but no tax can be levied for 
the continuance of the schools for more than four 
months in the year, except by a majority vote of 



590 



MISSOUEI 



the district at the annual meeting. The school 
system is divided into departments as follows : 
(1) the university, supported by a distinct fund 
and legislative appropriations; (2) normal schools, 
supported by permanent legislative appropria- 
tions of SI 0.000 each; (3) schools in "cities, towns, 
and villages,'' under the general law of 1870 for 
their organization. These schools have boards of 
education, with special privileges, each consisting 
of six members, two of whom are elected annual- 
ly in September. The schools must be taught not 
less than 30, nor more than 40, weeks each year; 
(4) schools in cities having special school char- 
ters, which charters confer almost unlimited 
powers in all matters pertaining to their school 
interests ; (5) general district public schools ; and 
(6) colored schools, specially provided for ; those 
belonging to the classes marked above (3), (4), 
(5), and (6) being supported by the state public- 
school fund and local taxation. " Central schools" 
may be established by the union of two or more 
districts for that purpose. These are graded 
schools kept for six months, or longer, if the dis- 
tricts interested so vote. They are controlled by 
boards — composed of the presidents of the 
boards of these districts — and by the districts 
themselves, to about the same extent that the 
district schools are managed by their boards. The 
tax for the maintenance of the colored schools 
is levied on the taxable property of the townships 
in which the schools are located. To these schools, 
persons over 21 years of age are admitted. The 
legal school year is 4 months ; the school month, 
4 weeks of 5 days each ; and the school day, 6 
hours. The legal school age is from 5 to 21 years. 
A meeting of the presidents of the various boards 
of directors, with the county commissioners, is 
held at every county seat once in 4 years, to se- 
cure uniformity in text-books. Sectarian instruc- 
tion is prohibited. 

Educational Condition. — The estimated num- 
ber of school-districts, in 1875, was 7,932 ; the 
number of public schools, for whites, 7,061 ; for 
colored persons, 326 ; the number of private 
schools, 661, in which there were enrolled 
33,525 pupils. The support of the schools was 
derived from the following sources : 

From public funds (state, county, and 

township) $857,785 

From taxation 32,155.810 

Total $3,013,595 

Expenditures. 

For salaries, buildings, rent, etc $1,638,353 

School Statistics. 
Number of persons of school age (5—21): 

Whites 678,270 

Colored . . 41.916 

Total 720,186 

Number enrolled in public schools: 

Whites 379,948 

Colored 14,832 

Total. 394,780 

Average daily attendance 192,904 

Number of teachers, males 5,904 

" " females, 3,747 

Total 9,651 

The average monthly wages of teachers, males, $38.00 
" " " " females, $29.50 



Normal Instruction. — There are four normal 
schools under the control of the state, and one 
at St. Louis, the latter intended principally 
for supplying teachers to the schools of the city. 
This school has recently been made more useful 
by the addition of a model department. The 
course is for two years, and instruction is given, 
during the first year, in the higher branches, 
the second being devoted to review, with special 
reference to the methods of teaching. Pupils 
of the high school are admitted to the nor- 
mal school without examination. In 1874 — 5, 
the total enrollment was 254. The Fruitland 
Normal Institute, at Jackson, was organized in 
1864. It reported, in 1874. 3 resident and 2 non-res- 
ident instructors, 53 male, and 24 female students. 
Three years constitute the school course. The 
North Mo. State Normal School, at Kirksville, 
was organized for the purpose of fitting teachers 
for the country district schools. The qualifica- 
tions for admission are those necessary to secure 
a teachers' certificate of the lowest grade. In 
1875, the number of instructors was 9 ; number 
of students, 709 ; number of graduates, 72. The 
South Mo. State Normal School, at AYarrensburg, 
provides three courses of study, — an elementary, 
an advanced, and a professional. Two terms, or 
twenty weeks, are necessary to complete the 
course of study. Some embarrassment has been 
occasioned to the institution from lack of funds. 
It reported, in 1875, 11 instructors, and 408 stu- 
dents. The South-east Mo. State Normal School, 
at Cape Girardeau, was opened in 1873, with 35 
students. In 1875, it had 5 instructors and 164 
students. Each of the state normal schools is un- 
der the care of a state board of regents. Lincoln 
Institute, at Jefferson City, was organized in 
1866, for the instruction of colored teachers. It is 
supported by a permanent state appropriation of 
$!5,000, and by private subscriptions. It is divided 
into a primary and a normal department, and, 
in 1874, had 6 instructors and 40 students. Its 
graduates, according to the report of the state 
superintendent, for 1875, are teaching colored 
schools in a large number of comities, and are 
giving general satisfaction. 

Teachers' Institutes. — The practice of holding 
teachers' institutes was, in 1875, comparatively 
abandoned, the law not requiring them except 
in comities which employ the whole time of the 
commissioner, and there being only one (Jasper) 
in which this is the case. Probably not over 20 
institutes were held during the year. Efforts, 
however, are to be made to increase the number 
and efficiency of the institutes. 

Secondary Instruction. — The question of the 
support of high schools by the state has been 
raised in Missouri, as it was in Michigan, and 
Superintendent Monteith, in 1873, in discuss- 
ing this question, expressed the opinion, that, 
though their existence is the logical result of the 
establishment of a public-school system and a 
state university, yet as the need of them is local, 
their establishment should rest with the local 
school boards, and their support be derived from 
local taxation. There are several business col- 



MISSOURI 



MODERN LANGUAGES 



591 



leges, situated in various parts of the state, but 
chiefly in St. Louis. 8 of which, in 1S74. reported 
to the U. 8. Bureau of Education. 48 teachers 
and il.oTT pupils. Their courses of study range 
from three months to 4 years. 

Superior Instruction. — The universities, col- 
leges, and institutions for higher education are 
enumerated in the following table : 







When 




NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomina- 






ed 


tion 










Christian University.. 


I !ant< 'ii 


1856 


' "ni'U'1,1 


College of the Christian 












1859 


R. C. 




Springfield 

Hannibal 




Cong. 

11. E. S. 




1868 




Glasgow 


18G5 


M. Epis. 
M. Epis. 


Lincoln College 


i rrecnwood 


1870 


McGee < 'ullt'ge 


1 toll. Mound 


1863 


t". Preab. 


St. Joseph College 


st. Joseph 


1807 


Cumb. Pr. 


St. Louis University 


St. Louis 


1882 


Ii. C. 


St. Paul's College 


Palmyra 


1844 


Prot. Ep. 


St. Vincent's College. . . 


C. Girardeau 


1.144 


R. C. 


Washington University. 


St. Louis 


1867 


Non-sect. 


Westminster uouege, . . 


Fulton 


1852 


Preab. 


William Jewell College . 


Libertv 


1858 


Bap. 




Independence 


186a 


Christian 



Besides these institutions, there are 1 1 acad- 
emies and colleges for the higher education 
of women, 9 of which, in 1874, reported 97 in- 
structors and 1,136 students. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
Many of the colleges and universities furnish 
opportunities for professional and scientific in- 
struction, but special schools have been established 
for the same purpose in many places. Of these, 
the principal are the Vardeman School of Theol- 
ogy, at Liberty ; the Kansas City College of 
physicians and surgeons ; the Missouri Medical 
College, the St. Louis Medical College, the 
Homoeopathic Medical College of Missouri, the 
Missouri Dental College, and the College of 
Pharmacy — the last five, at St. Louis. 

Special Instruction. — The Missouri Asylum 
for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb was 
organized at Fulton, in 1851. It is supported by 
state appropriations, which have not been large 
enough, thus far. to admit of giving instruction in 
the trades — a prominent feature in several other 
institutions of the kind. Board and tuition for 
all deaf and dumb persons between the ages of 
7 and 30 years are furnished free of cost, but it is 
estimated that only about one half the persons so 
afflicted in the state can be accommodated. There 
were 8 instructors, in 1874, and 153 pupils — 75 
males, and 78 females. Besides this, there is an- 
other institution (St. Bridget's Institute) , founded 
in St. I-ouis, in 1860, for the same purpose. The 
Missouri Institution for the Education of the 
Blind was opened in St. Louis, in 1851. It receives 
from the state an annual appropriation of about 
$21,000. In addition to the branches of an 
ordinary education, instruction is given in music, 
and the pupils are taught some kind of industrial 
or mechanical occupation. A normal class hits 
also been formed, for the purpose of fitting some 
of the more advanced pupils to teach in the pub- 
lic schools. There were, in 1*74, '27 instructors 
and employes of all kinds, and 93 pupils. 



Educational Journals. — There are several 
journals either wholly or partly educational 
published in the state, among which may be 
specially mentioned The Western, a monthly 
published at St. Louis, and now in its eleventh 
year ; and the American Journal of Education, 
a monthly, also published at St. Louis, and at 
present in its ninth year. These journals are 
well conducted, and have exerted an important 
influence in advancing the cause of education in 
the state. 

MISSOURI, University of the State 
of, at Columbia, Mo., was chartered in 1839, 
and organized in 1840, receiving the proceeds of 
the lands granted by Congress to the state for 
the support of a seminary of learning. In 1870, 
it was awarded the benefit of the congressional 
land grant for the establishment of a college of 
agriculture and the mechanic arts. During the 
civil war, the university was partially suspended; 
but after its close, it was re-organized, ami it now 
consists (besides the preparatory department) of 
(I) the College proper, with courses in arts, sci- 
ence, letters, and philosophy, and of the following 
professional schools: (II) The Normal, or College 
of Instruction in Teaching, opened in 1868; 
(III) The Agricultural and Mechanical College, 
1870 : (IV) The School of Mines and Metallurgy 
(at Rolla), L871 ; (V) The College of Law, 1872 ; 
(VI) The Medical College, 1873; (VII) The 
Department of Analytical and Applied Chem- 
istry, 1873. Both sexes are admitted to all the 
departments. The university has appropriate 
buildings, all necessary apparatus, and an ex- 
tensive farm. The libraries contain about 8,500 
volumes. The income of the institution (from 
endowment and state appropriations) is $68,467 
per annum. The charges to students who are 
residents of Missouri, cannot exceed JJ20 g year. 
The school of mines and metallurgy has exten- 
sive and valuable lands in the mining district 
in the south-eastern part of the state. In 1875 
— 6. there were, in all the departments of the 
university. '29 instructors and 391 students. The 
presidents have been as follows: John H. La- 
throp, LL. I)., 1840—50 ; James Shannon, LL. 
D., 1850—56 : WAV. Hudson. A. M.. 1856—7 ; 
B. B. Minor 1858—60; and Daniel Read, LL. 
D., the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 
MNEMONICS. See Mkmory. 
MODEL SCHOOLS. See Normal Schools. 
MODERN LANGUAGES, in the literal 
and widest sense c if the term, are the languages now 
in use, in contradistinction to those which were 
formerly spoken, but are now extinct. Taken in 
this sense, the term embraces the mother-tongue, 
in which the home education of the child is con- 
ducted, the national or ruling language of the 
country, which is the medium of instruction in 
the schools, and the living languages of foreign 
nations. It is the general tendency of the age, 
to make a thorough knowledge of the national 
language the center and the chief aim of all 
school instruction ; though it has been demanded, 
from an educational point of view, that wher- 
ever the mother-tongue of a large portion of the 



592 



MODERN LANGUAGES 



inhabitants of a country is different from that of 
the national language, the claims of the mother- 
tongue should not be ignored. When the modern 
languages are spoken of as a branch of school in- 
struction, they are. however, generally understood 
in the sense of the languages of foreign nations. 
The admission of modern foreign languages into 
a regular course of instruction is of comparative- 
ly recent - date, and the credit of having first ob- 
tained this recognition belongs to the French 
language (q. v.). Until very recently, French 
has enjoyed, in this respect, an acknowledged 
superiority over any other language of the globe; 
and it is but recently that English and German 
have to any considerable extent begun to com- 
pete with it. At present, French, English, and 
German are studied all over the world, as the 
chief representatives of modern culture. The 
Italian language (q. v.) is learned by many of the 
students of fine arts and of music in preference 
to any of the three principal modern languages; 
but more in courses of private instruction than 
in schools. It is, however, chiefly in the second- 
ary schools, that the study of modern languages 
has now been generally admitted. There are but 
few colleges, gymnasia, lyceums, Latin schools, 
real schools, academies, seminaries, or boarding- 
schools which do not provide for instruction in 
one or two of the modern languages. The adop- 
tion of more than two modern languages, in a 
regular course of studies, is met with in only a few 
cases, and finds but few advocates. Scientific and 
real schools (or departments) , especially the latter, 
cultivate the modern languages, frequently to 
the exclusion of the classical ; but even classical 
schools have now quite generally opened their 
gates to the at first unwelcome rival. — In the 
highest institutions of learning, such as the Euro- 
pean universities, the modern languages are still 
far from occupying a position of equality with 
the classical, or even some of the oriental lan- 
guages. In England, Oxford and Cambridge had, 
in 1875, professorships of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, 
Arabic, and Sanskrit ; Oxford, also of Anglo- 
Saxon and comparative philology, but not of 
either French or German. In the 21 universities 
of Germany (including the academy of Miinster), 
classical philologists had, in 1874, the oppor- 
tunity to attend 134 courses of lectures, which 
occupied an aggregate of 400 hours weekly. 
Besides, the exercises in the philological seminaries 
occupied 128 hours, making a total of 528 hours. 
Of the professors teaching the classical languages, 
64 were ordinary, 1 6 extraordinary, besides 1 1 pri- 
vat-docenteu (lecturers); total 91. To the oriental 
languages, 330 hours were devoted; but to French 
and English, only 172 hours. The German govern- 
ments show, however, a readiness to reconsider 
the claim of modern languages to a better repre- 
sentation; and a number of new chairs were, 
therefore, created during the years 1875 and 
1876. — In regard to the lowest classes and schools 
in which the study of modern languages may 
advantageously be admitted, there is a variety 
of opinion at present in school legislation, and 
among educational writers. It is evident that, in 



this respect, a marked difference exists between 
! those localities where only one language is spoken, 
and those where two or more languages are in 
the daily use of large portions of the people. In 
the latter case, the language which is spoken 
by a large portion of the children who attend 
school, is by many not regarded in the light of a 
foreign language ; and school regulations for 
giving instruction in it are often different 
from those for the teaching of languages to- 
tally foreign. The latter, according to the 
opinion of most educators, should not be begun 
too early. It is, however, on the other hand, 
urged that the pronunciation of a foreign lan- 
guage is best learned at a time when the organs of 
speech are still flexible, and that a good pro- 
nunciation of a foreign tongue is rarely acquired 
except by those who learn it in childhood. — 
The French language had been long and exten- 
sively studied in other European countries before 
it was, in the 1 7th century, introduced in some 
of the German schools as a part of the regular 
course of studies. Toward the close of the 18th 
century, the German real schools made the 
superior advantages of the study of French, in 
compai'ison with the classical languages, a main 
issue of their war against the classical schools ; 
and, from that time, the admission of French into 
the schools of other countries has been rapid and 
extensive. In Prussia, the efforts made to secure 
to the French language a prominent place in the 
course of instruction were so successful, that the 
Prussian government became alarmed, and, in 
1816, excluded it altogether from public instruc- 
tion. A rescript of 1S37 re-admitted it, how- 
ever, "out of regard for its usefulness for practical 
life." That, from the stand-point of practical 
usefulness, modern languages, as a branch of 
instruction, have an advantage over the classical, 
is now scarcely disputed. French, English, and 
German bring the student into living contact 
with the great standard-bearers of modem civ- 
ilization, and thus afford, in many cases, mental 
enjoyments, material and business advantages, 
and impulses to esthetic culture, which classical 
studies obviously cannot afford. — Being the keys 
to the three great literatures of the world, the En- 
glish, German, and French languages, as branches 
of instruction, have challenged a comparison 
with the Latin and the Greek. Here also it 
will be readily and generally admitted, that 
modern literatures contain a vast amount of 
information unknown to the ancients ; and 
that, viewing their contents as a whole, they are, 
in many respects, vastly superior to the liter- 
atures of the ancient world. Classical scholars, 
in fact, are among the first to recognize the 
great value of modern literatures; and there 
are few among them who cannot read the three 
great modern languages, at least, as fluently as 
the two classical. The contest has been narrowed 
down to the question whether Latin and Greek 
classics, as literary master-works, and in view of 
the superior advantages claimed for the languages 
themselves, still afford such advantages for de- 
veloping the mental faculties as to recommend 



MODERN LANGUAGES 



593 



their retention in every course of studies. (See 
Classical Studies.) 

Upon the field of comparative linguistics, the 
superior value of the richly inflected Latin and 
Greek by the side of the less inflected German 
and the mutilated English and French, is not 
likely to be ever disputed. But since the labors 
of Bopp. Grimm, and their numerous followers, 
have opened an insight into the degree of kin- 
ship existing between the prominent languages 
of the present and former times, the question 
has been forced upon the attention of gram- 
marians, how far a comparison of kindred lan- 
guages may, even at an early stage of instruc- 
tion, elucidate the structure of the native tongue, 
and thus be made serviceable in giving to the 
youthful scholar a better command even of his 
native speech than otherwise would be attain- 
able. The elucidative power which belongs to 
comparison, in grammar no less than in other 
branches of instruction, cannot be disputed ; 
though the precise point of time when, and the 
manner in which, it may be put to use in the 
course of instruction, still remain open ques- 
tions. It will be seen, however, that the degree 
of usefulness which may be attributed, from this 
point of view, to one particular language, is by 
no means commensurate with the advantages 
which the same language may afford as the key 
to the superior civilization or the rich literature 
of one of the great nations of the globe. It will, 
on the contrary, be chiefly dependent on the 
relationship existing between the language to 
be stu lied and the language of the student. In a 
French school, the Latin, Italian, and Spanish 
languages will, in this respect, be of more use 
than English or German; in German schools, the 
English will be more important than French or 
Latin; and in English schools, the German more 
than Latin or French. 

Since modern languages have come to be 
studied on a much more extended scale than the 
classical, a great variety of methods have been 
proposed. The authors of some of these methods 
are by no means distinguished for modesty, ami 
do not hesitate to declare all former modes of in- 
struction absolutely useless, as having been wholly 
superseded by their own. In most cases, they 
have wholly forgotten that the method of teach- 
ing and learning a modern language must, to a 
very great extent, be dependent upon the pur- 
pose for which it is learned. If the student chiefly 
aims to acquire the ability to express his thoughts 
iu the language of another person belonging to 
a foreign nation, the methods which make con- 
versation the basis of instruction will justly com- 
mend themselves to the attention of the in- 
structor. When a foreign language is learned 
as a means of understanding the literature of a 
particular nation, an early knowledge of the 
inflectional part of the language, of all its pecu- 
liarities in etymology and syntax, and of its 
vocabulary, will be felt as an urgent want ; and 
grammar lessons connected with translating exer- 
cises, will form the chief means of instruction. 
In the combination of grammar and translation, 



every possible method has been tried: the strictly 
synthetical, which starts from the parts of speech, 
and teaches them singly, before proceeding to a 
regular system of translations ; the strictly 
analytical, which begins with the analysis of 
foreign sentences, and from them, by degrees, 
derives the knowledge of grammatical forms; and 
the synthetico-analytical. or analytico-synthetical, 
which, from the first, endeavors to combine in- 
struction in the grammatical structure with 
practice in using the foreign language. Of these, 
the former may be said to have been almost 
entirely abandoned, the latter being the one 
generally preferred in schools. In regard to the 
arrangement of the grammatical rules, an in- 
finite variety may be observed in the numerous 
grammars of modern languages. It was espe- 
cially Mager (q. v.), one of the most ingenious 
writers on the subject of language, who attacked 
the traditional order of article, noun, adjective, 
pronoun, and verb, and demanded the first 
place for the verb, so as to be able to begin 
with whole sentences, that is, with a complete 
thought. In regard to translating exercises, in- 
structors generally agree in introducing their 
students as soon as practicable to the reading 
of standard writers in the foreign language. The 
shortness of time allowed forthe study of foreign 
languages will recommend the use of a good 
reading-book in order to familiarize the student 
with tlie peculiar style of several writers. 

It is not possible in this article to attempt an 
enumeration or a criticism of the different meth- 
ods which have been specially proposed for teach- 
ing modern languages. Among those whose sys- 
tems have obtained any general reputation or 
acceptance, may be mentioned Ahn, Jacotot, 
Hamilton, Mager, Ollendorff, and Robertson. 
Ann's and Ollendorff's methods have had 
numerous imitations, of very unequal value, and 
have been applied to nearly all the living languages 
of Europe, and even to Latin and Greek. Of the 
elementary books based on Aim's method, F. 
Genu's Rudiments of the German Language 
(4 parts, New York), written with a special 
view to the requirements of the public schools in 
the United States, and, in particular, in the city 
of New York, has deservedly gained very great 
popularity. Among recent attempts to teach 
living languages "without grammar or dictionary.'' 
solely by means of conversation, that by Heness 
[Introduction to the LeUfaden; a Guide for In- 
struction in Grermtm without Grammar or 
Dictionary, Boston, 1874) has attracted the at- 
tention and won the approval of many eminent 
scholars. Frendergast's Tlte Mastery of Lan- 
guages (London, 1 872) is a new effort to introduce 
the pupil to a practical knowledge of language in 
an analytical way, by proceeding from sentences 
committed to memory and learning the inflec- 
tional forms from their position in sentences. 
"Whitney's Compendious German G-rammar 
(New York. 18t>9), to a higher degree than any 
former English grammar of a foreign language, 
embodies the results of comparative grammar, 
and directs special attention to the points of 



594 



MONITORIAL SYSTEM 



correspondence between English and German. It 
need hardly be added that the study of modern 
languages, and especially that of their pronun- 
ciation, should be pursued, 'whenever it is pos- 
sible, under the guidance of an intelligent pro- 
fessional teacher. Among the attempts to teach 
these languages without the aid of a teacher, 
the method proposed by Toussaint and Langen- 
scheidt has received the best recommendation. 
(See the special articles on Fkench, German, 
Italtan, Spanish.) See also Whitney, Language 
and the Study of Language (1867); and Life and 
Growth of Language (New York, 1875) ; Quick, 
First Steps in Teaching a Foreign Language 
(London, 1875) ; Marcel, Study of Languages 
(New York, 1874) ; Schmitz, Encyclopddie des 
philologischen Studiums der neueren Sprachen 
(2d ed.,Leips., 1875 ; 4 parts and 3 supplements); 
Pflanz, Ueber den Bildungswerth der fremden 
Sprachen im Schulunterricht (Leips., 1875) ; 
Mager, Ueber den Unterricht in fremden Spra- 
chen (Essen, 1838). A periodical specially de- 
voted to the study of modern languages is the 
Archivfur das Siudium der neueren Sprachen 
by Herrig (2 vols., in 4 parts annually, 55th 
and 56th vols., 1876.). 

MONITORIAL SYSTEM, sometimes caUed 
the Madras system, because it was introduced 
into England from Madras, by Andrew Bell; 
also the La?icasterian system, after one of its 
most enthusiastic advocates, Joseph Lancaster. 
It is, moreover, often designated the system of 
mutual instruction, because conducted on the 
principle of requiring the pupils of a school to 
teach each other. The name monitorial instruc- 
tion is derived from the circumstance that the 
pupil teachers employed to carry on the system 
were called monitors. — This plan of teaching is 
very old ; but whether Bell or Lancaster deserves 
the merit of first introducing it into Europe, has 
been warmly disputed. (See Bell, and Lan- 
caster.) By means of the efforts and publications 
of these ardent philanthropists, the system met 
with a rapid and extensive adoption both in 
Europe and America. In the city of New York, 
free schools were organized upon this plan, which 
continued to be the prevailing method of organ- 
ization and instruction in the public schools of 
that city for nearly fifty years. In Philadelphia 
and other large cities of the Union, it was also 
employed ; in Boston, it was soon pronounced a 
failure, and abandoned. The 25th Report (1830) 
of the British and Foreign School Society (Lan- 
casterian) stated that measures had been taken 
by the governments of Belgium,Denmark,Sweden, 
Norway, and Russia, to introduce the system ; 
that more than 30 monitorial schools had been 
for some time in operation in Tuscany; and that 
the duke of Lucca had also caused several of 
such schools to be established; that even the 
government of Naples had opened 20 of these 
schools in Sicily, and designed to establish one 
in each parish. The report also stated that the 
society had constantly a number of persons in 
training as teachers, and at the previous anni- 
versary, had under its care 20 Arab youths, sent 



to England for education by the Pacha of Egypt. 
The rivalry that had existed for years between 
this society and the National School Society, 
which favored Bell's system, increased the efforts 
of both. In the American Annals of Education 
(1831), it was stated that, in Denmark, 2,000 
monitorial schools were established in the course 
of four years; in Sweden, there were 1,800 of 
such schools, in many of which music, linear 
drawing, and gymnastics were taught. The 
system had also been introduced into France, 
Spain, and Sardinia. The French Society for 
the Promotion of Education sent books and 
tables of the system to the principal countries of 
South America and to Hayti, and opened schools 
at St. Louis and Senegal, in Africa, which were 
attended by the native chiefs. There were, also, 
numerous schools in Cape Colony, Madagascar, 
and the East Indies, both continental and insular. 
The system was also said to have been adopted in 
one of the first classical schools of Paris, and in 
the High School of Edinburgh. — The opinions 
entertained of the advantages of this system were 
at first very extravagant. Dr. Bell said, " The 
systenl has no parallel in scholastic history. In a. 
school, it gives to the master the hundred eyes of 
Argus, the hundred hands of Briareus, and the 
wings of Mercury. By multiplying his ministers 
at pleasure, it gives him indefinite powers ; in 
other words, it enables him to instruct as many 
pupils as his school room will contain.'' This 
principle was carried into effect by Lancaster, 
whose school had 1,000 pupils, he being the only 
adult teacher. "Crowds'", says Donaldson (Lect- 
ures on Education, 1874), "flocked to see this 
performance : one master with a thousand schol- 
ars. It seemed to solve the question of educa- 
tion." De Witt Clinton, in New York, expressed 
the most unbounded admiration for this system 
as an instrument for educating large masses of 
children. But not only as a means of teaching- 
large numbers was it commended. The system 
of mutual instruction was thoroughly discussed 
at a meeting of the American Lyceum held in 
New York, in 1836 ; and, while the New England 
members seemed to condemn it as unsatisfactory 
and defective, others gave it their unqualified ap- 
proval. "If", said S. W. Seton, the public-school 
agent of New Yorji city, " I had a school of 
twenty, nay of ten, I would make one teach 
another. If I had but three, I would make two 
of them monitors." — This system, when carried 
into operation by a master of energy and tact, 
was showy and attractive ; and, doubtless, was 
an effective instrument in giving an elementary 
education to many thousands of children ; that 
is, in teaching them to read, write, and cipher ; 
but, as remarked by Donaldson, it "ignored alto- 
gether the fact that the work of the teacher is to 
evolve the powers of the mind, and that for this 
work a wise and cultivated mind is required." 
The arguments advanced in its favor were 
(1) that it provided for the tuition of a far 
greater number of pupils than could be taught 
by the ordinary method of managing an ungraded 
school, in which only one teacher was employed i 



MONMOUTH COLLEGE 



MONTAIGNE 



595 



(2) that this was accomplished by an economy of 
the time and labor of the teacher: (3) that it kept 
every pupil of the school constantly employed ; 
(4) that the monitors, or pupil teachers, were 
benefited by giving instruction to their fellow- 
pupils; (5) that, as children learn, by a kind of 
natural sympathy, from each other, the pupils 
made rapid progress. These principles, without 
doubt, are sound to a certain limited extent, and 
under circumstances which prevented a thor- 
oughly organized system of instruction by compe- 
tent teachers. The monitorial system required 
very remarkable ability in the master — such an 
ability as few could be found to possess. The 
monitors required a special training ; and the 
whole school, when thus conducted, needed a 
peculiarly efficient discipline, and an adroit man- 
agement, to prevent it from degenerating into the 
most chaotic condition ; and this was often the 
case. That the system was an expedient, and a 
very useful one, is obvious. That it is applicable 
to the condition of a large ungraded school under 
a single teacher, is also indisputable. "When", 
said a writer in the American Annals of Edu- 
cation (1831), in a despairing tone, "will our 
common and primary schools be so divided into 
different departments in regard to age and 
studies, and so furnished with a competent sup- 
ply of assistant teachers, as to keep each pupil, 
during school hours, cheerfully and industriously 
employed 1" The impossibility of obtaining the 
means for such an organization, led to the 
adoption of the monitorial system; but. wherever, 
at the present time, as in the large cities of the 
United States, such means are afforded, mutual 
instruction is found not to have even a modified 
existence ; indeed, the reaction against it has 
been so strong, that, for years, it has not only 
made no progress anywhere, but has been very 
generallv abandoned. 

MONMOUTH COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 
111., chartered in 1857, is under United Presby- 
terian control. It has a tine college building, a 
library of about 2.0110 volumes, a cabinet, and 
extensive philosophical and chemical apparatus. 
Besides the collegiate department, with a clas- 
sical and a seientiric course, there is a prepara- 
tory school, a grammar and high school, and a 
normal course, and a musical and an art depart- 
ment. Both sexes are admitted. The tuition 
fee in the collegiate department is $30 a year. 
In 187;") — G, there were 16 instructors, and .'i!)7 
students, of whom 200 (128 classical and 72 
scientific) were in the collegiate department. 
The Rev. David A. Wallace, D.D.. LL.D., is 
(1876) the president. 

MONTAIGNE, Michel, Seigneur de, a 
celebrated French essayist, born at the chateau of 
Montaigne, in Perigord, in 1533 ; and died there 
September 13., 1592. His father, having ideas 
on the subject of education far in advance of his 
age. provided for his son a German tutor, who, 
knowing nothing of French, conversed with him 
entirely in Latin, so that the young Montaigne 
spoke that language with ease at the age of six. 
He graduated at the College of Guienne, in 



Bordeaux, and studied law; but, being possessed 
of ample means, and having no inclination for 
public life, he retired to his castle at -Montaigne, 
where he wrote his famous essays. The subject 
of education is touched upon incidentally all 
through the works of this writer; but his 
conclusions are nearly all condensed into one 
remarkable essay, addressed to the Countess of 
(iurson. and entitled Of tit? Education of Chil- 
dren. Many of the principles there announced, 
were afterwards amplified by John Locke. In 
this essay, a scheme of education is laid down 
for a young gentleman of quality, which is. in 
nearly eveiy essential respect, in accordance with 
our most advanced modern ideas. The subject 
is considered in its various branches, — physical, 
intellectual, and moral. The dominant idea 
throughout, is the modern one, derived from the 
etymology of the word c< /no it ion. i. e., a i/niir- 
ing out or development of the mind according to 
its individual bent, rather than a moulding of 
all minds after a preconceived pattern. I le would 
have the pupil educated away from home, lie- 
cause his parents " can neither find in their hearts 
to give him due correction for the faults he com- 
mits, nor suffer him to be brought up in those 
hardships and hazards he ought to be," and be- 
cause " the respect the whole family pay him, as 
their master's son. and the knowledge he has of 
the estate and greatness he is heir to. are, in my 
opinion no small inconveniences at these tender 
years." He would have him taught to use the 
knowledge he has gained, illustrating his position 
as follows : " I could wish to know whether Le 
Paluel or Pompey. famous dancing-masters of 
my time, could have taught us to cut capers by 
only seeing them do it. without stirring from 
our places, as these men pretend to inform our 
understandings without ever setting them to 
work, etc." Physical education, also, was fully 
appreciated by Montaigne, his conclusions on this 
branch of the subject being quite up to the 
standard in our day. The advantages of sound 
moral instruction also are strenuously insisted 
upon and admirably set forth in many weighty 
sentences. The advantages of foreign travel, in 
freeing the mind from narrowness, receive full at- 
tention, though the age at which this should be 
undertaken will probably be excepted to by 
modern educators. Finally, the idea, more 
peculiarly modern, perhaps, than any other, that 
education should not end with school or college, 
but should be continued through life, is every- 
where enforced. This entire essay, indeed, is 
worthy of the careful attention of educators; and, 
making allowance for the difference in condition 
of the civilized world in Montaigne's days and 
ours, it may be considered, generally speaking. 
an admirable resume of all that has been settled 
in regard to educational aims up to the present 
time. — In 1 580 — 81. Montaigne visited Germany, 
Switzerland, and Italy for his health, and wrote 
a journal of his tour, which remained hidden in 
the family chest at Montaigne till 1774, when it 
was published at Paris. The principal English 
translation of his works is that of Charles Cotton 



596 



MONTANA 



MOORE'S HILL COLLEGE 



(published about 1680), revised in 1842, by the 
younger Hazlett (Phila., 1849). An edition in 
5 volumes, by De Coste, was published at the 
Hague, in 1772; and one by Victor Le Clerc, at 
Paris, in 1826. Bayle St. John published a biog- 
raphy of Montaigne (London, 1857). 

MONTANA, one of the territories of the 
United States, set off from Idaho, and organized 
with an independent territorial government in 
1864. Its area is 145,776 sq. m., and its popu- 
lation, in 1870, was 20,595, of whom 183 were 
colored, 1,949 Chinese, and 157 civilized Indians. 
Educational History. — The legislature of the 
territory, at its first session, passed a law for the 
establishment of schools, but the sparseness of 
the population and its migratory character, de- 
prived the law of its practical value. In 1872, 
the subject was again taken up, and a new law 
was passed, under which about 80 school-districts 
■were organized. In 1874, the law was again 
amended, resulting in the present system. The 
first superintendent of public instruction was 
Cornelius Hedges, appointed in 1872, re-ap- 
pointed in 1874, and still in office (1876). 

School System. — The supervision of the schools 
is entrusted to a superintendent of instruction, 
who is nominated by the governor for two years, 
and confirmed by the council. He prescribes 
all needful regulations, designates the course of 
study and the text-books to be used in the 
schools, and makes a biennial report of their con- 
dition to the governor. County superintendents 
are elected each for two years. They are eight in 
number, and perform the usual duties of such 
officers. They make annual visits to the schools 
in their counties, and receive not more than $10 
for each district under their supervision. They 
are also allowed to charge $2 for each teacher's 
certificate granted. Under the present law, these 
certificates are of one grade only, and are given 
for only two years ; but the character of the ex- 
amination, depending, as it does, upon the caprice 
of the county superintendent, leads to a want of 
uniformity in the value of the certificates, which 
has been a cause of complaint. District trustees 
are also chosen for three years, three in each 
district constituting a board. Their duties are to 
employ teachers, furnish books, take charge of 
school-houses, furniture, etc., and exercise an im- 
mediate supervision over the schools, subject to 
the direction of the territorial superintendent. 
With these boards, also, rests the power of sub- 
mitting to the voters of the district the question, 
whether money shall be raised by taxation, when- 
ever additional school facilities are needed. They 
may, also, establish a high school in each district, 
grade it, and employ "teachers to conduct it, 
whenever such school is needed. Resident voters 
may decide, at the annual election, what amount 
they shall raise by taxation for the building oj 
school-houses ; but they are not authorized to 
issue bonds, nor incur any indebtedness for the 
purpose. Provision is made for the separate edu- 
cation of colored children in each county, by the 
establishment of special schools, on application of 
the parents or guardians of not less than ten 



colored children, to the board of trustees. Less 
than ten may be provided for in any manner 
deemed advisable. The school age is between 4 and 
21 years ; the legal school year, 3 months ; and the 
school day, 6 hours. The school revenue is derived 
from the school fund, which is the interest on all 
moneys derived from land grants, and from the 
school tax, which is levied by the county com- 
missioners annually, at a rate of from three to 
five mills on every dollar of taxable property. 
The school fund is apportioned according to the 
number of children of school age. 

Educational Condition. — The number of or- 
ganized school-districts, in 1875, was 96 ; the 
number of school-houses, 76 ; the average dura- 
tion of schools, 92 days. The school revenue was 
derived from the following sources : 

County tax $30,011.01 

Local tax for school-houses 17,059.63 
Other sources 4,043.62 



Total. 



$51,114.26 

Expenditures for the year $31,821,68 

School population 3837 

Number enrolled in schools 2337 

Number of teachers, males 56 

females 43 



Total . 



9!) 

Normal Instruction. — No provision has yet 
been made for the special instruction of persons 
intending to teach in the schools of the territory. 

Teachers 1 Institutes. — The first convention of 
school-teachers in the territory was held in 1874. 
This was composed of the teachers of Deer Lodge 
Co., and the territorial superintendent was the 
president during its temporary organization. 
Measures were taken for the establishment of a 
permanent teachers' institute, and several edu- 
cational subjects were discussed. 

Secondary Instruction. — In 1875, the number 
of private schools was 14, with 292 pupils. There 
are, besides, a small number of high schools, and 
denominational schools and academies. 

Superior, Professional and Scientific, and 
Special Instruction. — No opportunities for this 
kind of education are, as yet, afforded, the ener- 
gies of the people being almost entirely devoted 
to the development of the mines and the cultiva- 
tion of the soil. In the report for 1873, the 
superintendent, Cornelius Hedges, said : "Our 
people are generally poor and very scattered. 
Many of our school-districts are of greater area 
than whole counties in the Eastern states." Again, 
in 1875, he said: "Only 6 states, and none of the 
territories, unless the District of Columbia be 
so reckoned, surpass Montana in the amount of 
money raised per capita of its school population, 
and this without any aid derived from perma- 
nent funds, such as most of the older states 
possess." 

MOORE'S HILL COLLEGE, at Moore's 
Hill, Ind., founded in 1856, is under Methodist 
Episcopal control. It is supported by tuition 
fees, and an endowment of $18,000. It has ap- 
paratus, a cabinet, and a small library. Both 
sexes are admitted. There is a preparatory and 
a collegiate department, with a classical and a 



MORAL EDUCATION" 



597 



scientific course, and also a musical, a normal, 
and a commercial department. The cost of tui- 
tion in the collegiate department is $30 per an- 
num. • In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors, and 
120 students, of whom 2,'i were of the collegiate 
grade. The presidents have been as follows : 
the Rev. Samuel R. Adams. A. M., 8 years; the 
Rev. Thomas Harrison, A. M.., ti years; the Rev. 
John H.Martin, A. M., 2 years; the Rev. F. A. 
Hester, I). D., 4 years; and the Rev. J. P. D. 
John. A. ML, the present incumbent ( 1 S7<>). 

MORAL EDUCATION has fur its sphere 
of operation the culture of those principles which 
influence or control the voluntary action of hu- 
man beings. The elements of self-control exist. 
in a greater or less degree, in every mind, as a 
part of its original constitution. They are dis- 
tinct from its intellectual faculties, and need a 
special education, which is far more important 
than intellectual education, because it contributes 
in a much higher degree to the good both of the 
individual and of society. The subject of moral 
education is duty, and its office is both specula- 
tive and active; that is (1) to implant correct 
principles of rectitude in the pupils mind — to 
teach what duty is. and (2) to cultivate a desire 
to do what is right fur its own sake — to respect 
duty, or moral obligation: in other words, to 
feel a sense of right — to listen to the voice of 
conscience (q. v.); to which may be added, as an 
important additional object, to implant in the 
youthful mind such motives as will aid the moral 
s snse, and enable it to triumph over the natural 
propensities and desires, when the latter are in 
conflict with it. The means employed in moral 
elueation are the following: (1) precepts, ad- 
dressed both to the understanding and to the 
conscience, the object being to enlighten the lat- 
ter, which of itself does not recognize specific 
right and wrong ; (2) example, appealing to imi- 
tation as well as to conscience, and enforced by 
the love and respect felt by the child toward its 
educator, leading the former to feel that whatever 
is done by the latter is right, and hence should 
be imitated (see Example) : (3) hnhit. inducing, 
bymeansofrepetitinn.au inclination to act in 
th ■ same way under the same circumstances (see 
II visit); (4) exercise, for the purpose both of 
strengthening the moral feelings brought into 
play, and of forming habits. Exercise, in moral 
education, is just as important as in physical or 
intellectual education ; indeed, there can be no 
training or culture without it ; and, in carrying 
this on, the teacher must avail himself of every 
possible circumstance that arises in connection 
With his intercourse with the pupils, or their 
intercourse with each other, to give occasion for 
tlii< exercise. and thus form a basis for the desired 
culture of the moral faculties. This culture or 
training must have a twofold object : ( 1 ) to cul- 
tivate virtues, and (2) to correct vices. Among the 
former, as especially necessary, may be enumer- 
ated truthfulness, honesty, justice, candor and 
modesty, kindness or benevolence, diligence, obe- 
dience to proper authority, gratitude, fidelity to 
every promise or trust, and patriotism ; and 



among the latter, the opposites of these, as lying 
and deceit, a disposition to steal, cruelty to ani- 
mals, uukindness and injustice to playmates, 
violence and combativeness, ill temper, anger 
and irritability, obstinacy, laziness, irresolution, 
leading to procrastination, excessive self-esteem, 
leading to arrogance and self-conceit, etc. These 
are specific qualities of character which need a 
particular recognition and treatment on the part 
of the educator : but when the moral sense has 
been thoroughly developed, the Christian moral 
principle, to do unto others as we would that 
they should do unto us, will comprehend, in ap- 
probation or condemnation, every class of actions, 
and give the means of a just discrimination as 
to what is virtuous and what is vicious. I'ut 
the conscience is not developed in children ; and 
very often, not even in adults. Hence, the need 
of moral discipline, in order to afford to the edu- 
cator the means of bringing to bear upon his 
pupils external restraint, as preliminary to self- 
restraint ; for it must be borne in mind that any 
government that does not contemplate the culti- 
vation of the elements of self-control can scarcely 
be considered as forming a part of moral educa- 
tion. The three elements of sensibility usually ap- 
pealed to in connection with moral discipline or re- 
straint, are fear (q. v.). hope (q. v.). and love (q. v.). 
(See also Authority.) The conscience being 
very imperfectly developed in childhood, second- 
ary motives, such as the love of approbation, the 
hope of reward, the desire to excel, may properly 
be appealed to. in order to promote well-doing on 
the part of the pupil, and thus lead to the for- 
mation of good habits. Caution should be exer- 
cised, however, in employing such incentives: ami 
the educator should always keep in view the just 
limits of their use. the injurious consequences of 
depending too exclusively upon them, and the im- 
portance of so employing them that they may 
lead on to the primary motive — the desire to do 
right for its own sake. |Seelv\ii lation.) The prac- 
tical application of the system here briefly out- 
lined, is attended with very great difficulty, and 
requires peculiar intelligence and skill on the 
part of the educator; and not alone this, but 
moral culture, involving self control, patience, 
and a delicate appreciation of moral distinctions, 
as well as a full sympathy with the general pecu- 
liarities and wants of childhood. To this may be 
added, with emphasis, the ability to discern the 
peculiarities of individual character, as depend- 
ent on both mental ami physical constitution ; 
for the processes of moral education cannot, like 
many of those employed in intellectual training, 
be applied to children in large masses. Suitable 
modifications must be made in the application 
of general principles and rules, or much injury 
may 1 e done. (See Disci rnment ok Character.) 
In this important department of education, the 
teacher may find very useful suggestions, both 
for information and guidance, in the following 
works: Spencer, Education; Intellectual, Moral, 
and Physical (N. Y., 1866) ; Ccrrie, Common- 
School Education (Edin. and London) ; Aber- 
crombie, The Plcilosopliy of the Moral Feelings, 



598 



MORALIZING 



MORAVIAN BRETHREN 



edited by Jacob Abbott (Boston, 1836) ; Dy- 
mond, Principles qf Morality (N.Y., 1851); Gow, 
Good Morals and Ge7itle Manners (Cincinnati, 
1873) ; Rosenkranz, Pedagogics as a System, 
trans, by Anna C. Beackett (St. Louis, 18T2). 
(See also Moralizing.) 

MORALIZING, the formal inculcation of 
moral truth by means of precept, or of stories 
related for the sake of the moral, with the 
view of influencing conduct. This practice, 
common in the home circle and in the school, is 
the result of a consciousness on the part of the 
parent or teacher of a duty unperformed, the dis- 
charge of which is attempted in this perfunctory 
w,ay. It is hardly necessary to say that it almost 
always fails ; since it is either an attempt to 
reason with the young — a process for which 
their minds are not yet sufficiently mature — or 
an effort to impose mechanically on their minds 
generalizations which can only be reached natu- 
rally after the observation of many individual in- 
stances. In either case, the abstract nature of 
the appeal is so far beyond their powers, that 
the attention which is given, if indeed it is given, 
is only the amiable toleration of a discourse 
which arouses no interest. Of course, moral 
lessons received in such a spirit accomplish no 
useful purpose, if indeed they are not positively 
hurtful ; since they tend to produce disgust for 
an important branch of education, which in 
maturer years, would be interesting. The con- 
ceptions existing in the minds of children and 
youth being in large measure concrete, the true 
method of approaching their intelligence is 
through concrete images. In intellectual train- 
ing, this is usually done, and is always the most 
successful method. In one of the methods of 
moral training above referred to — that of moral 
stories — this is attempted, and doubtless, it is 
supposed, with success ; but it is safe to say 
that the interest aroused is not extended to the 
moral deductions drawn from the acts of the 
persons introduced, but ends with the acts or 
actors themselves. Thus the fables of iEsop are 
interesting to the young only as long as the 
men and animals are, so to speak, in motion. 
When the moral is reached — which is not till 
after the narrative has been brought to a climax, 
and the actors have been dismissed — their inter- 
est is at an ebb; and not till many years later is 
that moral brought home to them by the mani- 
fold experiences of life. This, therefore, is the pe- 
culiar value, and the only proper use of, the fables 
of ^Esop, namely, that they present in a striking 
way the truth desired to be impressed on the 
mind, not with the design of making it imme- 
diately influential, but with an effort which, 
for the moment, is apparently without result — 
the feeling which attends the planting of a seed, 
i. e., the certainty of future development. It is 
difficult, of course, for the par3nt or teacher who 
has the well-being of a child sincerely at heart, 
to leave him in that seeming neglect which a for- 
bearance from moral discourse appears to coun- 
tenance; and the pseudo-maxim, that some train- 
ing is better than none, here intervenes to in- 



crease the difficulty ; but it should never be for- 
gotten that the object to be attained is not a 
present, but a future, and a far more important, 
one — the determination of the pupil's conduct 
through life ; and any course which shall hazard 
this is not only valueless, but evil. The mind of 
youth, in fact, is not given to that sober, con- 
templative process which we call moralizing. Its - 
natural disposition is one of gaiety, ceaseless 
activity, and even boisterousness. Ihe exuber- 
ance of spirits natural to this period of life, there- 
fore, makes the child indisposed to give patient 
attention to any purely speculative process of 
thought. That this is a wise provision of nature 
for the development of the physical powers, has 
long been recognized by observant educators; 
and any attempt to curb this spirit, with the 
view of inculcating moral truth, only inverts the 
natural order of development, and, in healthy 
children is apt to result disastrously. The only 
method of moral training effective with youth 
is that which discards formal precepts, and by 
restraint of actual vice, or practice of the desired 
virtue, engrafts it insensibly on the daily conduct. 
The habit of right acting is thus unconsciously 
acquired, but not till a much later period is the 
mind disposed to survey critically this action, 
and pass judgment upon its propriety. The 
maturity of the mind is an indication of the 
proper season for moralizing. 

MORAL SUASION. See Corporal Pun- 
ishment. 

MORAVIAN BRETHREN, or Moravi- 
ans, a common designation of the Unitas Fra- 
trum, a body of Protestant Christians, distin- 
guished for activity in missionary work among 
the heathen, and also in the education of the 
young. The church was founded in 1457 A. D.. by 
followers of John Buss, the Bohemian reformer 
and martyr (died at Constance, July 6., 1415) ; 
and flourished in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland 
until the anti-reformation under Ferdinand II., 
1621 — 7. A " hidden seed," however, remained ; 
and, in 1722 — 7, descendants of the ancient 
Church of the Brethren, to the number of about 
300, settled at Herrnhut, in Saxony, on an estate 
belonging to Count Zinzendorf, forming the 
nucleus of the Renewed Brethren's Church, to 
which other emigrants from Bohemia and Mo- 
ravia, with many of the inhabitants of other 
countries of Europe, joined themselves. Since 
that time, the church, though still small in 
numbers, has spread over the world, carrying on 
a vast mission work ; and, at the present time, 
it supports many educational institutions. There 
are three chief missionary provinces: Continental 
Europe, Great Britain, and the United States. 

I. Ancient Church (1457 — 1627). — Very 
soon after the founding of the church, the 
brethren began to devote themselves to educa- 
tion ; the first schools were held in the parson- 
ages of the ministers, the scholars being chiefly 
candidates for the ministry. Soon, however, 
parochial schools were established for thorough 
training in the elements of knowledge, including 
the Latin language ; many of the pupils were 



MORAVIAN BRETHREN 



599 



not members of the church. Classical schools 
-or colleges were founded at Eibenscliiitz (under 
Esrom Riidinger, of Wittenberg), Meserritsch, 
and Eulneek. in Moravia; Lissa. in Poland; 
and other places; these colleges were well at- 
tended, many of the students being Roman 
Catholics. In 1585, there were, in addition, three 
theological seminaries, — at Jungbunzlau, Bohe- 
mia ; and Prerau and Eibenschiitz. in Moravia; 
to these was afterwards added one at Lissa, in 
Poland. The most distinguished educators in the 
ancient Church of the Brethren were Blahoslav, 
the author of a Bohemian grammar, still in use ; 
Riidinger ; and John Amos Comenius. The 
latter was a skillful educator, and his new meth- 
ods of teaching gained him great celebrity. He 
is one of the forerunners of the so-called " mod- 
ern " system of object-teaching and of the kin- 
dergarten. He was in constant correspondence 
with prominent educators throughout Europe, 
and traveled much in the cause of education. 
He finally settled at Amsterdam, in Holland, 
where he died Nov. 22., 1 670. Up to the day 
of his death, he was unwearied as a writer in be- 
half of education and of his beloved church, of 
which he had become the senior bishop. (See 
Cokenius.) Though that church was now seem- 
ingly stamped out of existence, he hoped against 
hope that it would be restored. And this hope 
was fulfilled. Emigrants, for conscience' sake, 
from Bohemia ami Moravia, were the first settlers 
of Herrnhut, in Saxony. The first little band 
arrived in June, 1722 ; and, on May 12., 172-1, the 
corner-stone of the first school-house was laid. 
This building was erected in pursuance of a plan 
formed by Zinzendorf to establish institutions 
similar to those at Halle, where he had studied 
under Francke. Though the project was soon 
abandoned, particularly as this first school in 
Herrnhut proved a failure ; still, from that day. 
May 12., 1724, dates the educational activity of 
the Renewed Brethren's Church. 

II. Renewed Brethren's Church (1727—1876). 
The school, therefore, preceded the organization 
-of the church. As additional congregations were 
founded, parochial schools were introduced ; 
with the spread of missions, schools for the in- 
struction of the converts were begun ; theological 
schools were needed for the education of minis- 
ters ; and friends of the church urged the estab- 
lishment of boarding-schools. The most promi- 
nent educators within the church, and especially in 
the German province, have been Johanu Nitsch- 
maun, Sr.j Polycarp Midler, the founder of the 
scientific internal development ; Paul Eugen 
Layritz (author of a Latin dictionary long in 
use), who, with his son-in-law, Christian Theodor 
Zembsch, the latter for 55 years teacher and 
president of the Peedagogium, may be con- 
sidered the real founder of the Moravian school 
system. Bishop Johann Friedrich Reichel, 
though not directly employed as an instructor, 
■deserves special mention, as he was very active 
in the establishment of boarding-schools, the 
Peedagogium, and the theological seminary. By 
iiis wise counsel he assisted those more actively 



engaged in teaching to overcome many of the 
difficulties which attended the establishment of 
the new school enterprises. — Up to the year 
176!), the llallean or pietistic mode of educa- 
tion prevailed. With the rise of the philan- 
thropic school (Voltaire, Basedow, etc.), the 
Brethren adopted those of the new ideas which 
seemed to them good, suitable, and not in con- 
flict with Christian principles ; and. thus, in 
place of the pietistic asceticism of Halle, there 
came a tendency which was more humanistic, 
and more friendly disposed toward the culture 
both of ancient and modern times. The present 
educational activity of the church will be con- 
sidered under the following six heads : 

(1) Primary Schools. — Great stress is laid by 
the Brethren on the importance of home train- 
ing ; and it is officially recognized that " the 
foundation of the future good or evil conduct of 
a child is laid at home, and that the faults and 
defects which there develop themselves are sel- 
dom or never remedied elsewhere." 

(«) Infant schools — up to the 7th year of age. 
In many of the congregations, especially in Eu- 
rope, infant schools are kept, the main object of 
which is " to employ the little ones with short 
and easy lessons, and to awaken their faculties, 
■ — not to burden the mind at the expense of their 
health, and of the future development of mind 
and body.'' The main requisite is held to be "a 
suitable teacher, fond of children, who can enter 
into their feelings, and understand how to man- 
age and interest them.'' 

(/*) Parochial schools — from the 7th to the 14th 
year. In Europe, generally, and, in America, in 
several places, there are parochial schools, open 
to children of the congregation, and also to 
others. Religious instruction forms an impor- 
tant part of the education, the object being to 
care for the heart and soul as well as for the in- 
tellect. In these schools, all the fundamental 
branches are taught; too rapid development is. on 
principle, avoided. Wherever parochial schools, 
from the nature of the case, cannot be kept, 
other schools, public or private, are used, prefer- 
ence being had for those in which Christian 
principles prevail. In these cases, religious in- 
struction is, in part, supplied by 

(c) Sunday-schools, which are more common in 
America than in England or Germany. In these 
latter countries, they are more confined to their 
original purpose. — to impart instruction, secular 
or religious, to those who are unable to obtain it 
during the week. 

(2) Boarding-Schools — from the 7th to the 18th 
year, and upward. '1 he first boarding-school 
was opened at Neuwied on the Rhine, Prussia, 
in 1756. The number of church boarding- 
schools had increased to 51 at the close of the 
year 1875. The number of scholars, each year, 
ranges from 2,500 to 3,000. In the German 
province, there are 30 schools, 14 for boys (600 
pupils), 16 for girls (759), including the two 
boarding-schools and the primary department 
for the children of missionaries, In the British 
province, there are 15 schools ; 6 for boys (281 



600 



MORAVIAN BRETHREN 



pupils), and 9 for girls (302), one of those for 
boys being a primary boarding-school. In the 
American province, there are 6 schools ; 2 for 
boys (180 pupils) , namely, Nazareth Hall, Naza- 
reth, Northampton Co., Pa. (125 to 150 pupils) ; 
Salem Boys' School, Salem, Forsyth Co., N. C. 
(30 pupils); and 4 for girls (750 pupils); namely, 
Seminary for Young Ladies, Bethlehem, Pa. 
(250 pupils) ; Linden Hall, Litiz, Lancaster 
Co., Pa. (80'tol00) ; Salem Female Academy 
(about 225 pupils); and Hope Seminary, Hope, 
Bartholomew Co., Ind. (60 to 80 pupils). The 
course of study, in all these schools, embraces, 
first, the fuudamental branches, and after that, 
whatever accomplishments are deemed necessary 
by the parents, and by the demands of the times. 
Special attention is paid to music, mathematics, 
and the classical and modern languages. As far 
as is known, the Seminary at Bethlehem, which 
was opened as a school for girls in 1749, and as 
a boarding-school in 1785, is the pioneer school 
in America in the education of women. At 
Nazareth Hall, there are special classes to prepare 
boys to enter either a college or a polytechnic or 
scientific school ; the former with a special view 
to the theological seminary. One peculiarity of 
the method of training is the constant super- 
vision of all the scholars by the teachers, the 
ideal being the watchful care of parents over the 
family. Though irksome to boys and girls, this 
principle of Moravian education still commends 
itself to those who have the responsible charge 
of the pupils. The aim of all the boarding- 
schools is not brilliancy of attainments, but a 
solid foundation; and, at the same time, to be 
equal to the standard of modern requirements. 
Due and careful attention is paid to moral and 
religious training. Besides the church schools, 
there are other private boarding-schools con- 
ducted by members of the church, notably those 
for boys at litiz. The same principles of edu- 
cation prevail in all. 

(3) Classical Schools and Colleges. — The prin- 
cipal college is that at Nisky, in Prussia, official- 
ly styled the pcedagogium, with 60 students. 
The course of study is equal to that of the 
German gymnasia of the higher class, and special 
attention is paid to the Hebrew language. In the 
schools at Fulneck, England, and Nazareth, Pa., 
classical studies are pursued by the higher classes 
of boys who prepare for college or the university. 
Many of those at Nazareth Hall, especially those 
who are candidates for the ministry in the Mo- 
ravian Church, continue their classical studies in 
the Theological Seminary at Bethlehem, Pa. The 
preparatory classical course continues two years. 

(4) Theological Seminaries. — The seminary 
of the German province, founded in 1735, is 
now located at Gnadenfeld, Prussia. The num- 
ber of students averages 25, in 3 classes, with 4 
professors. The theological course, of three years, 
is very thorough. The seminary of the British 
province is the Training Institution, founded in 
1860, at Fairfield, near Manchester; it combiues 
a seminary proper and a normal school. The 
seminary of the American province, founded in 



1807, at Nazareth, since 1858 permanently located' 
at Bethlehem, incorporated in 1864 as Th& 
Moravian College and Theological Seminary, 
though familiarly known by the latter half of 
its title, averages 30 students, with 4 profess- 
ors. The course of study, after two years' prepar- 
atory training at Nazareth, is for 6 years ; three 
and a half devoted to the classics, mathematics, 
natural science, Hebrew, and philosophy, and two 
and a half years to theological studies. Special 
attention is paid, throughout the course, to the 
study of German. The full course of training 
for a minister, therefore, occupies 8 years, or its 
equivalent in work. Classes are formed bien- 
nially. The endowment fund is very small ; but 
the charge for students preparing for the Mo- 
ravian ministry is nominal, the expenses being 
defrayed by the church. 

(5) Special Schools. — In Germany, there are 
two normal schools for training young men and 
women as teachers ; a missionary institute for 
training missionaries ; and a technical school at 
Gnadenberg, Prussia. In connection with the 
mission work, there are normal and industrial 
schools ; in the latter, instruction is given in agri- 
culture, mechanics, printing, book-binding, etc. 

(6) Schools in the Missionary Provinces. — The 
instruction of old and young in religion, general 
knowledge, and industrial art, is a chief part of 
the duty of the missionaries of the church. Their 
labors in education cover the following field : 
Greenland, Labrador, the North American In- 
dians, Mosquitia, the English and Danish West 
Indies, Dutch Guiana or Surinam, South Africa, 
Australia, and West Himalaya. In these mission 
provinces, there are the following schools: (1) a. 
theological seminary, in Jamaica, W. I.; (5) nor- 
mal schools — 2 in Jamaica, 1 each in Antigua, 
in Surinam, and in South Africa; in Greenland, 
4 normal classes ; and in Labrador, 3, at dif- 
ferent stations, as the isolation prevents com- 
plete union in a normal school. The pupils num- 
ber, in all, about 100 ; but the number increases, 
each year. There are maintained 217 day schools, 
at or near the 92 mission stations.with 756 teach- 
ers and 15,173 scholars; besides Sunday-schools. 
With the most, infant schools are also connected; 
many adults attend special classes. Many of the 
scholars are not connected with the church. The 
instruction ranges from a primary to a grammar- 
school grade. It may be mentioned that "among 
1 ,200 colonial schools in Gippsland, Australia, the 
school for natives at Ramahyuk, consisting of 
perhaps the lowest and most degraded of heathen 
tribes, the aborigines of Australia gained, in 1873, 
the highest prize offered by the government." 

Principles of Education. — The schools of the 
Brethren are conducted on religious, though not 
sectarian, principles. In regard to the method 
of teaching, the General Synod of 1869 reiterates: 
"While we would earnestly endeavor to keep 
pace with other schools in imparting a store of 
solid useful knowledge, we would not aim at 
that extent or display of learning which tends 
to foster vanity, to lead to the neglect of proper 
regard for health, and to destroy that simplicity- 



MOROCCO 



MOTHER-TONGUE 



601 



of mind and buoyancy of spirit which are es- 
sential to the success of our efforts.'' 

The Renewed Church of the Brethren has pro- 
duced no educator with a world-wide influence like 
< 'omenius ; the energies of her school-men have 
been directed to the improvement of the church 
schools. Indirectly, however, the Moravians have 
done much for the cause of general education, 
by impressing on all their schools the essential 
points of the German method of instruction, 
"which is unostentatious, patient, laborious, and 
therefore, likely to be thorough." (W. C. Rei- 
chel, NazareOl Hall and its Reunions.) In the 
majority of the schools, there is instruction in 
physical training. There is no opposition to the 
common-school system. On the question of the 
co-education of the sexes there has been no dis- 
cussion or action, as no necessity for it has arisen. 

Statistical Summary. — On the 1st of January, 
1875, with a home membership of 17,993 com- 
municants (total membership, including children. 
29,305), there were under the care of the Mo- 
ravians 4 theological seminaries, with 83 students: 
4 colleges and classical schooLs, with 140 students; 
9 normal schools and 7 normal classes, with 150 
students: 51 boarding-schools, with about 'J . 7 < I ■ » 
pupils; 217 common schools in the mission 
provinces, with 15,173 pupils ; also about 200 
pupils in the technical and industrial schools ; 
and about 3.000 pupils in parochial and infant 
schools — a total of persons under instruction of 
21,446. Adding the Sunday-school pupils, the 
grand total swells to 43.500. The number of 
professors and teachers in the seminaries, colleges, 
boarding-schools, and parochial schools ranges be- 
tween 500 ami GOO ; of teachers in the mission 
held. 750; of sunday-school teachers, about 1,500. 
Further information in regard to the Moravian 
schools and school system may be found in 
Comenius, School of Infancy (London, L858); 
Putt, Das tkeologische Seminarium (of the 
German province) ; Gammert, Geschichte des 
Padagof/iums (at Xisky, Prussia) ; W. C. Rei- 
chei,. History of Bethlehem Female Seminary, 
and Nazareth. Hall ami its Reunions, which 
contains a brief sketch of the Theolo^cal Semi- 
nary of the American province ; Yerbeek, An- 
leitung fjir Lehrer und Lehrerinnen ; and the 
Synodal Results of 1869. 

MOROCCO, or Marocco, an empire in the 
north-western part of Africa; area, 259,000 
sq. m.; population, about 6,000.000. In ancient 
times, it formed part of the territory known as 
Mauritania, and subsequently of the Roman em- 
pire, with which it remained up to 429 A. D., 
when it was overrun by the Vandals. After its 
reconquest, in 534 A. I)., it formed a province of 
the Eastern Empire. Upon its conquest by the 
Arabs, in the 7th century. Mohammedanism was 
introduced, to which religion, at present, the whole 
population, with the exception of several hundred 
thousand Jews, belongs. Education, in Morocco, 
is in a very low state. All that remains of the 
ancient universities, at the present day, is the 
university of Dar-el-ihn, which, in the middle 
ages, had an extensive reputation, and was at- 



tended by Arabs from all parts of Africa. It 
still confers academic degrees ; and its head, the 
Mufti, is one of the most prominent men in the 
empire. Young men destined to letters, law, or 
the service of religion, are instructed here in 
grammar, Arabic poetry, and Mohammedan law 
and religion; otherwise, education is confined to- 
reading and reciting passages of the Koran. 
The libraries of Fez and Morocco, which were 
once celebrated throughout the Arabic world 
have disappeared ; and the study of medicine* 
which at one time had been brought to a 
great degree of proficiency, has completely de- 
generated. As in other Mohammedan countries, 
whatever primary instruction is afforded is given 
in schools connected with the mosques ; but, 
there are no statistics to show to what extent 
this exists. 

MOTHER. See Home Edication. 

MOTHER-TONGUE, the language in which 
the child utters the first articulate sounds, and in 
which his education is conducted until he is sent 
to school. It is so called because the mother is 
the child's natural teacher during this period ; 
and it is the mother's vocabulary, construc- 
tion, and pronunciation that are copied by 
the child, and that constitute the germ from 
which the child's own language gradually develops 
itself. 'J hat this prerogative of the mother- 
tongue should be sacredly respected, and that no 
< m-imstances should be permitted to weaken its 
influence, will not be disputed by any educator. 
It is, however, no interference with this that 
children, by associating with companions who 
speak a different language, should learn, at an 
early period, to converse in a second tongue; 
since, when the mother exerts her legitimate in- 
fluence, the language in which she communes 
with the child will continue to be the first 
moulder of the youthful mind. — The privileged 
position of the mother-tongue during the first 
years of a child's life, ceases with the beginning 
of school instruction. The language of the school 
is net necessarily the mother-tongue, but the 
national language. The terms are by no means 
identical, as is frequently assumed. It is obviously 
a great advantage that children, on entering 
school, should find there the language with which 
they are familiar, and through which the first 
development of their mental powers has been 
conducted, and their little stock of knowledge lias 
been obtained. It is thus easy for the intelligent 
teacher to establish at once the most complete 
harmony between family education and school 
instruction. But millions of children, even in 
civilized countries, are still growing up without 
this advantage ; and, upon being sent to school, 
are ) ilaced under the instruction of a teacher whose 
language they understand either very imperfectly 
or not at all. In consequence of the extensive 
interm igration which characterizes this age, 
the children of foreigners, in many parts of the 
world, are quite frequently received into public 
schools the language of which is unknown to 
them ; and it is evident that all that is pos- 
sible, in such cases, is some special attention 



1102 MOUNT ST. MAEY'S COLLEGE 



MURRAY 



on the part of the teacher to the educational 
wants and to the progress of the little strangers. 
But as few countries, at the present time, are 
inhabited by people of only one nationality, it is 
also very common to find localities, or even 
large districts, where a large portion of the chil- 
dren — indeed, sometimes the majority — speak at 
home a language different from that in which 
they are instructed at school. Thus the Celtic 
and the German mother-tongues are extensively 
met with in English schools ; the Polish Wendish, 
and French, in German schools ; the German, 
Polish.Finnish, and many other languages.in Rus- 
sian schools ; and the Italian, in French schools. 
In such cases, it is not uncommon to find that 
nearly all the young pupils understand some other 
language better than that through which they 
Teceive their school instruction, and in which 
they are expected to reach the highest state of 
perfection. Wherever this state of things exists, 
it forces upon the attention of teachers and school 
legislators the question to what extent any claims 
in behalf of the mother-tongue, either as a means 
or as a branch of public instruction, deserve con- 
sideration. The legislation ou this subject has 
been very vacillating, and still greatly differs in 
various countries ; but the general tendency, at 
present, is to extend, by means both of school leg- 
islation and school education, the domain of the 
national language. (See National Language.) 

MOUNT SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, 
a Roman Catholic institution, chartered in 1830, 
is situated about 2 miles from Emmettsburg, 
Md. It has a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
ment, and possesses excellent philosophical and 
chemical apparatus, a mineralogical collection, 
and libraries containing about 11,000 volumes. 
The regular charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
$150 per session of five months. The system 
of education is a combined classical and com- 
mercial one, including the various arts and sci- 
ences usually taught in colleges of the first class. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 12 professors, 18 other 
instructors, and 180 students. The Rev. John 
McCloskey, D.D., is the president (1876). 

MOUNT SAINT MARY'S SEMINARY 
OF THE WEST, a Roman Catholic institu- 
tion in Cincinnati, Ohio, was founded in 1848. 
The course of instruction is of two grades, 
preparatory and theological. In the preparatory 
department, all branches pertaining to a regular 
collegiate course are taught in seven different 
classes, embracing as many years of study ; of 
these, the last four correspond to a regular col- 
lege course, the first three embodying the pre- 
paratory studies. The theological course em- 
braces a period of three years. The library 
contains about 15,000 volumes. All students 
are required to pay $1 60 a year toward board 
and tuition. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instruc- 
tors, and 111 students, all preparing for the 
priesthood. The Very Rev. P. J. Pabisch, D. D., 
LL. D., has been the president of the institution 
since 1863. 

MOUNT UNION COLLEGE, at Mount 
Union, near Alliance, Ohio, was organized as a 



seminary in 1846, as a college in 1858. Among its 
distinguishing features are entire liberty in the 
choice of studies, the prominence given to practical 
studies, its Christian, but not sectarian nor par- 
tisan character, the admission of females to equal 
privileges in all the departments, and its econ- 
omy for students. The college has productive 
funds to the amount of over §451 ,000, and valu- 
able apparatus and extensive cabinets. There 
are four general courses of four years each, 
namely, science, philosophy, liberal literature 
and arts, and classics. The special courses are 
music, fine arts, normal, and commercial. There 
is a preparatory department. The degrees of 
Master of Arts, Master of Science, and Master 
or Doctor of Philosophy, are not honorary de- 
grees, but are conferred on those who have com- 
pleted, and sustained an actual examination in, a 
suitable postgraduate course of one year's study. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 18 instructors and 842 
students, of whom 344 were in the collegiate de- 
partment. The Rev. O. N. Hartshorn, LL. D., 
is (1876) the president. 

MUHLENBERG COLLEGE, at Allen- 
town, Pa., is under Evangelical Lutheran con- 
trol. It was opened as a seminary in 1848, and 
as a college under its present name in 1867. It 
is supported by tuition fees, synodical aid, and 
the income of an endowment of $50,000. The 
buildings are surrounded by about five acres of 
ground. The libraries contain about 3,600 vol- 
umes. The institution embraces a collegiate de- 
partment, with a course of four years, and an 
academic department, with a course of three 
years. The cost of tuition in the collegiate de- 
partment.is $50 a year. In 1874 — 5, there were 
8 instructors and 111 students (42 collegiate and 
69 academic). The Rev. Frederick A. Muhlen- 
berg, I). D., has been the president of the college 
from its organization. 

MURRAY, Lindley, was born in 1745 at 
Swetara, near Lancaster, Pa.; died near York, 
England, in 1826. He at first devoted himself 
to the law, but abandoned it for commerce at 
the outbreak of the disputes with the mother 
country, and retired with a competency, on the 
establishment of American independence. In 
1784, he went to England for his health ; and, 
after some months, fixed his residence at Hold- 
gate, near York, where he remained until his 
death. Murray never was a professional teacher. 
His Grammar arose out of some lessons which 
he gave to the assistants at a girls' school in 
York. His- pupils appreciated his efforts, and 
urged him to write an English grammar. This 
appeared in 1795, was followed by a book of 
exerciser and a key, and has passed through a 
great number of editions, both in England 
and America. It was compiled from Harris, 
Lowth, Blair, Campbell, and others ; and the 
larger edition, at least, contains many good points. 
Its faults are too frequent vagueness and want 
of simplicity in the language, together with de- 
ficiencies in the accidence, which were perhaps 
inseparable from a work written at that date. 
A good teacher might occasionally gather useful 



MUSIC 



603 



matter from Murray's Grammar, but would not 
use it as a class-book. Mr. Washington Moon, in 
Bad English (London, 1868), has drawn atten- 
tion to passages in the Grammar in which Mur- 
ray has violated his own rules. A few of Mr, 
Moon's criticisms, however, it is impossible to 
agree with. Murray published several reading 
books also, besides some works of a religious 
nature. He was a member of the Society of 
Friends, and a man of great benevolence. The 
Autobiography of Murray, down to 18011, ap- 
peared after his death, with a continuation by 
Elizabeth Frank. This autobiography was writ- 
ten in the form of letters, and contains some in- 
teresting passages. The continuation is an undis- 
criminating eulogy of Murray and his works; 
it heaps up testimonies as to their value, but 
says not a syllable of those who, like Crombie, 
had criticised various points in the Grammar. 

MUSIC, according to the Old Testament, was 
cultivated by the earliest inhabitants of the 
earth. However this may be, there is unques- 
tionable proof that Joseph, and further on in 
Hebrew history. Moses and his sister Miriam, 
were well versed in the customs, and were 
measurably acquainted with the arts, of the 
Egyptians, which included the use of the lyre 
and other musical instruments, rude sculptured 
forms of which may be seen in ancient Egyptian 
temples to this day. — It is an interesting study, 
to trace the progress of music among the Israelites, 
who not only employed it religiously to express 
their joy and gratitude to Jehovah for their safe 
deliverance from the hands of their enemies, but 
in war and on social occasions, sought its in- 
spiriting power to encourage the soldier to re- 
newed effort, on the one hand ; or, in friendly 
gatherings, to assuage, pacify, and amuse, on the 
other. The priests themselves assisted in this 
work among the ancient people of God. These 
musical influences were cultivated and advanced 
with the increasing number and power of the 
Jews, until they arrived at the height of their 
glory during the reigns of David and Solomon. 
The immortal lyrics of King David are called the 
national songs and hymns of the ancient Hebrews. 
Much has been written to show the character of 
the music formerly sung in the temple to the ex- 
ceedingly varied sense of the psalms. Antiphonal 
effects were probably produced by choirs under 
separate leaders, but the grand director of them 
all was David himself. The instrumental ac- 
companiments must have been of no mean order. 
We rind, on examination, that the harp, the psal- 
tery, the shawm, the cornet, the lute, the tabret. 
the cymbals, — "every thing that has breath." 
that is. every thing that had a resonant body 
which would vibrate through the action of the 
air upon it, — all were to be used in carrying out 
the divine injunction, " Praise ye the Lord ! " — 
Four hundred years later, while Daniel stood 
lugh in the favor of Nebuchadnezzar at the 
court of Babylon, we read of the setting up of 
a. golden image by the king, which Daniel was 
required to worship at the moment when he 
should hear the sound of the " cornet, flute, harp. 



sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of 
music." Of these ancient musical instruments, 
the harp, the psaltery, the lute, and the dulcimer 
were stringed; while the cornet, the trumpet, the 
flute, and the sackbut were wind instruments. 
The sackbut was the precursor of the trombone, as 
the tabret or timbrel was of the tambourine and 
drum. Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian. Phceni- 
, cian, as well as Hebrew, were familiar with the 
i use of these instruments, their music being j «n >l >- 
ably of a unisonant character, and destitute of 
what is known to modern ( 'hristian nations as har- 
mony, technically so called. All these elder peoples 
contributed to that beautiful union of the arts 
and letters which found in Greece, during con- 
temporary and later days, a perfection of detail 
and a consummate working of available means 
to desirable ends, which all succeeding time must 
recognize as more thoroughly harmonious, in the 
sense of combining all departments of human 
labor to produce effective results, than any 
which preceded them. Pythagoras was the orig- 
inator of those ideas of harmony which, tested 
by vibrations produced by the mathematical 
divisions of a string, have no clearer foundation 
for the whole modern system of concords and 
discords than his simple theory. Laws and gov- 
ernment, as well as the fine arts, and the customs 
of social life, seemed blended together for intel- 
ligent recognition by means of the chanted, in- 
toned, or musical presentation of the leaders. 
We cannot look toward more remote Eastern or 
Asiatic nations for so magnificent results, nor 
indeed for any thing that deserves the name of 
music, as this word is now understood by the 
civilized European or American. Modern Asiatic 
music is unmitigated "confusion worse con- 
founded." The musical succession did not pro- 
j ceed in that direction. The mantle of Greek 
■ scholarship and Etruscan art fell upon Borne. 
Homer walked with Virgil, Demosthenes with 
I Cicero. Pythagoras with Seneca. Subsequently, 
the Christian bishop linked the logic of Aristotle 
and the philosophy of Socrates and Plato with 
the Pentateuch and the prophecies of the elder 
I dispensation, and sang without unrest his love 
[ of Christ in Latin lines surmounted with Greek 
letters, to denote the rising and the falling inflec- 
tions. St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (A. D. 386) 
composed many hymns; and the tradition of a 
! majority of the western European churches 
I assigns the authorship of the Te Devon to his 
pen, lovingly memorizing that St. Ambrose and 
St. Augustine chanted it antiphonally at the 
baptism of the latter. This statement does not 
assume the certainty of an historic fact ; but 
there is no doubt that St. Ambrose improved 
the church music of his day by adopting the 
four authentic modes founded upon the Greek 
tetraehords. The Ambrosian chant continued 
to be used as the music for the hymns and dox- 
ologies of the church for more than two hundred 
years, until St. Gregory added four more, thus 
completing what have since been known as the 
Eight Gregorian Tones. Thirteen hundred years 
have only served to make the Gregorian Tones 



604 



MUSIC 



as acceptable as they were in the earlier ages of 
the church. The reason is obvious. Whether 
it be the Greek, the Latin, or the Anglican ser- 
vice, intoning can be more distinctly heard than 
ordinary speaking ; and, therefore, it is more ef- 
fective to larg3 auditories. The vehicle, or agree- 
able musical sounds, employed for this purpose, 
must necessarily move within a limited compass, 
so that the celebrant, of either bass or tenor voice, 
can render the service acceptably. The Eight 
Gregorian Tones contain all the variety of mel- 
ody and pitch suitable for this purpose; and priest, 
choir, and people can all participate in the ser- 
vice, by using these ancient chants, without extra- 
ordinary effort, if only the gift of a correct ear 
be vouchsafed them. The Anglican Church has a 
rich and beautiful variety of single chants founded 
directly upon the Gregorian Tones, and, during 
the past thirty years, has used them more gener- 
ally than at any period since the Reformation. — 
St. Gregory's pontificate was also distinguished 
musically, by the erection of the organ, as the 
permanent musical instrument of the church. Its 
origin, according to some writers, was the syrinx, 
or Fandean pipes ; although others mention as 
a fact that Ctesiphon, six hundred years before 
Christ, constructed a plain, rude "chest of 
whistles", with water as the motive power for 
the supply of wind. Not until St. Gregory's day, 
however, did it assume proportions sufficiently 
dignified to take its place as the combined 
orchestral support of the music of the church, so 
far as wind blown through pipes could make it 
orchestral. It never can yield the intense, pen- 
etrating tone of the violins and other stringed 
instruments, by reason of the difference in the 
application of the motive power. On the other 
hand, it approaches more nearly the tone of the 
human voice ; and organ - builders and organists 
are vying with each other in developing its la- 
test achievement, the vox humana, to a degree so 
near to perfection in the beautiful, that some have 
ventured to pronounce it angelic and heavenly. 
— The history of concords and discords as em- 
ployed in music. — in other words, the origin of 
the whole system of modern harmony, may be 
said to date from the use of the organ in the 
church. Not until the pressing of one key with 
another, producing the pure harmony of thirds, 
or sixths, did the idea of a science of concords 
and discords, remotely outlined a thousand years 
before, present itself to the human mind through 
the tympanum of the human ear. acted upon by 
the living, breathing tones that came from the 
pipes of an organ. Thenceforth, music began to 
assume the aspect and proportions of a positive 
language. But the progress was slow. After 
St. Gregory, ten parallel lines were used instead 
of one, to denote the ascent and descent of the 
musical phrase; and points on the lines only, op- 
posite to each other, were used to represent the 
agreement of the parts with each other. Hence 
the term counterpoint. The staff was afterward 
reduced to five lines, and the spaces were used 
as well, through the teaching of Guido d'Arezzo, 
a monk of the 11th century, who must be cred- 



ited also with the establishment of the gamut, or 
scale, through the use of the syllables Ut, Re, 
Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, selected from Latin words 
in honor of the apostle John. — A period of two 
centuries followed, in which, according to Dr. 
Bimbault, no remnants or records of secular 
music can be found, except those of the Trouba- 
dours. These Provenfal minstrels served to in- 
crease both the fancy and the language of Dante, 
Petrarch, and other Tuscan poets, in the 13th 
and 14th centuries. Little variety of notation 
appears, and no time is marked in their produc- 
tions, yet it is not difficult to discover in them 
germs of the future melodies, as well as the poetry, 
of France and Italy. The stanza and the rhyme 
crept into the church also ; and the trochaic 
measure generally prevailed, by reason of the 
boldness of the accent at the commencement of 
the lines, and by reason also of the inherent 
superiority of twofold over threefold measure. 
The Latin hymns, Dies Irce and Stabat Mater, 
are well-known examples of this. The harmonies 
of the church music and of the secular, thus far, 
had been entirely founded upon pure concords, 
save an occasional mild discord by suspension. 
The union of this sweet harmony with quaint 
and charming rhythmical devices resulted in the 
construction of a form of composition, the 
madrigal, than which nothing more satisfactory 
for human voices has yet been heard. Roger 
North's history of the rise, development, and 
decline of this delightful music is one of the most 
interesting contributions to English musical 
literature which the art-student can possess. In 
Italy, it rose with Tasso ; and in England, with 
Spenser and Shakespeare, and the grand galaxy 
of poets and authors who have shed immortal 
luster upon the reign of Queen Elizabeth. And 
it declined with them. Although immense strides 
in variety of harmonic progression have been 
taken since these lovely idyls were composed ; 
although Falestrina, Pergolesi, Scarlatti, Bach,. 
Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Men- 
delssohn have left immortal works which can 
hardly be equaled, and can never be excelled ; 
although Liszt, Wagner, and Bubinstein have 
written as representative composers of a schcol 
of music founded upon sudden and strange 
transitions and ear-splitting discords ; yet the 
madrigal of the 16th and 17th centuries remains 
a living, breathing, visible proof that the truest, 
sweetest, most permanent progressions in vocal 
harmony are those which recognize this fun- 
damental axiom as a necessity; namely, that con- 
cords are the ride, and discords are the excep- 
tion. And here, again, the Church is the source- 
of the harmony employed in constructing the 
madrigal. One need not examine long with- 
out a thorough conviction of this fact. Com- 
pare the harmony of Palestrina's church music- 
with that of the earliest madrigal composers, and 
the origin of the latter is apparent. The differ- 
ence lies not so much in the harmonic progression,, 
as in the words and the cunning rhythmic flow. — 
With the Reformation, came the choral, the- 
people's congregational song. And here stands out 



MUSIC 



605 



Martin Luther, who as singer and musician, as well 
as theologian and preacher, exerted an influence 
second to none in his day. From the time when, 
as a boy, he sang the song of the Virgin and the 
birth of Christ in Madam Cotta's house, to the 
day of his death, at the age of sixty-four, be 
ceased not to encourage the cultivation of this 
beautiful art, in the family, in the parish school. 
in the church, in the social gathering, and in the 
unite! conferences of the churches. Every-where 
the people's congregational song, the choral, was 
used to arouse, to animate, to incite to new and 
enduring effort in fighting the battle of life. That 
this view of the important part which Luther ami 
his music bore in that terrible religious struggle 
is shared by impartial judges, will be obvious to 
the student of music who examines the treatment 
of Luther's grand old choral. Eine feste Burr) 
isi wiser Gott, by Meyerbeer in his opera, The 
Huguenots, which is the deliberate and admiring 
testimony of a Hebrew who has composed the 
most elaborate operas of modern times. German 
scholars truthfully refer to the examples of Luther 
and Melanchthon as pioneers in the cause of re- 
ligion, literature, and art. in modern Germany; 
and musicians can certainly point to Luther's 
establishment of the study and practice of music 
in his native land as the particular cause of the 
nearly general and complete musical intelligence 
of that people in modern times. — Germany, Eng- 
land, and America may be said to constitute a 
triple alliance for the preservation and perpetua- 
tion of the choral. It was the sacred song that came 
to this country with the pilgrims of Xew Eng- 
land, with the Hollanders of New Amsterdam, 
and with the loyalists of Maryland and Virginia. 
Events which transpired previous to and during 
the Revolutionary war quickened and invigorated 
its rhythmic pace, as we see and feel when we 
sing Obi Coronation ; but it is so strongly in- 
trenched within the hearts of the people, that 
wars cannot silence its perpetual vibrations, nor 
misfortune and disaster impede its steady, irre- 
sistible course. Innovations, in the shape of 
rhythmic irregularities and too extended melodic 
compass, may occasionally mar its stately pro- 
portions : but it finally returns to its original ami 
permanent form, one note to each syllable of 
words, supported by a pure, chaste harmony of 
concords. He who softened and elaborated the 
choral until it became to the ear what a picture 
of ever varying tints is to the eye, was Johann 
Sebastian Bach, a tower of musical strength to 
his own and to every other civilized land. Of 
all who have striven to preserve a lofty and en- 
during style, in the musical treatment of sacred 
subjects, none occupies higher ground than does 
this modern king of harmony and the organ. 
It is impossible to review the state of music 
during the latter part of the 1 7th and the begin- 
ning of the 18th century, without recognizing in 
almost superlative terms his claims to the most 
genuine and unbounded admiration. From single 
air and accompaniment, through movements of 
two, three, four, five, six, eight, and even twenty- 
two parts, this tireless musician spent fifty years 



of continuous labor for the pleasure and instruc- 
tion of his sons and the circle in which he moved. 
Originally of a musical family, he commenced 
his active life with the fullest preparation for his 
work ; and never did he falter for a moment in 
considering his efforts as little less than a divine 
duty. Not all of his manuscripts have yet been 
published ; and a new and deep interest has, of 
late, been developed in every thing that emanated 
from his prolific brain and pen. — This new and 
larger liberty, ushered in by the Reformation, ap- 
peared in the masses of the Roman Catholic 
Church, and in the services of the Anglican 
Church. Composers have generally been willing 
to adapt themselves to the musical exigencies of 
the occasion. When, under the rer/ime of pope, 
bishop, or stalwart reformer, the boy and the 
man singer could be confined to tfie Oregorian 
Tones, the strict canon and fugue, and the digni- 
fied choral, the music was certainly irreproach- 
able in form, the effect was direct and strong, 
and the people were satisfied. When, in the 
course of time, the ecclesiastical regime became 
less rigid ; when composers were less tied to strict 
contrapuntal effect ; and when, especially, the 
female voice was permitted to take part in the 
separate musical services of the sanctuary, then, 
indeed, the church music, and all other kinds of 
music felt the force of the new influence. The 
beautiful masses of Haydn, Mozart, and their suc- 
cessors, give evidence, as Geo. Hogarth remarks, 
of the melodic and rhythmic changes which 
have been named ; but. it may be questioned 
whether, with all the grace and symmetry which 
these compositions possess, they can excel the 
Gregorian Tones in simplicity, strength, and 
directness, or in permanency of effect. 

After the Gregorian Tones, the canon, the 
fugue, and the choral, associated with the ser- 
vices, liturgical, psahnodic, and hymnic, of the 
Church, arose a new combination, dating from 
the mysteries, or portions of biblical narrations 
in dramatic and musical form. These were 
presented for the contemplation of the faithful, 
with the brilliant accessories of costume, scenery, 
and instrumentation. This seems to have been 
the thought which moved the religious teachers 
of the 17th and 18th centuries: since those who 
were to be instructed in religious knowledge 
could not see Moses, and Joshua, and Samuel 
and the prophets, and David, and Solomon, and 
the apostles, in their living visible forms, what 
more proper than that their young imaginations 
and memories should be assisted with the next 
most obvious and most effective instrumentality '' 
Poesy lent her inexhaustible attraction to the 
scene ; and music, that is, poetry sung, fired the 
emotions with an ardor and an inspiration that 
reached to heaven. Costume and scenery, in 
the secular musical drama, the opera, were ad- 
ded to make this new development in music 
more natural and picturesque ; while the relig- 
ious drama, the oratorio, was content to appear 
in a certain lofty and spiritual attitude without 
these adjuncts. The opera indulged in melodic 
flights which dazzled and bewildered — a con- 



606 



MUSIC 



sistent musical reflection of the wild license of 
most of its libretti; but the oratorio could not 
depart from the truth of sacred history, nor 
could it allow those fantastic flights of melody 
and rhythm, which characterized the opera. Now 
appeared the man who succeeded in reconciling 
these apparently antagonistic elements of the two 
styles. George Frederick Handel was thoroughly 
familiar with the operatic school of his day. He 
was violinist, pianist, organist, and operatic com- 
poser, when he attempted this bold experiment. 
Depressed by the competition of his contemporary 
Italian enemies, and even neglected by his former 
royal and noble friends, this great musician, 
whom Beethoven called " the musical father of 
us all," deliberately proposed and carried out the 
plan of appropriating all that was then worthy 
of being preserved of the free style of music, and 
combined with it the stricter forms to give it a 
solidity and character which could be obtained 
in no other way. Nothing daunted by the cold 
and indifferent reception which he at first met 
with, he continued to work on until he achieved 
-an entire success. No one who has studied 
and heard his Israel in Egypt and his Messiah 
can doubt the reason of his triumph. Haydn, 
Mozart, Beethoven, Neukomm, Spohr, and Men- 
delssohn have left verbal, and above all, writ- 
ten musical testimony of their admiration for 
him; and succeeding students of music continue 
to swell the number of his devoted disciples. 
Haydn, Mozart, and Mendelssohn should prob- 
ably be placed next in the order of composers of 
the first rank. In the United States, during the 
first fifty years after the establishment of the 
national independence of the country, attention 
was chiefly given to the study of the simpler 
forms of psalmody, and to the appropriation 
of whatsoever of European melody could be 
rnaHp. to subserve a local or temporary pur- 
pose. Music, during the second fifty years of 
the century, has signally advanced as an art; but 
as a science, except in a few localities, it has 
made little progress. Musical instruments of all 
kinds have been improved, from a piccolo flute 
to a hundred thousand dollar organ ; but this 
improvement by no means implies that a knowl- 
edge of the harmony which lies at the founda- 
tion of both vocal and instrumental music has 
correspondingly advanced. How many can 
write in strict two-part, three-part, and four-part 
harmony ? How. many can write the four-part 
harmony for the quartet of strings lying at the 
base of orchestral work ? How many can write 
in chaste, pure, and simple harmony for four 
mixed voices ? Rather, it is suspected and even 
asserted, that the number of good readers of vocal 
music, taking into consideration our larger pop- 
ulation as compared with that of fifty years ago, 
is less in proportion than it was at that time. 
The multiplication of pianos, melodeons. and other 
instruments has tended to produce this result. 
There is, therefore, the greater necessity for sys- 
tematic instruction in schools and families, where- 
by the rising generation may be so . drilled in 
exercises on the scale, in a knowledge of the key- 



notes, the relationship of the keys, the various 
signs of notation, and the fundamental rules of 
harmony, that they may be able to sing, that is, 
to read music, with or without an instrument. 

Musical Education. — From the preceding 
sketch of the general history and advancement 
of music in the church, on the rostrum, and in 
the family, the transition to the systematic music 
school or conservatory of music, is natural and 
easy. This institution had an earlier foundation 
than is generally supposed. Originally designed 
as a high learning hall for music, in which 
young and inexperienced persons were built up 
in musical knowledge, the name shows the object 
of such an institution — to cultivate, and to pre- 
serve in their purity, the science and the art of 
music. The entire contrivance of this sort of 
music school sprung from Italy, where the greater 
part of the charitable institutions of an earlier 
time were located ; and the Italian nation, before 
all others, had, in that respect, the formation of 
an almost infinite number of artists and art-in- 
spiring nestling-places, and diffused very gener- 
ally sweet songs, the whole land, indeed, rejoicing 
in the cultivation and possession of good music. 
The oldest conservatories were frequently asso- 
ciated with hospital and orphan asylums, through 
the contributions of private persons supporting 
pious establishments, whereby the musically- 
gifted scholars, boys and girls, were distinguished, 
and enjoyed free lodging, board, and clothing, as 
well as instruction, partly in singing, and partly 
in instrumental music. Boarding scholars were 
associated for the payment of fees toward sup- 
porting the establishment; but boys and girls 
were not indiscriminately received into the house. 
The oldest and most renowned, and, at the same 
time, the pattern of. all others, was that founded 
in Naples, by a Spanish clergyman named Gio- 
vanni di Tappia, in 1537, called Conservatorio 
Santa Maria di Loretto. This conservatory 
became, in succession, the foundation of three 
others, afterward established in Naples, for the 
exclusive use of boys. Leo. Durante, Scarlatti, 
Porpora, and others, were here, in course of time,, 
instructors; Piccini, Sacchini, Cimarosa, Gugliel- 
mi, Anfossi, Paisiello, and others, fellow-teach- 
ers. Next to these, the more advanced scholars 
of Tappia's Institute established gradually the' 
Conservatorio San Onofrio, later, the Conser- 
vatorio della Pieta, and lastly, in 1589, the- 
Conservatorio dei Poveri di Oesu Cristo, in 
which last-named Durante was chapel-master, 
about 1715 or 1718, and which continued until 
within a short time since. Burney (General 
History of Music, 1789) gives a detailed account 
of these conservatories, showing that the first 
had 90, the second, 120, and the third, 300 
scholars ; and the fourth was extinct. Each of 
these three establishments had thirty laws, and 
stood under the direction of two guardians, who 
severally bore the title of High Chapel-Master ; 
and of the two, one examined and corrected the 
compositions of the scholars, and the other gave 
lessons and superintended the singing. From 
these scholars, were chosen teachers, with the- 



MUSIC 



607 



title of maestri scolari. to assist in instruction 
upon instruments. The general call was only 
for pupils from 8 to 20 years of age ; and 
the time that each one, for himself or for her- 
self, must swear to remain was firmly fixed at 
eight years for the younger members. Mean- 
while, if a member exhibited aught of a different 
kind of talent, he was quickly accommodated 
with a chance in his new capacity. During the 
political inquietude of 1789, the conservatories 
of LoreUo, Onafrio, and Pieta were reduced to 
one, which, in 1813. was called the Real GoUegio 
di Miisica ; and, in 1818, was removed to the 
former nunnery of Sun Sebastiano. The director 
of this institution, from 1861 to his death, in 1870, 
was the blind, but highly and deservedly distin- 
guished. Saverio Mercadante ; and, in his place, 
Lauro Rossi, from the conservatory of Milan, 
was appointed in 1871. — In Venice, are found 
four conservatories, established upon a basis 
similar to those in Xaples, which, in their time, 
have been very celebrated for their education of 
girls, who, through the rigid standard and or- 
dinary usages of those institutions, became often 
wedded to them for life. The names of these 
four conservatories are, Ospedale delta Pieta, 
de' Mendicanti, degV Incurabili, ami Ospedalelto 
di San Giovanni e Paula. Burney, in his his- 
tory, and Mayer, in his description of Venice, 
relate the following details in regard to these 
institutions. Immediately upon being placed 
in them, pupils were instructed in singing, ami 
in playing upon all kinds of instruments, by 
the best masters. A chapel-master controlled 
the higher conduct of the institute ; and, on 
each Sunday, was prepared a public music offer- 
ing. These gatherings for song were heightened 
and enriched by accompaniments upon instru- 
ments, in which the pupils all joined. In con- 
nection with the varied and beautiful effects thus 
produced, many voices, not decayed and worn 
out but fresh and pure, were constantly devel- 
oped and firmly built up. The result was the 
continued binding together of a large company of 
brilliant amateurs and connoisseurs. All other 
conservatories in Italy are of a comparatively 
recent date. The most important among the 
latter is that of 1809, founded by the viceroy 
Eugene, in Milan, of which the first director 
was Bonifazio Asioli ; and which, in 187'-'. re- 
mained under the guidance of Prof. A. Muzzu- 
cato. Against the decay which has come upon 
more or less of the Italian conservatories of mu- 
sic, there has recently been inaugurated an 
effective check. A commission of experienced 
musicians was recognized by the minister of 
instruction, in May, 1871. This commission was 
organized under the presidency of G. Verdi, anil 
offered as the result of their consultations a mem- 
orandum with proposals for reform. This reform 
is already producing a practical and visible effect. 
The conservatory of Milan bestowed upon this 
movement toward reform the character of an 
international influence, while that of Naples 
supported it rather as a strictly national effort. 
The most brilliant and artistic musical institu- 



tion, either of old or modem time, is the Conserv- 
atory of Paris, which, in regular order, secured 
the presence of artists of the first rank. The 
want, of a preparatory school for singers had been 
felt and indicated by the Grand Opera ; and 
through its elevating influence, a first institute 
for musical instruction was started, which, under 
the particular protection of the Baron de Bre- 
teuil, in 1784, was denominated L'ecole rot/ale de 
chant el de declamation. But in successive years, 
and through the want of instrumental musicians 
in the fourteen French army corps, a meeting 

1 was held in Nov., 1793, at which it was decreed 
that the primary establishment already alluded 
to should be enlarged, and, by union with the 
instrumentalists in 179:"), should be entitled the 
( omtervatoire de musique. The yearly expense, 
about 240,000 francs, was fully pledged, and the 
number of teachers was fixed at 115. Pupils 
were admitted from the age of ten to twenty 
years, the number of whom rose to 600, their 
social condition being that of comparative pover- 
ty. Notwithstanding these certain signs of prac- 
tical usefulness, the raising ot a special sum of 
100.000 francs, in 1802, seemed doubtful, and the 
number of teachers and scholars became limited. 
Napoleon I. had already, in 1803, presented the 
conservatory with richer appropriations, and these 
he confirmed and extended on being raised to the 
imperial power. Following the new regime, ehil- 

\ dren's schools were permitted to be established, 
in wdiich gratuitous musical instruction was im- 
parted. Subsequently, the Bourbons withdrew 
the greater part of their contributions, and the 
fate of the conservatory was inextricably inter- 
woven with all of the old dismal forebodings of 

| those eventful days ; but these temporary obstruc- 
tions could not impede the steady advancement 
of this noble school of music; and it remains, to 
iliis day, wdiat it ever has been, the most brill- 
iantly artistic preparatory musical establish- 
ment in the world. Its first director was Sarette, 
who had received the largest reward in its organ- 
ization; and with this also the excellent idea of 
the accomplishment and extension of the prepa- 
rations toward making it a national institution. 
With him were associated, for the formation and 
execution of the new plan, five other members 
of the administration ; namely, the secretary, the 
chef du materiel, the cashier, the librarian, and 
the board inspector, who altogether were required 
to be scientific musicians, and distinguished 
through the approbation of the national Art 
Society. In the year 1 800, these positions were 
filled by Cherubim (afterward director until his 
death, in 1842), Gossec, Mehul, Martini, and Le 
Sueur. Of other celebrated directors and instruct- 
ors, who, in course of time, have gone forth from 
it, were, Gossec, Carat. Paer, Baillot. Berlioz, 
Rode, Kreutzer, L. Romberg, Tulon, Habeneck, 
( latel, ( 'araffa, Halevy, Choron, Plantade, Bor- 
dogni, and others. The successor of Cherubini was 
Auber; and. in 1871, director Ambroise Thomas 
followed, wdio, through a special leadership in 
musical history, esthetics, acoustics, and prepara- 
tory studies, had justly acquired merit. Forty- 



€08 



MUSIC 



four classes of male pupils were generally instruct- 
ed in every style of composition, upon subjects 
appertaining to all kinds of practical music, in 
singing, in playing upon instruments, in declama- 
tion, the French language, and stage manner, or 
carriage ; twenty-two classes of female pupils re- 
ceived instruction in enunciation, harmony, 
piano-playing, accompaniment, stage carriage, 
and declamation. In preparing for study, it is 
an indispensable stipulation that pupils begin 
at the beginning. The course commences on the 
1st or 2d of October in each year. Four grand 
yearly examinations are appointed, — in January, 
April, July, and the middle of October, at which 
the minister of instruction and female artists 
are present. By the middle of July, a concourse 
stand for the first prize in composition, the dis- 
tribution of the prize following in November, 
at the Opera House. Whoever obtains the first 
prize, next publicly directs his work with a grand 
orchestra, and is called the laurel-winner, being 
solemnly crowned. In almost all the departments 
of music, this conservatory achieves careful and 
• diligent developments, the most trustworthy 
text-books and appropriate methods being thor- 
oughly used, as the whole continent of Europe 
is made constantly to contribute to its success in 
these respects. The institution is, at the same 
time, the chief point of union for all European 
lovers of magnificent musical effects ; while the 
yearly public exercises of its pupils, 14 and some- 
times 20 in number, beginning in October and 
continuing through the entire winter, including 
the moderate performances of Sunday evening, 
altogether confer upon these dazzling concerts of 
Paris the praise and the fame which are unex- 
ceptionally conceded to them. Seven of the al- 
ready named children's schools of the Parisian 
Conservatory are established in Dijon, Lille, 
Lyons, Marseilles, Nantes, Rouen, and Toulouse. 
Strasbourg had, up to the time of the Franco- 
German war, an independent town-like con- 
servatory, conducted till 1870 by Hasselmans ; 
the same was, in 1871, resuscitated, and carried 
on by director Franz Stockhausen. After the 
example of the Parisian Conservatoire, was ren- 
ovated the conservatoiy in Madrid, in 1831; 
but in circumscribed compass, though with ju- 
dicious powers. Music and declamation were 
taught under its first director, an Italian singing- 
master by the name of Francesco Piermarini; 
but the present director is Emilio Arrieta. This 
school has suffered through the political fluctu- 
ations of late years, and by continued disadvan- 
tageous animadversions ; but it now appears in 
its own proper strength, having received the favor 
of the late king Amadeus, offering an important 
barrier against decline. Likewise, after the ex- 
ample of the French, four Belgian conservatories, 
those of Brussels, Liege, Antwerp, and Ghent, are 
established, of which the first two are entirely 
sustained by state means and are royal institu- 
tions ; the third subsists by contributions only; 
while that of Ghent is simply a town institute. 
In connection with the Conservatory of Brussels, 
reference should be made to the labors of Director 



Fetis, whose earnest and useful service was 
continued from 1838 until his death, in 1871. 
The conservatory in Liege, although limited in 
its materiel, is yet constantly advancing to a 
higher rank through additional musicians, in- 
struments, and musical means, together with the 
aspiring ideals and activities of the directors 
Daussoigne-Mehul and Soubre; and it rejoices in 
having for its foundation-plan of study the 
works of the grand masters in harmony, Bach 
and Handel, who in Brussels are sufficiently 
ignored ; the instructing power in Liege also 
throws the Brussels conservatory quite into the 
shade. The attendance of scholars is fully 1000. 
A highly honorable reputation, long known in 
Germany, and worthily appreciated not simply 
in Belgium but throughout the entire ar1>world, 
attaches to the conservatory of Antwerp. Here 
Director Pierre Benoit flourished. This bold, 
out-spoken man, alike teacher, composer, and 
director, assumed a position so impregnable in 
right, and showed a faith so dauntless, that he 
is entitled to the sincerest admiration. Said he, 
"Music is the most perfect national speech; in it, 
all civilized races find their fullest and most en- 
joyable impressions; and a music-school should be 
like unto a temple in the father-land". These prin- 
ciples have been realized with energy, and have 
secured', in the conservatory of Antwerp, a signi- 
fication so general and so important, that they 
constitute a central influence in the political and 
intellectual regeneration of the country. The 
name of Benoit has a familiar, popular ring in 
the ears of at least two and a half millions of 
Belgians, conveying to his disciples a certain 
lofty inspiration, which is self-supporting, and 
by association is communicated to the towns and 
cities of the Flemish lands. — The kingdom of 
the Netherlands possesses many excellent music- 
schools of their kind ; but the name of its con- 
servatory only can be mentioned — the institu- 
tion in Rotterdam, conducted by "W. Bargiel, 
since 1865. There is also a conservatory in 
Luxemburg, founded in 18G4, and since then 
directed by E. Zinnen. Both of these establish- 
ments have raised themselves to a high and note- 
worthy position. 

The most celebrated Austrian conservatory is 
that in Prague; the most munificent in organiza- 
tion, and the best in other respects, is that of 
Vienna. In the year 1808, it occurred to some 
high-minded patron of music, formerly flourish- 
ing in Bohemia, to develop the depressed art of 
music, and to supply the want of intelligent or- 
chestral players; the resolution required that an 
academy should be founded in Prague, of which 
the essential features should be elaborate instru- 
mental effects, combined with a universal, artis- 
tic, and humanitary knowledge. The Prague con- 
servatory was celebrated throughout Europe; the 
singing-school, too, in this institution, both for 
concert and for opera, begins to show satisfacto- 
ry results. In the year 1871, the school had 137 
pupils, 129 of whom were Bohemians ; of this 
number 14 were singing scholars, and 123 in- 
strumentalists, the latter divided into 61, in 



MUSIC 



609 



the lower, and 62, in the upper division. The 
Austrian minister of instruction included in the 
finance budget a yearly appropriation of three 
thousand florins for the conservatory in Vienna; 
and this sum was raised to ten thousand florins 
by the house of deputies, and immediately ap- 
proved by the house of peers. The conservatory 
in Vienna is a creation of the Society of Music 
Friends, in the Austro-IIungarian .Monarchy, 
growing out of the simple beginnings of a singing- 
school, in the year 1816; but. since 18(59, it has 
developed into very comprehensive and brilliant 
surroundings through the noble principles upon 
which it was organized. The artistic director of 
the institution (in 187(i, Jos. llellmesberger) is 
assisted by 35 instructors in the musical depart- 
ments, accompanying whom are lecturers upon the 
history of music, on oral discourse, declamation, 
esthetics, the history of literature, the Italian 
language, mimics, and the dance. The establish- 
ment possesses a theater for drilling purposes, 
and was attended, in the year 1ST I, by 445 
scholars, of whom ''25 were males, and 22(1 fe- 
males. — With a lofty and stirring splendor, made 
familiar and exercised at a memorial to the 
king of Bavaria, Richard Wagner presented his 
course of teaching, under the auspices of the 
royal conservatory, in Munich, October, 1865, 
up mi the ground of aprevious re-organization of 
his own. This institution is the only German 
establishment for teaching the science and art of 
music not endowed by state appropriations; but 
it is placed under the direction of a court musical 
superintendent. The conservatory in Munich is 
divided into three chief departments, with rela- 
tive individual subdivisions, each having its own 
assigned work. These chief departments are, 
the singing, the instrumental, and the theoretic. 
At the head of the singing-school stands the 
professor of solo-singing; at the head of the in- 
strumental school, likewise a professor, who is 
also the chief of the piano or the violin. The 
particular ensemble drilling of the singers, on 
the one side, or of the instrumentalists, on the 
other, was conducted by both of these profess- 
ors ; while the control of the ensemble drilling 
of all the pupils became the duty of the chief 
director. In those general studies, as well as in the 
previously mentii ined particular ensemble studies, 
the scholars were enabled, at the same time, to 
obtain a methodical, practical guidance to the 
technique of the directors. In the theoretic de- 
partment, a professor of counterpoint, ami a 
professor of music-history worked independent- 
ly. Near these four professors, are also the fol- 
lowing exponents of the teaching force : in the 
singing-school, a teacher of solo-singing, an as- 
sistant teacher of chorus-singing, and a teacher of 
rhetoric and mimics ; in the instrumental school, 
a teacher and an assistant teacher for the four 
instruments of percussion, and a teacher of organ- 
playing; in the theoretic school, a teacher of har- 
mony. So excellent and complete in all respects 
was this organization, and so did it continue to be. 
as long as rlans von BiUow. irom 1866 to 1868, 
retained the position of its guide and director. 



After his departure, the institution fell, more 
and more behind its former acknowledged devel- 
opment, the attendance having considerably di- 
minished. In "Wurtzhurg, there is also a royal 
conservatory, founded by Fri.hlieh. and led by 
Bratsch. — The conservatory at Stuttgart is un- 
der the protection of the king of Wiirtemberg, 
and has just claims to superior merit in its devo- 
tion to classic 1 ierman music. Under the name 
of the Stuttgart Music School, it was founded, in 
the autumn of 1856, by Siegmund Lebert of 
Stuttgart, in conjunction with Dr. Brachinann 
and Ed. Laiblin of Riga, and called a conserva- 
tory in 186S. This institution has two divisions, — 
an artists' and an amateurs' school. The de- 
partments of instruction are confined to ele- 
mentary, choral, and solo singing; piano, organ, 
violin, and violoncello playing; composition, 
esthetics, musical history, and the Italian lan- 
guage. Frankfort on the Main has a music 
school, built in 1 still, and approved by the state, 
at the head of which stands its first director. 
Heinrich Ilenkel. The most celebrated music 
school of northern Germany is that in Leipsic, 
established upon Faster-day. 1843, under the pro- 
tection and contributions of the king of Saxony, 
and under the co-operation of Felix Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy. It stood at the summit of its splen- 
dor, with Mendelssohn, Moscheles, IJauptmann, 
Ricbter, Ferd. David, Klengel, Plaidy, etc., as 
instructors ; and its scholars steadily streamed 
out upon all European and American lands. 
The instruction extends theoretically and practi- 
cally over all the branches of music, scientific and 
artistic. The theoretic instruction embraces har- 
mony doctrine, forms and composition, partition 
playing, leading or directing, the Italian lan- 
guage, and the history and esthetics of music, 
combined in one complete course of musical theory 
and the art of composition, which was finished by 
male scholars in three, and by female scholars in 
two years. The practical instruction, and the im- 
provement in mechanical skill, extended over 
singing and instrumental playing, by preference 
over the piano, organ, violin, viola, violoncello in 
quartet, and solo playing with accompaniment. 
In Dresden, stands a conservatory founded and 
directed by Pudor, which, for nearly twenty years, 
has exhibited good results, and which, more par- 
ticularly in the instruction upon orchestral in- 
struments, imparted by the able members of the 
royal Saxon court chapel, is even highly distin- 
guished. — The Prussian kingdom possesses only 
two local conservatories, — those of Cologne and 
Berlin. The conservatory in Cologne was opened 
on Easter day. in 1 850, and remains, up to the pres- 
ent time, under the direction of the city chapel- 
master, Dr. Ferdinand 1 Idler. Some of the most 
prominent among young German composers, up 
to the present time, have gone forth from the 
halls of this institution. The instructors formed, 
in 1S09, a joint musical association, having for its 
main object the development of a powerful 
music life on the Rhine; and, for this purpose, 
an equal regard for other districts than their 
own, inspired them in the production of their sub- 



610 



MUSIC 



sequent compositions. In Berlin, exists another 
conservatory, founded by J. Stern, A. B. Marx, 
and Th. Kullak, at present directed by the first- 
named ; out of its branches, was formed the new 
academy of music, of which Th. Kullak is the 
director. In 18(19, by means of the minister of 
instruction, and in close connection with the 
royal academy of arts, a royal high school was 
founded, for exercise iu the art of music, in Ber- 
lin. Beside the director, stands the celebrated 
violin virtuoso, professor Joachim. In this insti- 
tution, still in the introductory phases of devel- 
opment, the violin school is quoted as among 
the best ; while care is taken in all the other 
branches of high musical instruction, except per- 
haps piano playing, preparation for which is 
quite insufficient. — Switzerland possesses high 
music schools, in Berne and Geneva. — England 
has a royal institution in London, formerly di- 
rected by Cipriani Potter, but more recently by 
Sterndale Bennett, of which MacParren is the 
most distinguished graduate. There are also 
conservatories in Edinburgh and Dublin. — 
Copenhagen also has a conservatory ; and, since 
1865. there is one even in Christiania, while the 
royal musical academy in Stockholm is already 
a new development. In the remaining parts of 
Europe are still to be named the conservatory 
in Warsaw, founded, in 1821, by Elssner, and 
further directed by A. Kontski, and then by 
Moniusczko with imperial assistance ; and also 
conservatories in Klausenburg, Pesth, and Lis- 
bon. — In the Russian empire, both in St. Peters- 
burg and in Moscow, are conservatories, founded 
by the Grand-Duchess Helen. These have an 
excellent foundation, and are liberally supported. 
The elder, in St. Petersburg, was successively 
directed by Anton Rubinstein, by Zaremba, and 
by Assantschewsky ; and that in Moscow, by 
Nicholas Rubinstein. 

In the United States, conservatories are, al- 
most without exception, private speculations, 
and, as compared with similar efforts in Europe, 
neither in management nor in performances, can 
venture to compete with the elder institutions. 
New York possesses many of these ; also Bal- 
timore, Boston, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. 
Louis, Philadelphia, and other cities. In justice 
to these American efforts, however, it must be 
stated that, as government, in the United States, 
whether national, state, or municipal, makes no 
appropriation for conservatories of music, these 
enterprises, at present, must necessarily be pri- 
vate ones ; and the instruction in music, chiefly 
elementary vocal, and elementary piano playing. 
Advanced pupils are occasionally found, who have 
made considerable progress in both of these de- 
partments. Doubtless, a better day is dawning 
for the real lovers of the higher styles of music, 
since a proposition has been made to establish and 
munificently endow a musical college for young 
women in the city of New York, which would be, 
from many points of view, a highly useful, benev- 
olent, and artelevating institution. In succeeding 
days, the state may possibly step in to secure a sys- 
tematic course of musical instruction for her chil- 



dren, and thus rescue this noble science and art- 
from many of the prolific causes of superficiality, 
perverted tastes, and degrading associations, ulti- 
mately producing a complete indifference to the 
higher claims of music. 

Of the methods employed in the European 
music schools, it can confidently be said that 
they differ as much from each other, in their 
working details, as the literary, scientific, and 
higher professional and special institutions do in 
the presentation of the important subjects brought 
under their notice. Differences arising from 
climate, age, precocity, natural aptitude, early 
opportunities, physical organization, and associ- 
ation with intelligent persons of artistic, genial, 
and mobile tendencies, display themselves in no 
department of human labor more frequently, or 
with more prominent demonstrations of enthu- 
siasm, than among the lovers and students of 
music. But, whatever may be the difference 
of details in the methods employed, or, however 
great may be the disparity arising from the other 
causes named, these music schools, without ex- 
ception, agree in selecting the plastic and im- 
pressible age of youth, and often very early 
and tender youth, as the heaven-appointed time 
when eye, ear, hand, and voice must simultane- 
ously begin their never-ending work of cultiva- 
tion. The early lives of celebrated musicians,, 
the moderate success of those inclined to me- 
diocrity, and even the more feeble attempts of 
those who have learned to play and sing but 
little, are a standing proof that, to achieve any 
audible or distinguishable result in music, the 
child must commence at its mother's knee to 
lisp the melody that shall perpetually link the 
memory of these child-like efforts to the maturer 
accomplishments of a later season. The Christian 
Church has never been unfaithful to herself or to- 
ner cause in this important matter. As one of 
the results of her ministrations, has sprung not 
only the music especially adapted to the 
purposes of divine worship, but the very 
first and highly successful plan of a systematic 
music school worthy of a name and of historical 
record. Giovanni di Tappia should be gratefully 
remembered by every musician, as well as by 
every one interested in musical progress, for it 
was he who took the girl with her naturally 
flexible voice, and the boy with his inflexible 
voice, and led them by degrees to pass from the 
unisonant rendering of the Gregorian Tones to 
part-singing in the lofty counterpoint of Pales- 
trina. Although a hundred years had elapsed 
before the lovely and more emotional voice of 
the mature woman was permitted to be heard in 
public, and in the services of the sanctuary; and 
although its use is still denied by many eccle- 
siastics in the Greek, Roman, and Anglican com- 
munions, yet it must be conceded that it should 
be trained, at first, in the parish schools and 
Sunday-schools, which are the musical nurseries 
of the church, and from which pupils pass into 
the choir by a very natural and easy way. No music 
teachers are so successful as they who have tlie^ 
religious sympathy and co-operation of the pax- 



MUSIC 



611 



ents; and no pupils render more effective music 
than they who. to intelligent reading and a 
certain degree of cultivation, unite the higher 
merit of believing in the truth of the words they 
utter. But even where the religious idea is not 
so apparent, or where it may not be required 
and insisted upon, as in the case of the children's 
schools, in which gratuitous musical instruction 
was given as a preparation for entrance into the 
grand conservatory at Paris, or in the common 
schools of the United .States, where music, in 
cities of considerable size, is taught gratuitously, 
there exists the imperative necessity that it be 
commenced in the primary departments, where 
the faith and implicit obedience of the child 
make the study and practice of vocal music a 
delight instead of a task. A limited and stipulated 
portion of the ordinary semi-annual term, of 
about five months, can be spent in tri-weekly 
exercises upon the scale, including melodies of 
limited compass, which is simply oral and imi- 
tative work on the part of the teacher and 
scholar, preparatory to the introduction of the 
musical sign-language during the second five 
mouths of the year. Two grades are thus created 
in the primary departments. — the oral, which is 
purely imitative, through the ear, and the oral- 
written, which is the union of the oral with the 
eye-knowledge of the musical sign-language. In 
vocal compass, these exercises must be limited, 
cither ascending or descending, and in expression 
without forced or blatant effect, to modify which 
at least four vowel sounds, ah, ee, ok, and oo 
may be used; but. in rhythmical variety and in 
change of key, they may be quite extended, 
depending upon the knowledge, skill, and tact of 
the teacher. Care must be taken that the young 
voice be not fatigued, and that boys especially 
be early taught to avoid carrying the chest tones 
too high. Three lessons of half an hour each 
during the week are more effective than two 
lessons of an hour each, to pupils under twelve 
years of age; and five lessons of twenty minutes 
each, during the week, are better than either. 
Beating time shoidd accompany the written 
exercises in the second term of the primary de- 
partments ; and, in the higher departments, the 
written exercises should be copied by the pupils 
for two years consecutively, with more extended 
practice in rhythm and melody, and plain singing 
in two and three parts. Drilling like tins has 
been practiced in many of the schools of the 
United States during the past ten years ; and 
the plan, if earnestly encouraged and carried out, 
will enable every pupil, of sufficient ear and age, 
to become a reader of plain music. — The place of 
music as a branch of superior instruction must 
also be referred to. The great universities of 
England — Oxford and Cambridge, do not teach 
music systematically ; nor do they care where 
the musical student acquires his information; 
but they always have superior musicians to ex- 
amine the musical aspirant, and these examina- 
tions are thorough and severe. In the United 
States, considerable progress has been made in 
-this direction. Harvard University has always 



shown a commendable love of music in the 
amateur orchestral line, and in sundry vocal 
organizations ; but not until 1871 — 2, was music 
established as an elective study by the faculty. 
| The first year exhibited a class of 9 students, 
who devoted two lessons a week to an elective 
course in harmony; succeeding this, an elective 
course was added each year, until 1875 — 6, 
when there were five courses ; namely, harmony, 
counterpoint, canon and free thematic music, 
fugue, and the history of music. The number 
of students has steadily increased year by year. 
until, in 1875 — 6, there were 32. The fact that 
this instruction is purely in the science and art 
of musical composition, and in musical history, 
and that the students in music who pursue this 
elective course are required to possess consider- 
able preliminary knowledge and familiarity with 
the piano or organ, will account for the smallness 
of the number of students. Music is now, at 
Harvard, included among those studies for 
which honors are given at graduation. The de- 
gree of A. M. and Ph. D. are also open to bache- 
lors of arts who pursue the required course, and 
pass the examination in music. For the degree 
of A. M., one year's exclusive study is required 
after graduation; for the degree of Ph. D., sever- 
al years. Thus far, 2 graduates have taken the 
degree of A. M., in music, and will probably ap- 
ply for the highest degree, that of Ph. I). The 
instruction in this department is given by J. K. 
Payne, author of the Oratorio of St. Peter. At 
Yale College, music is restricted to instruction 
in singing, for the purpose of obtaining good 
vocal music for morning and Sabbath-day devo- 
tions. For this object. Joseph Battell. in 1 f 54. gave 
$5,000, the interestof which was to be devoted to 
this purpose. A chapel - master (Prof. G. J. 
Stoeckel) was then appointed, and services for 
male voices were introduced. In 1 861 , Mrs.Wm. A. 
Lamed, a sister of Mr. Battell, gave the college 
$1,000, the interest of which was to be expended 
in the purchase of musical works. By this 
means, and by the donations of friends of the 
institution, a musical library has been formed. 
In 1862, -Mrs. lamed donated to the college 
$5,000 for the support of a teacher of music. In 
1874, after the death of Lowell Mason, his family 
gave the library of that well-known composer — 
comprising 8,000 titles — to the Yale Theological 
Seminary. In 187G, when the new Battell 
Chapel was supplied, through the munificence of 
Mrs. Lamed, with a new organ, the old organ, 
after being repaired and enlarged, was trans- 
ferred to < 'alliope Hall, which has been placed 
at the disposal of musical students of the college. 
A musical professorship has not yet, however, 
been established. — The College of Music of the 
Boston University (q. v.), which was organized 
in 1 s72. presents superior advantages for students 
of music. It admits only students having the 
average proficiency of graduates of American 
conservatories, and includes four regular courses. 
Many other American colleges contain musical 
departments as a part of the full curriculum. 
— For authorities on the history of music, and 



612 NASHVILLE UNIVERSITY 



NATIONAL EDUCATION 



on musical science and composition, see BratNBT, 
General History of Music (1789) ; Hawkins, 
A General History of the Science and Practice 
of Music (new edit., London, 1853) ; Chappell, 
The History of Music (London, 1874); George 
Hogarth, Musical History , etc. (1836) ; H. Men- 
del, Musikc/lisches Conversations-Lexicon (Ber- 
lin, 1871); Oallcott, Musical Grammar (1805); 



Albrechtsberger and Weber, Course of Har- 
mony, in Southard's Digest (Boston, 1854); A.B. 
Marx, Hie Lehre von der musilcalisclien Compo- 
sition (Leipsic, 1834 — 45), Eng. trans, by Saroni 
(N.Y., 1852); and Allgemeine Musiklehre (1839). 
(See also Singing-Schools, and Voice Culture.) 
MUTUAL SYSTEM. See Monitorial 
System. 



NASHVILLE, UNIVERSITY OF, at 

Nashville, Tenn., was founded by the state of 
North Carolina, Dec. 29., 1785, as Davidson 
Academy. It became Cumberland College, and 
the University of Nashville, in 1826. It is an 
eleemosynary, self-perpetuating corporation, and 
is under the control of neither church nor state. 
In 1855, Montgomery Bell bequeathed to the 
institution a fund of §20,000. This now amounts 
to nearly $50,000; and endows a grammar school. 
In 1850, the medical college, then and now the 
only one in Tennessee, was organized. It is sup- 
ported by tuition fees alone. In 1875, the col- 
legiate department was suspended ; and its 
grounds, buildings, and funds, appropriated to a 
normal college, under state countenance, and 
mainly supported by the Peabody education 
fund. Tuition is free for young women and 
young men alike. Twenty three acres and four 
large buildings, all within the city limits, con- 
stitute the property of the university, and are val- 
ued at about 8150,000. The college fund is within 
a fraction of §50,000. The normal college closed 
its first session with 51 students. The medical 
college averages from 175 to 200 students, and 
has nearly 2,000 alumni. The normal college is 
the only first-class school of its description in a 
region occupying at least 800,000 square miles. 
The heads of the university have been as follows : 
James Priestly, LL. D., president, 1809 — 15; 
and again 1819—20 ; Philip Lindsley, D. D., 
president, 1824 — 50; John Berrien Lindsley, 
M. D., D.D., chancellor, 1855—70 ; Gen. Edmund 
Kirby Smith, 1870 — 75; Eben Sperry Stearns, 
D. D., appointed in 1875. 

NATIONAL EDUCATION, or State 
Education, a system of education or schools, 
established by the state, for the benefit either of 
the whole people, or of a particular class. Civil- 
ized nations, in both ancient and modern times, 
have had systems of education for the instruc- 
tion of the favored few ; but it is only within 
the last three centuries that, in Europe or 
America, any thing like a properly organized 
system for educating the masses has existed. 
(See Education.) Germany, Scotland, and 
some of the states of the American Union, may 
claim precedence for putting into operation gov- 
ernmental schemes for general education, both 
elementary and advanced. Many other nations 
followed in their wake ; and, at present, national 
education, to a greater or less extent, prevails in 
most civilized countries in the world. Among 
the Asiatic nations, the Chinese may claim great 



antiquity for their remarkable system of national 
education (see China); while the Japanese, in 
quite recent times, have exhibited a wonderful 
intelligence and energy in the establishment of 
state schools. (See Japan.) In England, not- 
withstanding the age of her great universities 
and public and endowed schools, there was no 
national system until recently. (See England.) 
For an account of the national systems in other 
countries and states, see the respective titles. 

The importance of a national system of edu- 
cation is now generally conceded, as a corollary 
to the demonstrated benefit to a community of 
affording to each of its members at least an ele- 
mentary school education. Herbert Spencer, 
indeed, has assailed these first principles, by 
denying the right of the state " to administer 
education, inasmuch as the taking away, by 
government, of more of a man's property than 
is needful for maintaining his rights, is an in- 
fringement of his rights, and, therefore, a re- 
versal of the government's function toward him; 
and, inasmuch as the taking away of his prop- 
erty to educate his own or other people's chil- 
dren is not needful for the maintaining of his 
rights, the taking away of his property for such 
a purpose is wrong." Given the premises of 
this argument, and the conclusion is inevitable ; 
but the premises are denied. School education, 
widely diffused, is held to be not only a benefit 
but a protection to the community ; and just as 
it is proper for the state to enact laws to pre- 
vent crimes by punishment, taxing the citizens 
to support a penal system, so it is also proper to 
establish educational systems the general tend- 
ency of which, by cultivating the minds and 
improving the morals of the people, is to pre- 
vent crime, and thus erect a barrier against law- 
less violence, imperiling the welfare of the citi- 
zens in the enjoyment of their rights as such. 
The principle of national education has been 
attacked by asserting that school education does 
not greatly affect the character of those who 
receive it ; while the community can only be 
benefited by improving individual character. 
The extent to which a national system of edu- 
cation affects character will, of course, vary with 
the kind of education imparted ; but, certainly, 
the inefficiency of a bad system is no argument 
in favor of the abolition of all systems. "Al- 
though." says Morley, " effective instruction does 
not cover nor touch the whole field of character 
and conduct, it does most manifestly touch 
some portions of it. It adds, for instance, to 



NATIONAL EL>t*< 'ATIOX 



NATIONAL LANGUAGE 



61i 



the consciousness of power and faculty, and this 
increases the invaluable and far-reaching quality 
of self-respect. Hence, even if a great effort to 
provide our people with the instruments of 
knowledge did not reduce the number of crimi- 
nals, it would still improve the tone of those 
who are not criminals." — But, as has been well 
said, school education, however excellent and 
however widely diffused, cannot prove, of itself. 
a panacea for all the ills of the social stale. 
Education is much more than learning to "read, 
write, and cipher." " Whatever," says Mill. 
" helps to shape the human being — to make the 
individual what he is, or hinder him from being 
what he is not — is part of his education. ' 
Hence, there is an education of the home and 
family, the street, the workshop, the church, as 
well as that of the school : and, it is contended 
by some, that, as the influences which emanate 
from these arc more potent than those of the 
school, the state should control these influences 
as well, or its system of education will he more 
or less nugatory. " Whatever," says Kigg. "be 
the merit and efficiency of the school teaching 
and training, whatever, also, the regularity of | 
attendance (under, let us suppose, an effective 
compulsory law), it is certain that adverse home 
influences will, to a lamentable and most dis- 
couraging extent, counteract the good effects of 
school attendance." All this being admitted, 
the necessity of a thoroughly effective system of 
education by state schools, in order to diminish 
as much as possible the evil influences of home, 
street, etc., is still apparent. Giving merely the 
ability to read, in this age of books, i.; opening 
the portal to knowledge — elaborating, refining, 
ennobling, and thus to an enlightenment which 
often. if not always, leads to moral improvement. 
(See Illiteracy.) The need of adapting na- 
tional education to the peculiar condition or in- 
stitutions of the country in which it exists, is 
very generally recognized. Thus, in A State- 
ment of the Theory of Education in the U. S. 
( Wash., l' s 74), it is said. " In order to compen- 
sate for lack of family nurture, the school is 
obliged to lay more stress upon discipline, and 
to make far more prominent the moral phase of 
education. It is obliged to train the pupil into 
habits of self-control in its various forms, in 
order that he may be prepared for a life where- 
in there is little police restraint on the part of 
the constituted authorities." — Other questions 
have also arisen in relation to national educa- 
tion, or the education afforded in national schools, 
as ( 1 ) Whether it should, to any extent, be on a 
religious basis, or should be exclusively secular ; 
(2) Whether it should extend to higher educa- 
tion, or be confined to elementary instruction ; 
and (3) Whether it should embrace technical and 
professional instruction, or not. In regard to 
these points, respectively, see Denominational 
Schools, Hum Schools, and TECHNICAL Em op- 
tion. — See also Spencer, Social Statics (N. Y., 
186(i); Giia;. Xntiomi, I Eilncation (London.! s7.'!:| 
Morlev, Tin' Struggle for National Education 
(London, 1873), 



NATIONAL LANGUAGE. There are 
but few among the civilized countries of the 
world in which all the people speak the same 
Language. In most countries, two or more lan- 
guages predominate in different districts. Thus, 
in Belgium, 50 per cent of the population speak 
Flemish ; 42 per cent, French ; and 8 per cent, 
Flemish, French, or German. In Switzerland, 
(i!» per cent speak German: 24 per cent, French; 
.">; percent. Italian; and 11 percent. Homansch. 
In Prussia, 10 per cent of the population speak 
Polish : in Austria proper, the German language 
prevails in 7 of the 14 provinces; the Czechic, 
in 2 ; the Slovenic, in 1 ; the Croatian or Ser- 
vian, in 1 ; and, in 3 provinces, no language is 
spoken by au absolute majority' of the people. 
'I his mixture of languages is. in some instances, 
due to political events of comparatively recent 
date ; such as the dismemberment of the king- 
dom of Poland, which placed large I'olish-speak- 
ing countries under German and Russian ride; 
but, in most cases, the various languages have 
a i-existed for centuries. 'I hus. the < 'eltic has been 
generally spoken in Wales, down to the present 
time, although the country has been for six 
centuries under English rule ; and. in the center 
of Germany, a small Slavic tribe, the Wends, 
have for many centuries preserved their language, 
though they have all the time been politically 
united with ( Sermany. — As long as the education 
of the bulk of the people was almost wholly con- 
ducted by tin: family and the church, the bound- 
aries of the different languages of a country 
appear to have been remarkably steady; but, 
the extension of school education to all classes 
of the people, the progress of compulsory edu- 
cation, the more general participation of the 
people in political affairs, the introduction of 
universal suffrage, and especially the centraliza- 
tion of school legislation and the progress of the 
state or public school system, have in modern 
times worked a remarkable change. In selecting 
the language which was to serve as the medium 
of instruction, the difference between cultivated 
and uncultivated, literary and non-literary, ruling 
and subordinate languages, made itself greatly 
felt. When a language was spoken in a small 
district only, and was. at the same time, unculti- 
vatedand without a literature, it was natural that, 
little «>r no attention should be given to it in 
the school, that the rising generation should look 
upon the national language as the more impor- 
tant, and. consequently, that the latter should 
steadily gain ground, and crowd out the sub- 
ordinate languages. 'I his process, during the 
last hundred years, has been in active operation. 
Thus, in England, the Cornish, the Celtic dia- 
lect of Cornwall, has become extinct within the 
remembrance of men now living. In Italy, the 
( ionium dialect of two clusters of seven and 
thirteen communities, which had maintained it- 
self for. at least, one thousand years, has at last 
given way to the Italian. In Germany, the 
linguistic territory of the Slavic Wends, who 
still comprise a population of about 140,000 
pel-sons, has been largely reduced within the, 



614 NATIONAL LANGUAGE 



NATURAL SCIENCE 



last hundred years. The increasing strength, in 
modern times, of the principle of nationality, 
which has achieved its greatest triumphs in the 
establishment of a united Germany and a united 
Italy, has caused many governments to look 
upon the universal ascendency of the national 
language, and the Suppression of all others, as a 
means of strengthening national unity. From 
this point of view, great efforts have been made 
in many countries, to force the exclusive use of 
the language of the government upon all schools, 
as the sole medium of instruction. Where these 
measures were directed against languages spoken 
by large bodies of the people, or even against 
smaller portions of the population, speaking the 
language of another large country, they have pro- 
voked resistance, more or less violent, and have 
in many instances led to controversies which are 
not yet ended. The principles according to 
which different governments have proceeded, 
are very different. None has gone so far in the 
use of force as Russia, which, in its attempts to 
crush out the language of some eight million 
Poles, has manifested a disregard of the first 
rights of families in the education of their chil- 
dren, that has deservedly met with universal 
disapproval. No country of the world has been 
so greatly embarrassed in its legislation by the 
co-existence of a number of languages, as the 
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The two ruling 
languages, German in Austria proper, and 
Magyar in the lands of the Hungarian crown, 
are both the languages of only a minority of the 
population in their several sections ; and while 
the two governments have been anxious to extend 
the domain of the ruling languages, the Czechs in 
Bohemia and Moravia, the Slovens in Styria 
and Carniola.the Italians in the Tyrol, the Poles 
and Ruthenians in Galicia, Silesia, and the 
Bukovina, the Roumanians, Croats, and Ger- 
mans in Hungary, have insisted that for the 
schools in those districts in which a majority of 
the people speak their language, it shall be made 
the medium of instruction of all grades. The 
conflict is at present fiercer than ever. The 
Hungarian government has thus far successfully 
continued its efforts to extend the ascendency 
of the Magyar language ; while the government 
of Austria proper has conceded nearly all the 
demands of the non-German nationalities. The 
idea of an imperial language has, in Austria 
proper, been given up; and what remains of the 
ascendency of the German, is chiefly due to the 
great superiority of German literature and 
scholarship. The Czechs, Slovens. Poles, and 
other non-German nationalities, have not only 
secured the general introduction of their lan- 
guages as mediums of instruction into all the 
primary schools of their districts ; but the same 
has been done in regard to the gymnasia. The 
two universities of Lemberg and Cracow have 
been fully surrendered to the Poles ; and. in 
Prague, the division of the university, the oldest 
in Germany, into two, one Czechic and one 
German, is under consideration. — The Prussian 
government, which sustains non-German schools 



in the provinces of Brandenburg, Silesia, Posen, 
Prussia, and the northern part of Schleswig, has 
devoted to the principles underlying this question 
a greater attention than any other European gov- 
ernment, and has evidently endeavored to evolve 
principles which will admit of application in 
more than one country, and which will reconcile 
the clashing claims of the mother-tongue and 
the national language. It expressly disclaims 
any intention to introduce the study of German 
into the non-German schools for the sole purpose 
of Germanizing districts speaking a non-German 
language ; but it demands, "for the purpose of 
securing in these parts and members of the 
monarchy a lively appreciation of the progress 
of civilization in the father-land, and a conscious 
and energetic co-operation in this progress, that 
the pupils of the national schools be instructed 
in the German language as far as is necessary 
to facilitate a business and social intercourse 
with their German-speaking fellow-citizens." Ac- 
cordingly, in the purely Wendish, Polish, Lithu- 
anian, and Masuric schools, the mother-tongue 
is used exclusively for instruction in religion and 
singing, and for the lower stages of instruction 
in reading, writing, and arithmetic. In the 
higher classes, the German gradually takes the 
place of the mother-tongue. Even in the gym- 
nasia, a similar regard for the mother-tongue is 
shown; for, in all those gymnasia in which the 
majority of the pupils is of the Polish national- 
ity, the Polish language is, at least partly, 
used as medium of instruction in the lower 
classes. — Within the bounds of the present 
United States, the Spanish, the French, the 
Dutch, the German, have all, at one time, been 
the predominant languages among the white 
settlers in large tracts of country ; but all have 
gradually given way to the Engllsn. A dialect 
of German, commonly called Pennsylvania 
Butch, is still extensively spoken among the 
descendants of the old German settlers in Penn- 
sylvania ; and, in the new acquisitions of terri- 
tory in the South and on the Pacific, Spanish 
is still the language chiefly spoken in many sec- 
tions; but the strong ties of commercial and 
social interests, and the educational influence of 
the national schools rapidly spread a knowledge 
of the English language, and cause it to be un- 
derstood and spoken by the entire population. 
The desire to share in this universal knowledge 
of English pervades all classes of the American 
people, including the most recent immigrants; 
and, in this respect, the English language is the 
national language of the United States to a 
probably wider extent than the ruling language 
of any of the large countries of Europe. There 
is a very general wish on the part of the de- 
scendants of the old non-English settlers and the 
hundreds of thousands of recent immigrants, to 
cultivate, by the side of the English, a knowledge 
of the language of the country from which they 
or their ancestors emigrated. (See German- Amer- 
ican Schools, and German Language.) 

NATURAL SCIENCE. See Science, the 
Teaching of. 



NAUTICAL SCHOOLS 



NAVAL SCHOOLS 



615 



NAUTICAL SCHOOLS, or Schools of 
Navigation, are institutions for educating and 
training pupils in the science and practice of 
navigation. Schools of this kind have long been 
in existence iu European countries, and are 
of various grades. One of the chief objects of 
the theoretical instruction given in them, is to 
teach the pupils how to use the instruments of 
observation, and how to apply the results for the 
purpose of rinding, at any instant, the exact 
position of a vessel at sea. The calculations nec- 
essary for this purpose require a knowledge 
of various brandies of mathematics, especially 
trigonometry ; hence, mathematics must con- 
stitute the chief part of the course of instruc- 
tion in schools of navigation. In those schools 
in which most of the pupils lack the amount of 
knowledge necessary for a scientific understand- 
ing of these nautical calculations, they receive a 
merely mechanical instruction, which is found 
to be generally sufficient for the mercantile 
marine. The course of instruction varies con- 
siderably. In Prussia, where prominence is 
given to scientific instruction, it lasts eighteen 
months, of which twelve are spent in the mates' 
class, and six in the navigators' (captains') class. 
Before pupils can be admitted to the latter 
class, they must have been for eighteen months 
in active service as mates. In other schools, 
less attention is given to theoretical studies, and 
the course of instruction lasts only from four to 
six months. In 1875, the German Empire had 
21 navigation schools. 14 of which were in 
Prussia, 4 in the Ilan.se towns, 2 in Mecklen- 
burg, and 1 in Oldenburg. In the Austro- 
Huugarian Monarchy, there were * nautical 
schools, in Prance 42, in Italy 23, in Russia I. 
iu Finland 6, in Sweden 9, in Norway 6, in 
Denmark 1, in Holland '.(.in Belgium 2, in Spain 
!), in Portugal l,in Greece 5. England also lias 
a large number of navigation schools of various 
grades. In some of the countries named, these 
schools are called nautical schools; in others, 
navigation schools; and France prefers the 
name hydtrographiccd schools. In the United 
States, the legislature of the state of New York, 
in 1873, authorized the establishment of a nau- 
tical school in the city of New York, to be under 
the charge of the. board of education of that city. 
The Chamber of Commerce of New York City 
was authorized to appoint a committee of its | 
members to serve as a council for this school, and 
to co-operate with the board of education in 
its management. (See New York.) The U. S. 
congress, in an act approved June 8., 1874, 
authorized the use of certain national vessels 
for this purpose, as well as the detailing of naval 
officers to act as superintendents and instructors 
in such schools, but with the special provision, 
" that no person shall be sentenced to, or re- 
ceived at, such schools as a punishment, or com- 
mutation of punishment, for crime." The 
course of instruction covers a period of from 
18 months to 2 years. The pupils who complete 
it successfully, receive a certificate ; and efforts 
.are made to obtain positions for them on board 



of the best ships, if. after their first voyage, 
they desire to qualify themselves for the posi- 
tion of mate or captain, instruction is given 
them in practical and theoretical navigation, and 
in such other branches as are deemed neces- 
sary. A school similar to that in New York, is 
conducted in a go\ eminent vcsm.-] in tin- purl of 
San Francisco. 

NAVAL SCHOOLS are schools for the 
training of midshipmen in all the theoretical and 
practical branches requisite to fit them for their 
profession. In the United States, there is the 
Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., which was 
established, in 184:"i, by George Bancroft, then 
secretary of the navy. Originally little more 
than a school of practice on board ship, and 
intended to afford comparatively slight men- 
tal training, it was, in 1850, reorganized un- 
der its present name. The course of study was 
materially enlarged, and the institution was 
placed under the charge of the Bureau of Ord- 
nance and Hydrography. Iu 1851, a four years' 
course of instruction was adopted. In March, 
18G7, the school was placed under the care of 
the secretary of the navy; but its administration 
continued to be mainly conducted under the 
supervision of the Bureau of Navigation, which 
had been formed, and put in charge of it, in July, 
ISli'2. Since .March. L869, the supervision of 
the secretary over it has been without this inter- 
vention. March 3., 1873, a law was passed ex- 
tending the course of study to six years. — The 
course of instruction comprises a thorough and 
exhaustive drill, not only in mathematics and 
the natural sciences, but in the English, French, 
and Spanish languages, in history, international 
law, seamanship, ship-building, gunnery, steam- 
enginery, and draw ing (both mechanical and free- 
hand), especially in its applications to naval con- 
struction, machinery, and map-making. Three 
times a week, exercises in practical seamanship, 
on board ship or in boats, vary the courses of 
the lecture and recitation room; while, from the 
middle of June till the middle of September, a 
cruise along the coast, in a United States sailing- 
ship or steamer, gives opportunity for putting 
into practice all the nautical knowledge that has 
been acquired. The number of cadet-midship- 
men, in 1874 — 5, was 297 ; the number of in- 
structors, 58. — Since 18(14, classes of naval con- 
structors, of civil and steam-engineers, called 
cadet-engineers, have been permitted to be edu- 
cated at the academy, the number of such being 
limited to 50, and the course for them being 
two years at the school, and two years on board 
ship. During the civil war, the academy was re- 
moved to Newport, R. I.; but, soon after its close, 
was brought back to Annapolis. — In England, 
the Royal Naval College was erected in 1729, at 
Portsmouth. There, formerly, youths intended 
for the navy were instructed in navigation etc.; 
but, in 1839, the college was remodeled, and ap- 
propriated to the instruction of junior naval and 
marine officers in the higher branches of science 
connected with their profession, and especially 
in the principles and practice of naval gunnery. 



616 



NEBRASKA 



In 1872, the college was transferred to Green- 
wich. — On the continent of Europe, there are 
naval schools at Fiume (Hungary), Kiel (Prus- 
sia), Brest (France), Naples and Spezia (Italy), 
St. Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden), 
Christiania (Norway), Copenhagen (Denmark), 
Willemsoord (Netherlands), Ferrol (Spain), Lis- 
bon (Portugal), the Piraeus (Greece), and on the 
island of Khalki (Turkey). 

NEBRASKA, one of the western states of 
the American Union, to which it was admitted 
in 1867, as the 24th. Its area is 75,995 sq. m.; 
its population,, in 1870, was 129,322, of whom 
789 were colored, and 6,416 were Indians. 

Educational History. While yet a territory 
(1854 — 67), Nebraska adopted a liberal school 
system which, as early as 1865. when the popu- 
lation was only 50,000, furnished free tuition 6 
months in the year. In 1869, a general school 
law was passed, which has been modified from 
time to time to suit the wants of the rapidly in- 
creasing population of the state ; and on this 
law, substantially, is based the present system. 
The intention of the school law of Nebraska is 
to afford an opportunity for a finished education 
to every child in the state. To this end, tuition 
is free from the day of admission to the primary 
school to the completion of the course in the 
university. The state superintendents have been 
as follows: S. D. Beals, 1869—71 ; J. M. McKen- 
zie, 1871 — 77 ; and S. R. Thompson from 1877. 

School System. — There is no state board of 
education. The constitution provides, that there 
shall be elected by the people every two years, a 
state superintendent, whose principal duties shall 
be, to apportion, twice each year (in June and 
December), the state school fund to the several 
counties, the basis of apportionment being the 
number of children between the ages of 5 and 
21 years ; to recommend for the use of the public 
schools a list of text - books ; to examine appli- 
cants for state certificates; to hold teachers' insti- 
tutes ; to designate the forms of all blanks for 
the use of the schools, and for the reports of 
school officers ; and to make a full annual report 
to the governor, of the educational condition of 
the state. Each county elects a comity super- 
intendent biennially, whoseduty it is to divide the 
county into school-distriets,.if this has not al- 
ready been done. He has no power, however, 
to change any district line, unless petitioned so 
to do by one-third of the legal voters in the 
districts affected — a legal voter being any male, 
or unmarried female 21 years of age, residing 
in the district, and subject to pay a district 
school-tax. It is the county superintendent's 
duty, also, to examine teachers, to visit each 
school in the county at least once each term, to 
hold teachers' institutes, to apportion to the 
several districts, twice each year, the public 
school money, and to report to the state super- 
intendent annually the condition of the schools. 
For this service, he receives not less than $3, 
nor more than $5, per day for every day actually 
employed in the duties of his office. The county 
superintendent issues three grades of certificates 



to teachers: the first grade valid for 2 years, 
the second, for one year — both entitling the- 
holder to teach in any district in the county; 
the third grade being valid for 6 months, and 
entitling the holder to teach only in a specified 
district. Three third-grade certificates, however, 
may be issued to the same person. Each school- 
district has three officers, — a director, a modera- 
tor, and a treasurer. One of these is elected each 
year at the April meeting. These officers have 
full control of all school matters pertaining to 
the district, except the building of school-houses, 
and the issuing of school bonds. '1 hey are not 
permitted to pay, out of the public funds, any 
teacher not holding a certificate from the proper 
authority. Relatives of these officers are in- 
eligible as teachers. The director must, within 
10 days after the annual meeting, report to the 
county superintendent the number of children 
of school age in the district, the appropriation 
of the state fund being based upon this return, 
and not payable without it. The permanent 
school fund consists of all moneys arising from 
the sale of the 16th and 36th sections in each 
township, the five per cent granted by Congress- 
on the sale of public lands within the state, and 
all escheats, gifts, grants, etc., not otherwise ap- 
propriated. This fund is at present invested 
principally in state securities. Some of it, how- 
ever, is in school-district and county bonds, and 
bond and mortgage, but all draws 10 per cent 
interest. The items are as follows - 

School fund now invested $497,037.34 

Unpaid principal of school lands sold 637,887.80 

Value of school lands leased '272,169.16 

Total si, 407, 994.30 

The constitution provides that the fund shall be- 
invested hereafter only in United States and 
state securities, or in registered county bonds. 
The number of acres of school lands amounts to 
more than 2,500,000, none of which can be sold 
at less than $7 per acre. The apportionable 
school fund arises from the 10 per cent interest 
on all moneys forming a part of the permanent 
school fund, the 6 per cent rents of school lands 
leased, together with the proceeds of the one- 
mill tax. The other sources of income for the 
support of schools are the moneys arising from 
fines, licenses, dog-tax, and the special district tax. 
School districts are prohibited from levying for 
school "purposes a greater tax than 25 mills on 
the dollar in any one year. Three months' school 
must be maintained in each school-district to 
entitle it to any portion of the public fund. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts in 1876, was 2,567 ; the number 
of school-houses of all kinds, 1,980 ; the number 
of districts in which graded schools exist, 55. 
The principal items of school statistics for 1875 
are the following: 

Number of children of school age 86,191 

enrolled 59,972 

" " teachers, males 1,468 

" " females 1,893 

Total 3.361 

Average monthly salary, males $37.74 

" " " females $32.60 

Amo\urt of apportionable school fund. .. .$241,167.53- 



NEBRASKA 



NEBRASKA UNIVERSITY 61T 



Normal Instruction. — The state normal school 
■was opened at Peru, in 18(17. It was originally 
organized with three departments, the time re- 
quired to complete the course being 13 years. In 
1873 — 4. this was modified so as to comprise 
2 departments, the preparatory and the normal, 
5 years being necessary to complete the course. 
In the preparatory department, in addition to 
the usual elementary studies pursued the first 
year, botany is taught. ; in the second, zoology ; 
in the third, Latin, Algebra, physical geography, 
physiology, and the history of the United States. 
Drawing and vocal music are also taught. In 
the normal department, the branches peculiar to 
schools of this description are pursued. The 
number of students in attendance at the present 
time (1876), is about 190. 

Teachers' Institutes. — These bodies have been 
convened, from time to time, at such places as the 
state and county superintendents have deemed 
necessary. The annual attendance of teachers, 
since 18G3, has been large, and the interest 
aroused lias extended very generally among the 
people in the localities where the meetings have 
been held. The Slate Teachers' Association meets 
annually about the last of March. 

An educational journal. The Nebraska Teacher, 
was begun in 1871, and is now one of the agen- 
cies for the instruction and training of the 
teachers of the state. Its editor is the president 
of the State Teachers' Association. A similar 
publication is issued by the faculty and students 
of the state university. 

Secondary Instruction. — There are several 
high schools in the state, principally in the cities 
and large towns, where the great interest awak- 
ened in the subject of education has led, in some 
cases, to the erection of costly buildings, the most 
noted of which, the high school building of 
Omaha City, with a seating capacity for more 
than 700 pupils, was erected at an expense of 
more than §'200.000. Similar schools, but not 
so costly, exist in Lincoln, Nebraska City, Ash- 
land, Beatrice, BrownvUle, and Pawnee City. 
The intention of the school law was to connect 
the high schools directly with the state univer- 
sity, according to the system established in the 
state of Michigan, by making the graduates of the 
former admissible to the latter without further 
examination. The want of uniformity in the 
courses of study in the high schools, however, 
for some time led to such a lowering of I lie 
standard of admission as seriously to threaten 
the efficiency of the university. Measures have 
already been taken to remedy this. 

The number of private schools in the state has 
very much decreased since 1870. The number at 
that time was 70, but increased confidence in 
tlie efficiency of the common schools had dimin- 
ished the number, in 1874, to 30. There are but 
few denominational schools in the state, — 
Brownell Hall (Episcopalian), a ladies' seminary 
at Omaha, a Roman Catholic school in the same 
place, and another in Nebraska ( Sty. One 
business college, at Omaha, reported, in 1874, a 
total of 135 pupils, of whom 17 were females. 



Superior Instruction. — The institutions in- 
tended to furnish an advanced education are as 
follows : 




Doane College. . . . 
Nebraska College 
Univ. of Nebraska 



Cong. 
Pr. Epis. 
Non-sect. 



Scientific and Professional Instruction. — The 
Agricultural College is a department of the state 
university, and is governed by the same board 
of regents. The landed endowment of both in- 
stitutions amounts to 134,800 acres of land, 
which at present is not available. The course 
of study requires 3 years for its completion, the 
ordinary provision being made for a liberal edu- 
cation, with special attention paid to those 
branches of natural science necessary to the busi- 
ness of farming. Connected with the college is 
a farm of 320 acres, on which the instruction 
given in the college is put to practical test. The 
number of students at present is 12. A divinity 
school exists as a department of Nebraska Col- 
lege, which prescribes a course of 3 years. In 1874, 
the number of its students was 2. 

Special Instruction. — The Nebraska Institute 
for the Deaf and Dumb is situated near Omaha. 
It was organized in 1809. for the free education 
of all deaf and dumb children in the state, be- 
tween the ages of 10 and 25. of sound mind, of 
good moral habits, and free from contagious 
disease. The course of study comprises 8 years 
of 40 weeks each. The studies pursued are those 
common to such institutions. The instruction 
in the first class is purely elementary ; in the 
second class, language and arithmetic are taught; 
in the third , language, arithmetic, and gei igraphy ; 
in the fourth, arithmetic, geography, the science 
of common tilings, and the history of the United 
States. Daily exercises in written language con- 
stitute a part of the instruction in all the grades 
during the entire course. Special instruction in 
articulation is given \o semi-mutes. The in- 
stitute has at present 3 instructors, and about 
■ III pupils in all the classes. The Asylum for the 
Blind was opened near Nebraska City, in Decem- 
ber. 1875. It has a fine building and grounds, 
but its organization is so recent that but little is 
generally known in regard to it. 
"" NEBRASKA, UNIVERSITY OF, at Lin- 
coln, Neb., was chartered in 1869, and opened in 
1871. It was established upon grants of land, 
amounting to 134,800 acres, made by Congress 
to the state for the support of a university and 
a college of agriculture and the mechanic arts. 
The charter provides for six departments, or 
colleges, namely: (1) a college of ancient and 

i lern languages, mathematics, and natural 

science; (2) a college of agriculture; (3) a col- 
lege of law; (4) a college of medicine; (5) a 
college of practical science, mechanics, and 
civil engineering ; (6) a college of fine arts. 
Only the first two have yet (1876) been organ- 
ized. In the first there are four courses of study 
of four years each ; and, in the second, there are 



618 



NEBRASKA COLLEGE 



NETHERLANDS 



two courses, one of three years, and a course of 
one year. In the College of Literature, Science, 
and Art, the courses are the classical, the scien- 
tific, the Latin scientific, and the Greek scien- 
tific. There is a Latin or preparatory school 
connected with the university. It has a farm 
of 320 acres, and extensive chemical and phys- 
ical apparatus. Tuition is free. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 8 instructors and 132 students, of 
whom 117 (48 collegiate and 69 preparatory) 
were in the department of literature, science, 
and arts, and 15 in the department of agricult- 
ure. Both sexes are admitted. Allen R. Benton, 
A. M., LL. D., is (1876) the chancellor. 

NEBRASKA COLLEGE, at Nebraska 
City, Neb., under Protestant Episcopal control, 
was organized in 1865, and chartered in 1868. 
It is supported by the fees of students. The 
institution has a valuable mineral cabinet, and 
libraries containing about 2,000 volumes. It 
comprises a collegiate course and a grammar 
school, with a preparatory and a business course. 
Facilities are afforded for instruction in theology. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors and 70 
students (3 collegiate, 13 preparatory, and 54 
business). P. L. Woodbury, M.A., is (1876) the 
head-master in charge. 

NEEDLE-WORK. See Female Education, 
and Industrial Schools. 

NETHERLANDS, the name of a kingdom 
in western Europe, which has an area of 12,680 
square miles, and the population of which, in 
1874, was 3,767,263, exclusive of its colonial 
possessions, the total area of which amounts to 
more than 660,000 sq. m.; and the population, 
to over 24,000,000. — The independence of the 
Netherlands was established in 1579, when the 
people revolted against the rule of Spain, and 
proclaimed the republic of the United Nether- 
lands. Napoleon, in 1806, erected the kingdom 
of Holland; but the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, 
united Belgium and Holland under the title of 
the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1830, the 
southern provinces seceded, and formed the king- 
dom of Belgium; and, since that time, the name 
Netherlands has been applied exclusively to the 
kingdom formed of the northern provinces. 
About 61 per cent of the population of the 
kingdom are Protestants ; and nearly 37 per 
cent, Roman Catholics. 

History of Education. — The earliest school of 
which there is any record was that of St. Martin 
at Utrecht, said to have been founded in the 
time of Charles Martel. This school enjoyed 
great renown, and large numbers of pupils from 
the neighboring countries attended it. At the 
beginning of the 12th century, Utrecht pos- 
sessed no less than five flourishing schools, several 
of which had each a rector, in addition to the 
priests, who had the general control of them. At 
that time, several convent schools gained great 
reputation, the most prominent of which were at 
Egmond, Nimeguen, Middelburg, and Admoert, 
near Groningen. Schools were also established 
at this time by the more flourishing towns, for 
the instruction of the citizens. Authority to 



open these schools was always derived from the 
courts, and the supervision and instruction were 
entirely secular. The bestknown school of this 
class was at Zwolle, which, in the 14th century, 
| is reported to have had over 1,000 pupils. In 
Holland, as well as in Belgium, the Brethren of 
the Common Life did much to promote educa- 
tion. (See Hiekonymians.) During the 15th 
century, this country was rich in eminent 
scholars, among whom may be mentioned John 
Wessel, Rudolf Agricola, Alexander Hegius, and 
Erasmus. A new era was inaugurated with the 
opening of the Leyden University, in 1575, which 
awakened a new zeal for all departments of 
learning. Other universities were established, 
at Franeker (1575), at Groningen (1614), at 
Utrecht (1638), and at Harderwick (1648), all 
of which greatly added to the reputation of 
Dutch scholarship throughout the world, and 
rendered their people one of the best educated 
nations of the globe. During the 18th century, 
there was, however, a visible decline; and, at the 
beginning of the 19th century (1811), Cuvier 
made a rather unfavorable report of the condi- 
tion of the universities and Latin schools of Hol- 
land. The French government which Napoleon I. 
established in Holland, introduced some reforms, 
which were subsequently sanctioned and further 
developed by King William I. Since that time, 
the Netherlands have regained, in some depart- 
ments of superior instruction, especially in that 
of the ancient languages, their former reputation. 
The Dutch legislation in regard to primary in- 
struction has attracted the attention of educa- 
tional writers and the governments of various 
countries, chiefly by its outspoken opposition to 
the principle of denominational schools. The 
basis of the Dutch system was laid in the cel- 
ebrated law of 1806, drawn up by M. Van der 
Ende, who was, for nearly thirty years (until 
1833), at the head of the common-school depart- 
ment of the Dutch ministry. Articles 22 and 23 
of this law provide that pupils shall be trained 
" in the practice of all the social and Christian 
virtues," and that they shall " not remain with- 
out instruction in the doctrines of that religious 
faith to which they belong;" but that the teacher 
of the school " shall not have charge of this 
branch of instruction." The principle of secular 
and mixed schools had, at first, the co-operation 
of ministers of every creed, even of the Roman 
Catholics; but, after 1848, sharply-defined parties 
arose in mutual opposition. The new constitu- 
tion of 1848, which is still in force .(1876), pro- 
vides that instruction shall be free, and under the 
absolute control of the government. At this 
time, a party of orthodox Protestants had been 
founded, named after Groen van Prinsterer, a 
prominent professor and writer, who asserted 
that the Roman Catholics, wherever they had 
any influence, were strictly carrying into exe- 
cution the laws of 1806 ; that is, excluding 
from the schools every thing of a doctrinal char- 
acter, even the Bible itself. As the best method 
to check the anticipated advances of that Church, 
the Groenists attacked the principle of mixed 



NETHERLANDS 



619 



schools, denouncing them as breeding-places of 
atheism and immorality, and demanding in their 
place denominational schools, which might atT' >rd 
religious instruction. This party was in a small 
minority in the chambers, in 1857, when the 
new educational law was framed, which still re- 
mains in operation (1876). The majority was 
composed, in the first place, of Catholics who 
preferred to exclude religious instruction entirely 
from the schools, rather than have it of a more or 
less Protestant character; secondly, of the Liber- 
als, who were in favor of the total separation of 
church and state ; and, finally, of Dissenters of 
•every kind. This question was disposed of by 
the law of 1857, which provided that, while 
public instruction should communicate all nec- 
essary secular knowledge, and develop the un- 
derstanding of the pupils, it should, "at the same 
time, train them to the practice of every Chris- 
tian and social virtue." It also enjoined upon 
the teacher to refrain "from teaching, doing, or 
permitting any thing derogatory to the respect 
that is due to the religious convictions of the non- 
conformists." Instruct inn in religion," it stated, 
•• is left to the different sects. The use of the school 
buildings may, however, be granted for this pur- 
pose, to accommodate the children that attend 
these, at hours not appropriated to other classes." 

The Catholics, however, left their liberal allies, 
and at present are united with the orthodox 
Protestants and Conservatives, in an attempt to 
divide the school fund, a scheme which is op- 
posed by the liberals only. This question of de- 
nominational schools has since formed the chief 
issue at the general election. In the election of 
1875, for members of the second chamber, the 
Liberals obtained a majority of two over the 
united opposition. 

Primary Instruction. — Primary instruction, 
as stated above, is regulated by the law of 1857. 
The immediate supervision ot the schools is in 
the hands of local school committees. Above 
each committee, there is a district-school super- 
intendent, above him a provincial inspector, and 
finally, as the highest authority, the minister of 
education. Every community has a local commit- 
tee ; communities, however, which have united 
to establish and sustain a school, have a commit- 
tee in common. In communities with less than 
.'1.(100 inhabitants, the burgomaster and the coun- 
cilors perform the duties of the committee. In 
th.' other communities, the members of the com- 
mittee are appointed by the common council. The 
district superintendents and provincial inspectors 
are appointed by the king. The common schools 
are either pul ilic or private. Among the former, 
are those which are sustained by the parishes, 
provinces, or state, either alone or conjointly ; 
private schools may, in case of need, lie aided by 
the parish, but must then be open to children of 
all denominations. The parish decides how many 
schools are necessary to supply the wants of the 
inhabitants, but their number may be increased 
by the provincial or state authorities. Teachers 
are of two classes : assistants, who must be 18 
years of age, and principal teachers, who must be 



23 years of age. If a teacher has over 70 scholars, 
he receives an aspirant, that is, a young man 
who has not reached the requisite age to be an 
assistant teacher. When the number of scholars 
reaches 100, he is entitled to a regular assistant; 
and when it reaches 150, to an assistant and an 
aspirant; and so on, receiving for every ad- 
ditional 100 pupils an assistant, and for every 50, 
an aspirant. Instruction in the common schools 
is of two kinds, — common and higher. Com- 
mon instruction comprises reading, writing, 
arithmetic, the elements of geometry, the Dutch 
language, geography, history, the natural sci- 
ences, and music, lligher instruction comprises 
a course in the elements of living languages, 
elementary mathematics, the first elements of 
agriculture, gymnastics, drawing, and needle- 
work. The number of schools, Dec. 31., 1872, 
was 3,728, of which 2,608 were public. The 
public schools had 6,538 male teachers, and 477 
female teachers ; and the private schools. 2,332 
male teachers, and 1.565 female. The number of 
pupils in both public and private schools, was 
228,145 boys, and 208,496 girls. In 1873, there 
were 3,790 primary schools, with 500.059 pupils. 
There were also 5 teachers' seminaries, supported 
by the government, besides a number of private 
and communal institutions. The amount ex- 
pended for primary instruction in 1870, both 
by the state and the communities, was 4,'.)84,533 
florins (1 florin = $0,385), or $1,919,045. 

Secondary instruction is regulated by the law 
of 1863. The schools of this grade are either 
public or private. The law includes among the 
secondary schools the higher burgher schools 
(corresponding to the German real schools), the 
burgher schools for trades-people and fanners, 
and the polytechnic school, at Delft. The gym- 
nasia and Latin schools are classed with the uni- 
versities. The higher burgher schools are of two 
kinds, one having a five years' course, and the 
other a three years' course. The average age of 
the scholars in the lowest class is 13 years. An- 
cient languages are excluded entirely ; while 
French, German, and English are studied with 
considerable thoroughness. The course of study 
comprises mathematics, the elements of mechan- 
ics, technology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, nat- 
ural philosophy, chemistry, cosmography. Dutch 
constitutional history, political economy, statis- 
tics, geography, history, modern languages, book- 
keeping, penmanship, drawing, and gymnastics. 
The examination for graduation comprises all 
these subjects, and is conducted by a committee 
chosen from all the teachers of the province. The 
rules of the royal schools are determined by the 
royal decrees of 1864 and 1873. The teachers of 
the state schools are appointed by the king, and 
those of the communal schools, by the magis- 
trates. The course of study is arranged by the 
director and the teachers, and must be approved 
by the minister. The yearly tuition fee is. at the 
most, 60 florins. Burgher schools are established 
chiefly for the children of trades-people and farm- 
ers, and consist of day and evening schools. Every 
community of more than 1 0,000 inhabitants, must 



G20 



NETHERLANDS 



NEVADA 



have at least one burgher school, both day and 
evening. The course, in the day school, com- 
prises two years. If the attendance does not war- 
rant the establishment of a day school, a com- 
munity may be excused from having such a 
school ; but, in such a case, the evening school 
must comprise a two years' course. The teachers, 
in these schools, are appointed by the common 
councils, and are paid by the communities. They 
are also entitled to a pension from the state, 
under the same conditions as other officers of 
the government. The cost of the burgher schools 
is borne by the communities, who may charge a 
fee not to exceed 12 florins per year. In 1871, 
the number of burgher schools was 43, and of 
higher burgher schools and commercial schools, 
47. The number of teachers was 338, in the 
burgher schools, and 542, in the higher burgher 
schools; of pupils, 3,801, in the burgher schools, 
and 3,285, in the higher burgher schools. The 
polytechnic school at Delft is intended for those 
who wish to follow the business of engineering 
in any of its various branches. This school, 
in 1875 — 6, had 26 professors and 260 
students. The following schools are also classed 
among secondary institutions : 4 schools of agri- 
culture, with 18 professors and 53 students ; 9 
schools of navigation, with 20 pi-ofessors and 
200 students; 30 drawing schools, with 108 pro- 
fessors and 2,500 students ; seven secondary 
schools for girls, with 74 teachers and 472 stu- 
dents ; and 78 secondary schools for mechanics. 
The sum total expended on secondary instruction 
amounted to $557,002, of which $273,192 was 
paid by the state ; $4,845, by the provinces ; 
$190,945, by the municipalities; and $83,018 was 
derived from tuition fees. 

Superior Instruction. — According to the law 
of 1815, the institutions for superior instruction 
are classed as Latin schools and gymnasia, athe- 
naeums, and high, schools. The Latin schools and 
the gymnasia correspond to the German gymna- 
sia; and the athenaeums and high schools, to the 
universities, of which, however, only the high 
schools are entitled to confer academic degrees. 
Each Latin school and gymnasium has a rector and 
conreetor and one or more preceptors and docenfs, 
according to the means of the institution. The 
studies comprise Latin and Greek, mathematics, 
history, and mythology. The following studies 
are taught in only a part of the schools : the 
modern languages, Hebrew, and natural history. 
The gymnasia have pretty much the same course 
of study as the Latin schools. In 1873, the num- 
ber of Latin schools and gymnasia was 54, with 
227 professors and 1,185 students. There are 
three universities, — at Leyden, Utrecht, and Gro- 
ningen, which, in 1871, had 732, 488, and 146 
students, respectively, making a total of 1,366 
students. Of these, 585 studied law ; 302, theolo- 
gy; 242, medicine; 157, natural sciences ; and 
117, literature. The two athenaeums, at Deven- 
ter and Amsterdam, had together 261 pupils. In 
1876, it was resolved to raise the athenaeum of 
Amsterdam to a full university. In 1875 — 6, 
Leyden had 45 professors and 942 students ; 



i Utrecht, 34 professors and 527 students ; Gro- 
1 ningen, 30 professors and 188 students ; and the 
athenaeum of Amsterdam, 40 professors and 399 
students. 
Special Instruction. — Besides the special schools 
i classed among the secondary schools, there are 
\ the following : five Catholic theological semi- 
naries; an Old Catholic (Jansenist) seminary, in 
Amersfoort; a Lutheran seminary, and seminaries 
for Remonstrants and Mennonites, in Amster- 
dam; a seminary of Separatists, in Kampen; two 
Jewish seminaries, in Amsterdam; a school of 
veterinary surgery, and a school of East Indian 
languages, in Delft ; a school for army surgeons, 
at Utrecht; schools of art, in Amsterdam, Bois- 
le-Duc, the Hague. Rotterdam, and Groningen; 
and a school of music, at the Hague. In 1874, 
there were three institutions for deaf-mutes, with 
391 inmates ; three asylums for the blind ; and 
an asylum for idiots, having 19 girls and 23 boys, 
and, in connection with it, there is a day school 
for idiots. 

Luxemburg. — This country is governed by the 
king of Holland as grand-duke of Luxemburg. 
It had, in 1874, 644 primary schools, with 28,437 
pupils ; one teachers' seminary ; an athenaeum, 
composed of a gymnasium and a trade school, of 
6 classes each ; and 2 progymnasia, having to- 
gether 42 professors and 911 pupils; a Catholic 
seminary and an agricultural school, in Echter- 
nach. — For further information in regard to 
education in the Netherlands, see Barnard, Na- 
tional Education, vol. it.; Cousin, Del' instruction, 
publique. en Ilollcmde, 1836 — 7; Buddingii, 
Geschiedenis van Opvoeding en. Onderwijs in 
de Nederlanden (Hague, 1847) ; Laveleye, 
Debats sur I ' enseignement duns les chambres 
hollandaises, session of 1857 (Geneva, 1858). 

NEVADA, one of the extreme western states 
of the American Union, originally a part of the 
territory of Utah, from which it was set off as 
a separate territory, March 2., 1861 .and enlarged 
by a further portion of Utah, in 1862. It was 
admitted as a state in 1864. It was further en- 
larged by added territory from Utah and Ari- 
zona, in 1866. In 1859, the population was about 
1,000; but, in August, 1861, it was estimated at 
16,000. In 1870, it was 42,491, of whom 38,959 
were whites; 357, colored persons; 3,152, Chi- 
nese ; and 23, civilized Indians. 

Educational History. — Notwithstanding the 
almost exclusive absorption of the energies of 
the people in mining and kindred operations, the 
interests of education have not been overlooked. 
The first constitution of the state directed the 
legislature to organize a public school system, to- 
found a state university, to establish graded and 
normal schools, and to promote by all appropri- 
ate means the cause of education. To this end. 
the state was to be divided into school-districts, 
and schools were to be established therein. For 
the maintenance of these schools, there were to 
be set apart the 50,000 acres granted by Con- 
gress to all the new states, 30,000 acres for each 
senator and representative, the 16th and 36th 
section in each township, a half-mill tax on all 



NEVADA 

property subject to taxation, and all escheats, and 
tines for personal offenses. The interest of all the 
money derived from the above sources (except 
the half-mill tax, of which live percent is taken), 
together with two per cent of the receipts from 
all ti ill-roads and bridges, is devoted (O school 
purposes, at the present time. The method of rate- 
bills is. in some cases, employed. The permanent 
school fond, in 1874, amounted to $250,000, — 
The method of supervision was. from the first. 
the same as now employed : but the original pro- 
visions of law in this regard have been modified 
somewhat by successive legislatures, notably in 
1873, when a compulsory education law was 
passed. From 18(>(j to 1S74, the state superintend- 
ent was A . W. Fisher, who, at the latter date, was 
succeeded by 8. P, Kelly, elected for four years. 
School System. — The supervision and manage- 
ment of the educational system of the state are 
confided to a state boant of education, consisting 
of the governor, surveyor-general, and the super- 
intendent of public instruction. Its duties are to 
organize schools, prescribe a uniform list of text- 
books, and devise all needful measures for the con- 
duct and improvement of the schools. The stab 
superintendent is the executive < >fficer of the board. 
He performs all the duties generally appertain- 
ing to the office, and makes a biennial report to 
the governor. County superin tent /rut* are elected 
throughout the state, each for two years. Boards 
nf trustees are elected in the several school-dis- 
tricts, and are so constituted as always to con- I 
tain at least one experienced member. Each 
board consists of three trustees in districts hav- j 
ing less than 1 ..">II0 voters, and of five in all others. | 
In addition to the usual duties pertaining to ! 
such officers, they are intrusted with the power 
of levying taxes in order to supply deficiencies '■ 
in the school moneys received from the state. 
They are required not only to keep a public rec- ; 
ord of their proceedings, but to publish, in some I 
newspaper, full minutes of those proceedings. 
The county superintendent appoints two com- ! 
peteut persons, who, with himself, constitute a 
board of examiners of which he is chairman. A 
certificate, either from this county board or from j 
the state board, is necessary before a teacher j 
can receive any compensation for services ren- I 
dered. A life certificate of any state, or a diplo- " 
ma from a California state normal school, entitles 
the holder to a county certificate without exami- 
nation, if presented within five years from the | 
date of its issuance. The compulsory school law 
requires parents or guardians to send all children 
between the ages of 8 and 14 years, unless other- 
wise educated, to the common schools for not less 
than sixteen weeks each year, eight weeks of 
which must be consecutive. A penalty of not 
less than $50, nor more than $100 for the first ! 
offense, and of not less than $100 nor more than 
$200 for each subsequent offense, is imposed for 
a violation of this law. The schools are required 
to be kept open at least six mouths each year in 
every school-district. 

Ed ucit ion al Condi/ion — The numberof school- ' 
districts, in 1874, was 71 ; the number of schools 



NEWARK 621 

dispensing with rate-bills, G8 ; the total number 
of schools, 108. Of these schools, 21 are primary; 
4, intermediate ; 12, grammar : 2, high ; and 69, 
unclassified. The support of the schools was de- 
rived from the following sources : 

From taxes $93,431.23 

" rate-bills 317. 'in 

" state apportionments 

and other sources 52,432.40 

Total $146,181.32 

The expenditures were as follows: 

For teachers' salaries $83,548.88 

•• sites, buildings, etc 22,241.05 

" other purposes 18,511.71 

Total $124,301.64 

The average wages of teacherapermontii was $100.00 

The principal items of school statistics for the 
year were the following : 

Number of pupils enrolled (6 — 18) 4,811 

Average attendance 2,884 

Number of teachers, males 35 

females 80 

Total US 

Normal Instruction. — No schools for the in- 
struction of teachers are yet reported. The legis- 
lature, however, ill 187."). passed an act authoriz- 
ing the establishment of a normal school. 

Secondary Instruction. — A preparatory school 
in connection with the university, provided for 
by an act of the legislature, in 1873, has been 
opened at Elko: and an appropriation of $20,000 
was, in 1875, made for its support. This, and 
two high schools, are the only means for free 
secondary instruction now known to be in 
existence in the state. 

Superior Instruction. — By an act of the legis- 
lature, in 1873, the state university was estab- 
lished ; but little has as yet been done, except the 
organization of the preparatory department, 
above referred to. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — In 
1875, an act was passed for the establishment of 
an agricultural college, aud for colleges of arts 
and mines, endowed with the congressional 
land grant of 90.000 acres ; but this action was 
so recent, that no report has been made of their 
organization. 

Special Instruction. — The settlement of the 
state is so new, ami the population so small, that 
no efforts have yet been made to establish special 
institutions, for the blind, or for the deaf and 
dumb. Those afflicted in this way have thus far 
been cared for. at the expense of the state, in 
institutions provided for the purpose by the 
neighboring state. California. Several deaf-mutes 
are under instruction in the Institution for the 
Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, near Oakland. 

NEWARK, the chief city of New Jersey, 
first settled in 1G(>6, by Puritan families from 
Connecticut, who were joined the next year by 
other settlers from the same colony, led by their 
minister, the Rev. Abraham Pierson.who named 
the settlement after Newark, in England, where 
he had formerly preached. Newark was incorpo- 
rated as a city in 1836. Its population, in 1840, 
was 17,200; 'but, in 1870, it was 105,059, of 



622 



NEWARK 



whom 69,175 were natives, and 35,884 foreigners, 
including 15,873 Germans, the largest foreign 
element. The population, according to the state 
census of 1875, was 123,310. 

Educational History. — In 1676, ten years after 
its settlement, the selectmen of the town "agreed 
with Mr. John Catlin that he should do his 
faithful, honest, and true endeavor to teach the 
children of those as have subscribed, the reading 
and writing of English, and also of arithmetic, 
if they desire it, as much as they are capable to 
learn, and he capable to teach them." About 
1700, a small school-house was built in Market 
Street, which, it is thought, was the only school 
building in the city for many years. From 1747 
to 1756, the College of New Jersey was located 
in Newark, but, in the latter year, was removed 
to Princeton. In 1769, it is recorded that the 
children of the poor should be "constantly sent 
to school at the expense of the person that takes 
them," it being the custom, at that time, to 
award annually the keeping of the poor, by pub- 
lic auction, to the lowest responsible bidder. In 
1792, the Newark Academy was opened in Broad 
Street, and three years after, was incorporated. 
It remained in its original location till 1856, 
when it was removed to the present site in High 
Street. The next school-house was built in 1797, 
near the South Park. This was followed by 
another, in 1804, in Market Street ; another, in 
1807, in Pair Street ; one in New Street, in 
1809 ; and one in Orange Street, in 1820. These 
were all built by private enterprise, and the 
schools held in them were consequently sup- 
ported by tuition fees. In 1813, the sum of $500, 
for the schooling of the children of the poor, was 
voted by the people, the practice of requiring 
the person who supported the poor to provide 
for the schooling of their children, being at that 
time discontinued, and never revived. This siun, 
or a larger one, was voted, for the same purpose, 
annually thereafter till 1836, when Newark was 
incorporated as a city. This method of provid- 
ing for the education of a special class of children 
proved to be the entering wedge which opened 
the way for a system of public schools free to all 
the children of the city. The first public-school 
house was built in 1843 or 1844, and was located 
in the third ward, between Hill and Court streets. 
It was a building of two stories, the first being 
occupied as a girls' school, the second as a boys'. 
Prom that time till 1848, six similar school- 
houses were built. In 1850, the legislature passed 
an act, to establish public schools in the city, the 
population of which, at that time, was 38,894. 
This was supplemented, in 1853, by an act in- 
corporating the board of education, with ample 
powers for the establishment and maintenance 
of public schools. In 1855, there were 7 public- 
school houses, and 16 public schools, including 
one primary school for white children, and one 
of the same grade for colored children, the aver- 
age daily attendance being 2,461 pupils. The 
public high school, which was opened in 1855, 
gave a new impulse to the cause of the schools, 
resulting in the establishment of a graded system 



of primary, grammar, and high schools. In 
1865, with a population of 87,428, the city had 
1 6 school-houses, and the estimated value of its. 
school property was $200,000. The first city 
superintendent was Stephen Congar, who held 
the office from 1853 till 1859. He was succeeded 
in the latter year by George B. Sears, who has 
held the office without interruption to the pres- 
ent time (1876). 

School System.- — The general management of 
the public schools of the city is committed to 
a board of education, composed of two commis- 
sioners from each ward, who are elected by the 
people biennially. They elect annually a city 
superintendent, whose principal duties are to 
enforce the regulations of the board, to visit the 
schools, and to report to the board, from time to 
time, concerning their condition. The school 
money is derived chiefly from a special city tax, 
which varies annually in such a way as to make 
good the deficiency of the state tax. The course 
of study in the primary schools comprises read- 
ing, spelling, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
drawing, and vocal music. The additional stud- 
ies in the grammar schools are grammar, histo- 
ry, composition, and declamation ; in the high 
school, the studies pursued, in addition to those 
of the grammar schools, are chemistry, physiol- 
ogy, astronomy, algebra, book-keeping, geometry, 
geology, drawing, gymnastics, and certain other 
branches, chiefly languages, which are prescribed 
by the board of education. The school age is 
from 6 to 18 ; the school year is 10 months, ex- 
cept in the evening schools, in which the term is 
3 months. The day schools are opened, and the 
evening schools closed, by the reading of a por- 
tion of the Scriptures without comment, and the 
saying of the Lord's Prayer. In 1875, the number 
of schools was 44 : 1 normal and 1 high school, 
12 grammar schools, 22 primary schools (includ- 
ing 1 colored school), 2 industrial schools, and 
6 evening schools. — The principal items of school 
statistics for the year 1875 are as follows : 

Number of children of school age 35,125 

" " " enrolled in public schools, 

including evening schools 18,087 

Average number of pupils on the roll 12,689 

Average daily attendance 10,852 

Number of teachers, males 54 

" " " females 218 

Total 2T2 

Total receipts $209,707.05 

" expenditures $209,700.95 

Total value of school property $900,000.00 

Besides the public schools, there are many acad- 
emies, and private and denominational schools, 
the Roman Catholics alone having several of the 
latter. There are, also, two libraries, that of the 
New Jersey Historical Society, which contains 
6,000 volumes, 10,000 pamphlets, and some man- 
uscripts of great age and value ; and that of the 
Newark Library Association, which contains 
20,000 volumes. Courses of instruction, chiefly 
in elementary branches, are, also, provided at 
nearly all of the orphan asylums, of which there 
are several. 



NEWBERRY COLLEGE 



NEW BRUNSWICK 



623 



NEWBERRY COLLEGE, at Walhalla, 
Oconee Co., S. 0., founded in 1858, is under 
Evangelical Lutheran control. It was removed 
from Newberry in 1808. The college library 
contains about 4,000 volumes. The cost of tui- 
tion in the collegiate department is $45 per year. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors and 101 
students (35 collegiate and 66 preparatory). The 
Rev. T. Stork, D.D., was the president until 1 861, 
when the Rev. J. P. Smeltzer, 1). I)., the present 
incumbent (1876), was chosen. 

NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of the 
Dominion of Canada, having an area of 27,322 
sq. m., and a population, in 1870, of 285,594. 
It was first settled by the French, in 1639, and 
continued to form, with Nova Scotia, a part of 
Acadia, until it fell into the hands of the British. 
The first British settlers emigrated from Scot- 
land in 1764; and, in 1784, New Brunswick 
was separated from Nova Scotia, to form a sepa- 
rate province. In 18(i7, it joined the Dominion 
of Canada. — The present school law (1870) was 
passed in 1871, and amended in 1873. Accord- 
ing to this law, the schools are governed by a 
board of education, composed of the lieutenant- 
governor, the members of the executive council, 
the president of the university of New Brunswick, 
and the superintendent of schools, who is ap- 
pointed by the lieutenant-governor. The duties 
of the board are, to establish a training and model 
school, appoint 14 inspectors of schools, divide 
the province into school-districts, and alter the 
districts as may be necessary, make regulations 
for schools and the examination of teachers, and 
prescribe text-books and library books, and school- 
house plans. The superintendent has the general 
supervision of the schools, subject to the board. 
The inspectors visit and examine the schools, 
advise teachers, and report to the superintend- 
ent as often as the board may direct. No school- 
district can contain less than 50 children, unless 
the area be four miles. There must be three 
trustees in a district, elected at the annual dis- 
trict meeting, one each year. When a district 
fails to elect, or a trustee fails to act, one or more 
trustees may be appointed by the inspector, on 
the requisition of seven rate-payers. The trustees 
have under their charge the local management 
of the schools, may employ and suspend teachers, 
and must furnish the clerk of the peace of the 
county with a list of the persons liable to be 
rated. Male candidates for the position of teacher 
must be at least 18, and females 16, years of age, 
and must have attended a term at some normal 
school, or else be graduates of some university. 
Licenses are provincial, valid during good beha- 
vior, and are issued by the board of education. 
Examinations are held at Fredericton, in March 
and September, and at St. John and Chatham. 
in September, on the third Tuesday of the 
month ; and are presided over by the super- 
intendent or his deputy. The teacher opens and 
closes the school daily by reading from either 
version of the Scriptures, and by the saying of 
the Lord's Prayer. Any other prayer permitted 
by the trustees may be used, but no pupil can 



J be compelled to be present on these occasions 
j against the written request of his parents or guard- 
ian. Evening schools may also be established. 
Besides the district schools, there is a grammar 
school in eveiy county. These schools are al- 
lowed to unite with the district schools under 
the joint management of the grammar and the 
district-school trustees, so as to secure a proper 
gradation of schools. A system of superior Bch< n ils 
has also been established, in which the course of 
study is nearly the same as in the grammar 
schools. Only one such school may be established 
in a parish, and it must not be in the same dis- 
trict as the grammar school. Teachers' salaries 
are provided for from the provincial treasury, 
the county school fund, and the district assess- 
ment. After L876, the amount paid to a teacher 
from the provincial treasury, must be regulated 
partly by the license, and partly by the quality 
of instruction, as tested semi-annually by an in- 
spector. Thus, males, in class i., receive $110 per 
year; in class n., $80 ; in class in., $00 ; females, 
in class I., 70 ; in class n., $50 ; in class m., $40; 
and for the quality of instruction, if ranked i., 
at the rate of $40; n„ $25; m.. $10; assistants, 
at one-half of such rates. Of the county-school 
fund one-half must lie apportioned to the trust- 
ees for teachers' salaries in the following manner: 
eveiy qualified teacher, besides assistants, to re- 
ceive $30 per year, and the balance to be distrib- 
uted according to average time and attendance. 
The schools in the cities of St. John and Freder- 
icton are under special city government. Each of 
these cities forms one district with a board of 
seven trustees, which must be a corporate body. 
Three of the trustees are appointed by the lieu- 
tenant-governor, and four by the city council. 
All schools conducted under the pro visions of the 
law of 1871 are non-sectarian. The school year 
is divided into a summer and a winter term ; the 
former, from May 1. to ( tct. 31 .; the latter, from 
Nov. 1. to April 30. On April 30., 1875, there 
were 1,053 schools in operation, with 1 .1 1 teach- 
ers and 40,039 pupils (25,646 boys and 20,393 
girls). Of these, 271 were under five years of 
age; 39.075, between five and fifteen; and 0.093, 
over fifteen years of age. During the year end- 
ing April 30., 1875, there were 141 districts 
with schools in the summer term, but without 
schools in the winter; and 144 districts with 
schools in the winter, and without schools in the 
summer. The number of teachers employed dur- 
ing the winter term, ending April 30., 1875, was 
400 males and 020 females, making a total of 
1,092. In addition, 4 male and 20 female assist- 
ants were employed. The number of grammar 
schools, in the school year ending April 30., 1875, 
was 14, with 37 teachers in the summer term, 
and 39 in the winter term. The whole number 
of pupils registered in the summer term was 
1,770, and 2,027 in the winter term. The num- 
ber of pupils on register was 710 in the summer 
ten 1 1 , and 809 in the winter term ; and the average 
daily attendance was 434 in the summer, and 531 
in the winter. The number of superior schools. 
April 30., 1875, was 50, with 3,053 pupils. The 



624 



NEW CASTLE COLLEGE 



NEWFOUNDLAND 



provincial normal school in Fredericton had 4 
teachers and 130 students during the year, of 
whom 108 received licenses to teach. Connected 
with the normal school is a model school. — The 
University of New Brunswick, at Fredericton, is 
composed of three classes, — freshman, junior, and 
senior. The university confers the degrees of 
Bachelor of Arts, Master of Arts, Bachelor of 
Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Bachelor of Com- 
mon Law, and Doctor of Common Law. The de- 
gree of Doctor of Laws (LL. D.) is strictly honor- 
ary. The Mount Allison Wesleyan College and 
Academies in Sackville, belong to the Methodist 
Church, but are also extensively patronized by 
students from other denominations. They are 
the result of the benevolence of Mr. Chas. F. 
Allison, and comprise a male academy, founded 
in 1842, a female academy, founded in 1854, and 
the college, founded in 1862. They are under a 
board of governors, appointed by the general 
conference of the Methodist Church of Canada. 
The college has, besides its regular course, a liter- 
ary or scientific course, from which Latin and 
Greek are omitted. A facidty of theology is 
also connected with the college, which confers the 
degree of Bachelor of Divinity. Connected with 
the male academy, is a commercial college, which 
is designed to insure thorough preparation for 
college, or for entrance upon a course of special 
training for agricultural, mechanical, or commer- 
cial pursuits, or of specific study for professional 
life. In the female academy, there are two 
courses of study. The first is the regular course 
for the baccalaureate degree, while the other 
course is designed for those who prefer to sub- 
stitute for the classics, the modern languages 
and natural science. — See Marling, Canada 
Educational Directory and Yearbook for 1876, 
Lovell, Directory of British North America 
(1873). 

NEW CASTLE COLLEGE, at New Castle, 
Pa., was established in 1872, and chartered in 
1875. It is non-sectarian, and admits both sexes. 
It is supported by tuition fees. The college has 
a preparatory, a classical, a scientific, a com- 
mercial, a telegraphic, a musical, an art, and a 
normal department. In 1875 — 6, there were 15 in- 
structors and 325 students, of whom 121 were in 
the preparatory and collegiate departments. John 
R. Steeves, A. B., is (1876) the president. 

NEWFOUNDLAND, an island of North 
America, belonging to Great Britain; area, 40,200 
square miles; population, in 1874,161,381. New- 
foundland is supposed to have been discovered 
by the Northmen, about the year 1,000. It was 
rediscovered by the Cabots, in 1497, and has re- 
mained with the British crown ever since. The 
first governor was appointed in 1728, and the 
first legislative assembly met in 1733. It is the 
only part of British North America not yet in- 
corporated in the Dominion of Canada. The 
public-school system is based on the denomina- 
tional principle, and was re-organized by the 
Education Act of 1876. According to this law, 
each denomination represented on the island is 
entitled to a share of the school money. In those 



districts in which a particular denomination 
forms a majority of the inhabitants, the governor 
appoints a board of education of from 5 to 7 
members of that denomination. These boards may 
establish schools in their respective districts, make 
rules for their government, and appropriate all 
moneys granted to such districts. A proportionate 
amount of the government grant must be at the 
disposal of the denomination forming a minority 
in any district. A certain fee must be paid by 
each child to the teacher. The governor appoints 
three superintendents of education, — one for the 
Church of England schools, one for the Roman 
Catholic schools, and one for the Methodist 
schools, who supervise and inspect the schools of 
their respective denominations. The Church of 
England and Methodist superintendents also, 
every year, alternately, inspect the other Prot- 
estant board schools, belonging to the Presby- 
terians and Congregationalists. The superintend- 
ents are required to visit annually, if possible, all 
the schools and training institutions of their 
respective denominations, and carefully examine 
into their condition. They must present an an- 
nual report on the schools under their charge, 
with the statistics of such schools, and detailed 
accounts of income and expenditure. They are 
also required to give such advice as they may 
deem proper to teachers and boards of education, 
to do all in their power to carry out a uniform 
system of education, and, by public addresses or 
otherwise, to improve the character and efficiency 
of the public schools, as well as to promote the 
establishment of other public schools in destitute 
localities. There are two higher grammar schools, 
in Harbor Grace and Garbonear, governed 
by their own boards of education. There are also 
four academies in St. John's, belonging respect- 
ively to the Roman Catholics, and to the Church 
of England, the Methodists, and other Protestant 
denominations. The governor appoints for each of 
these a board of directors of seven or nine mem- 
bers. The Roman Catholic and Church of England 
academies are connected with collegiate institu- 
tions belonging to those denominations — the for- 
mer, with Bonaventure College, the latter, with 
the Episcopal Theological Institute. Pupil teach- 
ers are trained in these academies, who, upon com- 
pleting their studies, are bound to teach a speci- 
fied time in the public schools. Candidates for 
the position of teacher must be at least 1 6 years 
old, and, must have either been pupil teachers, 
or must have been trained in some normal or 
training school abroad, or must have served as 
teachers for at least two years. In 1874, there 
were 157 Protestant schools, with 7,805 pupils, 
and 136 Roman Catholic schools, with 5,792 
pupils. Besides these, there were 7 commercial 
schools, with 502 pupils, and 13 convent schools, 
with 1,965 pupils. The inspectors of the Church 
of England and Methodist schools, in their joint re- 
port of Dec, 1875, deplore that, "notwithstanding 
the large amounts which have been granted by 
the legislature for educational purposes, many 
large communities, especially in Notre Dame Bay 
and Trinity Bay, have been hitherto without 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



625 



schools, and the youth growing up to manhood 
and womanhood, are unable to read and write." 
In most of the schools which they visited, "read- 
ing, writing, and arithmetic have been the only 
subjects taught, even in some of the largest settle- 
ments; and. in most cases, the attainments of the 
scholars have not been very satisfactory." — See 
The Education Act, 1876; Loveli,. Gazetteer of 
British North America (Montreal, 1873); and 
the official Reports of the Inspectors of Schools. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the thirteen 
original states of the American Union, was the 
third in the order of settlement. It ranks among 
the smallest states in regard to area, containing 
only 9,392 sq. m. Its population, in 1870, was 
318,800, of whom 580 were colored persons, and 
23, Indians. 

Educational History. — It was the prevailing 
custom among the earliest settlers of Xew Hamp- 
shire, like those of Massachusetts, to make im- 
mediate provision for the erection of a meeting- 
house, and of a school-house beside it. 'Many of 
the immigrants, especially the Scotch-Irish set- 
tlers of Londonderry and vicinity, had received 
a good elementary education. Having been united 
with Massachusetts, in 1641, it became subject to 
the law passed by the legislature of that province 
in 1642. (See Massachusetts.) The first act 
of the government of New Hampshire, in regard 
to schools, after it became a separate province, 
in 1680, was passed in 1693. This law required 
the selectmen, in the respective towns, to raise 
money, " by equal rate and assessment, upon 
the inhabitants," for the support of schools. In 
1719, a law was passed, which was almost an 
exact copy of the Massachusetts law of 1647, 
with an amendment increasing the penalty to 
£20. The original constitution of the state made 
it the special duty of "the legislators and magis- 
trates to cherish the interests of literature and 
the sciences, and all seminaries and public 
schools." An act of the state legislature, in 
1789, established the rate of assessment for 
school purposes, and provided for the examination 
of teachers. In 1805, towns were authorized to 
form school-districts ; and, three years later, the 
system of town superintendence was established 
by law, every town being required to appoint a 
superintending school committee, whose duty was 
to visit and inspect the public schools. In 1 807, 
the rate of school assessment was increased; and, 
in 1818, was fixed at $90; in 1840, it was 
raised to $100 ; and by further change, in 1870, 
to $ 350, for each dollar of the apportionment for 
state taxes. Provision was made for a state lit- 
erary fund in 1821, which was created from the 
income arising from a tax of one-half of one per 
cent upon the capital of all banking corporations 
in the state. In 1827, the school law was re- 
vised, and fitted to the wants of the people. It 
recognized the office of a superintending school 
committee in each of the several towns, who 
were required to examine and license teachers, 
visit and inspect schools, select school books, etc. 
District or prudential committees were chosen, 
who constituted the legal agency to hire teach- 



ers, and to have the care of the school property. 
In 1846, a law was passed providing for the es- 
tablishment and support of teachers' institutes 
in each county, which continued in force, with 
little interruption, until I 874, when the law was 
repealed. A stringent law, made more effective 
by further legislation, was enacted in 1848, for 
the purpose of securing public instruction to 
children engaged as factory operatives. Another 
important act of that year established the office 
of state commissioner of common schools. This 
office was modified four years later, and a state 
board of education was established, to consist of 
a commissioner of schools for each county ; and. 
in 1867, a further change took place, creating 
the office of superintendent of public instruction, 
the governor and the council with the superintend- 
ent to constitute the board of education. In 
1 874, the state board was abolished, and the duties 
of the superintendent were somewhat enlarged. 
In 1870. a law was enacted, establishing a state 
normal school ; and another act, in the same 
year, required that all children between the ages 
of 5 and 15 years, unless excused by reason of 
ill health, should attend a public school or receive 
private instruction, at least 12 weeks annually. 
An act of 1872 ordained that "female citizens of 
adult age may hold the office, and discharge the 
duties of prudential committee in any district, or 
of superintending school committee." The state 
school officers have been as follows: (1) Commis- 
sioners of common schools, — Charles B. Haddock, 
D. D., 1846—7 ; and Richard S. Rust, 1847—50. 
(2) Secretaries of board of county comm ission ers: 
the office of state commissioner was succeeded, 
in 1850, by the board of county commissioners 
of common schools, who organized annually, 
electing a chairman and a secretary, of whom the 
latter was the chief officer of the board, and pre- 
pared the report to the state. The successive 
secretaries were, John S. Woodman, A. M„ 
1850—51; Hall Roberts, A.M., 1851—4; Rev. 
King S. Hall, 1854 — 5 ; Jonathan Jenney, A. M., 
1855—7; James W. Patterson, A.M., 1857—61; 
William D. Knapp, 1861 — 2; John Wingate, 
Jr., A. M„ 1862—3 ; Rev. Roger M. Sargent, 
A.M., 1863—4; Rev. Charles A. Downs, 1864— 5; 
George W. Gate, 1865—6; Rev. R. M. Sargent 
(second term), 1866 — 7. During the first two 
years of the existence of this office, the cause of 
education made considerable progress, in effecting 
which the teachers' institutes, conducted with 
great ability and efficiency, were an important 
auxiliary. The annual reports of the first five 
secretaries are especially referred to as documents 
of permanent value. (3) State superintendents: 
in 1867, the office of commissioner was abolished, 
and that of state superintendent of public in- 
struction was instituted, which has been filled by 
the following persons: Amos Hadley. A.M.. 1867 
—9 ; Rev. Anthony C. Hardy, 1869—71; John 
W. Simonds, A. M., 1871— 3; Daniel G. Beede, 
who held office for only six months, when Mr. 
Simonds was re-appointed, and is still in office 
(1876). — The teachers' institutes, suspended for 
a few years, were revived during Mr. Hadley s 



626 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



term, and were continued under Supt. Hardy 
and during the first term of Supt. Simonds ; but 
during Supt. Beede's term (July, 1874) they 
were abolished. — Many interesting changes have 
occurred in regard to the character of the teachers 
employed in the state. For the first century and 
a half, the teachers were almost exclusively males; 
and the school-masters employed were well edu- 
cated. They were characterized by inflexible 
severity in the maintenance of discipline ; and 
flogging was a common practice. The methods 
of instruction employed were mechanical, and 
the text-books crude; among the latter, the most 
noted were the Columbian Orator, the American 
Preceptor, the English Reader, Dillworth's 
Speller, and Webster's Spelling-Boole, with Da- 
boll's or Pike's Arithmetic. In 1758, the town of 
Newton made provision for employing "school- 
dames" ; but the school-mistress was not recog- 
nized by the laws of the state till 1808. In their 
infancy, and on account of poverty, many towns 
were compelled to hire female teachers, but the 
prevailing ideas were against that practice. The 
legal qualification of the mistress was limited, 
by an act passed in 18(18, "to teaching the various 
sounds and powers of the letters of the English 
language, reading, writing, and English gram- 
mar." Masters were further required, by the same 
law, to teach "arithmetic, geography, and such 
other branches as may be necessary to teach in 
an English school." After the Revolution, many 
foreign emigrants became school-masters, and so 
continued for several years, often performing 
excellent service. The wages of masters, previ- 
ous to the present century, varied from $4 to $10 
per month, with board, which was usually "given" 
by the families who patronized the school. The 
mistress received from fifty cents to one dollar 
and a half per week, with board. For about two 
hundred years, the division of towns into school- 
districts was unknown, the situation of the school 
depending upon the location of the population, 
not upon any territorial limit. The teacher went 
from one section of the town to another, holding 
a school wherever pupils could be found ; and 
when the people required the services of more 
than one teacher, they were divided into classes, 
or "squadrons." Although, in 1805, the towns 
were empowered to form school-districts, the 
work of subdivision was not completed until 
1843, when an act peremptorily ordered it. For 
a time the district system worked well ; but, in 
1870, the legislature passed a permissory act, 
authorizing any town to abolish the division 
into school-districts, and to organize the whole 
town as a single district. This act has been 
adopted in several of the towns. A compulsory 
attendance law, passed in June, 1871, went into 
operation July 14., the same year. 

School System. — The state superintendent is 
placed at the head of the public-school system. 
With limited powers and means, he is expected 
to "guide and direct the interests of popular 
education." He prepares and distributes the 
school registers and blanks for statistical reports; 
and is required to make a report to the general 



court, containing an "abstract of the returns of 
school committees," a "detailed report of his own 
doings, and the condition and progress of popu- 
lar education in the state." Each town has a 
superintending school committee, chosen by the 
people " in such manner, for such terms, with 
such title, and such powers relating to schools, 
as they may think proper." These committees 
are required to examine and license teachers, 
visit and inspect schools, select school books, and 
report in writing upon the condition of the 
schools, at the annual town meeting. They may 
also, when necessary, withdraw teachers' certifi- 
cates, and dismiss teachers and scholars. N<v 
teacher can receive pay from the treasurer who 
cannot produce a certificate of license from the 
committee. Teachers of common schools must- 
be examined in reading, spelling, writing, English 
grammar, arithmetic, and the elements of geog- 
raphy and history, and in other branches usual- 
ly taught in these schools. The school committee 
may prescribe for any school, when, in their judg- 
ment, it may be proper, the study of surveying, 
geometry, algebra, book-keeping, philosophy, 
chemistry, natural history, and physiology, or any 
of them, and other suitable studies; and teach- 
ers, proposing to teach in such schools, must be 
examined in those branches. Applicants hold- 
ing certificates of graduation from the state nor- 
mal school, may teach in the public schools, 
without further examination, in those branches 
which are covered by such certificates. The 
cities of Concord, Dover, Manchester, Nashua, 
Keene, and Portsmouth have each a city super- 
intendent of public instruction. In each district, 
there is a prudential committee, chosen at the. 
annual meeting, whose duties are to employ and 
pay teachers, and have the care and safe-keeping, 
of the school property of the district. A number- 
of the members of both superintending and pru- 
dential committees are women. The selectmen 
in each town, and the assessors of each city are 
required, in April of each year, to make an enu- 
meration of the children of each sex between the 
ages of 5 and 15 years, in their respective towns 
and cities, and to report the result to the school 
committee of the town or city. 

School Revenue. — The public schools, free to 
all attending them, draw their support from three 
sources ; namely, taxation, the state literary fund, 
and the income from local funds. Towns are re- 
quired to raise by taxation at least $350 for each 
dollar of the apportionment to the town for 
the state tax. Towns and districts are author- 
ized to raise by vote larger sums for the support 
of schools ; and towns are authorized to appro- 
priate money from the tax on railroads. The un- 
expended balance of the tax upon dogs is devoted 
to the support of schools, at the expiration of 
every two years. The state literary fund is dis- 
bursed to the towns in proportion to the number 
of scholars attending the schools. The income 
from local funds arises from the interest on the 
donations of individuals to towns and school- 
districts, the original gifts of "school lots," and 
the contributions of individuals in order to pre- 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



627 



long the schools. The moneys received from town 
taxes and the literary fund are disbursed to the 
several districts in proportion to their valuation, 
or in such other manner as the town may deter- 
mine. The revenue from the tax on dogs is di- 
vided equally among the districts. The various 
amounts derived from local funds are expended 
agreeably to the conditions of the gift. 

Educational Condition. — The whole number 
of organized school-districts in the state, in 1876, 
was 2,102; of districts formed under a special act, 
31. The total number of schools was 2,498 ; the 
number of graded schools, 458, of which 18 were 
town high schools, and 21 district high schools. 
The number of school-houses was 2,223. The 
amount of school revenue for the year 1875 was 
as follows : 

Raised by town taxes $465,186 

Raised by district taxes 71,600 

Literary fund 24,600 

Local funds 32,346 

Railroad tax : 5,781 

Dog tax and contributions 15,460 

Other sources 37.741 

Total ~~ $652,714 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' salaries $450,440 

" new buildings :. 110,709 

" permanent repairs 31,880 

" miscellaneous expenses 75,017 

Total $668,046 

The following are the principal additional 
items of school statistics for the year ending 
March 14., 1876 : 
Number of children between the ages 

of 5 and 13 (April, 1875), males, 37,314 
females, 34,008 

Total 71,322 

Number enrolled in the public schools (1876). . .66,699 
" of those enrolled pursuing higher branches 4,982 

Average daily attendance 48,857 

Number of pupils attending academies and 

select schools 4,982 

Average length of the public-school year. 18.75 weeks 
Number of teachers employed, males.... 555 
" " •' females. . . . 3.10 7 

Total "3,662 

Average monthly salary of teachers, males. . . .$41.93 
" " " " females.... $25.72 

Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, 
established by a legislative enactment, in 1871, 
is located at Plymouth. Two courses of study 
are provided, extending over one year and two 
years, respectively. Certificates of graduation 
from these courses entitle the holders to teach, 
the former for a term of three yeare, the latter 
for five years. The school is managed by a board 
of trustees, and taught by a principal and 4 as- 
sistants. Teachers' institutes were formerly held 
in the different towns ; but, in 1874, they were 
abolished by state law. Supt. Simonds, in his 
annual report for 1875, strongly recommends 
the general court "to appropriate a sum for the 
proper expenses of teachers' institutes to be held 
under the direction of the superintendent of 
public instruction, at times and places approved 
by the governor of the state." 

Secoyidary Instruction. — This grade of instruc- 
tion is represented chiefly by the academies and 



1 public high schools. The former are usually in- 
corporated. The necessary buildings and appur- 
tenances have been furnished by individual liber- 
ality ; but the schools are sustained by the tui- 
tion fees received from students, and the income 
from endowments. Phillips Academy, at Ex- 
eter, chartered 1781, was the first established in 
the state ; but academies were chartered and 
opened at Ipswich, Chesterfield, Atkinson, and 
Gilmanton before the close of the last century ; 
and. in the early part of the present century. 

; academies were established in nearly all the larger 
towns of the state. Many of these have been 
displaced by the higher grades of public schools. 
During the year 1876, the number of academies 
in active operation was 47, several of which are 
permanently endowed with commodious build- 
ings, and supplied with excellent instructors and 
all the necessary appliances for efficient work. 
Phillips Academy, at Exeter, and St. Paul's 
School, at Concord, for males exclusively, are 
devoted to the work of fitting their students for 
college ; the other academies are open to pupils 
of either sex, and furnish the means of a com- 
mon, higher English, classical, and ornamental 
education. The Adams Female Academy, at 
East Perry, the first incorporated school of its 
class in New England, Tilden Seminary, at 
West Lebanon, and the Robinson Female Semi- 
nary, at Exeter, are devoted exclusively to the 
education of females. The number of high 
schools proper, maintained at public expense, is 
39, including 19 town high schools, and 20 dis- 
trict high schools. The report of the state super- 
intendent for 1876 enumerated 86 high schools, 
seminaries, academies, etc.. affording higher in- 
struction to 5,418 pupils. Several of these insti- 
tutions are classical or preparatory schools ; and 
there is one business college, at Manchester, hav- 
ing 286 male students, and 90 female students. 
Denominational and Parochial Schools. — Sev- 
eral of the academies are fostered by distinctive 
religious denominations, prominent among which 
may be named, Kimball Union Academy, at 
Meriden, Gilmanton Academy, and Pinkerton 
Academy, at Perry, which are under the control 
of the Congregationalists : the New Hampton 
Conference Seminary and Female College, at Til- 
ton, under the Methodists ; the New Hampton 
Literary Institution, under the Freewill Baptists; 
the New London Literary and Scientific Institu- 
tion, under the Baptists ; and, St. Paul's School, 
at Concord, under the Episcopalians. In the city 
of Manchester, the Roman Catholics support 
parochial schools for the education of their chil- 
dren. These schools are graded. Mt. St. Mary's 
Academy is designed for the higher education of 
females. 

Superior Instruction, etc. — Dartmouth College 
(q. v.), at Hanover, "the pride of the state," is 
the sole representative of this grade of instruc- 
tion. In 1796, a medical department was organ- 
ized; and, more recently (1852), scientific schools 
(Chandler Scientific Department), besides which 
there is the Thayer School of Civil Engineering, 
organized in 1870, and the New Hampshire Col- 



628 



NEW JERSEY 



lege of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, estab- 
lished by the legislature, in 1866, on the basis of 
the congressional land grant, and as a depart- 
ment of Dartmouth College. 

The State Teachers' Association, incorporated 
in 1854, was designed for the benefit of teachers 
and the promotion of the interests of education. 
During the first years of its existence, it held 
two meetings annually, in the spring and in the 
fall, in different sections of the state ; but, later, 
only one annual meeting has been held. Many 
of the most important measures connected with 
the progress of education in the state have ema- 
nated from its discussions ; such as the creation 
of the office of state superintendent, the establish- 
ment of the state normal school, etc. For a few 
years, the association maintained a state journal 
of education. 

NEW JERSEY, one of the thirteen original 
states of the American Union, the first settle- 
ment in which by Europeans is supposed to have 
been made, about 1618, at Bergen, by a detach- 
ment of the Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam. 
Its area is 8,320 sq. m.; and its population, in 
1870, was 906,096, of whom 30,658 were colored, 
16 Indians, and 15 Chinese. 

Educational History. — The history of the 
school system in New Jersey begins just one 
hundred years prior to the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence. The Presbyterians and Congregation- 
alists, who were the earliest immigrants under 
English authority, came to this province bring- 
ing preachers and school-teachers with them. 
By the side of the log church, the primitive 
school-house was erected; and schools, supervised 
and supported by the church authorities, were 
established in the early settlements of Newark, 
Woodbridge, Elizabeth, Middletown, Freehold, 
Shrewsbury, Piscataway, Perth Amboy, and 
other places in East New Jersey. The pioneers 
in West New Jersey were Quakers. To them 
the school-house was scarcely second in import- 
ance to the church or meeting-house, and both 
were usually under the same roof. The earliest 
record of any action of a public nature for the 
establishment of schools is dated November 21., 
1676, when the people of the town of Newark 
resolved at town meeting, " that the town's men 
have liberty to see if they can find a competent 
number of schollars, and accommodations for a 
school-master." "The town's men" foimd the 
"competent number of schollars", accordingly, 
and made partial arrangements for the employ- 
ment of a "school-master." Further instructions 
were given at the next town meeting, in the 
form of the following resolution: "The town hath 
consented that the town's men should perfect the 
bargain with the school-master for this year, 
upon condition that he will come for this year, 
and do his faithful, honest, and true endeavor 
to teach the children or servants of those who 
have subscribed, the reading and writing of En- 
glish, and also of arithmetick if they desire it, as 
much as they are capable to learn, and he ca- 
pable to teach them, within the compass of this 
year ; nowise hindering but that he may make 



what bargain he please with those as have not 
subscribed." From this date, the people of the 
town of Newark never failed to provide for the 
schooling of their children. The superior claims 
of the church, however, were recognized; as ap- 
pears from the following order given in town 
meeting, September 28., 1714 : "Ordered by vote 
that ye old floor in ye meeting house should be 
made use of for ye making a floor in ye school- 
house in the middle of ye town." In March, 
1689, the town people of Woodbridge resolved, 
"that James Fullerton should be entertained as 
school-master;" and, in 1694, we are informed 
that John Brown was engaged at a salary of 
£24 sterling to keep a free school for the next 
year. In 1701, the people of Woodbridge further 
resolved that a piece of land, "about 10 rods," 
be allowed for a school-house, " provided it did 
not prejudice the highway." As early as 1667, 
George Fox advised his brethren in New Jersey 
to establish boarding-schools, " that young men 
of genius, in low circumstances, may be furnished 
with means to procure requisite education," and 
the Shackelwefl school was opened about this 
time, " for the teaching of whatsoever things 
were civil and useful in creation." In 1683, an 
island in the Delaware, opposite the settlement 
of Burlington was set apart for educational pur- 
poses, the revenue derived from the rent or sale 
of which was reserved for the education of 
children in the adjoining settlements. The in- 
come of the fund thus derived is still used to as- 
sist the cause of education by the school officers 
of the present city of Burlington. This was the 
first school fund established in the province, and, 
it is believed, in America. The first school law 
of the state was enacted by the general assembly 
of East New Jersey, at Perth Amboy, on the 12th 
of October, 1693. It reads as follows : "Where- 
as the cultivating of learning and good manners 
tends greatly to the good and benefit of man- 
kind, which hath hitherto been much neglected 
within this province, Be it, therefore, enacted by 
the governor, council, and deputies in general 
assembly now met and assembled, and by the 
authority of the same, that the inhabitants of 
any town within this province shall and may, 
by warrant from a justice of peace of that county, 
when they think fit and convenient, meet to- 
gether and make choice of three more men of 
said town, to make a rate for the salary and main- 
tenance of a school-master within the said town, 
for so long time as they think fit ; and the con- 
sent and agreement of the major part of the in- 
habitants of the said town shall bind and oblige 
the remaining part of the inhabitants of the said 
town to satisfy and pay their shares and propor- 
tion of the said rate; and, in case of refusal or 
non-payment, distress to be made upon the goods 
and chattels of such person or persons so refus- 
ing or not paying, by the constable of the said 
town, by virtue of a warrant from a justice of 
the peace of that county, and the distress so to 
be sold at public vendue, and the overplus, if 
any be after payment of the said rate and char- 
ges, to be returned to the owner." In 1695, this 



NEW JERSEY 



629 



act was amended, providing that three men 
should be chosen yearly in each separate town 
to have "power to appoint the most convenient 
place or places where the school shall be kept, 
that as near as may be the whole inhabitants 
may have the benefit thereof." Under the opera- 
tion of this law, schools were established in all 
parts of the province, whenever a majority of 
the inhabitants desired them. The first step to- 
ward the establishment of a state school fund 
was the passage of an act, on the 9th of February, 

1816, which directed the treasurer to invest in 
the public 6 per cent stocks of the United States 
the sum of $15,000, which arose from the pay- 
ment of the funded debt, and from the dividends 
of the stocks held by the state in the Trenton 
Bank, and, at the end of every year to invest the 
interest on the capital in the same manner. This 
sum was increased by an act of the legislature in 

1817. In 1 818, the governor, the vice-president of 
councils, the speaker of the assembly, the attor- 
ney-general, and the secretary of the common- 
wealth were appointed " trustees for the control 
and management of the fund for the support of 
free schools." The whole amount of the fund 
was then increased to the sum of 8113,238.78. 
In 1820, a law was passed authorizing the inhab- 
itants of any township to raise by taxation 
money for the education of paupers and the 
children of such poor parents residing in the 
township as are. in the judgment of the township 
committee, unable to pay for schooling the same. 
This was the first general act which authorized 
the township to raise money for the support of 
schools. The idea that the money raised under this 
law was to be used for the purpose of educating 
paupers and poor children only, became general 
at this time, and remained a feature of all school 
enactments in the state till the year 1838. In 
1*24. the legislature provided that one-tenth of 
all the state taxes should every year be added to 
the school fund; and, four years later, the people 
were authorized to raise funds in town meetings, 
to erect or repair school-houses. In 1828, a 
"central committee" on education was appointed 
by a convention held at Trenton, to canvass the 
state and collect statistics from every county; 
and committees were appointed in the several 
counties, and in the majority of townships, to 
aid the central committee. A summing up of 
the reports of these committees revealed the fact 
that more than one-third of the children in the 
state were without schooling of any kind. One 
of the county reports made at that time was re- 
markable from the fact that in it was embodied 
the idea of a normal school. Among other sug- 
gestions, the chairman of the Essex county com- 
mittee said : "I very much wish that some plan 
of improvement may be attempted to raise the 
tone of feeling respecting our common schools. 
I have thought of no plan better than to estab- 
lish a high school for the sole purpose of educat- 
ing young men for teachers." The result of the 
labors of this "central committee" was an awak- 
ened public interest, which led to the passage of 
the school law of 1829 — the first comprehensive 



and practical school enactment of the state legis- 
lature. This provided for an annual appropri- 
ation of §20,000, to be apportioned for school 
purposes among the several counties in propor- 
tion to the amount of taxes paid by each. It 
also provided for the election of school commit- 
tees in each township, who were required to di- 
vide the township into convenient school-districts, 
to examine and license teachers, to visit and in- 
spect the schools at least once every six months, 
and to make a report of their condition, which 
report was read at the annual town meeting, and 
was then sent to the governor to be laid before 
the legislature. They were also empowered to 
call annual district meetings, at which three 
trustees were chosen, whose duty it was to pro- 
vide suitable school-houses, and to determine 
how many months during the year the schools 
should be kept open. They also prepared a list 
of children in the district between the ages of 4 
and 16 years, which was used as the basis for the 
apportionment of the public money. In 1831 , the 
act of 1829 was repealed, and a new law enacted, 
the most important features of which were that 
the state appropriation should be applied, to the 
education of poor children exclusively, and that 
the public money, which had before been paid to 
the trustees of the school-districts, should now 
be paid to the several schools in the township, 
whether they were public, private, or parochial. 
This latter change was made in obedience to the 
demands of the religious denominations of the 
state, under whose auspices schools had been 
established throughout the state. By this law, 
also, district boundary lines were abolished, and 
teachers were not required to be examined. In 
1838, the dissatisfaction with the school system 
was so general that a convention was called to 
re-organize it. This convention assembled at 
Trenton, on the 16th of January, and appointed 
a committee to issue an address to the people. 
The result of this spirited action was, that the 
legislature, thoroughly informed of the temper 
of the people, repealed the pernicious act of 
1831, and re-enacted a law, which contained, in 
an improved form, all the characteristic features 
of the act of 1829. The state appropriation was 
increased to $30,000 ; district boundaries were 
restored ; money was appropriated to districts 
for the benefit of the public schools exclusively ; 
and townships were required to raise by taxation, 
for school purposes, a sum equal to double the 
amount received from the state. The minimum 
age of school children was changed from 4 years 
to 5; and a board of examiners for each county 
was created, with authority to examine teachers 
and to issue county certificates. No reference was 
made to pauper or poor children. In 1845, a 
supplementary act was passed, authorizing the 
trustees of the school fund to appoint a state 
superintendent of public schools for the counties 
of Essex and Passaic ; but other counties might, 
at any time, come under the provisions of the law 
by resolution of the board of freeholders. The 
jurisdiction of the state superintendent was not 
extended over the whole state till 1 846. In that 



630 



NEW JERSEY 



year, all previous school enactments were re- 
pealed ; and a comprehensive law, including the 
most important features of the repealed acts, 
with several new provisions, was enacted. This 
law remained in force till 1867. Its distinctive 
feature was the creation of township superintend- 
ents, who were required, in addition to other 
duties, to visit the schools once every quarter, 
and to make a report of their condition to the 
state superintendent. Tn 1851, the annual appro- 
priation was increased to $40,000. The act of that 
year provided, also, that the public money should 
be apportioned to the counties in the ratio of 
their population, and to the townships in propor- 
tion to the number of children between the ages 
of 5 and 18 years ; and no township was allowed 
to raise by taxation, for school purposes, more 
than $3 annually for each child of school age. 
In 1854, teachers' institutes were established by 
law, and $ 100 was annually appropriated to each 
institute. The following year, the legislature 
provided for the purchase of a copy of Webster's 
Dictionary for each school in the state; and, the 
next year, for a copy of Lippiucott's Gazetteer. 
In 1850, the normal school was established. In 
1858, the annual appropriation was increased to 
$80,000. The state board of education was es- 
tablished in 18fi6. It consisted of the governor, 
attoi'ney-general, comptroller, secretary of state, 
president of the senate, speaker of the house, and 
the treasurer and trustees of the normal school. 
In 1867, the act of 1846 and its amendments 
were repealed, and the law now in force was en- 
acted. In 1871, all the public schools of the state 
were made free ; and, in 1874, a compulsory 
school law was enacted, by which every person 
having charge of a child between the ages of 8 and 
13 years is required to see that such child has, 
at least, twelve weeks' schooling in each year, six 
weeks of which must be consecutive. The state 
superintendents have been: T. F. King, 1845 — 52; 
J. H. Phillips, 1852—60; P.W. Ricord, 1860—64; 
'C. M. Harrison, 1864—6 ; and Ellis A. Apgar, 
from 1866 to the present time (1876). 

School System. — The state board of education 
is intrusted with the educational interests of the 
state. It is composed of the governor, secretary 
of state, attorney-general, comptroller, president 
of the senate, speaker of the assembly, treasurer 
of the state normal school, and the trustees of 
the same, at present 14 in number. This board 
exercises a general supervision over the schools, 
appoints county superintendents, prescribes rules 
for holding teachers' institutes, and makes an 
annual report to the legislature. It appoints, also, 
the stale superintendent of public instruction, 
who is, ex officio, its secretary. His term of office 
is 3 years. He is required to have his office in 
the state house, to exercise a general supervision 
over the schools, and to make an annual report 
to the state board. County superintendents are 
required to examine teachers and grant certifi- 
cates, to apportion the school money, and to per- 
form the other duties usually devolving upon 
such officers. In addition to the certificates 
granted by county superintendents, a state board 



of examiners, consisting of the state superin- 
tendent and the principal of the normal school, 
is authorized to grant certificates valid in any 
part of the state. County boards of examin- 
ers, composed of the county superintendent and 
3 associates chosen by him, and examiners ap- 
pointed by the city boards of education, also 
grant teachers' certificates valid, respectively, in 
the counties and cities where issued. Township 
boards are composed of the district trustees of 
each township, and meet at such times and 
places as the county superintendents designate, 
for the purpose of consultation with the latter 
in regard to the management of the schools. Each 
city in the state constitutes one school-district; 
but, in the country, a district usually comprises 
only the territory and inhabitants necessary to 
support one school. — The schools are supported 
mainly by a direct state appropriation, which 
amounts to about $1,300,000 annually. This sum 
is raised by a tax of 2 mills on every dollar of 
the property of the state. In case the amount 
thus derived from the state, however, is not suf- 
ficient to maintain the schools nine months in 
the year, the townships are still authorized to vote 
school money ; and the money needed for build- 
ing and repairing school-houses is still raised by 
district tax. The amount of the permanent 
school fund was largely increased, in 1871, by a 
gift from the state of the proceeds of the sales and 
rent of all riparian lands between high and low 
water mark — a sum the future value of which 
has been variously estimated at from $5,000,000 
to $10,000,000. A free library system exists in 
the public schools, and state aid is extended to 
such districts as raise money for the purpose. 
Nearly 400 free-school libraries have been estab- 
lished in this way. The school age is from 5 to 
18 years. Corporal punishment, and all religious 
exercises, except the reading of the Bible and the 
saying of the Lord's Prayer, are forbidden. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts, in 1876, was 1,368 ; the number 
of school buildings, 1,532 ; of school departments 
under the charge of one teacher each, 3,046. 
The school revenue for the year 1876 was : 
Two mill tax from the state. $1,225,462.19 
Additional state appropria- 
tion, including income from 

permanent fund 100,000.00 

Township school tax 26,548.50 

Interest of surplus revenue. 30,523.54 
District and city tax for 

teachers' salaries 324,988.34 

District and city tax for 

buildings and repairs 407,767.70 

Total appropriated for school purposes.. $2,115,290.27 

Total value of school property $6,449,516.00 

School statistics for the year ending Aug. 31., 
1876: 

Number of children of school ase in the state 314,826 
" " " enrolled in public schools 196,252 

Average attendance in public schools 103,520 

Number attending private schools 41,964 

Number of teachers, males 978 

" " females 2,306 

Total 3,284 

Average monthly salary of male teachers. . . $66.42 
" " " " female teachers. . $37.39 



NEW JERSEY 



631 



Normal Instruction. — Besides the state ' 
normal school at Trenton, normal schools or | 
classes have been established at Newark, Jersey I 
( Sty, Paterson, and in some other cities of the 
state. The state normal school, with its adjuncts, ! 
the model school, and the Farnum preparatory 
school, at Beverly, constitutes the special means 
employed by the state for the education of i 
teachers. The normal school is supported partly 
by an annual appropriation of $20,000. The 
course of instruction occupies 3 years. Graduates 
from the advanced course receive state certificates 
of the second grade, valid for 7 years ; graduates . 
from the elementary course receive certificates 
of the third grade, valid for 5 years. These 
certificates entitle the holders to teach in the 
public schools of the state, without further ex- 
amination. The number of the former class, in 
1875, was 28 ; of the latter, 14. The Farnum 
preparatory school receives aid from the state, 
anil serves as a stepping-stone to the state 
normal school. The students from its normal 
•department receive no diplomas, and are not 
authorized to teach in the public schools without. 
examination. 

Secondary Instruction. — High schools in con- 
nection with the public-school system have been 
established in Newark. Jersey City, Paterson, 
New Brunswick, and Trenton. Besides the 
high schools and academies, secondary instruction 
is given at many of the private schools and 
seminaries in the state. Three business colleges 
exist in the state, one each at Trenton, Newark, 
ainl Elizabeth. Two of them, in 1874, reported 
10 instructors and 353 students. 

Private, Denominational, and Parochial 
Schools. — The number of non-sectarian private 
schools is 240 ; of denominational schools, 106. 

Superior Instruction. — The colleges of the 
state, exclusive of those for females, are the 
following: 



NAME 



Burlington College.... 
College of New Jersey. . 

Rutgers College 

Seton Hall College 



Burlington 
Princeton 
N. Brunswick 
So. Orange 



When 
found- 
ed 



1846 
1748 
1771 
1856 



Denomi- 
nation 



P. Epis. 
Presb. 
Reform. 
B. C. 



There are five colleges for the superior in- 
struction of women : St. Mary's Hall, Burling- 
ton ; Trinity Hall, Beverly; Bordentown Female 
College ; Ivy Hall. Bridgeton ; and the Penning- 
ton Seminary and Female Collegiate Institute. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
The John C. Green School of Science is a depart- 
ment of the College of New Jersey, at Princeton. 
It provides two courses of study, and confers 
degrees expressive of proficiency in each. Nearly 
•$600,000 have been expended on this school, its 
name indicating the principal contributor. The 
scientific school of Rutgers College, endowed 
principally by the sale of agricultural land scrip, 
to the amount of 8116,000, has been constituted 
by an act of the legislature the college for agri- 
culture and the mechanic arts. It has a course 
in chemistry and agriculture, and one in civil 



engineering and mechanics. Connected with the 
former, is a model farm, on which the claims of 
different systems are put to a practical test. State 
students, to the number of 40, are admitted on 
the recommendation of the county superintend- 
ents, and are instructed free of charge. The 
Stevens Institute of Technology, at Iloboken, was 
founded by Edwin A. Stevens, by a gift of land, 
and $650,000 for buildings and endowment. It 
was opened in 1871 as a school for special scien- 
tific training, but provides instruction in other 
branches as well. Connected with it is a high 
school, which is designed as a preparatory depart- 
ment for the Institute. 'I he latter has extensive 
collections, and a library of 5.000 volumes. Its 
course is 4 years, on the completion of which it 
confers degrees. The theological seminary of the 
Reformed Church is substantially a department 
of Rutgers College, and is the principal training 
school in the United States for ministers of that 
denomination. In 1874 — 5. it reported 4 pro- 
fessors and 39 students. The theological semi- 
nary of the Presbyterian ( hurch at Princeton 
was organized in 1812, and has a 4 years' course 
for graduates from the College of New Jersey, or 
for others who have received a classical educa- 
tion. In 1874.it had 7 instructors and !)7 students. 
The German Theological School at Bloomfield 
was founded in 1869, by the Presbyterians, for 
the purpose of providing German-speaking in- 
structors for the large and rapidly increasing 
German population of the United States. It has 
a theological, and an academic department, the 
principal study in the latter being the German 
language. In 1874 — 5, it had 5 instructors and 
24 students. The Drew Theological Seminary, 
at Madison, was opened in 1867 by a fund of 
$250,000, given by Daniel Drew for its establish- 
ment, to which additions have, from time to 
time, been made, making a total of nearly 
81.000,000. It is under the auspices of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops of which 
are, ex officio, members of its board of supervision. 
The grounds are 95 acres in extent. 1'here are 
3 seminary buildings, besides professors' resi- 
dences, and a library containing 12,000 volumes. 
The introductory course is 2 years; the regular, 3. 
To the latter, only college graduates are ad- 
mitted. In 1874 — 5, it reported 9 instructors, 
9 lecturers, and 127 students. 

Special Instruction. — No provision has thus 
far (1876) been made by the state for the in- 
struction of deaf-mutes, blind, or feeble-minded 
persons: but about 840,000 is annually expended 
by the state for their care in the institutions of 
other states. Their number, according to an in- 
quiry instituted by the legislature in 1873. was 
500 deaf-mutes, 600 blind, and more than 1,000 
feeble-minded. 

The State Industrial School for Girls was 
established at Trenton by an act of the legislature, 
in 1871, "for the reformation of girls between 
the ages of 7 and 16 years." In 1874, there were 
19 inmates. The State Reform School was 
opened at Jamesburg, in 1867. The institution 
is rather reformatory than penal, and, in addi- 



632 



NEW JERSEY COLLEGE 



NEW MEXICO 



tion to moral training, provides intellectual in- 
struction in elementary branches. In 1874, the 
total number of its inmates was 298; the average 
attendance, 184. 

NEW JERSEY, College of (popularly- 
called Princeton College), at Princeton, N. J., 
founded under the auspices of the Presbyterian 
Synod of New York, which then included New 
Jersey under its jurisdiction, was opened in May, 
1747, at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) and the 
same year was removed to Newark, whence it 
was transferred to Princeton, in 1757, upon the 
completion of a college edifice, which at the 
suggestion of Gov. Belcher was named Nassau 
Hall, "to the immortal memory of the glorious 
King William III., of the illustrious house of 
Nassau." From this circumstance the college 
itself is often called Nassau Hall. It obtained a 
charter in 1746, and a more liberal one in 1748. 
The college buildings, including a library, gym- 
nasium, observatory, society halls, and the presi- 
dent's house, besides various college halls, are 
mostly of stone, and occupy a well-shaded cam- 
pus on the main street of the town. The con- 
tributions to the college within the last eight 
years amount to $1,500,000. The college and 
society libraries contain about 55,000 volumes. 
The institution comprises an academic depart- 
ment and the John C. Green School of Science 
(opened in 1873), and has a preparatory school 
connected with it. In the academic depart- 
ment, all the studies of the freshman and the 
sophomore year are required ; in the junior and 
the senior year, a considerable range of elective 
studies is provided. The School of Science has 
two regular courses, one of two years, for grad- 
uates of colleges, on the completion of which the 
degree of Master of Science is conferred, and the 
other of four years, for others, on the comple- 
tion of which the degree of Bachelor of Science 
is conferred. The cost of tuition in the academic 
department is $75 per annum ; in the School of 
Science, $120. There are several prizes and 
scholarships obtainable by deserving students. 
Six fellowships have been established, four of 
which yield $600 each, the other two yielding 
$250 each. These are open for competition to 
members of the graduating class who intend to 
pursue a post-graduate course of one year. In 
1876, there were 18 professors, 6 other instruct- 
ors, and 483 students (438 in the academic de- 
partment, and 45 in the School of Science). 
The whole number of graduates is about 4,850, 
of whom nearly 2,750 survive. The presidents 
of the college have been as follows : Rev. Jon- 
athan Dickinson, May to Oct., 1747 ; Rev. Aaron 
Burr, 1748—57 ; Rev. Jonathan Edwards, Jan. 
to March, 1758 ; Rev. Samuel Davies,1759— 61; 
Rev. Samuel Finley, 1761— 6; Rev. Dr. John 
Witherspoon, 1768—94 ; Rev. Dr. Samuel Stan- 
hope Smith, 1795—1812; Rev. Dr. Ashbel 
Green, 1812—22 ; Rev. Dr. James Carnahan, 
1823—54 ; Rev. Dr. John Maclean, 1854—68 ; 
Rev. Dr. James McCosh, from 1868. 

NEW JERUSALEM, Societies of the, 
the name assumed by the ecclesiastical organiza- 



tions of the followers of Swedenborg, the Swedish 
theosophist, who died in 1772. Swedenborg him- 
self did not make any provisions for organizing 
his followers into an independent religious body, 
and the first Society of the New Jerusalem was 
not formed until 1788, when Robert Hindmarsh 
and others established public worship in London. 
At present, there is a general conference of the 
New Church in England, with about 4,000 mem- 
bers, and another in the United States, which, in 
1875, had about 5,000 members. There are, be- 
sides, a number of independent societies in the 
United States and on the continent of Europe, 
with an aggregate of about 1,000 members. The 
general conference in the United States founded, 
in 1866, a theological school at Waltham, Mas- 
sachusetts ; but no term was held in the year 
1875 — 6, as no students applied for admission. 
A college under the control of the Church was 
chartered, in 1850, and organized, in 1851, at 
Urbana, Ohio ; and, in 1874, it had 14 students. 
There is also a school under the control of the 
general conference of England. Sunday-schools 
are connected with nearly all the societies, both 
in the United States and in England. 

NEW MEXICO, one of the territories of 
the United States, first made known to Euro- 
peans, about 1 537,by the visit of a Spanish expedi- 
diton -under Alvar Nunez. It was ceded to the 
United States in 1848, at the close of the Mexican 
war, and was organized as a territory in 1850. 
Its area is 121,201 sq. in.; its population, in 1870, 
was 91,874, of whom 90,393 were whites ; 172 
colored persons; and 1,309, non-tribal Indians. 

Educational History. — Provision was first 
made for giving elementary instruction to the 
youth of the province of Jvew Mexico in 1822. 
Owing to the sparsely settled condition of the 
country, and to the fact that the peons, or serfs, 
not included within the privileges of the act, 
constituted a majority of the inhabitants in the 
country districts, the operation of the law was 
confined to the cities and towns. The salaries 
of the teachers were small, those in the capital 
being paid by appropriations from the public 
treasury ; while those in the country were paid, 
by the district officers, from money taken either 
from the general treasury, or derived from local 
taxation. Under this system, no permanent in- 
stitution of learning was founded. In 1852, how- 
ever, the Academy of Our Lady of Light was. 
established at Santa Pebythe Sisters of Loretto; 
and, from an experimental beginning, with 7 
boarders and a few other scholars, it has now 
become firmly established as a permanent insti- 
tution, with an influence which has not only led 
to the establishment of branch schools under its. 
own direction, but to the foundation of other 
independent schools in various parts of the ter- 
ritory. In 1855, and again in 1861, attempts 
were made by the legislature to organize a system 
of public schools by general taxation; but the 
public sentiment of the people was opposed to 
the measure, and the laws were repealed. No 
other school law was enacted till 1871 — 2. In 
that year, the assembly passed an act, which was. 



NEW MEXICO 



NEW ORLEANS 



633 



ratified by the people at the polls, and, which, 
with slight modifications, iu 1873 — 4, is the pres- 
ent public-school law of the territory. In accord- 
ance with recommendations made by the gov- 
ernor, in 1875, a bill was introduced in the coun- 
cil, proposing a non-sectarian system of public- 
school education, but it was defeated in the 
house by a vote of 14 to 10. 

School System. — The school law provides that 
the educational interests of the state shall be in- 
trusted to local boards of supervisors and direct- 
ors of the public schools, to be elected for two 
years, in each county, respectively. These boards 
consist of three members each, with the probate 
judge of the county, who is president, ex officio. 
They have the entire control of the schools and 
of the school funds, each member receiving for 
his services $3 a day. The want of uniform- 
ity, thus engendered, in the administration of 
the schools, has been a serious cause of com- 
plaint. The area, however, over which each board 
exercises supervision being limited, the existence 
of any other officers is rendered unnecessary. The 
territorial superintendent, an officer created in 
1873 — 1, receives the annual reports from the 
local boards, and transmits them to the governor. 
1 le is. also, territorial librarian, ex officio. The 
school fund consists of 25 per cent of the tax on 
property, SI poll tax forevery male citizen above 
the age of 21 years, and any surplus, of more 
than $500, in the treasury of any county, after 
paying the current expenses of such county. 

The public schools are almost entirely con- 
fined to the teaching of elementary branches. 
< (wing to the early settlement of the country by 
the Spaniards and the Mexicans, and its almost 
exclusive possession, till very recently, by them 
or their descendants, Spanish is the language 
spoken by the great majority of the people. The 
control of the schools, also, being entirely local, 
that language has been introduced into them, in 
some cases exclusively, and in others jointly with 
the English language. The Catholic religion, 
also, is, for the same reason, generally taught in 
them. The legal school age is between 7 and 
18 years. The secretary of the territory is the 
acting superintendent of public instruction. W. 
O. Ritch has been the secretary since 1873. 

Educational Condition. — The number of pub- 
lic schools in the territory, reported in 1875, 
was 138, of which 97 were for boys; 8. for girls; 
and 33, mixed. Some, however, were not re- 
ported. English and Spanish were taught in 38 
schools; Spanish alone, in 86; and English alone, 
in 7. The revenue for the support of the schools, 
derived from the sources above mentioned, 
amounted, in 1875, to $25,473.46. The principal 
items of school statistics are the following: 

Number of pupils in attendance 5,151 

". kt teachers, males 132 

" " " females 15 

Total 147 

Average number of months schools were kept. . 6.6 
Expenditures for teachers' wages. . $15,432 
" " rent and books. . l.son 
" " other purposes. . 1.657 

Total 418,889 



Average teachers' wages per month S16.58 

Number of public schools supported out of 
the school fund, but controlled by re- 
ligious societies lo 

Private mid Parochial Schools. — Under this 
head must be classed all the convent and ruis- 
| sion schools and academies, and many private 
schools. Of these, 12 are Roman Catholic, 6 for 
> boys and 6 for girls; 8 Protestant, for both sexes; 
I exclusive of 13 non-sectarian schools, including 
' 7 Pueblo Indian schools, iu which there were 
' enrolled, at the close of 1875, 242 pupils; and of 
this number, 180 were in daily attendance during 
: the winter months, and about one-half that num- 
i ber during the summer months. The number of 
scholars able to read and write was 47, and 15 
could work in the first four rules of arithmetic ; 
while spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
geography were all successfully taught in En- 
i glish. But few of the children, however, under- 
stand English to any extent. Of the Protestant 
schools, 4 are Methodist Episcopal M ission schools. 
Only 3, in all this number, teach the higher 
branches. The average attendance of pupils, in all 
these schools, in 1875. was 1,259; the number of 
male teachers, 41; female teachers. 40. The average 
number of months the schools were kept was 9.4. 
Many of these schools receive a yearly donation 
from the public-school fund. 

No special provision has been made for supe- 
rior instruction. Of the schools above referred 
to, 3 give instruction in the higher branches, in- 
cluding Latin. The want of a uniform public- 
school system in the territory has long been felt, 
and has been a subject of consideration by its 
governors and many of its leading men. The 
present school law, though faulty in many re- 
spects, is regarded as evidence of a decided step 
in advance of the position taken as late even 
as 1861, when a public-school law was voted 
down almost unanimously. "While the parochial 
schools," says secretary Rich, "are. without doubt, 
the best schools we have had in New Mexico, 
there is rather more than a suspicion that the 
advocates and supporters of some of them have 
a special interest in paralyzing the efficiency of 
the public schools, and in keeping them in bad 
repute, as a means of maintaining their own 
superiority"; and again, "make the public-school 
system of New Mexico all it is practicable to be 
made at this time, and the result will be pre- 
paratory schools, not only for the state, but for 
higher education. The present denominational 
schools would then, under the free push of these 
preparatory schools, be forced, like the sects they 
represent, to stand on their own merits, to en- 
large and liberalize their curriculum of study, 
and brush up their diction and scholarship." 

NEW ORLEANS, the capital and metrop- 
olis of the state of Louisiana, nearly co-exten- 
sive with the parish of Orleans, It was first 
permanently settled in 1723, under the French, 
who held possession of it till 1769. when it 
passed under Spanish ride, and so continued till 
1801, when the French regained possession of it, 
but ceded it, as a part of Louisiana, to the United 
States, in 1803. 



634 



NEW ORLEANS 



Educational History. — As might be expected 
from the manner in which the city was founded, 
the first instruction given was in connection 
with the religious establishments of the Roman 
Catholics. The earliest school appears to have 
been that of the Ursuline nuns, which was 
founded by the French government in 1733, and 
carried on in the same place till 1824, when it 
was removed to its present location, about two 
miles from the center of the city. It was a semi- 
nary for young ladies, and, in 1845, had 120 
pupils. The city, during all the early years of 
its existence, had no public-school system, the 
instruction of children and youth being given 
in private or denominational schools, or in chari- 
table institutions. Of schools of the first class, 
many existed, but no record of them remains. 
In 1836, the Female Orphan Asylum was 
opened with 6 children. In 1840, more extensive 
buildings were completed for it, in which it gave 
instruction to about 100 children. Since then, 
an average of 145 have been annually instructed 
there, and, at a suitable age, apprenticed. In 
1845, the Carmelite Convent, which was oc- 
cupied by nuns of that order, supported two 
schools, one white, the other free colored. At 
the same time, the Poydras Female Orphan 
Asylum gave instruction to 120 children an- 
nually. Other institutions of the kind, which 
have taken a greater or less part in the work of 
education, are the Male, the Catholic Male, and 
the Milne Orphan Asylums — the last endowed 
by Alexander Milne, in 1839. Two reading- 
rooms, also, have been in existence for many 
years. — The first decided change in the common- 
school system was in 1841, the city being divid- 
ed into 3 municipalities and containing, at that 
time, about 103,000 inhabitants. On the 14th of 
February, 1841, the legislature passed an act 
authorizing each municipality to establish 
schools, each parish being controlled by a board 
of 5 administrators, who reported annually to 
the secretary of state. The 2d municipality 
selected 12 citizens as a board of directors of 
public education, granting them almost unlimited 
powers. They employed as superintendent, J. 
A. Shaw, who was thoroughly acquainted with 
the New England system of public schools, ac- 
cording to which it was proposed to re-organize 
the schools of New Orleans. Under his super- 
vision, the schools began with 13 pupils, and, in 
2 years, numbered 1,061 in actual attendance, 
with an enrollment of double that number. These 
efforts for the improvement of the schools en- 
countered strong opposition, at first, but were 
Attended with such unqualified success as ulti- 
mately to secure general approbation. The in- 
fluence of this improvement, also, soon extended 
beyond the limits of the municipality in which 
the movement had its origin. In the 3d munici- 
pality, the old method was pursued for a long 
time, instruction being given in English, French, 
and Spanish; but here, as well as in the 1st 
municipality, the improvement in school organ- 
ization and methods gradually made progress, 
and, in 1844, the system throughout the city had 



become uniform. By the state constitution, 
then recently adopted, the establishment, in New 
Orleans, of a college to be called the University 
of Louisiana was directed. It was to consist of 
four faculties; and one of them, that of medicine, 
was immediately opened. The Public School 
Lyceum and Society Library was organized in 
1844. The object was to provide a library for 
the youth of the 2d municipality by the voluntary 
subscriptions of the public school children and 
others. The officers were those of the public 
schools, with the addition of the mayor, recorder, 
and aldermen as members, ex officio. The People's 
Lyceum and the Young Mens Literary Associa- 
tion were similar institutions. 

School System. — The public schools of the 
city are governed by a board of school directors 
consisting of twenty members, one from each 
representative district, one additional from each 
municipal district ; the administrator of finance 
of the the city, ex officio; and the superintend- 
ent of the sixth division, ex officio, who has the 
right to speak, but not to vote, in the board. The 
district members are appointed by the state 
board of education, each for a term of three 
years, one-third of the number retiring annually. 
The superintendent of the sixth division is the 
city superintendent. The board of school directors 
appoints a committee on teachers, who, with the 
city superintendent, examine applicants for em- 
ployment as teachers. Thus the public-school 
system of the city is under state control, though 
supported by a city tax. The salaries of teach- 
ers vary from #2,400 a year for the principal 
and $1,500 for associate teachers, in the boys' 
high school, to an average of $814 for teachers 
of a lower grade. — The number of public schools 
is 76, including a central high school for boys, 2 
high schools for girls, and 73 schools of an in- 
ferior grade. The course of instruction in the 
central high school for boys embraces English 
studies, mathematics, natural sciences, the clas- 
sics, French, and book-keeping ; that of the 
girls' high schools is similar, with the exception 
of book-keeping and classics. The principal items 
of school statistics for 1875 are as follows : 

Number of children of school age 70,093 

Number of pupils enrolled in the schools 26,251 

Average daily attendance 18,719 

Number of teachers, males 33 

" " " females .417 

Whole number of teachers 450 

Total receipts for school purposes $373,847.99 

" expenditures " " $460,128.83 

Average salary of teachers per month. . . . $67.82 

Total value of the school property $775,000.00 

The private schools exceed in number the public 
schools ; and, in 1875, were attended by 14,235 
pupils, giving employment to 471 teachers. 
Most of these schools are attached to religious 
bodies, and the great majority are for females. 
The schools for colored children, both public 
and private, are separate ; though a few colored 
pupils attend the schools for white children. 
There is great opposition to mixed schools. (For 
an account of the higher educational institutions 
of New Orleans, see Louisiana.) 



NEWSPAPERS 



635 



NEWSPAPERS. The objection is fre- 
quently made to the character of the instruction 
ordinarily imparted at school, that it has little 
relation to the concerns of daily life. This want 
of relation sprung originally from the fact that 
the literary class, in earlier times, was a class, 
apart, having oidy slight connection with the 
mass of people who, possessing few political rights, 
were unworthy of consideration. The instruc- 
tion given, therefore, was purposely of a kind to 
emphasize theexclusivenessof the educated class. 
Under the changed political conditions of our 
day, however, the tendency has steadily been to 
equalize the two classes in intelligence — to lift 
up the masses to the level of the educated, on the 
one hand, and, on the other, to bring the studies 
of the school and college more into accordance 
with the daily life of the majority. Traces of 
the original exelusiveness still remain, however, 
in the antiquated and unpractical character of the 
instruction, as mentioned above. Almost every 
youth, on entering upon the business of life, be- 
comes conscious of this with chagrin. The arith- 
metic that he studied, for instance, seems to have 
little application to the concerns of daily life; the 
book-keeping which he mastered with so much 
difficulty, seems now, at tins later date, to have 
been rilled with theoretical cases which have no 
parallels iu actual experience ; even the geog- 
raphy, in which he attained such proficiency, 
has little place in his daily routine ; while algebra, 
geometry, and many other studies, have none at 
all. The result is a feeling of inferiority when 
he is brought into contact with others of his age 
whose training has been entirely that of practical 
life, which leads him to suspect that his time 
has been wasted. Not till long afterwards, 
perhaps, does he recognize the fact that the prin- 
ciples on which both theoretical and practical 
knowledge are based, are the same, and that the 
ability to apply these principles was his chief 
want. The feeling of disappointment referred 
to might have been entirely removed, if, in his 
instruction, the teacher had kept constantly 
in mind, not the mental discipline alone, but 
the mental discipline and the adaptability to the 
affairs of life of the knowledge used in acquir- 
ing that discipline. One of the most useful in- 
struments for accomplishing this double purpose 
is the newspaper. The arithmetic which is now 
taught by the use of unusual and improbable ; 
examples, could be made a living and interest- 
ing thing, by the use of problems to be found 
in its pages, which introduce the actual prices of 
articles in daily use. Interest, discount, exchange, 
the price of bonds and stocks, could be made so 
familiar to the pupil in this way, that the change : 
from school to counting house, which is now at- 
tended with such a want of ease and so much 
disappointment, would seem but the continua- 
tion of study in another class. — Reading, also, if 
taught from the newspaper, would familiarize 
the pupil with the terms used in the daily con- 
versation of professional and business men; and, 
through the reports of proceedings iu every field | 
of human activity, fresh interest could be aroused 



in studies already taken up, while attention could 
profitably be called to those which are ordinarily 
pursued in more advanced courses; and a partial 

preparation for them could thus unconsciously be 
made. Thus the study of geography would ivc, i\ i- 
increased attention, if it could be connected with 
the reports of the interesting events from all parts 
of the world which are daily chronicled, by in- 
quiring into the position on the map. population, 
form of government, etc, of the different coun- 
tries referred to. Ry following, in this way. the 
| records of campaigns and battles, a knowledge 
of the topography of the country could be 
obtained almost without effort, which would be 
easily retained in the memory of the most ap- 
athetic scholar ; while opportunity could, at the 
same time, be taken for digressions into its history. 
Through its reports of strikes, labor troubles, 
and co-operative associations, the newspaper 
could also be made the medium for inculcating, 
in a familiar and practical way, the rudiments of 
political economy, usually so dry and uninterest- 
ing ; while the accounts of great engineering 
feats, astronomical discoveries, exploring expedi- 
; tions, and voyages of discovery, would be more 
eagerly listened to, if the pupil were made to un- 
derstand that the algebra, geometry, or geography 
wdiich he daily studies has an intimate and funda- 
mental relation to them all. The thought, also, 
that he might one day take part in similar work, 
woidd act as a spur to renewed exertion. Any 
means within the teacher's reach of divesting 
the studies pursued of their dry. text-book char- 
acter should lie taken advantage of; and this can- 
i not be done in any way so easily as by investing 
them with a human interest, bj' showing that 
men and women similar to those with whom he 
daily associates are the actois in all these stir- 
ring events. For this purpose, hardly any medium 
is superior to that of the daily paper. The ob- 
jections formerly made to its use, that some of the 
facts were unfit for youthful minds to know, and 
that the hasty manner in which they were re- 
ported rendered their accounts not only worth- 
less as models but injurious, are no longer valid. 
To the first, it may be said that newspapers are 
now so universally read that pupils can hardly 
fail to see them or hear their contents discussed; 
and to the second, that active competition hav- 
ing brought into the employ of the newspaper 
so large a share of the best talent, specimens of 
composition may now be found in any influen- 
tial paper, not only unexceptionable in matter, 
but worthy of imitation for lucid statement and 
grace of expression. The ability, independence, 
and rapidly-increasing circulation of the daily 
press are fast constituting it a powerful educati >r; 
ami, in countries where the necessities of daily 
life leave little time for that higher education 
which demands leisure and a competency for its 
accomplishment, a double purpose would be 
served by using it as a means of instruction, as 
not only giving to the minds of the pupils 
practical culture, but also habituating them to 
the constant use of the newspaper as, perhaps, 
their chief source of intelligence. 



636 



NEW YORK 



NEW YORK, one of the thirteen original 
states of the American Union, having an area of 
47,000 sq. m., and a population, according to the 
census of 1870, of 4,330,210, of whom 52,081 
were colored persons ; 439, Indians ; and 29, 
Chinese. Of the total population, the number, 
10 years old and upward, reported as unable to 
read, was 163,501 ; unable to write, 239,271. Of 
the latter, 1C8,569 were foreign born. According 
to the state census of 1875, the population was 
4,705,208. 

Educational History. — This topic will be 
treated under the following heads: (I) The 
establishing of schools ; (II) The mode of main- 
taining them ; (III) The mode of supervising 
them ; (IV) Special provisions of legislation. 

I. The Dutch, by whom the first settlements 
were made in the state, brought with them the 
ideas and institutions of the father-land, among 
which those of the church and the school were 
not the least prominent. As early as 1629, the 
West India Company, in its charter, enacted 
that the patroons and colonists should, " in the 
speediest manner, endeavor to find out ways and 
means " whereby they might supply a minister 
and a school-master. This is the first official act 
relating to public education in the state. The 
first regular school-master in New Amsterdam 
was Adam Roelantsen, who commenced his 
school in 1633, and continued it till 1639, when 
he was succeeded by Jan Cornelissen, and he by 
William Vestius, during whose administration 
of this school, a second was established, in 1652. 
(See New Yokk City.) The Company and the 
church united in paying for the services of 
these early masters. The first school in Brook- 
lyn was established in 1661. (See Brooklyn.) 
The first school at Flatbush was established in 
1659, under Adrian Hegeman ; and one was 
opened in Newtown, in 1661, under Richard 
Mills. The first school-master in Albany was 
An dries Jansz, in 1650. In 1659, a Latin school 
was established in New Amsterdam, and Alex- 
ander Carolus Curtius was sent out by the Com- 
pany to serve as rector, with permission also to 
practice his profession as physician. His services, 
particularly in regard to discipline, were not 
satisfactory, and he was superseded, the Rev. 
^Egidius Luyck being appointed in his place, 
under whom the school flourished, children be- 
ing sent thither from Virginia, Fort Orange, and 
the Delaware, to receive a classical education. — 
Up to the time of the English occupation, the 
fundamental idea was that of the free school. 
The proper authorities provided a certain salary, 
and the school-master was bound by his contract, 
to the limit of a specified number, to instruct 
his pupils free of tuition ; and so faithful and 
earnest were the authorities and clergy, that, at 
the time of the final surrender to the English 
(1674), schools existed in almost every town and 
village within the limits of the colony. The 
branches generally taught were reading, writing, 
arithmetic, and the catechism of the Dutch 
Church. — Private schools also existed during 
the entire period, at least from a time anterior 



to 1644; but no one was allowed to teach a- 
school without permission from the director-gen- 
eral and council, who acted in conjunction with 
the church authorities. This custom was after- 
ward followed by the English, who substituted 
.the archbishop, bishop, or ordinary, in place of 
the minister and consistory. The English, on 
their accession, paid no great attention to edu- 
cation, for obvious reasons. The settlements 
were all Dutch. The prevailing religion was that 
of the Church of Holland. The charter of the- 
Reformed Dutch Church of America gave to the 
minister, and the elders and deacons the right to' 
" nominate and appoint a school-master." This 
charter was carefully protected in the articles of 
surrender. An English school-master could not 
be placed in the Dutch school without the con- 
sent of the consistory. The English knew of no< 
public schools except those in connection with 
the church. They did, however, all that, under 
the circumstances, was practicable. The very next 
year after Stuyvesant's capitulation (1665), Gov, 
Nicolls licensed John Shute to open an English 
school in Albany ; and frequent licenses for 
private schools, at various places, were granted 
by the succeeding governors. In 1687, a Latin 
school was opened in the city of New York, 
under the sanction of the English government ; 
and, in 1702, an act was passed for the "en- 
couragement of a grammar free school in the 
city of New York," and for the raising annually 
of £50 for its support for seven years. This 
school does not seem to have been established 
previous to April, 1704, when Mr. George Muir- 
sou was duly licensed by Gov. Cornbury as its 
master. Cornbury is also credited, at this time, 
with the establishment of two other English 
schools in the city. Of all the English governors, 
he was the most zealous and aggressive in behalf 
of the English Church and schools. What 
Andros and Fletcher would fain have accom- 
plished legally, or by persuasion, he boldly at- 
tempted by an exercise of authority. He pro- 
hibited the ministers of other denominations, 
and school-masters, from officiating without his 
special license. The Dutch schools on Long 
Island, too weak or too timid to contest the 
matter, were broken up by him ; but the Dutch 
church in New York stood up for its chartered 
rights, and called and settled its own school- 
masters. The act of 1702 expired by its own 
limitation in 1709, and was not renewed ; nor 
does it appear that legal provision for schools 
of any kind was made for several years. Corn- 
bury was gone, and he transmitted to none of 
his immediate successors any of his misguided 
zeal. In 1704, the Society for the Propagation 
of the Gospel established a school at Rye, and 
employed as its master, Joseph Cleator. In 1710, 
the society established Trinity School in New 
York, and employed William Huddlestone to 
teach it, who served until 1724, at a salary, first 
of £10, and afterwards of £15; for which he 
was required to teach 40 pupils free. Tins school 
still continues, and had 72 boys on its founda- 
tion in 1875. It appears from a table in Pratt's 



NEW YORK 



637 



Annals of Puqlic Education (1872), that at the 
close of the colonial period, the society had estab- 
lished, and supported, in whole or in part. 21 
schools in 7 counties. The standard studies in 
all these schools were similar to those in the 
Dutch schools, — reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
the catechism of the English Church. In 1732, an 
act was passed, " to encourage a public school in 
the city of New York for teaching Latin, Greek, 
and mathematics." This school was free for 20 
.pupils, of whom New York City and County 
were entitled to ten, Albany County to two, and 
the counties of Dutchess, Kings, Orange, Queens, 
Richmond, Suffolk, Ulster, and Westchester each 
to one. The act expired, by a provision con- 
tained in it, Dec. 1., 1737 ; but was extended, 
by the assembly and council of that year, to 
Dec. 1., 1838. Hon. B. F. Butler of New York, 
in an address before the -Ubauy Institute, in 1830, 
states that the act "was not afterwards renewed; 
but the school was again continued, and is said 
to have proved the genu of Columbia College." 
This is very probable, since the establishment of 
a college began to be agitated soon after ; and 
an act was passed, in 1746, for raising by lottery 
£2,250 " for the encouragement of learning and 
toward the founding of a college." By similar 
acts, this had increased, in 1751, to £3,443, and 
trustees were appointed to guard and promote 
the interests of the embryo institution. The trus- 
tees, in 1753, invited the Rev. Samuel Johnson 
to become the president of the proposed college, 
at a salary of £2.30, with the assurance that 
Trinity Church would make a proper addition 
thereto. The royal charter establishing King's 
College, bears date Oct. 31., 1754. Its functions 
were suspended during the War of Independ- 
ence, and its building was used for a hospital. 
Robert R. Livingston, Gouverneur Morris, and 
John Jay, were among its early graduates ; and 
Alexander Hamilton was one of its students 
whose studies were interrupted by the opening 
scenes of the Revolution. From the founding 
of the college to the close of the colonial period, 
little was done in behalf of public education. 
Immediately after the Revolution, the number 
of the governors of King's College, being so 
lessened by death and absence as to require the 
interposition of the legislature, an act was passed 
in 1784, investing a new corporation, under the 
title of the Regents of the University of the 
State of New York, with all the rights, fran- 
chises, privileges, etc., vested in the governors of 
the college by its charter, and changing its name 
to Columbia College. This act required that all 
the estate real and personal, held by King's Col- 
lege by virtue of its charter, should be applied 
solely to the use of Columbia College, and em- 
powered the regents to hold additional estate, 
for the use of said college, to the amount of an 
annual income of £3,500 ; and, " for the further 
promotion of learning," to hold estates real and 
personal to the annual amount of 40.000 bushels 
of wheat ; " to found schools and colleges in any 
part of the state," which colleges properly 
founded should " be considered as composing a 



part of the said university." The act of 1784 
proving unsatisfactory, another act was passed 
in 1 787, declaring " 1 hat an university be and is 
hereby instituted within this state, to be called 
and known by the name and style of "The Regents 
of the University of the State of New York." 
This act reduced the number of regents, re- 
manded Columbia college and all its estates to a 
board of trustees, continued the power to hold 
property to the amount of the annual income of 
40,000 bushels of wheat, granted authority to in- 
corporate colleges, continued the power to confer 
degrees, repeated the provision making such col- 
leges a part of the university, made provision for 
the incorporation of academies, and placed both 
academies and colleges under the general super- 
vision of the regents. In this year, and subse- 
quent to the passage of the act, the first two 
academies were incorporated. - ( 'linton Academy, 
at East Hampton, and Erasmus Hall, at Flat- 
bush. The latter is still in existence. — In 1789, 
the legislature set apart certain portions of the 
public lands for gospel and school purposes; and, 
in 1793, the regents, in their report, recom- 
mended the establishment of a general system of 
common schools. In 1795, Governor Clinton, in 
his message to the legislature, urged the establish- 
ment of common schools throughout the state. 
On the 9th of April, the same year, a law was 
passed ''for the purpose of encouraging and 
maintaining schools in the several cities and 
towns in the state, in which the children of the 
inhabitants of the state shall be instructed 
in the English language, or be taught 
English grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, and 
such other branches of knowledge as are most 
useful and necessary to complete a good English 
education;" and the sum of $50,000 a year, for 
five years, was appropriated for their support. 
In 1798, the returns showed that 1.352 schools 
were in operation, with 59,660 pupils. In 1805, 
the Free School Society, afterwards the Public 
School Society, in the city of New York, was 
founded, its first school being opened in 1806. 
(See New York City.) The first act contem- 
plating a permanent system of common schools 
was passed in 1812. The following table exhibits, 
by decades, the progress made, under this and 
subsequent laws, in the establishing of schools. 







Number of 


No. of chil- 


No. of 


Ye.ir 


Population 


school- 


dren of 


children 






districts 


school age 


taught 


1815... 


1.035,910 


2,631 


170.449 


140.106 


1825... 


1,61-1.458 


7.642 


395,586 


402,940 


1835... 


2.174,517 


10.207 


538.398 


541,401 


1845... 


2.604,495 


11,018 


703.399 


742.433 


1855... 


3,466,212 


11.798 


1.214,113 


945.087 


1865... 


3,831,777 


11.780 


1,398.757 


916.617 


1875... 


4,705,208 


11,291 


1,583,064 


1.069,238 



It will be observed that, for several years, more 
children were reported in school than were 
enumerated. This is due to the fact that, until 
1851, the legal school age was between 4 and 16 
years, after which it was from 4 to 21 until 
1864, when it was declared to be from 5 to 21. 

II. The acts of 1789 and 1795, as before 
stated, made provision for the support of schools. 



638 



NEW YORK 



The former set apart two lots in each township 
of the public land thereafter to be surveyed, for 
gospel and school purposes. According to the 
comptroller's report, it appears that, in pursuance 
of the law, $100,000 was appropriated in 1799 
and 1800; but this was never distributed. The 
act expired in 1800, and an attempt to revive it 
failed. But though these appropriations were 
not paid, some effort was made to provide means 
for the support of the schools. Lotteries were 
authorized, in 1799 and 1801, to raise money 
"for the joint benefit of academies and common 
schools, but chiefly the latter". An act, passed 
April 8., 1801, "to divert certain moneys to be 
applied to the use of free schools in the city of 
New York", directs the school moneys appor- 
tioned to New York, to be paid to the trustees of 
the several churches in that city, eleven being 
enumerated, and each receiving one-eleventh part. 
The law of 1812 appropriated $50,000 annually, 
to bs distributed among the counties of the state; 
and authorized the towns to raise by tax a 
sum equal to their distributive share. The 
law passed in 1814 made it the duty of the 
boards of supervisors to levy on each town a 
sum equal to its distributive share of the money 
from the state, and made the forfeiture of the 
school money for the county, the penalty for 
a neglect or refusal to make such levy. No 
provision was made by the original act of 1812, 
for raising any money by district taxation, or by 
rate-bill to supply deficiencies, because it was 
believed that the income of the school fund and 
the tax for the same amount would maintain a 
school in each district for three months in the 
year. But the amended act of 1814 required 
the trustees to cause a school to be kept three 
months each year, to apply the school moneys 
to the payment of teachers' wages, and, if there 
should be a deficiency, to collect it from the 
patrons of the schools in proportion to the at- 
tendance of their children. As the general school 
law of 1812 did not apply to New York City, a 
supplementary act was passed March 12., 1813, 
permitting the city to share in the revenue of 
the school fund. The city was required to raise 
a sum equal to its share of such school money, 
which was "to be apportioned and paid to the 
trustees of the Free School Society of New York, 
the trustees or treasurer of the Orphan Asylum 
Society, the Society of the Economical School, 
the African Free School, and of such incorpo- 
rated religious societies in said city as now sup- 
port, or shall hereafter establish, charity schools 
within the said city." The distribution was to be 
in proportion to the average number of children 
taught, between the ages of 4 and 15 years. Nine 
months' schooling during the previous year was 
required ; and the children were to be taught 
free of expense. — In 1805, the common-school 
fund was established by an act providing that 
the net proceeds of 500,000 acres of the vacant 
and unappropriated lands of the state which 
should be first thereafter sold by the surveyor- 
general should be appropriated as a permanent 
fund for the support of common schools. This 



amounted, at the end of that year, to $26,774.. 
The law provided that none of the income should 
be distributed until it should amount to $50,000 
annually ; and, accordingly, no distribution was. 
made until 1815. In 1849, the legislature passed 
an act establishing free schools. The main feature 
of the act was the abolition of the rate-bill, and 
the substitution therefor of district taxation. On 
a submission of this act to popular vote, it was 
approved by a large majority. The next year, 
however, it was repealed, but the repeal was not. 
sustained by the vote of the people. The contro- 
versy was temporarily settled in 1851, by an act 
repealing the law, and levying a state tax of 
$800,000, to be distributed in lieu of the county 
tax required by the law of 1814; it also restored 
the rate-bill and extended the school year to six 
months. In 1856, a tax of three-fourths of a. 
mill on each dollar of the valuation of property 
in the state was substituted for the $800,000 
state tax. In 1867, the rate-bill was finally 
abolished, and the state tax for the support of 
common schools was fixed at one and one-quarter 
mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of 
property in the state. The act authorizing the 
formation of union free-school districts was. 
passed in 1853. In 1864, the school year was ex- 
tended so as to include 28 weeks, as at present. 
In 1838, the income of the U. S. deposit fund 
was by law appropriated as follows : $110,000, 
for the payment of teachers' salaries ; $55,000, 
for the support of district libraries ; $28,000, 
to the literature fund, to be expended for the edu- 
cation of common-school teachers ; and $15,000, 
to colleges. The balance, which it was estimated 
would annually amount to about $50,000, was 
to be applied to the increase of the common- 
school fund. The constitutional convention of 
1846 ordained that $25,000 should annually be 
set apart from the revenues of the U. S. deposit 
fund, and become a part of the capital of the 
school fund. From 1840 to 1846, the amount of 
the fund derived from this source had increased 
from $1,932,422 to $2,090,632 ; but, from 1846 
to 1866, it increased to $2,799,630. In 1834, the 
regents of the university were required by law 
to apply the surplus income of the literature 
fund, beyond the sum of $12,000, to the education 
of common-school teachers, by the distribution 
of it to such academies as should undertake their 
instruction. In 1866, a law was passed author- 
izing the taking of land for school-house sites by 
right of eminent domain. — The following table 
exhibits by decades the financial progress of the 
common-school system. 



Year 


Valuation of 
real and 
personal 

estate 


Capital of 
common- 
school fund 


School- 
fund in- 
come dis- 
tributed 


Money 
raised by 
state and 

county 
taxation 


1805... 




$26,774 
934.015 
1,319,886 
1,875,192 
2,090,632 
2,457,521 
2,765,761 
3,080,108 








$292,388,827 

299.197,721 

627,531,634 

6U5,G46,095 

1,402,849.304 

1,550,879,685 

2,367,780,102 


$60,666 
80,000 
100,000 
110.000 
155,000 
155,000 
170,000 




1825 

1835 . 

1845 

1855 

1865 

1875 


$80,000 
100,000 
193,603 
800,000 
1,148,422 
2,884,634 



NEW YORK 



639 



III. According to the law of 1 705, each town 
was to elect three or more commissioners to have 
general charge of the schools, to license teachers, 
ami to apportion the public moneys to the 
districts, in proportion to the number of days of 
instruction given in each. The people in each 
district were to elect trustees, to employ teachers, 
and to provide for the schools. The act of 1S12 
also required each town to elect three commis- 
sioners of common schools, whose first duty was 
.to form the town into school-districts, They re- 
ceived, and distributed to the districts, the public 
moneys ; and the trustees were required to re- 
port to them. Bach town was also required to 
elect from one to six inspectors, who, with the 
commissioners, had the supervision of the schools, 
and the examination of teachers. This law also 
created the office of state superintendent of com- 
mon schools ; and the first annual report was 
made in 1813. In 1821, the legislature abolished 
the office, and made the secretary of state, ex 
officio, superintendent of common schools. In 
1 822, an important amendment to the school 
law gave the right of appeal to the superintend- 
ent on all questions arising under any of its 
provisions. In 1841, an act was passed creating 
the office of deputy superintendent, and also 
that of county superintendent, to whom all ap- 
peals were first to be made, his decisions being 
subject to review by the state superintendent. 
In 1843, the offices of town commissioner of 
schools and inspector of schools were abolished, 
and that of town superintendent created in their 
stead. The office of county superintendent was 
abolished in 1847, and appeals were required to 
be brought directly to the state superintendent; 
and the returns of the town superintendents were 
to be made to the county clerks. In 1854, the 
legislature created a department of public in- 
struction, and placed at its head a superintend- 
ent of public instruction, to be elected by joint 
ballot of the senate and assembly. In 1856, the 
office of school commissioner was created, that 
of town superintendent being abolished ; and the 
supervisors of the towns were made the financial 
agents, to hold and pay out the moneys appor- 
tioned by the school commissioners to the towns 
and districts. The school-commissioner districts 
were originally, and are now nearly, the same 
as the assembly districts ; but they are not, like 
the latter, required to be reconstructed after 
each census. 

State: Superintendents. — The following is a list 
of those who have served as superintendents of 
common schools : Gideon Hawley, from Jan. 14., 
1813 until Feb. 22., 1821; William Ksleeck, 
until April 3., 1821, when the office was abol- 
ished, its duties being performed by the follow- 
ing persons, holding the office of secretary of 
state: John Van Ness Yates, from April, 1821 
until Feb., 1826; Azariah < '. Flagg, until Feb., 
1833; John A. Dix. until Feb., 1839; John C. 
Spencer, until Oct., 1841: when Mr. Spencer 
being called to take a place in the cabinet at 
Washington, the position of superintendent was 
filled by the deputy, Samuel S. Randall, until 



Feb., 1842; Samuel Young, until Feb., 1845; 
Nathaniel S.Benton, until Dec. 31., 1847; Chris- 
topher Morgan, until Dec. 31., 1851; Henry S. 
Randall, until Dec. 31 ., 1853; and Klias W. Leav- 
enworth, until April 8.. 1854, when, the office of 
superintendent of public instruction being cre- 
ated, Victor M. Rice was elected, and served 
until April, 1H57, and was succeeded by the fol- 
lowing persons: Henry H. Van Dyck, until April 
19., 1861; Emerson W. Keyes (acting), until Feb. 
1..1862; Victor M. Rice (again), until April. 1868; 
Abram B. Weaver, until April. 1874; and Neil 
Gilmour, the present incumbent (1876). 

IV. In 1830. A. C. Flagg. in his report, sug- 
gested the establishment of district libraries; 
and, in 1838, a law was passed, providing for 
this, and authorizing each district to raise by tax 
$20 for the first year, and $10 for each succeed- 
ing year, for the purchase of books. This was 
increased, in 1875, to $50 a year. The act of 
1838, appropriating the income of the U. S. 
deposit fund, set apart $55,000 a year fordistrict 
libraries, and required each county to raise for 
the same purpose a sum equal to its distributive 
share thereof. By an amendment passed in 1875, 
this is reduced to $50,000. The total number 
of volumes in these libraries was reported in 
1845 as 1.203,139; in 1855, as 1,418,100; in 
1865, as 1,181.811 ; and in 1875, as 809.141.— 
Ample means have been provided for the edu- 
cation of teachers. Classes for the instruction 
of common-school teachers were established by 
the regents in certain academies, in 1 834. in 
pursuance of the provisions of the act of that 
year already referred to. The sum now annually 
appropriated by the regents for these classes is 
$18,000. In 1844, the first state normal school 
was established, at Albany, and opened on the 
18th of December, in that year. In 1863, the 
Oswego Training School was taken under the 
patronage of the state, and, by the acts of 1866 
and 1867. was constituted a state normal school. 
By Chap. 466 of the laws of 1866, normal schools 
were established, respectively, at Brockport, 
Cortland, Fredonia. and Potsdam ; and, by 
special acts, in 1867, a normal school was 
established at Buffalo, and another at Geneseo, 
the latter under the title of the Wadsworth 
Normal and Training School. — Teachers' in- 
stitutes have been an important agency for the 
improvement of common-school teachers. The 
first teachers' institute in the state was held at 
Ithaca, Tompkins Co., April 4., 1843; other 
counties soon followed, and, in 1847, teachers' 
institutes were re-organized by the legislature, an 
appropriation of $60 to each county being made 
for their encouragement. — A compulsory edu- 
cation laic was passed May 11., 1874, entitled 
"an act to secure to children the benefits of ele- 
mentary education." This law requires that every 
child between 8 and 14 years of age shall be in- 
structed in spelling, reading, writing. English 
grammar, and arithmetic, at least 14 weeks each 
year, at a day school, or at home, or 28 weeks in 
an evening school. All persons are prohibited, 
under a penalty of $50 fine, from employing 



640 



NEW YORK 



children of the age mentioned without being 
certified that such instruction was given the 
previous year. This law was amended in some 
respects in 1876 ; but it is to a great extent in- 
operative. — In 1875, a law was passed providing 
that "industrial or free- hand drawing shall 
be included in the course of study in each of the 
normal schools ; shall be taught in, at least, one 
department of the schools under the charge of 
the board of education in each city, in each union 
free school, and in each free-school district in- 
corporated by special act of the legislature." — ■ 
The general school law was also amended so that 
state certificates should be granted by the super- 
intendent only on examination, either by him- 
self or by proper persons appointed by him. The 
first examination under this law was held at 
Albany, Dec. 16., 1875; nine candidates were ex- 
amined, and four certificates awarded. 

Educational System. — The officers having 
charge of the common schools are the super- 
intendent of public instruction, the school com- 
missioners, and the district trustees. The super- 
intendent is elected for three years on joint bal- 
lot of both branches of the legislature. He has 
the general supervision of all the schools in the 
state; apportions the school money, superintends 
the apportionment by the commissioners, and 
sees that it is paid by the supervisors and ex- 
pended by the trustees according to law. He 
hears and decides all appeals regarding school 
matters, and his decision is final. He is charged 
with the control and management of teachers' 
institutes, and makes rules concerning district 
libraries. He makes appointment of state pupils 
to the institutions for the deaf and dumb and the 
blind, and has the supervision of those institu- 
tions. He has the charge of all the Indian 
schools in the state, and employs agents to super- 
intend them. He is, ex officio, a regent of the 
university, a trustee of the asylum for idiots, and 
of the Cornell University. He receives and 
compiles reports from all the school-districts, 
and makes an annual report to the legislature. 
The school commissioners are elected for the 
term of three years by the people of their several 
districts. It is their duty to see that the bound- 
aries of districts are correctly described ; to visit 
and examine the schools ; to advise with and 
counsel the trustees ; to look after the condition 
of the school-houses, and condemn such as are 
unfit for use ; to recommend studies and text- 
books; to examine and license teachers; to 
examine charges against teachers, and, on suffi- 
cient proof, to annul their certificates; and, when 
required by the superintendent, to take and re- 
port testimony in cases of appeal. 

District trustees, one or three in each district, 
are elected by the inhabitants. The term of 
office of a sole trustee is one year; of each of a 
board of three trustees, three years, one being 
elected annually. The powers and duties of 
these officers are, to make out tax lists and war- 
rants ; to purchase or lease sites, to build or 
hire school-houses, and to insure and have the 
custody of all district property ; to employ and 



pay teachers; and to report annually to the school 
commissioner school statistics and such other in- 
formation as may be required. — The school dis- 
trict is the smallest territorial subdivision of the 
state. It is formed by the school commissioner, 
who makes an order defining its boundaries, and 
files it in the office of the clerk of the town in 
which the district is situated. He may change 
the limits of districts by a similar order. A 
joint district is one that lies partly in two or 
more counties. Union free-school districts are 
formed under the law of 1853, authorizing the 
inhabitants to organize a school in a district 
comprising more territory and population, and 
possessing greater powers, than an ordinary dis- 
trict. About 100 districts have been formed by 
acts of the legislature granting special powers 
and privileges. The inhabitants, at the annual 
district meeting, have power to elect a chair- 
man, one or three trustees, a district clerk, a 
collector, and a librarian ; to designate a site 
for a school-house, to vote taxes to pay for a 
site, to build and repair school-houses, and to 
furnish them with fuel and appendages, also to 
make up deficiencies for teachers' wages. They 
may also vote taxes, not exceeding $25, for ap- 
paratus and text-books, $50 for a library, $25 for 
contingent expenses, and any sum necessary to 
insure the district property, and to pay the costs 
and reasonable expenses of suits at law in which 
the district may be interested. The librarian 
serves one year, and has charge of the district 
library. The collector serves lor a year, giving 
a bond for the faithful discharge of his duty in 
collecting the moneys due on tax lists, and hold- 
ing them subject to the order of the trustees. 
The clerk holds office for one year. It is his duty 
to keep a record of the district meetings, to attend 
meetings of trustees, and keep a record of pro- 
ceedings; to notify persons elected as district 
officers ; to report to the town clerk the names 
and post-office address of district officers ; to 
give trustees notice of every resignation accepted 
by the supervisor ; and to keep and preserve all 
records, books, and papers belonging to the 
office. — The town clerk is required to keep in 
his office all books, maps, papers, and records re- 
lating to the schools ; to record the certificate 
of apportionment of school moneys, and to notify 
trustees of such certificate; to obtain from 
trustees their annual report; to furnish the 
commissioner with the names and post-office ad- 
dress of all district officers ; to distribute books 
and blanks to the trustees ; to file and record 
the final accounts of supervisors ; to preserve 
the supervisor's bond ; to file and keep the de- 
scription of district boundaries ; and, when 
called upon, to take part in the formation 
or alteration of a school-district. The school 
moneys apportioned to the several towns are 
paid oy the county treasurer to the supervisor, 
who gives a bond, with two sureties, for double 
the amount of money set apart to the town, for 
the safe-keeping, disbursement, and accounting 
for, of such moneys, and all other school moneys 
that may come into his hands. The school mon- 



NEW YORK 



641 



eys apportioned to a county, or to a city, are paid 
by the state treasurer on the warrant of the 
superintendent of public instruction ; and the 
treasurer's check in payment must be counter- 
signed by the superintendent. All children in 
the district between the ages of 5 and 21 years, 
may attend school ; and non-residents may also 
attend it on such terms as the trustees may pre- 
scribe. None but a qualified teacher can receive 
public money, or money raised by tax, in pay- 
ment of his wages. A qualified teacher is one 
who holds a state normal school diploma, a cer- 
tificate from the superintendent, from a school 
commissioner, or from a city or village officer 
empowered to grant licenses. — The great major- 
ity of the schools in the rural districts employ 
but a single teacher, and are not graded ; but 
the pupils are generally so arranged in classes as 
in part to compensate for this. In the larger 
villages, where most of the "union free schools," 
and the "free schools" by special acts, are found, 
the schools are more or less accurately graded, 
and the system culminates in academical or 
high-school departments. In the cities, each of 
which, though under the general law, has special 
provisions of law applicable to its own schools, 
the schools are well graded, and generally, with 
the exception of Brooklyn and New York, have 
at their head a high school. The system in 
Brooklyn, finds its culmination in the academ- 
ical grades of its grammar schools; and, iu New 
York, in the College of the City of New York, 
connected with which there is an introductory 
department, which performs the office of a high 
school, a business or commercial school, and a 
preparatory school. This department is under 
the supervision and management of a special 
principal. 

Secondary and superior instruction is under 
the control and supervision of the regents of the 
university wdio were originally incorporated 
May 1., 1784; and were re-organized and re- 
incorporated by the act of April 13., 1787 ; with 
power to incorporate colleges and academies ; to 
appoint a president for any college, or a prin- 
cipal for any academy, in case the trustees 
should leave the office vacant for a year ; to 
hold property to the amount of the annual in- 
come of 40,000 bushels of wheat ; and to confer 
such degrees, above that of Master of Arts, as 
are granted by any college or university in Eu- 
rope. They were also authorized and required 
to visit ami inspect all academies and colleges 
established or to be established ; to inquire into 
the system of education and discipline therein, 
and make an annual report thereof to the legis- 
lature; all of which powers and duties still re- 
main. The board as re-organized, consisted of 
the governor and lieutenant-governor, ex officio, 
and 19 other persons named in the act. In 
Is 12, the secretary of state, and in 1 Sol, the 
superintendent of public instruction, were made 
regents, ex officio, making the number of the 
board, as at present constituted, 23. Vacancies, 
except in case of ex officio members, are filled 
by the legislature; and the term of office, unless 



1 forfeited, is for life. The officers of the board 
are, a chancellor, a vice-chancellor, a secretary, 
and an assistant secretary. The annual meeting 
is fixed by statute, and is held in the senate 
chamber at Albany, on the evening of the second 
Thursday of January of each year. Other meet- 
ings are held at such time and place as the 
chancellor may appoint. Six members consti- 
! tute a quorum for the transaction of business. 
They serve without salary. Other duties have, 
from time to time, been imposed upon them by 
law. Iu 1844, they were made trustees of the 
state library ; and, in the same year, in con- 
junction with the superintendent of public in- 
struction, were placed in charge of the State 
Normal School at Albany. In 18-15, they were 
made trustees of the state cabinet, and. iu 1856, 
. were charged with what remained of the publi- 
cation of the colonial histor}' of the state. In 
1855, they were authorized to prescribe a course 
of study for teachers' classes iu academies ; and 
have prescribed the following : reading and 
j orthography ; writing ; arithmetic, intellectual 
! and written ; English granynar; and geography. 
The theory and practice of teaching must be 
combined with these studies. When any of the 
above subjects have been thoroughly mastered, 
one or more of the following may be pursued: 
algebra, geography, natural history, natural phi- 
losophy, history of the United States, science 
of government, and physiology. In 1853, the 
regents were required to establish general rules 
lor the incorporation of academies, colleges, and 
universities, in conformity with existing laws. 
Academies, colleges, and universities are corpo- 
rations, under the management of trustees, wdio 
usually fill all vacancies occurring in their num- 
ber. They hold the property, appoint the pro- 
fessors and instructors, and, in the absence of 
special agreement, dismiss them at pleasure. 

As shown by tie statistics given below, much 
dissatisfaction has been expressed with the double 
feature of this educational system, as shown in 
the existence of the office of superintendent of 
public instruction, and of the board of regents ; 
and efforts have been made to give to it a unitary 
character ; but thus far without success. A bill 
making the regents subordinate to the superin- 
tendent and requiring them to report to him, 
passed both houses of the legislature in 1 870, 
but was vetoed by the governor. Since then, 
each of the parties in interest has tried, through 
the aid of the law-making power, to secure for 
itself the sole supervision of education ; and 
i -i. h lias expressed, by these acts, the conviction 
that the welfare of the schools demands a uni- 
tary system. 

Financial. — The schools derive their support 

from the following sources: (1) The income of the 

! common-school fund, which, in 1S75, amounted 

i to about $180,000. (2) The amount the legislature 

may annually set apart from the income of the 

United States deposit fund. This has been for 

I many years $165,000. (3) The state tax of one 

] and one-fourth of a mdl on the dollar. (4) I >is(rict, 

I village, and city taxation. (5) The income from 



642 



NEW YORK 



local funds, mainly gospel and school lands. — 
The mode of distribution is as follows : The 
superintendent of public instruction, after ascer- 
taining the amount to be apportioned, sets apart, 
from the income of the United States deposit 
fund, (1) The amount necessary to pay the 
salaries of the school commissioners ; (2) to each 
city having a superintendent of common schools, 
or a clerk of the board of education performing 
the duty of superintendent, the sum of eight 
hundred dollars, and in case any city is entitled 
to more than one member of assembly, five hun- 
dred dollars for each additional member, for the 
support of . the common schools of the city ; 
(3) for library moneys, such sums as the legis- 
lature shall appropriate. (4) He then sets apart 
from the free-school fund, four thousand dollars 
for a contingent fund. (5) He then sets apart 
for the support of Indian schools an equitable 
sum, the same, in proportion to their numbers, 
as is apportioned to schools for white children. 
(6) He ascertains the total so apportioned, and 
deducts it from the total school moneys ap- 
propriated, and divides the remainder into two 
parts, one equal to one-third thereof, and the 
other to two-thirds. (7) The one-third of the 
money is divided by the whole number of quali- 
fied teachers in the state, employed for twenty- 
eight weeks or more during the school year, to 
ascertain the "district quota ;" and is distributed 
to the districts, one quota for each qualified 
teacher employed for the required time. (8) He 
apportions the remaining two-thirds, and also 
the library money, among the counties according 
to their population, as shown by the last state 
or United States census, excluding Indians. In 
counties where there are cities, separate appor- 
tionments are made, one to the city, and one to 
the rest of the comity. (9) He apportions an 
equitable sum for three separate neighborhoods 
from the contingent fund. He certifies to the 
county clerk, county treasurer, and school com- 
missioners, and to city chamberlains or treasurers 
the amount apportioned to each county and city. 
The apportionment is payable on the first day 
of April next after it is made. — The school 
commissioners having received such certificate, 
meet at the court-house in their respective coun- 
ties on the third Tuesday in March, and, ap- 
portion the money to the districts. (1) They 
set apart to each district the " district quotas " 
allowed by the state superintendent. (2) They 
set apart any money assigned to districts as 
equitable allowances. (3) They divide the re- 
mainder into two equal parts ; one of which 
they apportion to the districts in proportion to 
the children of school age residing in each ; and 
the other, to the districts according to the average 
daily attendance of resident pupils. (4) They 
apportion the library money according to the 
number of resident children of school age. They 
sign their apportionment in duplicate, send one 
copy to the superintendent of public instruction, 
and deliver the other to the county treasurer. 
They also certify to each supervisor the amount 
apportioned to each district in his town, desig- 



nating the library money, and that for teachers" 
wages. 

The capital of the common-school fund Sept. 
30., 1875 amounted to $3,080,107.68, consisting- 
of the following items : 

Bonds for lands $237,488.87 

Bonds for loans 150,128.61 

Loan of 1840 49,326.00 

Bank stocks 50,000.00 

Comptroller's bonds 36,000.00 

State stock 1,165,057.24 

Oswego city bonds 10,400,00 

Money in the treasury 1,381,706.96 

The income for the year ending Sept. 30., 1875 
was $179,303.66. The free-school fund, or 
income derived from l£ mill school tax on 
$2,367,780,102 — equalized valuation of the real 
and personal property in the state, amounted to 
$2,950,725.13. The capital of the U. S. deposit 
fund amounted to $4,014,520.71, consisting of 
the following : 
Mortgages for loans, and invested in 

county bonds $3,436,407.93 

State stocks 315,239.44 

U. S. 5 per cent stocks, 1881 50,000.00 

Money in the treasury 12,873.34 

The revenue from which, in 1875, was $236,000, 
as follows : 

Set apart by statute for common schools $165,000 

For dividends to academies 28,000 

For addition to capital of common-school fund 25,000 
For teachers' classes in academies 18,000 

The state has provided no funds for the sup- 
port of colleges. For aid to academies, a fund 
known as the literature fund, was derived from 
the sale of certain tracts of land reserved for 
literature, and was largely increased by four 
lotteries, authorized in 1801, to raise $100,000 
for the joint benefit of the academies and com- 
mon schools. 

The capital of this fund consists of 

1. State stocks :— 7 per cent $57,000.00 

" " 6 per cent 165,000.00 

" " 5 per cent 20,347.00 

2. Comptroller's bond payable on demand 25,330.94 

3. One hundred shares in the Albany In- 
surance Company 4,000.00 

$271,677.94 
The income for the year ending Sept. 30., 1875, 

was $17,979,49. 

School Statistics. — The following are the chief 

items of statistics of the common schools for the 

year ending Sept. 30., 1875 : 

Number of districts 11,291 

Number of children of schoolage, (5—21), 

cities, 728,948 
towns , 854,116 

Total 1,583,064 

Number of children enrolled in the 
common schools, cities, 445,552 

towns . 613,686 

Total 1,059,238 

Average daily attendance, cities, 226,980 
towns , 304,855 

Total 531,835 

Number of male teachers, cities, 612 

towns. 6,816 

Total 7,428 

Number of female teachers, cities, 6.724 
towns, 16.861 
Total 22,585 



NEW YORK 



643 



Total number of teachers in the state 30,013 

Number of teachers employed at the same 

time for 28 weeks or more 10,073 

Number of volumes in district libraries 800,141 

Whole number of school-houses 11,788 

Whole number of pupils taught, in 

Common schools 1,059,238 

Normal schools 6,348 

Academies 29,983 

Colleges 2,921 

Private schools 134,644 

Law schools 663 

Medical schools 1,472 

Total 1.235,269 

The following statistics of Indian schools were 
reported in 1875 : 

Number of school districts 29 

Number of teachers, whites 23 

" " " Indians 32 

Total 55 

Number of children of school age 1,663 

Number taught during some part of the year 1,114 

Average daily attendance 559 

Expenditures for Indian schools $9,945.86 

The school moneys for the fiscal year ending 
Sept. 30.,187G, were from the following sources: 

Common-school fund $170,000 

IT. S. deposit fund 165,000 

State school tax 2,712,000 

Total $3,047,000 

The apportionment for 1876 was as follows : 

For salaries of school commis- 

sioners $89,600.00 

For supervision in cities 30,200.00 

For libraries 50,000.00 

For contingent fund, including 
$89.01 for separate neighbor- 
hoods 2,583.13 

For Indian schools 3,370.99 

For district quotas 957,081.96 

For pupil and average attend- 
ance quotas 1,914,163.92 



Total $3,047,000.00 

Aggregate expenditures for school purposes, 

cities $6,292,737.30 

towns 5,166,016.13 



Total $11,459,353.43 

Normal Instruction. — The state normal school 
at Albany is under the joint supervision and 
management of the superintendent of public 
instruction and the regents of the university. 
who arrange the studies, fix the number and 
compensation of teachers, prescribe the condi- 
tions on which pupils shall be received from 
each comity, giving to each its proportion accord- 
ing to population. They appoint an executive 
committee of five persons, one of whom is the 
superintendent, who is also the chairman for the 
management of the school under the prescribed 
regulations. The supervision and control of the 
other normal schools are exercised by the super- 
intendent of public instruction, who appoints 
local boards for their management. The follow- 
ing is a statement of the general statistics of the 
normal schools for 1875 : 

Number of normal schools, state 8 

" " " " city (N.Y. Normal 

College) 1 

Total 9 



Number of teachers in state normal schools 112 

No. of pupils, including those in training depts. . 6,348 
No. of students, in normal departments. . .2,955 
in N.Y. Normal College . .1,310 

Total 4,265 

No. of graduates, state normal schools 268 

N. Y. Normal College 168 

Total 7^r77~ 424 

Cost of state normal schools $163,892.03 

" " " N. Y. Normal College 88,873.23 

The state normal school at Albany, in 1875, 
had an attendance of 433 students, representing 
fifty counties of the state ; the number of grad- 
uates was, the first term, 27; the second term. 40: 
total, 73, of whom 23 were males, and 50 females. 
A school of about 100 pupils, principally from 
the city of Albany, furnishes a means of practice 
in teaching to the students of the normal school. 
The number of instructors in the normal school 
was 14. — The normal school at Buckport had an 
enrollment of 886 : normal department, 325 ; 
academic department, 221 : intermediate and 
primary departments. 340. The average attend- 
ance was 469, of whom 170 belonged to the 
normal department. The number of graduates 
was 14. — in the normal school at Buffalo, the 
average attendance was 180, out of an en- 
rollment of 314; academic students, 16. The 
number of graduates was 75. — In the normal 
school at Cortland, the enrollment was 807, — 
in the normal department, 370 ; training school, 
437. The average attendance was, respectively, 
179 and 328. — In the normal school at Fredonia, 
the enrollment was 805, — in the normal depart- 
ment, 230 ; academic, 185; senior, 116; junior 
and primary, 274 ; the average attendance was, 
respectively". 147. Is!), 103. and 188 : total. 627.— 
In the normal school at Geneseo, the enrollment 
was 902, — in the normal department. 347 ; 
academic, intermediate, and primary, 555. The 
number of graduates was 24. The normal and 
training school at Oswego had 13 instructors ; 
an enrollment of 460 pupils, and 59 graduates, — 
6 males and 53 females. — In the normal school 
at Potsdam, the enrollment was 776, — normal 
department, 362 ; academic, 163 ; primary and 
intermediate, 251. The average attendance was. 
respectively. 183, 38, and 149. The number of 
instructors was 15. In the Normal College of 
the city of New York, the number of students 
on register was 1,310, exclusive of the training 
school; and the average attendance was 1,071. 
The number of pupils enrolled iu the training 
department was 803 ; average attendance, 761. 
The number of instructors in the normal college 
was 34; in the training school, 18. — Teachers' 
institutes are held for one or two weeks (in the 
majority of the counties, for two weeks), under 
the instruction of persons employed by the state 
superintendent. The following statistics of in- 
stitutes are reported for 1875 : — 
Number of counties in which institutes were held. .58 

Number of institutes 58 

No. of teachers in atttendance, males 3,638 
femal es, 7,295 

Total 10,933 

Average number from each county ' ss 

Average expense per county $279.44 



644 



NEW YORK 



In 1875, the number of academies which main- 
tained teachers' classes was 95, at which the at- 
tendance was 619 males and 1,275 females. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
The convention journals of the various dioceses 
of the Protestant Episcopal Church, for 1875, 
excepting the dioceses of New York and Central 
New York, state the number of schools, church 
and parochial, as 16, with 804 pupils ; Sadlier's 
Catholic Directory for 1876, gives data from 
which are derived' the following : the number of 
schools, select and parochial, was 292 ; the num- 
ber of pupils, 94,430. 

Secondary Instruction. — The whole number 
of academies in the state reporting to regents is 
222, of which more than one-half are connected 
with, and form a part of, the free-school systems 
of their respective localities. This number in- 
creases annually, under a law of 1864, which 
authorizes the trustees of any academy, by a 
majority vote, to surrender their property to 
the board of education of any union free-school 
district in the same place, and thus pass out of 
existence as a corporation. The academies still 
exercising their corporate rights depend mainly 
upon tuition fees for their support. In 1870, 
examinations were instituted by the regents to 
test the attainments and determine the classifi- 
cation of academic pupils. Printed lists of 
questions are furnished on English grammar, 
geography, and arithmetic, and a fist of 100 
words to be spelled. Certificates are issued to 
those who pass the examination successfully. 

The following items of statistics are for the 
year 1875 : 

Number of academies and schools reporting. . 222 

Number of teachers employed 1,151 

Whole number of scholars 31,463 

Average attendance by terms 20,742 

Number of academic scholars 8,012 

Average age of scholars 17.3 yrs. 

Eeceipts, from tuition $431,660 

other sources 754,925 

Total $1,186,585 

Expenditures, for salaries $788,245 

other purposes. . . . 372,599 

Total $1,160,844 

Value of academic property $6,492,050 

At the regents' examination in 1873 — 4, the 
number of candidates examined was as follows : 
In arithmetic, 18,856 ; passed, 3,947 
" geography, 17,376; " 8,649 

" grammar, 17,330; " 7,300 

" spelling, 17,182; " 8.S30 

Of private institutions for secondary instruc- 
tion, 38 for boys, 47 for girls, and 121 for both, 
reported to the U. S. Bureau of Education, in 
1874, a total of 1,400 teachers, with 25,620 pu- 
pils ; of whom 14,721 were represented as pur- 
suing English studies, 3,131, classical studies, 
and 3,791, scientific studies. There are also 
many preparatory schools, included in which 
may be mentioned the introductory department 
of the College of the City of New York. These 
schools contain, in the aggregate, upward of 
6,000 pupils. Business colleges are also numer- 
ous, 15 making return, in 1875, to the U. S. 
Bureau, of 72 teachers and 2,919 pupils. Besides 



these institutions, several of the cities- 


-Albany, 


Buffalo, Oswego, Rochester, Syracuse, Troy,Utica, 


etc, — support free academies or 


aigh schools. 


Superior Instruction. — The following is a list 


of the principal colleges and universities. 


[Those exclusively for the hi. 


rtier education of 


women are printed in italics ; those in small caps 


admit both sexes.] 




NAME 


Location 


Date 
of 


Denom- 






Charter 


ination 


Alfred University 


Alfred Centre. . 


1857 


S. D. B. 


Brooklyn Collegiate 
and Poly t. Inst. . . 




1854 


Non-sect. 


Coll. of City of N. Y. 


Bu 

Nei 


lalo 


1870 
1866 


R. C. 




Non-Beet. 


Coll.ofSt.Fr.Xavier. 




1861 


R. C. 


Columbia College. . . 




1754 


Non-sect. 


Cornell University 
Elmira Female College 
Hamilton College.. . 


Ith 
Eli 
Clh 




1865 
1855 
1812 


Non-sect. 




Presb. 




Presh. 






1824 


P. Epis. 


Jngkam University . . 
Madison University. 


Le Roy 


1857 


Presb. 




1846 


Bap. 


Manhattan College. . 


New York 


1863 


R. C. 


St.BonaventureColl, 




1S75 


R. C. 


St. John's College. . 




1846 


R. C. 


St. Joseph's Coll. .. 


Buffalo 


1861 


R. C. 


St. Lawrence Univ. 
St. Stephen's Coll. 


Cai 
An 




1866 
1860 


Univ. 




P. Epis. 






1870 


M. Epis. 


Union University | 
Union College J 


Albany and 1 
Schenectady ) 


1795 


Non-sect. 


Univ. of N. Y. City . 




1831 


Non-sect. 


Univ. of Rochester. 




1846 


Bap. 






1861 


Non-sect. 


Wells College 




1870 


Non-sect. 


For further information in regard to these in- 


stitutions, see their respective titles. 


Scientific and Professional Instruction. — 


Under this head, are included 7 schools of science, 


having, in the aggregate, 84 instructors and 2,311 


students; 14 medical schools, with 199 instruct- 


ors, and 2,206 students ; 4 schools of law, with 


15 instructors and 589 students; and 12 theo- 


logical schools, with 68 infractors and 652 


students. The following tables contain lists of 


these several institutions : 




Medical Schools. 






When 


N ?' of ,No-of 


name 


Location 


found- 
ed 


f m \ 1 stu- 

stn,ct - dents 
ors 


College of Phys. h Surg. 










of City of New York. . 


New York 


1807 


24 


387 


College of Pharmacy of 










City of New York 


New York 


1831 


5 


200 


Medical Dept . of Univer- 










sity of City of N. Y... 


New York 


1837 


21 


396 


Albany Medical College 










of Union University. . 


Albany 


1839 


19 


123 


Medical Dept. of theUni- 










versity of Buffalo 


Buffalo 


1846 


9 


103 


Long Island CollegeHos- 












Brooklyn 


1858 


22 


117 


Homceopathic Med. Coll. 










of the State of N. Y. . . 


New York 


1860 


19 


107 


Bellevue Hospital Med- 












New York 


1861 


19 


506 


NewYork Med. Coll. and 










Hospital for Women . . 


New York 


1863 


15 


22 


New York College of 












New York 


1865 


8 


52 


Eclectic Medical College 


New York 


1865 


10 


80 


New York Free Med. 












New York 


1871 


13 


47 


New York College of 












New York 


1873 






College of Physicians & 






Surg., Syracuse Univ. 


Syracuse 


1870 


15 


66 



NEW YORK 



645 



Schools op Science. 



College of Agriculture 
and Mechanic Arts, 
Cornell University. . . 

Dept. of Science, Univ. 
of City of New York. 

Engineering School, Un- 
ion College 

Rensselaer Polytechnic 
Institute 

8choolof Mines, Colurn 
bia College 

Schools of Science and 
Art, Cooper Institute 

U. S. Military Academy. 



Location 



Ithaca 

New York 

Schenectady 

Troy 

New York 

New York 
West Point 



When 
found- 
ed 



1S65 

1831 

1795 

1826 

1SG1 

1859 
18U2 



struct- 
ors 



18 

2 

2 

12 

16 

25 
9 



No. of 
stu- 
dents 



206 

15 

33 

181 

162 

1,436 
278 



Law Schools. 



NAME 


Location 


When 
found- 
ed 


No. of 

in- 
struct- 
ors 


No. of 
stu- 
dents 


Albany Law School, Un- 
Colunibia College, Law 


Albany 
New York 
New York 
Clinton 


1851 
1858 
1831 


5 
-t 
5 
1 


]09 

■138 


Department of Law, Uni- 
versity, City of N. Y. 
Law School of Hamilton 


32 
10 



Theological Schools. 



Delancey Divinity School 
General Theol, Seru. of 

Prot. Episcopal Church 
Hamilton Theol. Sent., 

Madison University. . . 

Hartwick Seminary 

Theological Dept., Mar- 
tin Luther College. . . . 
Newburgn Theological 

Seminary 

Rochester Theological 

Seminary 

St. Joseph's Provincial 

Seminary 

Seminary of our Lady of 

Angels 

Auburn Theological S< in 

inary 

Theological Dept., St 

Lawrence University. . 
Union Theological Sem 

inary 



Geneva 

New York 

Hamilton 
Hartwick 

Buffalo 

Newburgh. 

Rochester 

Troy 

Susp. Bridge 

Auburn 

Canton 

New York 



When 
found- 
ed 



1820 
1816 

1853 

1836 

1850 

1864 

1863 

1820 

1858 

1836 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion 



P. Epis. 

P. Epis. 

Bap. 
Luth. 

Ger.Luth. 

Iss.R. Pr. 

3ap. 

R. C. 

K. C. 

Presb. 

Univ. 

Presb. 



The New York Nautical School, under the 
managment of the board of education of the 
city of New York, was established for the pur- 
pose of educating seamen for the mercantile 
marine, and occupies, in conformity with an act 
of Congress, passed June 2., 1874, the U. S. 
ship St. Mary's in N. Y. harbor. In 1875, the 
whole number taught was 1 85 ; the average at- 
tendance, 97. This institution is in a flourishing 
condition. The first class, consisting of 60 pu- 
pils, graduated in November. 1 S7<;. 

Special Instruction. — There are 4 institutions 
for the education of deaf-mutes : (1) The N. Y. 
Institution for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb, 
in the city of New York, incorporated in 1817, 
and opened in 1818 ; (2) The N. Y. Institution 
for the Improved Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, in 
New York, established in 1870 ; (3) the Cou- 



tenlx St. Mary's Institution for the Improved 
Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, in Buffalo, recognized 
by the state in 1872: and (4) the Central New 
York Institution for Deaf-Mutes, in Rome, in- 
corporated and organized in 1875. 

Any parent having a deaf and dumb child 
above the age of twelve years, though able to sup- 
port him at home, being without sufficient means 
to pay for his support at a proper institution 
where he may be instructed, may present to the 
superintendent of public instruction a certificate 
from the superintendent of the poor, stating his 
inability to pay, and thereupon it becomes the 
duty of the superintendent to give to said child 
an appointment, for five years, to one of the 
above named institutions. The overseer of the 
poor of the town, if any deaf-mute child, over 
six and under twelve years of age, is liable to be- 
come a county charge, or becomes such, may send 
such deaf-mute child to "any institution in this 
state for the education of deaf-mutes". (Laws 
of 1875.) A boarding school for female deaf- 
mutes is connected with St. Joseph's Academy, 
located at Fordham. and under the control of the 
Roman Catholic Church. 'I he following statis- 
tics in relation to the instruction of deaf-mutes 
are reported for 1675: 

No. oi pupils supported by the state 355 

" " " by counties in the state 162 

" " " by New Jersey 47 

" " u by parents or guardians 19 

" " " by the Fizzell fund 1 

Whole number of pupils, males 337 

females .... 247 

Total..." 684 

The institutions for the education of the blind 
are the following: (1) The New York Institution, 
in the city of New York, incorporated in 1831, 
which, in 1875, had 8 instructors, and 173 pupils; 
(2) The New York State Institution, located at 
Batavia, incorporated in 1867, and receiving its 
support from legislative appropriations. In 
1875, the number of instructors was 10 ; of pu- 
pils, 166. — The New York Asylum for Idiots 
was first established at Albany in 1848, by II. 
B. Wilbur as a private institution. It was adopted 
by the state, and continued at Albany, for a few 
years, and removed to Syracuse, in 1854. The 
building was erected by the state, in 1853 — 4, at 
a cost of $70,000, on a site donated by residents 
of Syracuse. This institution has deservedly at- 
tained an excellent reputation, as among the best 
of its kind. — The number of pupils, in 1875, was 
207 ; average attendance for the year, 183. 

Educational Associations. — The first teachers' 
association in the state, as far as can be ascer- 
tained, was The Teachers' Association for Mutual 
Improvement, of the town of Charlton. Its first 
meeting was held Jan. 5., 1836; and it continued 
until 1839. In July, 1836, J. Orville Taylor 
issued a call, in the Common School Assistant, 
for a convention of the "common-school teachers 
of the state" to be held at Albany; and the meet- 
ing, Sept. 20., L836, resulted in the formation of 
the State Teachers' Society. This association 
held a meeting Feb. 18., 1837, and a convention 
at Utica on the 11th of May following ; but, for 



646 



NEW YORK 



NEW YORK (City) 



some unexplained reason, no subsequent meeting 
was held. The next movement to form an associa- 
tion of the teachers of the state was made in 
March, 1845, at a meeting of the Albany County 
Teachers' Association. A call for a convention 
was issued; and a meeting, July 30. and 31., 1845, 
at Syracuse, resulted, attended by more than 150 
teachers. This association has held an annual 
convention each year since that time, except in 
1849. The addresses, reports, resolutions, and 
discussions have taken a wide range, covering 
the entire field of public education, and have ex- 
erted a powerful influence both in the school 
room and in legislative halls. Other associations 
have sprung up in all parts of the state. The 
principals of the normal schools have an associa- 
tion which holds an annual meeting. The State 
Association of School Commissioners and City 
Superintendents, organized in 1856, also holds an 
annual meeting. The superintendent of public 
instruction is, ex officio, its president. The Uni- 
versity Convocation, organized in 1863, is an asso- 
ciation composed of the members of the board of 
regents, of all teachers in colleges, normal schools, 
and academies that are subject to the visitation 
of the regents, of the trustees of such institu- 
tions, and of the president and other officers of 
the State Teachers' Association. The chancellor 
is the permanent president, and the secretary of 
the board of regents is the permanent secretary. 
The convocation meets annually at Albany. 

School Journals. — The following are the prin- 
cipal school journals which have been published 
in the state : The Common School Assistant 
(monthly), published at Albany, in 1836, by J. 
Orville Taylor, discontinued in 1839 ; The Dis- 
tinct School Journal (monthly), commenced at 
Geneva, in 1840, by Francis Dwight, removed, in 
J 841, to Albany, discontinued in 1852; The 
Teachers' Advocate (weekly), first published at 
Syracuse, in 1845, by L. W. Hall, in 1847, 
united with the American Journal of Education 
(monthly), commenced, in 1846, in New York, 
edited by Joseph McKeen, afterwards county 
superintendent of schools, and (1854 — 6) assist- 
ant city superintendent in New York ; this jour- 
nal was merged in The Teachers' Advocate, 
united with which was, subsequently, The Dis- 
trict School Journal, and published in New York 
till 1851 ; The Monthly Educator, published at 
Rochester, 1847 — 8 ; Tlie Free School Clarion 
(monthly) , published at Syracuse, 1849 — 50; The 
New York Teacher (monthly) commenced in 
Albany, in 1852, under the auspices of the New 
York State Teachers' Association, assumed, in 
1856, by James Cruikshank ; united, in 1867, 
with The American Educational Monthly, which 
was established, in 1864, in New York, by J. W. 
Schermerhorn ; The American Journal of Edu- 
cation and College Review (monthly), edited by 
Absalom Peters, D. D., and S. S. Randall, pub- 
lished in New York, 1855—7 ; The New York 
School Journal (semi-monthly), established in 
New York, 1869 ; The Journal of Education, 
first published in Brooklyn, in 1875, afterwards 
in New York, until 1876 ; The New York State 



Educational Journal (monthly), commenced at 
Fredonia, in 1872, united, in 1875, with The 
School Bulletin, established in 1874, at Syracuse; 
and The National Teachers' Monthly, commenced 
at New York, in 1875. 

For further information in regard to the 
histoiy of education in this state, see A. Russell, 
An Account of New York Schools (1847) ; S. S. 
Randall, History of the Common-School System 
of the Stale of New York (1871) ; Report on 
Education in the City of New York, issued by 
order of the Board of Education (1869); Bourne, 
History of the Public School Society (1870); 
Dunshee, Histo?-y of the School of the Reformed 
Prot. Hutch Church (1853); D. J. Pratt, Annals 
of Public Education in the State of N.Y., from 
1626 to 1746 (1872); V. M. Rice, Special Re- 
port on the Present State of Education in the 
United Stales and other countries (1867). 

NEW YORK (City), the metropolis of the 
state of New York, the chief emporium of the 
United States, and the most populous city of the 
western continent. Its population, according to 
the state census of 1875, was 1,046,037.— The 
history of education in this city commences 
almost with its first settlement by the Dutch, 
who, in their own country, had already realized 
the importance of popular education. " Neither 
the perils of war," says Brodhead, "nor the 
busy pursuit of gain, nor the excitement of 
political strife, ever caused them to neglect the 
duty of educating their offspring. Schools were 
every-where provided, at the public expense, 
with good school-masters to instruct the chil- 
dren of all classes in the usual branches of edu- 
cation ; and the consistories of the churches 
took zealous care to have their youth thorough- 
ly taught the catechism and the articles of 
religion." The offices of minister and school- 
master were at first united, and the school was 
under the control of the established church. In 
1633, these offices were separated; but it was 
several years before a school-house was built. At 
the end of Stuyvesant's administration, there 
were, in New Amsterdam, 3 public schools, a 
dozen or more private schools, and a Latin school 
of great repute. The first public school estab- 
lished in New Amsterdam by the Dutch has 
continued to the present time, under the title of 
the School of the Reformed Protestant Dutch 
Church. After the conquest of New Nether- 
lands by the English, in 1664, the schools of New 
Amsterdam, or New York, were still continued, 
though without governmental aid. In 1702, an 
act was passed by the colonial legislature for the 
" encouragement of a Grammar Free School in 
the City of New York ;" but it does not appear 
that the school was immediately estabbshed. 
This act expired by limitation in 1709 ; and, for 
a period of twenty years thereafter, no effort 
seems to have been made to revive it, nor any 
measures taken in behalf of primary education 
during the subsequent history of the colony. 
King's (now Columbia) College was established 
in 1754. During the Revolutionary war, the 
schools of the city were closed ; and, for several 



NEW YORK (City) 



647 



years after the termination of the war and the 
establishment of the federal government, no 
measures were taken to provide schools for the 
people, except by benevolent societies. The 
Manumission Society opened a school in 177*. 
for the instruction of colored children. Other 
schools were afterward established by this soci- 
ety, which continued to exist till 1834, when its 
schools were transferred to the Public School 
Society, which had. at that time, the entire con- 
trol of the common schools of the city. This 
society was founded in 1S05, under the title of 
•• The Society for Establishing Free Schools in 
the City of New York, for the Education of 
such poor Children as do not belong to, or are 
not provided for, by any Religious Society." De 
Witt Clinton was elected the first president of 
the society. The first school was opened by 
the society May 17., 1806. In 1808, the name 
■of the society was changed to the Free-School 
Society of New York. In 1815, it received 
$3,708.14 from the school fund, the quota of 
the city under the first apportionment of the 
fund. Then the whole number of pupils, un- 
der its care was 933, taught in 3 schools. 
These schools were organized under the Lan- 
casterian or monitorial system, and so con- 
tinued to a considerable extent up to the time 
of the dissolution of the society. In 1826, the 
society received a new charter, under which its 
name was changed to The Public School Society. 
Any citizen could become a member of this 
society by the payment of $10 ; and the trustees 
were annually elected by the members. The' 
members of the city corporation were members, 
ex officio, of the society ; and the mayor and re- 
corder, of the board of trustees. In 1831, the 
legislature authorized, for the support of the 
schools, the levying of a tax of one-twentieth 
of one per cent of the assessed valuation of the 
city property. The commissioners of the com- 
mon-school fund, consisting of one person from 
each ward of the city, appointed by the common 
council, received and distributed the school 
moneys of the city and the state ; and it was 
their duty to visit every school twice in each 
year. In addition to these means of support, 
considerable donations of money and land had 
been made to the society from the commence- 
ment of its beneficent career. In 1840, the 
trustees of the ( 'atholic Free Schools applied to 
the common council to be permitted to partic- 
ipate in the school moneys, and, in that appli- 
cation, took occasion to find considerable fault 
with the internal management of the schools, 
and the text-books used, which they denounced 
as practically sectarian, and referred to the 
Society as a '■gigantic and growing monopoly", 
to which it was unwise to intrust, to so large an 
extent, the interests of public instruction. An 
exciting discussion ensued, first, in the common 
council, afterwards, in the legislature ; and, in 
1842, on the recommendation of the governor, 
William H. Seward, an act was passed author- 
izing the election of school commissioners who 
'.were to constitute a board of education for the 



city, and local school inspectors and trustees in 
each ward ; but still allowing the Public School 
Society and other corporations to continue their 
schools, and participate in the school moneys, 
prohibi ting, howcver.suchparticipat ion in the case 
of every school in which "any religious sectarian 
doctrine or tenet should be taught, inculcated, or 
practiced." Important amendments were made 
to this law in 1844. and again in 1851, at which 
latter date, the system was more fully organized; 
and the board of education was empowered to 
appoint a city superintendent of schools, and as- 
sistant superintendents, in place of the county 
superintendent appointed by the board of super- 
visors in pursuance of the state law passed in 
1841. Under this new and popular system, 
additional schools were rapidly established, and 
upon a more liberal basis, the old monitorial 
system being either greatly restricted or aban- 
doned entirely, the buildings being constructed 
with a greater number of class rooms, and a much 
larger number of teachers being employed. The 
two systems continued to exist side by side ; 
but there was very great rivalry, and the popular 
and liberal features of the ward schools, as they 
were called, gave them a great advantage over 
those of the Public School Society. The latter 
suffered from financial embarrassment, its an- 
nual deficiencies becoming larger every year, and 
new legal difficulties being constantly developed 
iu its obtaining monetary relief. Its character 
as a private corporation was necessarily a con- 
stant obstacle to this. The only remedy was 
to merge the systems, and transfer the property 
of the society to the city. With singular mag- 
nanimity, the society agreed to do this ; and, iu 
1853. an act was passed by the legislature con- 
summating the union. No body of men, in the 
annals of mankind, can justly claim greater credit 
for sincere philanthropy and noble public spirit, 
than the Public School Society. They had ad- 
ministered the school affairs of the city with the 
utmost integrity and fidelity; and, at the close, 
they voluntarily surrendered to the municipality, 
as their contribution to the cause of common- 
school education, property amounting to no less 
than $600,000.— Previous to this event, in 1847, 
an act had been passed authorizing the establish- 
ment of the Free Academy, for boys, in case the 
act should be approved by a majority of the 
legal voters of the city. Such approval having 
been given, by a veiy large majority (19,400 
against 3.400). the institution was organized in 
1848, under Horace Webster, as the first presi- 
dent. In 18G8, this institution, by a special act 
of the legislature, became the College of the City 
of New York. — In 1870, the Female Normal 
College was organized ; previous to which time, 
there was no normal school in the city except a 
Saturday school for teachers. There is, at present, 
no provision for the instruction of male teachers, 
except through the College of the ( 'ity of New 
York. — Many changes have taken place in the or- 
ganization of the system in New York since 1853. 
Then the board of education consisted of two 
school commissioners from each ward, one-half 



648 



NEW YORK (City) 



elected annually; and there were also elected in 
each ward eight trustees, and two school inspect- 
ors; the twelve, including commissioners, trustees, 
and inspectors, constituting a ward board of 
school officers. This continued until 1864, when an 
act was passed dividing the city into seven school- 
districts, for each of which three commissioners 
of schools were elected for a term of office of 
three years, one third retiring each year. Five 
trustees were elected in each ward; and three 
inspectors were, on the nomination of the mayor, 
appointed by the board of education for each 
district. In 1869, the system was again changed, 
the board of education being composed of twelve 
commissioners appointed from the city at large 
by the mayor. In 1871, the educational system 
was made a department of the city government, 
all the officers — commissioners, inspectors, and 
trustees being appointed by the mayor. In 1873, 
the law was passed under which the schools are 
now (1876) conducted. 

County and City Superintendents. — The first 
superintendent of schools in the city of New 
York was William L. Stone, appointed in 
pursuance of the state law passed May 26., 
1841, creating the office of county superin- 
tendent to be appointed by the board of super- 
visors in each county. Col. Stone served until 
his death, in 1844, when he was succeeded by 
David M. Reese, till 1847 ; William A. Walker, 
till 1848 ; Joseph McKeen, till 1853, as county 
and city superintendent, the latter from 1851 ; 
S. S. Randall, till 1870 ; Henry Kiddle, from 
1870 until the present time, — elected for the 
third time in 1876. Mr. Kiddle had previously 
served as chief assistant superintendent from 
1856 to 1870. 

School System. — The board of education con- 
sists of twenty-one members appointed from the 
city at large by the mayor ; each ward board 
consists of rive trustees appointed by the board 
of education; and three inspectors are appointed 
by the mayor for each of the eight school-districts 
into which the city is divided, one consisting of 
the district annexed to the city in 1874. The 
board of education has the general control of the 
system, making all rules and regulations for the 
schools, and for the trustees, whose duty it is to 
have the care and safe-keeping of the school 
property, to manage the schools, and appoint the 
teachers, except principals and vice-principals, 
who are appointed by the board of education on 
the nomination of the trustees, or, after such 
nomination is made, in disregard of it, if they so 
please. The inspectors supervise the schools, 
audit bills incurred by the local officers, and 
have concurrent authority with the city super- 
intendent in granting teachers' licenses. — The 
city superintendent is elected by the board of 
education for a term of office of two years; and 
it is his duty, under such rules as the board may 
establish, to visit and examine schools, and report 
the result to the board with such recommenda- 
tions as he may deem proper; with the concur- 
rence of two inspectors to grant licenses to per- 
sons proposed as teachers; and to report annually, 



or oftener if required, to the state superintendent. . 
He may also revoke licenses, with the concurrence 
of two of the inspectors of the district in which 
the teacher is employed ; but the teacher has a- 
right of appeal to the state superintendent. There 
are also seven assistant superintendents, elected 
in the same manner and for the same term as. 
the city superintendent, whose duties are to ex- 
amine schools and assist in the examination of 
teachers, under the direction of the city super- 
intendent. — The schools are supported from the 
general tax levied on the real and personal prop- 
erty of the city for the support of the city 
government, etc. The city, it is true, receives 
from the state its distributive portion of the 
state school moneys (see New York) ; but its 
contribution to the state for school purposes is- 
greatly in excess of all that it receives in return, 
the difference, in 1 875, amounting to $827,253.87. 
— Teachers' certificates are conferred, after ex- 
amination, by the city superintendent, but must 
also be signed by at least two school inspectors, 
certifying that they were present at the exami- 
nation and that they concur in granting the- 
same. These certificates are, at first, provision- 
al, and attest only the scholarship and moral 
character of the holders ; and no permanent 
certificate, attesting- the ability to teach, can- 
be conferred until at least six months' experi- 
ence has been had in the public schools of 
the city. No person is permitted to perform 
service in any position as a teacher until duly 
licensed, and no certificate is valid after a dis- 
continuance of service of two years. Candidates, 
for provisional licenses, or certificates, must be 
examined in reading, spelling, English grammar, 
history of the United States, English literature, 
arithmetic, algebra (through quadratics), plane 
geometry, descriptive astronomy, physics, zoology 
or physiology; and the principles and methods 
of teaching. In order to obtain a permanent 
certificate for any position or grade, the candi- 
date's practical efficiency must be attested, and he 
must be able to pass an examination in the par- 
ticular subjects required to be taught in the 
grade, as well as in the methods of teaching the 
same. — The schools are divided into grammar 
and primary schools. Some of the school build- 
ings contain three schools — a male grammar 
school, a female grammar school, and a primary 
school or department (mixed) ; others contain two ■ 
schools — a grammar school, male or female, and 
a primary school, male, female, or mixed; others 
contain only one school, which is a primary 
school (mixed). Each school, or department, is 
under a separate principal, the other grades of 
teachers being vice-principals and assistants. — 
There are also evening schools, including an 
evening high school, and corporate schools, the 
latter being under the charge of their own 
trustees, although participating in the apportion- 
ment of the state school fund. These schools 
include those of the orphan asylums, the Juve- 
nile Asylum and House of Refuge (reformatories) , 
the schools of the Childrens' Aid Society, the 
Female Guardian Society, etc. — The salaries- 



NEW YORK (City) 

paid to teachers are as follows ; to principals 
of male grammar schools — maximum, §3,000; 
minimum, $2,250 ; of female grammar schools — 
max., $2,006; min., $1,200; of primary schools 
— max., $1,800; min., $1,000; to vice-principals 
of male grammar schools — max., $2,500; min., 
$2 ,000 ; of female grammar schools — max., $ 1 ,298 ; 
min., $1,200; of primary schools — max., $1,200; 
min., $900; to male assistants, an average not 
exceeding $1,652; to female assistants in male 
grammar schools, an average of $850, in female 
grammar schools, an average of $767; in primary 
schools, an average of $600. The minimum of 
salary payable to any teacher is $500. — The 
school age is from 4 to 21 years; and "par- 
ents, guardians, or other persons having the 
care or custody of children,'' residing in the 
city, are entitled to send such children to any 
of the public schools. — The course of stiuhi 
of the grammar and primary schools embraces 
reading, spelling, English grammar, geography, 
arithmetic, the history of the United States, 
astronomy, algebra, book-keeping, penmanship, 
drawing, and vocal music. I rerman or French 
may be taught in the three higher grades of the 
grammar-school course, whenever the parents or 
guardians of at least thirty pupils desire it. Pu- 
pils to be promoted to the grammar schools, must 
be able to read in a Third Header, to cipher as far 
as long division (with divisors not exceeding 25), 
have learned the elements of geography, and 
have made some progress in penmanship and 
drawing. Sewing may be taught in the grammar 
schools for girls. The amount of time to be given 
to each study is carefully fixed by the rules of 
the board of education. 

The whole number of schools under the care of 
the board of education is 308, as follows : 46 
grammar schools for males; 46. for females: 13, for 
both sexes (mixed schools) ; 66 primary depart- 
ments (in the same buildings with grammar 
schools) ; 45 separate primary schools ; 7 colored 
schools; 46 corporate schools; 35 evening schools: 
besides the Normal College, the Saturday Nor- 
mal School, for teachers, the Training School, 
and the N. Y. Nautical School. The following 
table presents the school statistics for 1875 : 



Grade of schools. 



Normal College 

Training School 

Saturday Normal 

School 

Grammar Schools. . . 
Primary Department: 

and Schools 

Colored Schools 

Nautical School 

Total in day schools. 

Evening Schools 

Total in public school; 

Corporate Schools. . . 

Grand total 



No. of 

school: 



1 
1 

1 

105 

111 
7 
1 



227 



35 
262 

40 
308 



No. of 
teach- 
ers 



No. of 

pupils en 

rolled 



34 
18 

9 

1,112 

1,388 

37 
3 



2,601 



2,031 
803 

560 
46,813 

109,003 

1,482 

185 



100.S77 



40S 



3,009 



196 



3,204 



24,149 



185,026 



22,812 



207,838 



Average 

attend- 
ance 



1.071 
517 

393 
36,572 

62,418 

872 
97 



101.1140 



10,343 
112,283 



9,092 



121,375 



NEW YORK CITY COLLEGE 64 S> 

Receipts (for 1875 — 6): 
Apportioned to the city by 

the state superintendent $ 584,654.58 
Raised by local tax 2,964,486.98 



Total $3,549,141.56 

Payments : 

For teachers' salaries $2,439,G96.36 

" buildings, sites, re- 
pairs, etc 390,296.22 

" school apparatus, 

books, etc 144,273.29 

Colored schools 39.503.s2 

Corporate " 103,126.05 

Other expenses 432,245.82 

Total ~. $3,549,141.56 

Private, Parochial, and Denomination at 
Schools. — No complete and reliable statistics in 
relation to private schools in the city have been 
collected since 1867, in which year there were 

23 Roman Catholic free schools, having 16.342 
pupils ; 24 R. < '. pay schools, with 6,070 pupils ; 

24 schools of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
with 2,367 pupils ; 22 schools connected with 
other Protestant denominations, with 5,713 pu- 
pils ; 12 Hebrew schools, with 998 pupils ; 25 
German schools, free and private, with 3.641 
pupils ; and 168 other private schools, with 1 1 ,875 
pupils ; making, in all, 298 schools, with 47,006 
pupils. This class of schools has considerably 
increased iu number and attendance since that 
time. At the close of 1875, the Catholic paro- 
chial schools numbered 57, with an enrollment of 
30,732 pupils,— 13,062 boys and 17,670 girls, 
taught by about 380 religious and lay teachers. 
Besides these, there were 18 select schools belong- 
ing to this denomination, which gave instruction 
to about 1,500 pupils. For information in re- 
gard to the educational institutions of a higher 
grade, see New York (Slate). 

NEW YORK, College of the City of, 
is the only free college as yet established by 
any city of the United States which is supported 
wholly by annual taxation. It was originally 
organized as the New York Free Academy, in 
the year 1848, the subject having been first sub- 
mitted to a vote of the citizens, who approved it 
by an overwhelming majority. In the year 1866, 
by act of the legislature, it was "erected into the 
College of the City of New York," but the course 
of study remained unchanged. It is a part of 
the common-school system of the city, and is 
governed by a board of trustees, composed of lite 
members of the board of education and the pres- 
ident of the college. The law also establishes an 
executive committee of nine trustees, including 
the president, for the " care, management, and 
government of the college." An annual ap- 
propriation of $150,000 is made for its support. 
Every thing is free, — tuition, books, and station- 
ery. The expenses for commencement exercises 
and junior class exhibitions are paid by the 
board, and an annual appropriation of $200 is 
made to each of the two literary societies of the 
college. Its students are drawn from the com- 
mon schools. The candidates for admission must 
have attended one year at a common school in 
the city, and must be 14 years of age. The sub- 



650 NEW YORK UNIVERSITY 



NORMAL SCHOOL 



jeots in which they are examined in June of 
each year are those taught in the grammar 
schools. The college curriculum extends through 
5 years, and comprises two fidl courses of study, 
— the ancient, and the scientific. The former has 
for its main feature the study of Latin and 
Greek ; the latter, that of French and German. 
The calculus and mixed mathematics are taught 
only in the scientific course. There is a partial 
course for introductory or first-year students, 
finished in one year, ■ and known as the com- 
mercial course. The students are arranged in 
five classes, introductory, freshman, sophomore, 
junior, and senior. In the collegiate year, 1876 
— 7, there were in the introductory class, 512; 
freshman, 163; sophomore, 80; junior, 57; senior, 
50 ; total, 862. Of these, there were in the an- 
cient course 348 ; in the scientific course, 276 ; 
in the commercial course, 238. As there is no 
requirement in ancient or modern languages for 
admission, these are begun in the college. There 
are 14 professors, who with the president form 
the faculty. In addition to these, there are 1 8 
tutors; total number of instructors, 32. The 
subjects taught are Latin, Greek, French, Ger- 
man, Spanish, English, history, mathematics, 
mechanics, chemistry, natural history, philosophy, 
political economy, and drawing; and, in the com- 
mercial course, phonography, book-keeping, and 
penmanship. Two degrees are conferred, Bach- 
elor of Arts, and Bachelor of Sciences. There 
is also a post-graduate course in engineering. In 
1875 — 6, this had no students ; in the present 
year, 1876 — 7, there are 3. The library con- 
tains 18,000 volumes, and its support is de- 
rived from the iuterest on two bequests, — the 
Grosvenor fund of $30,000, and the Holbrook 
fund of $5,000. The apparatus of all kinds, 
illustrating the principles of chemical, physical, 
and mechanical science, is valued at $20,000. 
The cabinet of natural history is estimated to be 
worth $3,000. — One of the best collections, in 
the United States, of casts from the Elgin mar- 
bles, is in the department of drawing ; and, to- 
gether with other casts from the antique, is val- 
ued at $3,000. The fund for annual medals 
donated by citizens is $5,250. The college 
buildings together with the site are valued at 
$190,000, and belong to the city. There have 
been but two' presidents since the organization 
of the institution : Horace Webster, LL. U., ap- 
pointed in 1848; Alexander S. Webb, LL.D., 
the present incumbent, appointed in 1869. 

NEW YORK, University of the City of, 
was founded in 1830. It is not denominational, 
nor, as its name might imply, a city institution. 
It comprises the following departments : arts, 
science, medicine, and law. Tuition in the de- 
partments of arts and science is free. The in- 
stitution is supported by the rents of the uni r 
versify building and the income of an endowment 
of $200,000, with tuition fees in the departments 
of law and medicine. The course in the depart- 
ment of arts is similar to the ordinary college 
course in the older colleges. A school of civil 
engineering and a school of art are connected 



with the scientific department. In 1874 — 5, the 
number of instructors and students was as fol- 
lows : arts and science, 14 instructors and 140 
students ; fine arts, 1 instructor and 13 students; 
medicine, 34 instructors and 385 students ; law, 
5 instructors and 55 students; total, 54 instructors 
and 593 students. The chancellors of the uni- 
versity have been as foUows : the Rev. James M. 
Mathews, L>. D., 1830—38 ; the Hon. Theodore 
Frelinghuysen, LL. D., 1838 — 49; the Rev. Isaac 
Ferris, D. O., LL. D., 1852—70 ; and the Rev. 
Howard Crosby, D.D., LL.D., the present in- 
cumbent, appointed in 1870. 

NEW ZEALAND. See Australia. 

NIEMEYER, August Hermann, a Ger- 
man educator and author, born Sept. 1., 1754 ; 
died July 7., 1828. In 1779, he was appointed 
extraordinary, and, in 1784, ordinary professor 
of theology in the university of Halle, holding 
at the same time the position of inspector of the 
theological seminary. He was a great-grandson 
of A. H. Francke (q.v.),and gained great celeb- 
rity as one of the directors of the institution 
of Francke, to which position he was appointed 
in 1785; and when, in 1787, a teachers' semi- 
nary was added to these institutions, Niemeyer 
was placed at the head of it. In 1807, owing to 
his exertions, the university which had been 
closed by Napoleon, was re-opened by King 
Jerome; and ISiiemeyer was appointed chancellor 
and rector perpetuus. In this office, he was con- 
firmed by the king of Prussia, and held it with 
great success for nine years. Niemeyer is the 
author of an important work on the principles 
of education and instruction (Grundsctize der 
Erziehung und des Unterriclits, 1799), in which, 
for the first time, German pedagogy was brought 
into a system, and which contained one of the 
earliest attempts at a history of education. As 
the first principle of education, Niemeyer re- 
gards the harmonious development of the facul- 
ties with which we are endowed. His Grund- 
satze der Erziehung etc. gradually grew from 
one to three volumes, and he himself edited 
eight editions of the work. 

NORMAL COLLEGE. See New York* 
{City). 

NORMAL SCHOOL, the name given, in 
the United States and some other countries, to 
a school for the instruction and training of teach- 
ers, being a translation of the French term ecole 
normale (from the Latin norma, a rule or model), 
applied to such schools on their establishment in 
France. "The term normal school," says Hart 
(In the Scliool-Boom, Phil, 1868) "is an unfort- 
unate misnomer, and its general adoption has led 
to much confusion of ideas." In England, these 
institutions are styled training colleges, and in 
Germany seminaries. Connected with these 
schools there are usually model schools, or schools 
of practice, in which the theoretical principles 
and methods taught are applied to the actual 
work of instruction and discipline. For full in- 
formation in regard to the history, and the prin- 
ciples and plan of organization, of normal schools, 
see Teachers' Seminaries. 



NORTH CAROLINA 



651 



NORTH CAROLINA, one of the thirteen 
original states of the American Union, having 
an area of 50,704 sq. in., and a population, in 
1870, of 1,071,361, of whom 678,470 were whites, 

391,650 colored persons, and 1.241 Indians. 

Educational History. — The constitution of 
1770 provided that "a school or schools shall be 
established by the legislature for the convenient 
instruction of youth, with such salaries to the 
masters, paid by the public, as may enable them 
to instruct at low prices; and that all useful 
learning shall be encouraged in one or more 
universities." This is believed to be the first 
declaration made by the authorities of the state 
in the interest of education. Nineteen years after, 
the state university was organized: but no action 
was taken for the establishment of public schools 
till 1810, when the general assembly, at the in- 
stance of the governor, took measures to pro- 
vide a general system of public instruction. For 
this purpose, a committee of three was charged 
with the duty of devising such a system, in ac- 
cordance with the recommendations of the gov- 
ernor and the assembly, previously made. The 
result of their action is best discussed under the 
three following heads: (I) The establishing of 
schools ; (II) The mode of maintaining them; 
(III) The mode of supervising them. 

I. The plan proposed by the committee was 
thorough, beginning with the establishment of 
primary schools, to be followed by academies 
which should prepare the way for admission into 
the university already established. In their de- 
liberations, they considered the organization of 
the schools, their discipline and government, the 
course of studies to be pursued, the mode of in- 
struction, the creation of a permanent school 
fund, and the constitution of a board for its 
management. Their report was favorably con- 
sidered by the assembly, and passed to its first 
reading, but, unfortunately, went no further, 
owing to the difficulty of raising the money 
needed to make the proposed system effective. 
Nothing further was done till 1825, when a fund 
was created for the establishment and support of 
'■common and convenient schools for the instruc- 
tion of youth in the several counties of the state." 
For this purpose, the second section of the act of 
that year constitutes the governor, the chief 
justice of the supreme court, the speakers of the 
senate and house of commons, and the treasurer 
of the state, a board, "for the promotion of learn- 
ing, and the instruction of youth". Under the 
name of The President and Directors of the 
Literary Fund, they were empowered to hold 
Teal and personal property, and to sell, dispose of, 
and improve the same. In 1832, Joseph ( 'aid- 
well, the president of the university, aroused the 
attention of the state to the need of public 
schools, by the publication of a pamphlet con- 
sisting of eleven letters which had been furnished 
by him to a local paper. In these letters, he 
called attention to the progress made by the com- 
mon schools of other states and countries, enumer- 
ated the difficulties in the way of such progress 
in North Carolina, and suggested means for sur- 



' mounting them. In 1836, the board was changed 
so as to consist of the governor and three other 
members appointed by him biennially. In 1837, 
the legislature made it their duty to prepare a 
plan for common schools, suited to the resources 
and condition of the state. In obedience to this 
act, the board, in 1838, submitted an exhaustive 
report, in which, after comparing the educational 
condition of the state with that of others, and 

j of the countries in Europe most advanced in 
this respect, they proposed to divide the state 
into 1,250 school-districts, and to erect in each a 

j school-house of the best materials, and according 
to the most approved method in regard to size, 
plan, and location. According to the condition 
of the school fund at that time, it was estimated 
that each of these schools would receive about 
$240 annually. With the scanty means at the 
disposal of the people, they could hope only to 
lay the foundation of a system, trusting to after 
years to establish also schools and colleges for 
more advanced instruction. In January, 1839, 
the legislature took positive action upon the re- 
port, directing that counties should be divided 
into school-districts six miles square, and that an 
election should he held in each county to ascertain 
the wishes of the people in regard to the schools. 
Nearly every county voted in favor of their 
establishment. In all such counties, the county 
court was directed to levy a tax for the building 
of a school-house in each district, large enough 
to accommodate at least fifty pupils. It was 
also made the duty of the court to choose not 
less than five superintendents for the county, 
whose duty it should be to make the division into 
school-districts according to the plan already 
mentioned, and to appoint not less than three 
school-committee men in each, "to assist the 
superintendents in all matters pertaining to the 
establishment of schools in their respective 
districts." — In 1840, a school law was passed 
which substantially continued in force till 1865. 
By an act passed in 1844, county superintend- 
ents were permitted to lay out school-districts of 
such form and size, for one school each, as they 
might deem most convenient for the inhabitants 
of the county. As the money appropriated by the 
state was to be divided equally among the dis- 
tricts, the effect was to increase greatly their 
number. The result was, that about $250,000 
was annually divided among the districts, the 
number of which had increased to 3,000, but 
without accomplishing the best results. 

II. There have been two principal sources for 
the maintenance of the schools: (1) the income 
of permanent funds; and (2) taxes. 

(1) The Income of Permanent Funds. — In 
1825, the legislature created a fund for the sup- 
port of schools, to consist of the dividends re- 
ceived from stock, then held or afterwards ac- 
quired by the state, in banks and works of inter- 
nal improvement; the liquor tax; the unexpended 
balance of the agricultural fund; money paid to 
the state for entries of vacant lands ; money de- 
rived from the sale of swamp lands; and such 
sums as the legislature might, from time to time, 



652 



NORTH CAROLINA 



appropriate. In 1837, the state received, by the 
removal of its deposits from the United States 
treasury, the sum of $1,433,757.39. This, with 
the exception of $300,000, was transferred to the 
literary board, to be set apart as a permanent 
fund for the maintenance of the schools, the in- 
come thence derived, with the amounts received 
from sources above specified, constituting the an- 
nual school fund of the state. The revenue from 
this source, in 1838, amounted to $100,000. In 
1840, the permanent fund was $2,000,000, yield- 
ing an annual income of $120,000. The present 
permanent fund amounts to $2,190,564.65. 

(2) Taxes. — In the report made to the legis- 
lature in 1838, by the literary board, the insuf- 
ficiency of the income of the permanent fund 
for school purposes was plainly pointed out. In 
1840, a tax was levied in each district sufficient 
to build a school-house; and, in 1844, each county 
was required to levy a tax equal to one half of the 
amount annually received from the literary fund. 
In 1868, the constitution of the state directed that 
"the general assembly, at its first session under 
this constitution, shall provide, by taxation and 
otherwise, for a general and uniform system of 
public schools." The following year, the school 
law provided that, in case any township should 
fail, at the annual meeting, to provide for schools 
to be taught four mouths in the year, the school 
committee should immediately forward to the 
county commissioners an estimate of the neces- 
sary expenses; and a tax equal to the amount of 
such estimate should be levied on the township by 
the county commissioners at the same time that 
the county taxes were levied. The act of 1871 — 2 
required that a tax of 6J cents on the $100, and 
20 cents special tax, should be levied; and this, 
with 75 per cent of the state and county poll tax, 
and all other public school funds, should be paid 
at the rate of 50 cents per month, for each 
pupil attending the public schools. The present 
law, enacted in 1872 — 3, levies an annual tax of 
8J cents on the $100, and a special poll-tax of 
25 cents; and this, with 75 per cent of the state 
and county poll-tax and all other school money, 
is distributed among the school-districts according 
to the number of children of school age in each. 

III. The report of the president and directors 
of the literary fund to the legislature, in 1838, 
called attention to the fact that no supervision of 
the schools was maintained by the intelligent por- 
tion of the community, on account of their want 
of pecuniary responsibility, and suggested that 
the portion of the literary fund due each county 
should not be distributed till the county court 
should have levied and collected twice the amount 
due from the fund to the county. They recom- 
mended a thorough organization and supervision 
of the schools. In 1852, Rev. Calvin H. AViley 
was appointed superintendent of schools, and re- 
tained the position till 1865. At that time the 
public schools were closed for want of funds, and 
remained so till 1870. His successors have been 
S. S. Ashley, till 1872; Alexander Mclver, tiU 
1875; and Stephen D. Pool, the present incum- 
bent (1876). 



School System. — The general supervision of 
the schools of the state is vested in a state board 
of education, which consists of the governor, the 
superintendent of public instruction, the secre- 
tary of state, the treasurer, the auditor, and the 
attorney-general. Of this board, the governor is 
the president, and the state superintendent, the 
secretary. The immediate control of the schools 
is committed to the state superintendent, who is 
elected by the people for four years. County 
commissioners are also chosen, who are charged 
with "a general supervision and control of the 
schools in their respective counties". Their duties 
relate chiefly to the financial management of the 
schools ; though, in other respects, they have 
considerable discretionary power. Their efficiency, 
however, is impaired by the fact that their duties 
are confined entirely to office business, there 
being no visiting of the schools on their part, as 
in other states. In each township, a school com- 
mittee of three is elected biennially. This com- 
mittee is empowered to purchase and hold real 
estate and personal property, to receive any gift, 
grant, or donation made for the use of any school 
within its jurisdiction, and to sell or transfer the 
same for school purposes. It is required to make, 
for the use of the county board, an annual census 
of all children of school age, designating race and 
sex, of all public schools, and the number of 
children who do not attend school. It is also re- 
quired to divide the township into suitable dis- 
tricts, and to establish separate schools for white 
and colored children. This committee, also, has 
the power to employ and to dismiss teachers, and 
to regulate their salaries, subject to certain re- 
strictions as to grade. Public schools must be 
maintained not less than four months each year. 
The school age is from 6 to 21 years. The choice 
of text-books rests partly with the teachers and 
partly with the state board ; but no sectarian or 
political text-books are permitted. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
schools in the state, as reported in 1874, was 
4,020, of which 2,820 were for white, and 1,200 
for colored children. The support of the schools 
was derived from the following sources : 

From the state treasury S 38,230.67 

From poll-tax 14S.609.92 

From property-tax 109.434.94 

Balance from previous year.. . 202,129.70 

Total _ ~ $496,405.23 

The expenditures were as follows : 
For salaries of teachers of 

white schools $182,646.53 

For salaries of teachers of col- 
ored schools 77,615.25 

For county examiners 2,854.55 

For school-houses 22,676.46 

For county treasurers' com- 
missions 11,802.06 

Total $297,594.85 

In addition to this amount, $12,450 was dis- 
tributed among 30 public schools from the 
Peabody educational fund. 

The principal items of school statistics were 
the following : 

No. of children of school age, white, 242,768 
colored, 127,192 
Total 369,960 



NORTH CAROLINA 

Mo. of children attending school, white, 119,083 
colored, 56,000 

Total 175,083 

No. of teaclieis employed, white male, 1,496 
white female, 613 

Total white 2,108 

colored male, 515 

colored female, 252 

Total colored 767 

Whole number of teachers employed 2,875 

Normal Instruction. — In the pamphlet pub- 
lished by the president of the state university, 
referred to above, special attention was called to 
the need of qualified teachers, and a plan was 
proposed for supplying this deficiency. No im- 
mediate action, however, was taken. The report 
of the president and directors of the literary 
fund, in 1838, also called attention to the subject, 
ami urgently recommended the establishment of 
normal schools for the education of teachers, and 
advised, also, the establishment of a normal de- 
partment in the state university. The Ashboro' 
Normal School was organized, in 1873, by the 
Randolph County Educational Association, and 
was conducted by the superintendent of the as- 
sociation, one month in 1873, and one in 1874. 
In the former year, 100 teachers received in- 
struction ; in the latter, 75. The Lexington 
Normal School was organized by the Davidson 
County board of education, under a special act of 
the legislature, in August, 1874, and continued 
in session 25 days, under the direction of the 
chairman of the county board of examiners. In 
this scho 1. separate instruction was given to 3(3 
white teachers, and 35 colored teachers. The 
normal department of Shaw University, at Ra- 
leigh, in 1874, had 3 resident instructors 
and CO pupils, of whom 40 were males, and 
20 females. Besides these, teachers' institutes are 
held in various parts of the state. The Williston 
Academy and Normal School, at Raleigh, also 
affords special instruction to teachers. It is sup- 
ported by the American Missionary Association. 
— The Slate Educational Association was estab- 
lished July 11., 1873. 

Secondary Instruction. — Of institutions of 
this grade, there were reported, in 1875, to the 
U. S. Bureau of Education, 27, with 84 teachers 
and 1,G38 pupils, of whom 478 were in classical 
studies, 201 in modern languages, 217 preparing 
for a classical course in college, and 53 for a 
scientific course. There are also preparatory de- 
partments in several of the colleges, which, in 
1875, reported 420 students. 

Superior Instruction. — The institutions which 
furnish instruction of this grade are included in 
the following table. 







When 


Religions 


NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomina- 






ed 


tion 


Davidson College 


Dav. Coll. 


1837 


Presb. 


North Carolina Coll.. 


Mt. Pleasant 


1859 


Luth. 


Butherford College.. 


Excelsior 


1870 


Non-sect. 


Trinity College 


Trinity 


1853 


M. Epis. 


Univ. of N. Carolina. . 


Chapel Hill 


1795 Non-sect. 


Wake Forest College. 


Wake Forest 


1834 iBap. 


"Wilson College 


Wilson 


1872 


Non-sect. 



NORTHERN ILLINOIS COLLEGE 653 

Besides these, there are several institutions for 
the higher education of women. Of these, 6 re- 
ported, in 1874, to the U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 70 instructors and 580 students. 

Scientific and Professional lusl ruction. — Con- 
nected with the state university, there are schools 
of natural science, including chemistry, physics, 
and engineering, and a school of agriculture, en- 
dowed with the congressional land grant. Shaw 
University has a theological department; Trinity 
College, a theological and a law department; and 
Rutherford College, a law school. 

Special Instruction. — The institution for the 
instruction of the deaf and dumb, and blind, was 
founded at Raleigh in 1847. It had. in 1875, a 
corps of 12 instructors, and 208 pupils, of whom 
I 132 were deaf-mutes, and 76 were blind. Special 
I attention is given to music, and there is a mechan- 
ical department, in which practical instruction 
I is given in several industrial branches. The edu- 
I cation of colored children of this class was first 
undertaken in this institution. The Oxford Or- 
phans' Home, at Oxford, under the care of the 
Marion Fraternity, affords an asylum for 115 
orphans. It is sustained by voluntary contribu- 
tions. There is a branch asylum at Mars Hill. 
NORTH CAROLINA, University of, at 
', Chapel Hill, N. C, was chartered in 1787. and 
organized in 1 7!)f>. Exercises were resumed, 
: after a period of suspension, in Sept., 1875. It 
comprises six colleges ; namely, of mathematics, 
of literature (including the schools of Greek, 
Latin, and modern languages), of philosophy 
(schools of metaphysics, and of history and 
political science), of natural science (schools of 
chemistry, applied chemistry, and physics), of 
engineering, and of agriculture (endowed with 
the congressional land grant, and including 
schools of natural history, chemistry, and mili- 
tary tactics). Three regular courses have been 
established: the classical (4 years), leading to 
the degree of Bachelor of Arts; the scientific 
(3 years), leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
Science ; and the course in agriculture (3 years), 
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture. 
The university has an extensive collection of 
geological and mineralogical specimens, and a 
library of about 5,000 volumes and 2,000 pam- 
phlets; the libraries of the two literary societies 
contain about 7,000 volumes each. The cost of 
tuition is $00 a year. In 1870 — 7, there were 
9 instructors and 1 00 students (45 classical, 31 
scientific, 7 agricultural, and 17 optional). Kemp 
1'. Battle is (1876) the president. 

NORTHERN ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at 
Fulton, 111., was first opened, in 1801, as the Wes- 
tern Union College and Military Institute. In 
1866, it was chartered and opened as the Illinois 
Soldiers' College for the education of disabled 
soldiers and sailors of the state. The name was 
changed in 1873, when the college was thrown 
open to both sexes. It is supported by tuition 
fees and the income of an endowment of about 
$20,000. The college building originally cost 
$100,000. The library consists of over 1000 vol- 
umes ; the cabinet is well furnished with spec- 



654 N. W. CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY 



NORWICH UNIVERSITY 



iinens in geology, mineralogy, and palaeontology; 
and the laboratory has a valuable set of philo- 
sophical and chemical apparatus. The regular 
tuition fees vary from $27 to $32^ per year. The 
college has a preparatory collegiate course, an 
academic course (designed especially for those 
preparing themselves for teaching or business), 
and a regular graduating course of four years, 
which seems to be similar to the courses of the 
higher female seminaries. Female students who 
complete the full course, or its equivalent, receive 
the degree of Mistress of Liberal Arts (M.L.A.); 
those completing the English studies of the 
course, that of Mistress of English Literature 
(M. E. L.) ; and male students completing the 
course, the degree of Bachelor of Science (B. S.). 
In 1875 — 6, there were 10 instructors and 111 
students (66 males and 45 females). The pres- 
idents have been, Leander H. Potter, A. M., 1866 
—73 ; William D. P. Lummis, A. M., 1873—5; 
and the Rev. Joseph W. Hubbard, A. M., the 
present incumbent, appointed in 1875. 

NORTH WESTERN CHRISTIAN UNI- 
VERSITY, at Irvington, Ind., founded in 1853, 
is under the control of the Christum denomina- 
tion. It was removed from Indianapolis to its 
present site, about four miles east of that city, 
in 1875. It has a tine new building and a cam- 
pus of 25 acres, situated in a natural grove of 
forest trees. It is supported by the interest on 
an endowment of $300,000, the tuition fees be- 
ing merely nominal. The endowment property 
of the institution amounts to nearly $1,000,000. 
The university is open to all without distinction 
of sex, race, or color. It comprises a college of 
literature (classical) , a college of sciences, a col- 
lege of the Bible (theological) , and a college of 
business, with classes preparatory to the classical 
and scientific departments. In 1875 — 6, the stu- 
dents were as follows : college of literature, 25 ; 
college of science, 12 ; preparatory, 48 ; college 
of the Bible, 23 ; college of business, 44 ; total, 
deducting repetitions, 129. There were 11 in- 
structors. The presidents of the university have 
been as follows: John Young, LL. D., 1855 — 7; 
S. K. Hoshour, D.D., 1858—61; A. R. Benton, 
LL. D., 1861—8 ; Otis A. Burgess, D. D., LL. D., 
1868—70 ; W. P. Black, A.M., 1870—73; and 
Otis A. Burgess again, since 1873. 

NORTHWESTERN COLLEGE, at Na- 
perville, HI., organized in 1861, and chartered in 
1865, is under the control of the Evangelical As- 
sociation. It admits both sexes. The productive 
funds amount to $85,000; the value of its grounds, 
buildings, and apparatus is $50,000. The in- 
stitution has a German course, an English-Ger- 
man course, a commercial department, and an 
art department, in addition to the usual classical 
and scientific courses. In 1873 — 4, there were 
11 instructors and 405 students, including 42 of 
collegiate grade. The Rev. A. A. Smith, A. M., 
is (1876) the president. 

NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
Evanston, 111., under Methodist Episcopal con- 
trol, was chartered in 1851, organized in 1853, 
and opened in 1855. It consists of the following 



departments, or colleges : (1) literature and 
science ; (2) technology ; (3) literature and art 
(Woman's College) ; (4) conservatory of music ; 
(5) college of theology (Garret Biblical Insti- 
tute) ; (6) law (Union College of Law of the 
University of Chicago and the Northwestern 
University); (7) medicine (Chicago Medical Col- 
lege); (8) preparatory school. Departments (6) and 
(7) are located in Chicago. The university has 
a library of about 25,000 volumes, including 
pamphlets, and valuable apparatus and cabinets. 
The value of its buildings, library, and apparatus 
is $400,000 ; of other unproductive property, 
$500,000; productive property, $440,000. lu 
the theological department, tuition is free; in 
the first three departments enumerated above, 
the cost is $45 per annum. There are six paral- 
lel courses of four years each, three in the col- 
lege of literature and science (classical, Latin, 
and scientific, and a course in modern lan- 
guages), and three in the college of technology 
(a course in chemistry, a course in engineering, 
and a course in natural history). The courses 
in the Woman's College are the same as those in 
the colleges of literature and science, and of tech- 
nology. In 1873 — 4, the number of instructors, 
in all the departments, was 62 ; and of students, 
866. The presidents of the university have been 
as follows : the Rev. Dr. Clark T. Hinman, 
1853—6 ; the Rev. Dr. R. S. Poster, 1856—60 ; 
Prof. Henry S. Noyes (vice-president), 1860 — 67; 
the Rev. Dr. E. O. Haven, 1869—72 ; and the 
Rev. Dr. Charles H. Fowler, since 1872. 

NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
Watertown, Wis., chartered in 1864, is under 
the control of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod 
of Wisconsin. It comprises a collegiate, a pre- 
paratory, and an academic department. The 
library contains about 2,000 volumes. The cost 
of tuition is $30 per annum. In 1874 — 5, there 
were 6 instructors and 180 students: collegiate, 
22 ; preparatory, 61 ; academic, 97. The Rev. 
A. F. Ernst, A. M., is (1876) the president. 

NORWAY. See Sweden. 

NORWEGIAN LUTHER COLLEGE, 
at Decorah, Iowa, founded in 1861, is under 
Lutheran control. It is supported by collections 
in the congregations of the Norwegian Lutheran 
Synod of America. It contains 7 classes or 
grades, of one year each. Instruction is free, 
except in the two lower classes, where, since 
Sept. 1., 1876, $30 a year is paid for tuition. 
The value of buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
$120,000 ; the libraries contain about 4,000 vol- 
umes. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors 
and 200 students, the greater part in the pre- 
paratory department. The Rev. Laur Larsen 
has been the president from the organization of 
the college. 

NORWICH UNIVERSITY, a military 
college, at Northfield, Vt., founded in 1834, is 
under Protestant Episcopal control. It has a 
preparatory, a business, and a collegiate depart- 
ment, with a classical and a scientific course, of 
four years each, and a philosophical course of 
three years, leading, respectively, to the degrees 



NOTRE DAME DU LAC 



NOVA SCOTIA 



655 



of B. A., B. S., and B. Ph. Drawing and military 
science are pursued throughout the three courses. 
The charge for tuition, board, etc., is $300 per 
year. In 1874 — 5, there were 8 instructors and 
49 students. The Rev. Josiah Swett, D. D., is 
(1876) the president. 

NOTRE DAME DTJ LAC, University 
of, a Roman Catholic institution at Notre Dame, 
Ind., was founded by the Congregation of the 
Holy Cross in 1842, and chartered in 1844. It 
has commodious buildings finely situated. The 
libraries contain nearly 30,000 volumes. The reg- 
ular charge for board, tuition , etc. , is $300 per year. 
The university has a classical, a scientific, a civil 
engineering, a law, and a commercial department, 
with preparatory and post-graduate courses. In 
1875 — 6, there were 38 instructors and 324 stu- 
dents. The Very Rev. Edward F. Sorin, the 
founder of the institution, was its president for 
twenty-two years. The Rev. Patrick J. Colovin, 
C. S. C, is (1876) the president. 

NOTT, Eliphalet, an American educator, 
born at Ashford, Ct.. June 25., 1773 ; died at 
Schenectady, \. Y., Jan. 29., I860. He studied 
theology, and was sent, as teacher and missionary, 
to central New York, locating himself at Cher- 
ry Valley. He was soon after called to the 
pastorate of the Presbyterian Church in Albany, 
where his sermon on the death of Hamilton 
made him celebrated. In 1804, he was chosen 
president of Union College, at Schenectady, 
which position he held till his death. During 
this long period, nearly 4,000 students were 
graduated. Dr. Notts principal works are Coun- 
sels to Young Men (1810), often republished, 
and Lectures on. Temperance (1847), besides 
many addresses, discourses, and sermons. Physical 
science, also, received a large share of his atten- 
tion, about 30 patents for inventions having been 
obtained by him. 

NOVA SCOTIA, a British province of 
North America, forming a part of the Dominion 
of Canada. It has an area of 21 .731 sq. m.; and 
its population, in 1871, was 387,800. It was 
first settled, in 1605. by the French under De 
Monts, at Port Royal (now Annapolis) ; but, 
in 1621, the country being claimed as a part 
of Virginia, James I. granted it to Sir William 
Alexander, under the title of Nova Scotia. It, 
however, continued in the possession of France 
until 1713, when it was formally ceded to the 
English by the treaty of Utrecht. The island 
of Cape Breton was annexed to it in 1763. and 
the province of New Brunswick separated from 
it in 1784. In 1867, it became a member of the 
Dominion of Canada. 

Educational History. — The highest school 
authority in the province, is the council of public 
instruction, composed of the members of the 
executive council. The superintendent, who is 
also a member, and the secretary of the council 
are appointed by the lieutenant-governor. The 
council appoints an inspector for each county, 
upon the recommendation of the superintendent, 
and with his concurrence prescribes text-books, 
library books, and school-house plans. The coun- 



cil also makes regulations for the expenditure of 
the school grants, for the location, construction, 
and control of county academies, and the classi- 
fication of teachers ; appoints four provincial 
examiners for teachers' licenses ; determines ap- 
peals from trustees, and may take such action 
as any special exigencies require. The super- 
intendent has, subject to the council, the super- 
vision of the inspectors, the normal and the 
common schools, and the county academies, also 
the enforcement of the law. He inspects the 
academies, and. if directed, other schools ; holds 
meetings and teachers' institutes ; reports on 
school management and teachers' qualifications ; 
furnishes printed regulations and instructions to 
school officers, and makes an annual report with 
suggestions. The lieutenant-governor appoints 
for the several districts, corresponding to the civil 
counties, a board of seven commissioners. The 
commissioners are required to name a day when 
all semi-annual school returns will be received at 
the inspector's office, and to endorse on each of 
such returns their approval or disapproval, and 
they may authorize, on the inspector's recom- 
mendation, the payment of a grant to a licensed 
teacher of a. poor section. The commissioners 
may settle disputes in regard to teachers' sala- 
ries, and may appoint trustees in certain cases. 
They may. upon the inspector's report, declare 
school premises to be unfit for use ; and in such 
a ease, the provincial aid to the section is with- 
held unless the necessary improvement is pro- 
vided. They may cancel or suspend the license 
of a teacher for sufficient cause ; but in the case 
of incapacity or negligence, they must notify the 
trustees and the superintendent. The inspector 
is required to inspect semi-annually each school 
and academy in his district, and report thereon 
to the superintendent, lie must also give such 
information to trustees and teachers as may be 
required, and assist in improving the methods 
of school management. He must make an annual 
report to the superintendent on the 1st of De- 
cember, specifying the work performed and its 
results. Every section has a board of three trust- 
ees, one elected each year, from among the qual- 
ified voters at the annual meeting. If a section 
fails to elect a trustee, or a trustee refuses or fails 
to serve for twenty days, the commissioners are 
required to fill such vacancy. If a person elected 
a trustee, refuses or fails to serve, he is liable to 
a fine of $20, which is applied to aid the erec- 
tion of school-houses. The school year consists 
of two terms : the winter term, from Nov. 1. to 
April 30., and the summer term, from May 1. to 
Oct. 31. The school time, holidays, and vaca- 
tions are regulated by the council. Trustees must 
employ a licensed teacher, and, if necessary, an 
assistant, for not less than five months, or in a 
poor section, three months in a year. No teacher 
can establish a school without an agreement with 
the section trustees. The annual grant from the 
provincial treasury for the public schools is 
$117,000, of which the city of Halifax receives 
$7,500. This grant is divided according to the 
total days' attendance of registered pupils at the 



656 



NOVA SCOTIA 



NUMBER 



common schools, the distribution for each term 
being made for the corresponding term of the 
preceding year. Halifax constitutes one school 
section, with a board of thirteen commissioners, 
who form a corporation, and of whom seven are 
appointed by the government, and six by the city 
council. The governor may appoint principals 
of the normal and model schools, who with the 
approval of the council, may appoint their assist- 
ants. The general control of the normal school 
is in the hands of the superintendent. An an- 
nual grant of $600 is made to each county acad- 
emy. The normal school has but one term, 
commencing on the first Wednesday in Novem- 
ber, and closing on the Friday preceding the 
annual provincial examinations, in July. Before 
entering, every student must declare his or her 
intention to teach three years in the schools of 
the province ; otherwise, a fee of $20 is charged. 
The chief town of each county is entitled to a 
grant for an academy, on complying with certain 
conditions. The first or highest department is 
open, free of charge, to all children of the county 
who are able to pass the required examination. 
"Whenever the chief town fails to obtain the 
grant, or to maintain an efficient academy, the 
council reserves the right to treat with any other 
section in the county for the establishment and 
proper maintenance of such academy. — The au- 
nual examination of teachers takes place on the 
first Tuesday after July 15. All licenses are 
valid in any part of the province until revoked 
for cause ; but nobody under 15 years of age is 
allowed to teach unless with the express approval 
of the inspector. A system of evening schools 
is authorized for persons over 13 years of age. 
The number of teachers, in 1874, was 686. The 
number of pupils enrolled during the year was 
93,512 ; and the number present, of each 100 
registered, was, in the winter, 52.9 ; and in the 
summer, 57.1. The normal school had 118 pu- 
pils under instruction and training, of whom 80 
received licenses to teach. The total number of 
teachers examined was 1,198, of whom 594 were 
licensed. The expenditure for the public schools 
was §552,221, of which the government grant 
was $157,481; and for the normal and model 
schools, $4,733, all of which expense was borne 
by the govermnent. In 1875, there were 10 
county academies, with 43 teachers and 2,614 
pupils. There are also a number of special acad- 
emies, of which the Horton Collegiate School, 
with 145 pupils, and the Picton Academy, with 
120 pupils, in 1875, are the largest. The latter 
institution was founded, in 1816, on the plan of 
a Scotch college, but without the power of con- 
ferring degrees. In addition to these academies, 
there is a high school at New Glasgow, founded 
in 1860. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb 
is almost entirely free ; in 1875, it had 5 teachers 
and 42 students. The University of Dalhousie 
now virtually fills the place for many years oc- 
cupied by the academy ; and the latter is now 
organized as the highest or academic grade of the 
schools of the town. There were, in 1875, five 
colleges : Dalhousie College and University, Hali- 



fax; St. Mary's College (Roman Catholic), Hali- 
fax; Acadia college (Baptist), Wolfville ; St. 
Francis College (Roman Catholic), Antigonish; 
and King's College and University (Church of 
England), Windsor. Of these, King's College and 
Dalhousie College are the largest. The former 
originated in a recommendation made by a com- 
mittee of the House of Assembly, in 1787. It 
was founded by an act of parliament, in 1788, 
and received a royal charter from George III., 
in 1802. Connected with, it, is a school of civil 
engineering, a library of 6,000 volumes, and a 
museum containing fine collections in the various 
departments of natural history. A collegiate 
school, which is also connected with it, prepares 
boys for the college. It had, in 1875, 5 professors 
and an endowment fund of $106,891. Dalhousie 
College had, in 1875, 6 professors and an endow- 
ment fund of $99,233. There is a medical facul- 
ty in connection with the college, in which, in 
1875, there were 11 professors. — See Marling, 
Canada Educational Yearbook for 1876 ; 
Lovell's Gazetteer of British North America. 

NOVELS. See Fiction. 

NUMBER is here considered as a branch of 
elementary or object instruction. Great impor- 
tance should be placed on the means by which 
children acquire their first ideas of number. 
Since a child's knowledge of this subject begins 
with counting, the first exercises for teaching it 
should be the counting of objects. The child 
may first be taught to count as far as ten by us- 
ing the numeral frame (q.v.), or buttons, pencils, 
the fingers, sticks, marks, or other objects. Next 
he should be taught to count groups of balls, 
buttons, sticks, or other objects, used to repre- 
sent the several numbers, one, two, three, four, 
five, etc. By using the groups of objects thus 
counted as illustrations of the several numbers, 
figures may readily be taught. Let the pupil 
count one ball on the numeral frame, one pencil, 
one finger, one mark, and then show him the 
figure 1 to represent the number of each object. 
Jsext let him count, in groups, two balls on 
the numeral frame, two pencils, (wo fingers, 
two marks, etc.; then show the figure 2 as a 
symbol of the number of objects in each group. 
Afterward, require the pupil to count balls, pen- 
cils, and other objects in groups of three, and 
then show the figure 3 as the representative of 
the number counted in each group. In a similar 
manner, the several figures from 2 to 9 may be 
associated, and their value learned by means of 
counting. In order to teach children the value 
of the several figures by personal experience, let 
them count in groups two balls, or buttons, etc., 
and observe that each group contains two ones, 
— that tivo is equal to one and one more, or two 
ones. After the pupils have counted several 
kinds of objects in groups of three, lead them to 
notice that one and one and one, or three ones, 
make three, also that two and one make three. 
Proceeding in the same manner to count in groups 
four objects, let the pupils observe that four ones, 
or two and one and one, or three and one, or two 
and two, or two times two, make/owr. By means 



NUMERAL FRAME 



657 



of similar exercises, the value of each number 
from ta-o to nine may be thoroughly learned by 
children. As additional exercises, or a review 
of previous lessons, let the pupils count as many 
balls on the numeral frame, or hold up as many 
fingers, as the given figure represents. By this 
means.all the figures from 1 to 1) may be learned 
as symbols of numbers. In subsequent lessons, 
for teaching figures as representatives of num- 
bers greater than nine, let the figures be arranged 
in groups as follows : 

First group, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
Second group, 10,11,12, 13, 14, IS, 16, 17,18, 19 
Tliird group, 20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29 

and so on to 99. Requiring the pupils to count 
as many balls, or other objects, to represent in 
order the numbers symbolized by each of these 
groups, will lead them to understand the value 
of the numbers that are expressed with two 
figures. This part of the instruction may be 
greatly facilitated by giving the pupil several 
small sticks, like matches, and requiring him to 
count and tie in bundles as many sticks as each 
of the figures from 1 to 9 represents. Then to 
furnish the pupil with favorable opportunities 
of learning, by personal observation and experi- 
ence, that each number represented by two fig- 
ures in thj second group is composed of one 
bundle of ten ours, and one or more single ones 
added, let him count and tie in a bundle ten 
sticks to represent the number 10 ; and then tie 
ten sticks in a bundle and add to it one single 
stick to represent the number 1 1 , and so on to 1 9. 
Two bundles of ten sticks each may be made for 
the number 20, and two similar bundles and a 
single stick for 21; and so on to 29. In this 
manner, children may be taught to comprehend 
the value of all the simple numbers to 100. The 
knowledge obtained by means of the exercises 
described above will prepare the pupils to learn 
readily and intelligently both the value and the 
form of writing numbers through hundreds, and 
thereby to understand the principles of numera- 
tion and notation. See CVrrie, Principles ami 
.Practice of Early and Infant School Education 
(Edin. and Lond.); X. A. Calkins, New Primary 
Object Lessons (Xew York. 1871). 

NUMERAL FRAME. This simple appa- 
ratus has been in use for many centuries. In 
some form or other, it is now used for teaching 
number, in all parts of the world. It is some- 
times employed to represent units, tens, hun- 
dreds, thousands, etc., in numeration. This use of 
the numeral frame renders it necessary to give ar- 
tificial values to the balls on different wires; and 
notwithstanding that this is analogous, in order, 
to the arrangement of the numerical system of 
figures, there is danger that young children, by 
the use of it for this purpose, may become con- 
fused between the actual numerical value of a 
ball and its several artificial values. Inasmuch 
as numeration can be illustrated much more in- 
telligently by the method described under Num- 
ber (q. v.) , if aided by the use of the black- 
hoard, it is not advisable to attempt an explana- 



tion of it by the numeral frame ; not, at least, 
until the pupils have acquired a definite under- 
standing of the relation between the value of 
single figures, and their values as dependent upon 
their relative positions in regard to other figures. 
The most important uses of the numeral frame 
are, to teach a class of pupils to count, and to 
illustrate the value of numbers and figures; also 
to teach the first steps in adding, subtracting, 
multiplying, and dividing. For the first steps in 
adding, let the pupils add balls on the numeral 
frame, by ones as far as ten. When thty can do 
this readily, let them add on the blackboard a 
column composed of Is; then let them add alike 
column of figures on their slates. Subsequently, 
teach them to add balls on the numeral frame by 
ticos ; then to add a column of figure 2s on the 
blackboard ; and then on their slates. When the. 
adding of Is and 2s lias thus been learned, pro- 
ceed in the same manner with threes, fom-s, etc. 
After the pupils have learned to add threes as 
above, they may be taught by these three steps 
to add Is and 2s in the same column ; then to 
add Is, 2s, and 3s in the same column. In this 
manner the pupils may be taught to add readily 
and rapidly single columns composed of such 
figures as 6, 7, 8, 9. To give children an idea of 
subtraction, teach them to count backward on 
the numeral frame from ten ; thus, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 
.">, -(. 3, 2, 1, 0. Subsequently, call on a pupil to 
hold the numeral frame, to take one ball from 
two balls, and tell how many remain ; then one 
ball from three balls, etc. Proceed in a similar 
manner with other numbers, taking care to ar- 
range the exercises so as to give the pupils as 
much actual practice as possible in taking balls 
or other objects from a larger number of ob- 
jects. To illustrate the first ideas of multiplica- 
tion to a class of young pupils, arrange the balls 
on the numeral frame in groups of tiros, threes, 
etc. Place on one wire two groups of two each, 
and lead the pupils to perceive that they may 
say that, "two and two make four ;" or that 
''two twos make four'' ; also that "two times 
two make four. " Place on another wire 
three groups of two each, and let the pupils 
observe that "two and two and two make 
six ;" or that " three twos make six," also that 
'three times two are six." Proceed in a similar 
manner with numbers, and so arrange the exer- 
cises as to furnish the pupils as much individual 
practice as possible. After each step has been illus- 
trated by the numeral frame, place figures on 
the blackboard to represent what has been thus 
taught. To illustrate the first ideas of division, 
arrange balls in groups of four, six. eight, ten, etc., 
on the different wires. Lead the pupils to see that 
each of these groups can be divided into groups 
of twos. Then require them to divide the groups 
thus and tell how many groups of twos can be 
made from four balls, six balls, eight balls, etc. 
Let the pupils also find how many threes there 
are in six, nine, twelve ; and how many fours in 
eight, twelve, etc. That which is learned in each 
step may be represented by figures on the black- 
board.. — (See Number.) 



658 



OBERLHST 



OBJECT TEACHING 



OBERLIN, Johami Friedrich, a noted 
philanthropist, and the originator of infant 
schools, was born in Strasbourg, Aug. 31., 1740; 
died at Waldbach, in Alsace, June 1., 1826. He 
was educated in his native city, was occupied as 
private tutor for several years, and, in 1766, be- 
came Protestant pastor of a district in Waldbach, 
which had been reduced to a condition of poverty 
by the devastations of the Thirty Years' War. 
His office as pastor of Waldbach, in the Ban de 
la Roche, in which district the people had been 
brought to a condition of helplessness by igno- 
rance and want, enabled him to exercise the power 
almost of a dictator ; but this power he used 
solely for their good. His first measures were 
purely philanthropic. He introduced better 
methods of cultivating the soil, caused good 
roads, bridges, and dwellings to be constructed, 
and established schools, hospitals, and various 
new branches of manufacture. With the in- 
crease of material prosperity, the moral condition 
of the people was steadily advanced, till, at the 
close of his sixty years' labors, the population, 
originally 500, had increased to more than 5,000; 
and the success which attended his efforts, led, 
in after years, to an unquestioned recognition of 
his claim to a place among the world's benefact- 
ors. His distinctive educational work was the 
establishment of schools, since known as infant 
schools, but then termed asylums, resembling the 
creche (q. v.). In these, he gathered together the 
children of his parishioners for amusement and 
instruction, while their parents were at work. 
The idea of instruction seems originally to have 
been secondary in Oberlin's mind, his first 
thought being to occupy the children so as to 
leave their parents free to carry out his plans for 
the amelioration of their condition. The idea of 
instructing them, however, must have presented 
itself almost immediately; and his method, by 
combining these two ideas, was productive of the 
happiest results. In all his efforts, he was affec- 
tionately seconded by his housekeeper, Louisa 
Schepler. Memoirs of the life of Oberlin have 
been published as follows: T. Sims, Brief Memo- 
rials of Oberlin (London, 1830) ; Memoirs of 
Oberlin, with a short notice of Louisa Schejiler 
(London, 1838 and 1852) ; and a biography by 
H. Ware, Jr. (Boston, 1845). 

OBERLIN- COLLEGE, at Oberlin, Ohio, 
was opened in 1833 as the Oberlin Collegiate In- 
stitute, and received its present title in 1850. It 
is under Congregational control. Both sexes have 
been admitted from the first; and, in 1835, it was 
resolved to admit colored students. It has valu- 
able apparatus and cabinets, and libraries con- 
taining about 14,000 volumes. The value of its 
buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $170,000; 
the amount of its productive funds, $115,000. The 
tuition fees are small. The college embraces four 
departments: (1) theology; (2) philosophy and the 
arts, with a classical and scientific course, a literary 



course, and select courses; (3) preparatory instruc- 
tion, including a classical and an English school ; 
and (4) a conservatory of music. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 33 instructors. The number of stu- 
dents was as follows: theological, 51; classical and 
scientific, 147 ; literary, 145 ; select, 66 ; classical 
schools, 250 ; English school, 379 ; conservatory 
of music, 288 ; total, deducting repetitions, 1,216 
(648 male and 568 female). The following are' 
the names of the presidents : the Rev. Asa Ma- 
han, 1835 — 50 ; the Bev. Charles G. Finney, 
1851 — 66 ; and the Bev. James H. Fairchild,. 
the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 

OBJECT TEACHING, a method of instruc- 
tion in which objects are employed by means of 
which to call into systematic exercise the observ- 
ing faculties of young pupils, with the threefold 
object, (1) to cultivate the senses, (2) to train the 
perceptive faculty, so that the mind may be 
stored with clear and vivid ideas, and (3), simul- 
taneously with these, to cultivate the power of 
expression by associating with the ideas thus 
formed appropriate language. The merit of 
introducing object teaching as a special method 
of elementary instruction, is usually attributed 
to Pestalozzi; but Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, 
Basedow, Bochow, and others based their systems- 
of education, more or less, upon the same prin- 
ciple; that is, they recognized the necessity of- 
communicating ideas, or of affording to the mind 
the means to grasp ideas from objects, by actual 
perception, before attempting to teach the verbal 
expression of those ideas, and that, without such 
ideas, mere "book-learning" is useless. Pestalozzi 
appears, however, to have had only a slight knowl- 
edge of the works of those educationists. In- 
spired by the reading of Rousseau's imile to- 
study the phases of mental growth, he arrived 
at the conclusion that the teaching of his day 
was fundamentally wrong, from its violation of, 
or inattention to, the laws of mental develop- 
ment. These laws he believed to be, (1) that 
the knowledge of things should precede that of 
words; (2) that, for the acquisition of this knowl- 
edge, the only effective agents, in the first stages 
of mental growth, are the senses, chief of which 
is the eye ; (3) that the first objects to be studied 
by the child are those immediately surrounding 
it, and these, only in their simplest forms and 
relations; and (4) that from these objects as a 
center, the sphere of knowledge should be wid- 
ened by a gradual extension of the powers of ob- 
servation to more distant objects. The first in- 
struction, therefore, according to this plan, should 
consist in concentrating the attention upon con- 
crete things, in such a way as to result in a- 
thorough training of the observing faculties, so 
that the conceptions with which the mind is 
stored may be as well defined, and as true to 
nature, as possible. So impressed was Pestalozzi 
with the correctness, and the supreme importance, 
of this method, that he declares in, Wie Gertrud 



OBJECT TEACHING 



659 



ihre Kinder lehrt (1806). that the sum of his 
achievements in education is the establishment 
of the truth that "the culture of the outer and 
inner senses is the absolute foundation of all 
knowledge — the first and highest principle of 
instruction." The failure of the first attempts of 
Pestalozzi and his followers, however, in the 
practical application of his theories, was dis- 
couraging ; and the faith of the progressive edu- 
cators who had accepted them as a new gospel, 
was seriously shaken. The reason of their fail- 
ure, however, was that their practice was in con- 
flict with the very principles which Pestalozzi 
had enunciated as fundamental. The human 
body, with which they began their instructions, 
is not only highly composite in its structure, and 
difficult of description in the language of the 
child, but, by its very nearness, is rendered unfit 
for an object of study by children, their senses 
being most powerfully, and, indeed, almost ex- 
clusively, turned to the observation of objects 
external to themselves. By attempting, there- 
fore, to name in detail and to describe the limbs, 
their form, color, size, actions, and uses, the 
new theory was exposed to the ridicule of its 
enemies, and placed in serious peril. In all the 
Protestant countries of Europe, however, and 
especially in Germany, the leaven of truth con- 
tained in the principles of Pestalozzi, wrought a 
gradual but sure reform in the old method of 
instruction. Attention having been turned to a 
serious consideration of the new system, a num- 
ber of pedagogical writers contributed, by their 
discussion of its principles, to give definite form to 
the truth of the theory, and gradually to improve 
its practice. Among these writers, the names of 
Harnisch, Denzel, 1 ffiiter.Diesterweg. Grassmann. 
Graser, Wurst. ( 'urtmann, Yolter. and I >ittes, de- 
serve mention, though scarcely any two of them 
agree as to the order in which the objects should 
be introduced, the relative importance of the 
purposes for which they are used, or the extent 
to which the exercises should be carried. Object 
teaching became universal in the primary schools; 
and the dignity and usefulness of the teacher 
were increased by the very impossibility of pre- 
scribing any one method in which the principles 
should be applied, thus giving special prominence 
to the fact that the determining cause in favor 
of one method over another was the individual 
ability of the teacher. Instead of one invariable 
method, which might be unintelligently acquirec 1 
and mechanically applied, a variety of methods 
now presented themselves, each dependent for its 
success upon circumstances. The individuality of 
the pupil suddenly acquired a new importance; 
and the teacher's individuality, also, became, 
more than ever before, an essential factor in the 
successfid conduct of the school. For the diffi- 
cult work thus foreshadowed, a long and care- 
ful preparation was necessary on the part of the 
student. The first step in this preparation was 
the observation of the educational work of some 
good teacher; then, a thorough study, in the nor- 
mal school, of the subjects of pedagogy, psychol- 
ogy, the history of education, the natural 



sciences, universal history, mathematics, and arts; 
and, finally, a course of practical teaching in trial 
lessons, under the supervision of model teachers 
and the student's own associates. Among the 
writers above mentioned, one of the principal 
points of controversy was in regard to the neces- 
sity of educating the senses. Many denied alto- 
gether this necessity, and insisted that object 
teaching should be reserved exclusively for exer- 
cises in using and understanding language. The 
senses, so they argued, take care of themselves, 
whenever an interest in surrounding objects is 
awakened by the necessities of daily life; and the 
common school, they said, can present but few ob- 
jects of interest on wdiich the senses can be prof- 
itably exercised If. for instance, pictures of ob- 
jects are presented — as is most freq uently the case, 
and if these pictures are large and faithful copies 
of the originals — wdiich is rarely the case — the 
exercise is still confined to only one sense: and 
experience proves that this is insufficient to 
awaken a lively interest. The impression made 
on the sight, therefore, is short-lived and feeble. 
If, on the other hand, the objects themselves are 
produced, as these are generally house utensils, 
or articles of school furniture, only a languid 
interest is aroused in the pupils' minds, because 

I there is rarely any new feature to be observed 
in objects so familiar. The incentive to any ob- 
servation or comparison of qualities, therefore, is 
utterly wanting; and any sharpening of the senses 
is improbable. If, on the contrary, the exercises 
upon objects be earned on for the purpose of en- 
riching the child's vocabulary, and of storing his 
mind with just and accurate conceptions, by 
causing him to connect with every word its proper 
idea, all will have been done to benefit the pupil 
that can reasonably be expected. The opponents 
of this view, how-ever, insisted that the use of ob- 
ject teaching for the exclusive purpose of the ac- 

j quisition of language, would overthrow that 
fundamental principle of the system which dis- 
countenances mere word learning. The correct 
understanding and use of language, also, they 
thought, coidd be learned as well from books and 
conversation; while, if the child is made to under- 
stand, that to talk fluently and correctly of ob- 
jects is all that is required, and that a real knowl- 
edge of those objects is of no consequence, clever 
talk will always be more highly valued by him 
than exact knowdedge. According to their view, 
the pupil brings with him to the primary school 
only the raw material out of which objective 

i knowledge and the proper use of the senses may 
be developed : his mental pictures are wanting 
in definiteness and iu order. These must be 
taken to pieces, i. e., analyzed, and recomposed, 
i. e., synthetized, at the sight, hearing, or touch, 

| of real objects. If the interest of the children in 
the exercise of the senses is lacking, it is the 
teacher's duty to excite it; and this should be 

I easy with young children, if the teacher's inter- 
est in the subject is lively enough to communicate 
itself to them. — While the rapid progress of 
science and art in our day infinitely augments 
the mass of knowdedge which it is desirable and 



660 



OBJECT TEACHING 



important for every body to learn, the increasing 
artificiality of our daily life tends to alienate us 
from a spontaneous exercise of our senses; and 
this deficiency must be supplied by education, to 
enable us to compass the amount of knowledge 
which it is desirable to acquire. The exercise of 
the senses is not only practically useful, but it is, 
in most cases, full of interest. To illustrate this, 
let pupils be asked to estimate by sight the length 
of a pen-holder, the dimensions of a window pane, 
distances on the floor or on the ground, the 
weight of objects that can be held in the hand: 
or to distinguish shades of color, and the differ- 
ences in pitch or quality of musical sounds. Such 
exercises are not only amusing, but useful ; while, 
on the other hand, there is abundant evidence 
that the circumstances of daily life do not, of 
themselves, educate the senses. Thus, let a 
dozen countrymen be asked the length of a cer- 
tain way over which they often travel, and 
the probability is that a dozen different answers 
will be given, many of them wide of the mark. 
Instances might be multiplied indefinitely to 
show that the senses are not self -educative. Some 
educators, while not objecting to any of the five 
purposes to which object lessons may be applied; 
namely, (1) the preparation of the pupil for 
serious learning; (2) the sharpening of the senses, 
and the exercise of all the mental functions; 
(3) exercise in language ; (4) the acquisition of 
knowledge; and (5) moral training; still have in- 
sisted that a distinction should be made between 
object leaching and objective teaching; the former 
comprising exercises in which the objects are 
taught for themselves, i. e., for instruction in all 
the properties which are peculiar to them ; the 
latter, for the acquisition of that generalized or 
fundamental knowledge which is common to 
many widely different objects. The former, they 
contended, should occupy only a part of the 
time during the first year or two, after which 
it should cease ; but every branch of learning 
should, in turn, be treated objectively. The 
method of procedure should be, first, the presen- 
tation of the object. This should be analyzed by 
the pupils, and immediately reconstructed, the 
teacher supplying nothing but technical terms 
which are supposed to be unknown to the pupils, 
but guiding them by conversation to observe, com- 
pare, and reason correctly and in proper language, 
to rise from the single features of the object to 
its entirety, from similar features to generali- 
zations, from the concrete to the abstract,- from 
facts to laws. The opponents of this view said 
that the principle was good, but did not go far 
enough. In the first place, there is a vast body 
of knowledge that cannot be treated objectively. 
All facts, for instance, in regard to the days of 
the week, and the months, their names, number, 
etc.; many facts in regard to time, such as the 
number of seconds in a minute, the number of 
minutes in an hour, etc., the names of the 
seasons, the method of telling time by the 
clock, — these and many other necessary facts 
cannot be objectively presented, but must be 
learned arbitrarily; while, at a later period in 



education, there appear astronomical, geograph- 
ical, and historical facts, which must simply be 
taken on trust, and committed to memory. In 
view of these things, text-books are indispen- 
sable; and all attempts to teach without them are 
useless, and result in a waste of precious time. 
While recognizing, therefore, the value of object 
teaching in many branches, and its pre-eminent 
value in a few, they assert that it has its natural 
limitations beyond which memorizing and an 
adherence to the text-book are the only proper 
means to be relied upon by the teacher. At the 
present time, this latter view — that a combination 
of the two methods should be employed, is in the 
ascendant. In Europe, especially in Germany, this 
reactionary movement is thought to be fostered 
from political and religious motives. In the United 
States, the demand for teachers has so far ex- 
ceeded the supply from the normal schools, with- 
out a corresponding rise in salaries, that the 
standard of qualifications for teachers has not 
been maintained at the height which many edu- 
cational reformers had hoped it would be. In short, 
the principles and system of Pestalozzi cannot be 
said, at the present time, to be fully carried out. 
Object teaching should be begun as early as pos- 
sible, and in the manner of the kindergarten, 
and should be followed by objective and con- 
ceptive teaching, which should be carried through 
every branch of learning. The mental growth of 
pupils, however, should not be retarded by a 
superfluous vise of this method. A safe criterion, 
by which the teacher may know, at any moment, 
whether he has made a proper use of the object 
method, may be found in the self-activity of 
his pupils, their abilit}' to grasp, in their answers 
to his questions, the general fact, proposition, or 
law. The new method is justly called the devel- 
oping method (q. v.), the pupils' minds being 
made to develop themselves, the teacher only 
suggesting what they are to discover. Every 
pupil is, as it were, to rediscover every science in 
the genetic method (q. v.) , a difficult task for the 
teacher, and apparently a circuitous way for the 
pupil. But because of its thoroughness, it is the 
most rapid way of learning ; and its results are 
indelibly fixed in the mind. This method, also, 
if early begun, and consistently carried out, is 
successful with every child, and saves precious 
time, which, later in life, may be devoted to those 
higher branches that lie beyond the common- 
school course, but which are every year becom- 
ing, in many cases, highly desirable, and, in some, 
indispensable. The literature of object teaching 
is much too extensive to permit the enumeration 
here of more than a few of the principal works. 
Pestalozzi's complete works are now (1876) 
undergoing, in Germany, a second revision. Die- 
sterweg's monthly, Rheinische Blatter, contains, in 
its long series, and in its continuation by Wichard 
Lange, more information on this subject than 
any other work. The latest German work of 
a progressive nature is Fr. Dittes's Die MethodiJc 
der Volksschule auf geschichtlicher Grundlage 
(Leipsic, 1874). In English literature, compare the 
works enumerated under Kindergarten. See 



OBSERVING FACULTIES 



OHIO 



661 



also, Kbusi's Biography of Pestalozzi (('in., 
18751; Hailman, History of Pedagogy (('in., 
18741 ; and, Outlines of Object Teaching (N. Y., 

1867) ; N. A. Calkins. Primary Object Lessons 
(N. Y, 1873); Currie, Principles and Practice 
of Early School - Education (Edin., 1857); 
Barnard, Object Teaching (N. Y., 18G0). (See 
also Color, Form, Number, and Pestalozzi.) 

OBSERVING FACULTIES. See Intel- 
lectual Education, and Object Teaching. 

OHIO, one of the central states of the Amer- 
ican Union, at first a part of the North-west 
Territory, was admitted into the Union as a 
state in 1802, but not organized as such till 
March, 1803. Its area is 39,904 sq. m.; and its 
population, in 1870, was 2,065,260, of whom 
63,213 were colored persons. 

Educational History. — The germ of public 
education in Ohio is to be found in the ordinance 
of July 13., 1787, enacted to provide a terri- 
torial government for the region north-west of the 
Ohio river. At that time, an association of people 
of New England — chiefly soldiers of the Revolu- 
tion — organized as the < >hio ( 'ompany of Asso- 
ciates, was negotiating with Congress for a large 
tract of land in the west. Geu. Rufus Putnam was 
the acknowledged leader of the movement, and 
the Rev. Manasseh Cutler, LL. I)., of Massachu- 
setts, was the agent to purchase the land. The lat- 
ter was a man of broad and liberal culture; and, 
at the time the ordinance was framed, was con- 
sulted as to its provisions. It is believed that to 
him more than to any other person are to be 
attributed those clauses which have made the or- 
dinance so famous and useful: the prohibition of 
slavery, and the declaration that "religion, moral- 
ity, and knowledge being necessary to good gov- 
ernment and to the happiness of mankind, 
schools and the means of education shall be for- 
ever encouraged.'' By the contract afterward 
signed by Dr. Cutler ami Winthrop Sargent, on 
the part of the Ohio Company, and by the 
Board of Treasury. Oct., 17*7, it was stipulated 
that lot or section number sixteen in each town- 
ship should be set apart for the maintenance of 
schools, and also, that two complete townships 
should be given perpetually for the purposes of 
a university. Under this contract, a settlement 
was made at Marietta, April 7., 17*8. This was 
the first organized white settlement within the 
present limits of Ohio. Stimulated by the 
example of the Ohio Company, John Cleves 
Symmcs, of New Jersey, negotiated, in the lat- 
ter part of the year 1787, for a tract of land 
lying between the two Miami rivers — the region 
which now includes Cincinnati. In connection 
with this purchase, Congress gave another town- 
ship of land for a university. Congress after- 
ward gave the sixteenth section in each township 
of the state, or an area equal to this, for the sup- 
port of common schools. Thus one thirty-sixth 
part of all the land of the state was devoted to 
common schools, besides the three townships for 
universities. The early schools in the state were 
private schools. They were more numerous in 
the settlements formed by immigrants from the 



more enlightened portion of the older states. 
Often graduates of Yale or Harvard were teach- 
ers ; but, as a rule, the teachers had little edu- 
cation, and the range of instruction was very 
limited. In the course of time, school-districts 
were formed, and the small revenues from leases 
of school lands were applied to the payment 
of teachers. Thus the schools gradually were 
changed from private schools to public schools 
under legal control. The first general school 
law was enacted in 1821. This authorized the 
division of townships into school-districts, upon 
a majority vote of the resident householders, the 
appointment of these householders as school- 
committee men, the erection of school buildings, 
the employment of teachers, and the levying of 
taxes upon all the parents and guardians of chil- 
dren attending the schools, who were able to pay. 
Under this law, however, action on the part of 
the people was not obligatory ; and the attitude 
of charity assumed by its provisions toward the 
poor man caused it to become unpopular. In 
1825, another general school law was passed by 
which, for the first time in the history of the 
state, a county tax for the support of the schools 
was directed to be levied. This law provided 
for the " instruction of youth in reading, writing, 
arithmetic, and other necessary branches of a 
common education.'' It authorized the appoint- 
ment, by the court of common pleas, of exam- 
ines of schools, whose duty it was to grant 
teachers' certificates to such applicants only as 
should pass a satisfactory examination in spelling, 
reading, writing, and elementary arithmetic. In 
1829, it was found necessary to supplement the 
county tax by an assessment of rate-bills on all 
school patrons, in order to keep the schools open 
for a reasonable period. The organization at 
Cincinnati, in 1831, of a college of teachers, 
composed of the most prominent educators of 
Ohio and the neighboring states, led to a gen- 
eral awakening on the subject of education, and 
to the need of a superintendent of common 
schools. In 1K37, accordingly, the office of 
state superintendent was created ; and statistical 
information in regard to the sehools was first 
collected by the state school department created 
partly for that purpose. The first annual re- 
port of the state superintendent was largely in- 
strumental in bringing about the enactment of 
the school law of 1838, by which a state school 
fund of $200,000 was created, a county tax of 
2 mills, and local taxes for the building of school- 
houses were imposed, and reports from teachers 
were required. From 1840 to 1853, the secre- 
tary of state was, ex (iffi<-io, state superintendent. 
In the latter year, a law was passed making each 
township a school-district, and creating a town- 
ship board of education, whose duty it was to 
make an estimate, annually, of the money re- 
quired for the schools, except for the payment 
of teachers ; to establish high schools in each 
district, if deemed necessary by a majority of 
Miters — the latter to decide the amount of tax 
to be levied for the purpose ; and to levy a tax 
of not more than 2 mills on the dollar, for the 



662 



OHIO 



payment of teachers in such schools, or for the 
purpose of extending the terms of the sub-district 
schools beyond the time provided for by the 
state funds. Every city or village of 300 in- 
habitants, also, was constituted a separate school- 
district. Various changes have been made in 
the law from that time to 1873, relating prin- 
cipally to the amount of the school tax, and the 
manner in which it should be levied. In that 
year, all previous school laws were codified ; and 
a general law was enacted, by which the various 
systems of local organization were made uniform. 
Slight amendments were made to this law during 
that and the following year. 

State Superintendents. — The first state super- 
intendent of common schools was Samuel 
Lewis, chosen by the general assembly, March 
31., 1837. He held the office until his resigna- 
tion, in 1840 ; when it was abolished, its duties 
being assigned to the secretary of state. Mr. 
Lewis was a man of great earnestness and vigor, 
eloquent in his addresses, and of rare good sense. 
He did a noble work for the cause of popular 
education. The secretaries of state had little 
time to devote to the cause of education, and 
generally did little more than refer to the sub- 
ject in their annual reports. Samuel Galloway, 
who was elected secretary in 1 844, gave the sub- 
ject much attention ; and, by his stirring ad- 
dresses and reports, exerted a wide influence. 
He held the office for six years. In 1853, the 
office of state superintendent was again made a 
distinct one, under the title of State School 
Commissioner, such commissioner to be elected 
by the people, and to hold office for three years. 
H. H. Barney was elected in the fall of 1853. 
He was succeeded by Anson Smith, who held 
the office for two terms, — from 1856 until 1862. 
C. W. H. Cathcart succeeded him, but resigned 
after holding the office nine months ; and E. E. 
White was appointed by the governor to com- 
plete the term, which expired in 1865. His succes- 
sor was John A. Norris, who was re-elected for 
a second term, but resigned in 1869 ; and W. D. 
Henkle was appointed to fill the vacancy. He 
was succeeded by T. W. Harvey, who continued 
in office one term. The present commissioner, 
C. S. Smart, entered upon his duty in 1875. 

School System. — The principal educational 
officer of the state is the state commissioner of 
common schools, who is elected for three years. 
His duties are the following: to prepare annually 
a statistical report, showing the condition of 
the common schools ; to make such suggestions 
or recommendations to the legislature concern- 
ing the schools of the state as he may deem 
proper; to visit annually each of the nine 
judicial districts of the state, "superintending 
and encouraging teachers' institutes, conferring 
with boards of education, and other school offi- 
cers, consulting teachers, visiting schools, and 
delivering lectures on topics calculated to sub- 
serve the interests of popular education. "District 
boards of education are elected by the people. 
They may authorize, for school purposes, a tax 
not exceeding seven mills on the dollar, may di- 



1 rect any language to be taught in the schools, 
and are required to provide instruction in Ger- 
man when it is demanded by 75 freeholders, on 
behalf of not less than 40 pupils who intend to 
; study both German and English. They may 
also establish evening schools for whites, and 
: separate schools for colored children, when these 
I are more than 20 in number. In most of the 
cities and towns, the boards of education ap- 
point superintendents, as officers of the local 
school systems. These superintendents have a 
general oversight of the public schools, but are 
themselves subject to the control of the boards 
of education. They visit the schools, give advice 
to the teachers, and look after many matters 
which would otherwise require the personal at- 
tention of the board. If they are persons of 
thorough culture, they elevate the literary char- 
acter of the teachers and schools, and often exert 
a very wide influence. In some cases, the super- 
intendent does a limited work of personal in- 
struction in the schools. A state board of exam- 
iners, three in number, is appointed for two 
years by the state commissioner, to issue life 
certificates to teachers after strict examination. 
County boards of examiners are also appointed. 
The common-school fund of the state consists of 
the amount derived from a one-mill tax on tax- 
able property, and from the proceeds of the sales 
of public lands. The lands set apart for common 
schools were for a time leasee!, but have now 
nearly all been sold. The proceeds of the sales 
of these school lands constitute " an irreducible 
fund for the support of the common schools 
of the township or other district having credit 
for the same." This fund yields an interest of 
six per cent. To this should be added rents etc. 
on unsold land, and the revenue from certain 
fines and licenses. The chief support of the 
schools, however, comes from direct taxes, state 
and district. At present, each civil township is 
a school-district, managed by a township board 
of education ; and this district is divided into 
sub-districts for the convenience of the inhab- 
itants. The title to grounds, school buildings, 
and all other property, is vested in the township 
board. The local directors of the several sub- 
districts employ the teachers, purchase or lease 
school-house sites, rent school rooms, buy fuel, 
and make all other provision necessary for the 
schools. There are, besides these, city districts 
of the first class, being cities with a population 
of over 10,000, city districts of the second 
class, containing a less population, and village 
districts. In these districts, the boards of edu- 
cation have somewhat enlarged powers. The 
legal school year is 24 weeks ; the school age is 
from 6 to 21 years. 

Educational Condition. — The whole number 
of township districts in the state, in 1875, was 
1,337; of sub-districts in townships, 10,433; of 
city, village, and special districts, 605 ; and of 
district divisions included in city, village, and 
special districts, 701. The whole number of 
school rooms was 14,868, of which 450 were 
classed as high-school rooms. The whole num- 



OHIO 



663 



ber of school-houses was 10.695, the total value 
of which, including grounds, was estimated at 
©8,037,446. The whole amount of school rev- 
enue was as follows : 
Prom interest on irreducible 

funds $215,718.85 

From rents of school lands. .. 22,283.19 

From state school tax 1,500,3117.93 

From local taxes 6,153,442.63 

From sale of bonds 489,408.32 

From fines, licenses, etc. ... 270,160.94 

Total $8,711,411.86 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' salaries $4,787, 963. 76 

Fit superintendents' salaries 15s, 773. 64 

For sites and buildings 1,313,514.86 

For fuel and contingent ex- 
penses 1.391,704.42 

Total $7,651,956.68 

The other important items of school statistics 
are the following : 

No. of children of school age, males, 522,418 
females,495.308 

Total 1,017,726 

Total enrollment: males, 375.436 

females, 336,693 

Total 712,129 

Average daily attendance: males 225,531 
females 209,918 

Total 435,449 

No. of teachers common schools: 

males, 9,759 

females, 12,092 

No. of teachers in high schools: 

males, 427 

females, 214 

Total 22,492 

Average monthly salary, common schools, males, $47 
'• " ' " " " females,$31 

" " " high " males, $72 

'• " •' " " females,$57 

Normal Instruction. — There are, in Ohio, no 
normal schools under state control. Such schools 
have been officially recommended by governors, 
school commissioners, etc., but the state has 
never established them. To meet this want, 
some of the cities have normal and training 
schools as a part of their school systems; and 
there are several private independent normal 
schools. The cities in which there are depart- 
ments for training teachers connected with the 
public schools, are Cincinnati, Cleveland, Day- 
ton, and Sandusky. The primary design of 
these schools is to prepare teachers for their own 
schools. Such teachers are generally graduates 
of the city high schools, or of schools of a similar 
grade. The students are not only instructed in 
the general principles and methods of teaching, 
but in the special methods in vogue in the 
schools of their respective cities. As a general 
rule, the graduates of these normal departments 
are given a preference, by the boards of educa- 
tion, in the appointment of teachers for the city 
schools. They also receive a larger compensation 
than teachers not so trained. — The private nor- 
mal schools are the following : The McNealy 



Normal School, at Hopedale, Harrison Co.; the 
National Normal School, at Lebanon, Warren 
Co.; the Western Reserve Normal School, at 
Milan, Erie Co.; the Orwell Normal School, at 
Orwell, Ashtabula Co.: the Northwestern Ohio 
Normal School, at Ada, Hardin Co.; the Ohio 
Central Normal School, at Worthington, Frank- 
lin Co.; and the Southern Ohio Normal School, 
at Pleasantville. Fairfield Co. 

Teachers' Institutes. — The law authorizes the 
teachers in each of the several counties to form 
an association and to hold annually an institute 
for the purpose of mutual benefit and instruc- 
tion ; and they are permitted to devote a week 
to attendance at the institute without any de- 
duction from their salary as teachers. The surplus 
money derived from the examination fees paid 
by all teachers when examined by the board of 
county examiners, after the expenses of the 
latter have been deducted, constitutes an insti- 
tute fund. The county commissioners may add 
to this fund, when necessary, a limited sum by 
direct appropriation. The meetings of these 
institutes are well attended, and are generally 
conducted with spirit. Methods of teaching the 
several branches of study, and of school man- 
agement, are considered and discussed. In 1875, 
there were 92 institutes held, with an aggregate 
attendance of 10,125 teachers, at a total expense 
of $18,988.— Besides these county institutes, it 
has been customary, in several of the cities, to 
hold, each year, a local institute for the special 
benefit of the teachers of the city schools, the 
first week of the school year being devoted to 
this purpose. 

Secondary Instruction. — The first graded 
course of instruction was adopted in Cincinnati 
soon after the year 1840. Since then, high 
schools have gradually been introduced into the 
cities and towns. The Cincinnati Central High 
School, with a graded course, was established in 
1*47, and classes were admitted from the lower 
schools once each year. The schools of Cleve- 
land, < 'olumbus, Dayton, and Portsmouth adopt- 
ed, in the order named, the graded system ; and 
afterward the system met with general favor 
in the larger places. These follow a graded 
system of instruction and generally require four 
years for the completion of the full course. 
Pupils pass, .by examination, to the high schools 
from the grammar schools. In this way, there 
is a perfect gradation, and the pupils are taken 
through tin' progressive stages until they emerge 
from thr high school with an excellent education. 
Eight years are spent in the common grades and 
four in the high school — in all twelve years. 
The high schools have largely displaced the old- 
fashioned academies upon private foundations ; 
and if the high schools were good preparatory 
schools for the colleges, there would be no further 
need of academies in the state. Few of the high 
schools have a sufficiently thorough course of 
classical study to fit boys for the best colleges. 
Greek is often omitted altogether. Further- 
more, in order to obtain the classical training 
furnished by the high school, it is generally neces- 



664 



OHIO 



sary to take all the other studies of the full four 
years' course, some of which are included in the 
usual college course. Hence, the high schools 
do not, as a rule, serve as preparatory schools for 
the better class of colleges, such colleges in Ohio 
being obliged to organize preparatory depart- 
ments of their own. 

Superior Instruction. — Three state institutions 
for higher education have been established — the 
Ohio University, Miami University, and the 
Agricultural and Mechanical College. The state 
has never directly aided any of them, their en- 
dowments having been derived from lands 
granted by the general government. 

The state, under the first constitution, granted 
college charters quite freely; and, under the pres- 
ent constitution, adopted in 1851, colleges may 
be incorporated under a general law without a 
special charter. Some of the colleges are close 
corporations, and are independent of state or ec- 
clesiastical control. Western Reserve, Marietta, 
and Oberlin, are of this class. The trustees of the 
University of Cincinnati are appointed by the 
city council. The larger part of the colleges are 
under ecclesiastical supervision. Some of the 
Ohio colleges are modeled after the best institu- 
tions of the Eastern states, and are characterized 
by thorough and exact scholarship. 

The following table contains an enumeration 
of all the important institutions of this grade in 
the state. 

[The names of those for females exclusively are printed 
in Italics ; those for both sexes, in small caps.] 







When Religions 


NAME 


Location 


organ- 


denomi- 






ized 


nation 




1853 


Unitarian 


Baldwin University. 'Berea 


185G 


M. Epis. 




Akron 


1872 


Univ. 


Capital University,, . 


Columbus 


1850 


Ev. Luth. 


Gin. Wesleyan College. 


Cincinnati 


1842 


M. Epis. 


Denison University.. 


Granville 


1831 


Bap. 


Farmers' College 


College Hill 


1847 


Non-sect. 


Frank] in College 


New Athens 


1825 


Un. Presb. 


German Wallace Coll. 


Berea 


1864 


M. Epis. 


Heidelberg College... 


Tiffin 


1850 


Reformed 


HUlsboro Fern. College. 


Hillsboro 


1839 


M. Epis. 


Hiram College 


Hiram 


1807 


Disciples 




Gambier 


1825 


Pr. Epis. 


McCorkle College.... 


Bloomfield 


1873 


Ass. Presb. 




Marietta 


1835 


Non-sect. 


Mt. St. Mary's of the 








West 


Cincinnati 


1851 


R C. 


Mt. Union College. . 


Mt. Union 


1858 


M. Epis. 


Muskingum College. 


New Concord 


1807 


Non-sect. 




Oberlin 


1333 


Cong. 


Ohio Central Coll... 


Iberia 


1854 


U. Presb. 




Athens 


1804 


Non-sect. 


Ohio Wesleyan Univ... 


Delaware 


1844 


M. Epis. 


One Study University 


Scio 


1859 


M. Epis. 


Otterbein Univ 


Westerville 


1847 


U.Br, in C. 


Richmond College. . . . 


Richmond 


1835 


Non-sect. 


St. Xavier College 


Cincinnati 


1831 


R. C. 


Univ. of Cincinnati. . . 


Cincinnati 


1873 


Non-sect. 


Univ. of Wooster 


Wooster 


3870 


Presb. 


Urbana University.. . 


Urbana 


1851 


NewCh'ch 


Western Reserve 










Hudson 


1826 
1850 


Non-sect. 
Af. M.Epis 


Wllberforoe Univ... 


Xenia 


Wilmington College. . 


Wilmington 


1870 


Friends 


Willoughby College. . . 


Wilboughby 


1858 


Meth. 


Wittenberg College... 


Springfield 


1845 


Ev. Luth. 


Xenia College 


Xenia 


1850 


M. Epis. 



Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College was 
opened, in 1873, near Columbus, the county of 



Franklin having offered $300,000 to secure it.. 
The proceeds of the land grant of 1862, which 
constitute its endowment, have already reached 
the sum of $500,000. In addition to the neces- 
sary buddings and apparatus, it has a farm of 
320 acres. Its object is to supply a general and 
scientific education rather than a professional 
one; and to this end its provisions are ample, 
consisting of well - equipped departments in all 
the branches of natural science ordinarily taught, 
supplemented by instruments, cabinets, and 
laboratories. In the course of study, a union of 
the obligatory and elective systems is followed. 
A fixed preparatory course of 2 years is pursued, 
at the end of which the student is permitted to 
enter whatever department he may choose. The 
number of instructors, in 1875, was 9; the num- 
ber of students, 65. The Toledo University of 
Arts and Trades has been recently organized for 
the purpose of affording instruction to young 
men and women in the branches indicated by its 
name. In 1874, one professor gave instruction 
to 89 students. The institution still lacks many 
requisites for thorough efficiency, owing to its 
very recent establishment. The Lane Theological 
Seminary, at Cincinnati, was founded in 1829 by 
the Presbyterians. It provides a 3 years' course 
of study. In 1874, it had 5 resident professors 
and 49 students. Instruction in theology is also 
given at the St. Mary's Theological Seminary 
(R. O), at Cleveland; the Theological Seminary 
of St. Charles Borromeo (R. O), at Carthagena; 
the Heidelberg Theological Seminary (Reformed), 
at Tiffin; the Theological Seminary of the Evan- 
gelical Joint Synod of Ohio (Evang. Lutheran), 
at Columbus; the Union Biblical Seminary (Un. 
Brethren), at Dayton; and the United Presby- 
terian Theological Seminary, at Xenia. Several of 
the secular colleges and universities of the state 
also have separate departments for instruction in 
theology. The Ohio State and Union Law Col- 
lege was founded at Cleveland, in 1856. Its aim • 
is to give each student a thorough theoretical and 
practical knowledge of law, and to accomplish 
him as an extemporaneous speaker. For the latter 
purpose, weekly debates are held, and law cases 
are provided in which the actual practice of the 
court room is illustrated. In 1874, the number of 
professors of all kinds was 8. There is also a law 
school connected with Wilberforce University, 
besides the Cincinnati Law School, formerly a de- 
partment of Cincinnati College, closed since 1845. 
Several institutions exist for the study of medicine, 
the principal of which are the College of Medicine 
and Surgery, the Medical College of Ohio, the 
Miami Medical College, the Eclectic Medical In- 
stitute, the Ohio College of Dental Surgery, and 
the College of Pharmacy, all at Cincinnati ; the 
Medical College and the Homoeopathic Hospital 
College, at Cleveland ; and the Starling Medical 
College and Hospital, at Columbus. There are de- 
partments, also, for the study of medicine in some 
of the colleges and universities. — Schools of draw- 
ing and design exist in connection with the Uni- 
versity of Cincinnati and the Mechanics' Institute. 
The number of pupils in each is from 300 to 400. 



OHIO 



OHIO CENTRAL COLLEGE 665 



Special Instruction. — The institutions for the 
blind, and for the deaf and dumb, located at 
Columbus, are, strictly speaking, schools. In 
them are taught, in addition to the elementary 
branches, all the studies of high schools, includ- 
ing Latin. The instruction is thorough and 
complete, and these institutions are an honor to 
the state. There is also, at Columbus, an asylum 
for idiotic and imbecile youth, which in its very 
nature is a school. Of the whole number un- 
der instruction in 1875, 253 had been taught 
to read and write. It has been ascertained that 
one-third of the inmates can be so trained as to 
be able to support themselves. 

The Reform Farm for Boys, located near 
Lancaster, Fairfield Co., is also a school. This 
was the first reformatory in the United States 
to adopt the "family plan" and has proved a 
remarkable success. No walls, or cells, or iron 
bars restrain the boys. They are grouped into 
families under the care of "elder brothers", all 
under the general supervision of the commissioner 
in charge. Kindness, and appeals to the higher 
ami better nature, and to Christian principles, are 
the guiding and controlling forces, the object 
being nurture rather than discipline or punish- 
ment. Of 704 boys, in 1875, only 30 attempted to 
escape. Many fugitives return voluntarily. Half of 
each day is spent in school, and the other half in 
work upon the farm and in shops, where the boys 
learn useful trades. Most of those who have been 
discharged have become useful members of so- 
ciety. There is a similar reform school for girls, 
at White Sulphur Springs, Delaware Co.. called 
the Girls' Industrial Home. The girls are grouped 
into families and are well taught in the ordinary 
branches of education. — The Soldiers' and Sail- 
ors' Orphans' Home, located near Xenia, Greene 
Co., is a school as well as a home. The graded 
system is adopted, crowned with a high school. 
Besides the above institutions supported by the 
state, there are many of local character in which 
instruction is given to the young. — The Cincin- 
nati House of Refuge is a reform school, in which 
study and work are combined. The Cleveland 
House of Refuge is similar. The Industrial 
School of Cleveland is a private enterprise, where 
instruction in letters, as well as in sound moral- 
ity, is given. There are in the state many homes 
for poor children, supported, in whole or in part, 
by towns or counties. In all these, the elementary 
branches are taught. 

Educational Literature. — Many different edu- 
cational journals have been published in Ohio, but 
most were shortdived. The Ohio School Journal 
was established by l>r. A. D. Lord in 1846, and 
published at Columbus. In the same year, the 
School Friend was issued by W. B.Smith and * 'o.. 
of Cincinnati. These two journals were united, in 
1850, under the joint names. The last issue was 
in September, 1 861. The Ohio .Journal of Edu- 
cation was issued in January, 1852. under the 
auspices of the State Teachers' Association, with 
])r. Lord as chief editor, assisted by several of 
the leading educational men in the state. It has 
had a long succession of editors and several dif- 



ferent publishers. In 1860, its name was changed 
to The Ohio Educational Monthly; and, in 1861, 
it passed under the control of B. K. White and Co., 
; Anson Smyth being the partner. Mr. Smyth 
retired after two years, and Mr. White continued 
to edit and publish it until 1875, when it was 
transferred to its present proprietor, W. I). 
Henkle. In 1870, Mr. White issued an edition 
of the Monthly for circulation within the state, 
which was called the National Teacher. This 
journal has been the leading educational publica- 
tion in the state since the day of its establish- 
ment. In 1875. W. 1). Henkle commenced the 
publication of the Educational Notes and Que- 
ries, which supplies a want, and has already at- 
tained a wide circulation. 

Teachers' Associations. ■ — In 1829, "some 
twenty" teachers in Cincinnati organized an as- 
sociation for mutual benefit, called the Western 
Literary Institute anil Board of Education. 
They held monthly meetings and an anniversary 
meeting. In 1831, this institute was merged in a 
new association, entitled the College of 'leachers, 
having in view the elevation of the profession of 
teaching. Annual meetings were held, in which 
valuable and elaborate addresses and reports 
were made by the more prominent teachers and 
friends of education of Cincinnati and of the 
Ohio valley. In the fourteen years of its exist- 
ence, more than three hundred such addresses 
and reports were given. 'I he first state conven- 
tion for the promotion of public education was 
held in Columbus. January 13., 1836. Similar 
conventions were held in 1837 and in 1838. The 
Ohio State Teachers' Association was formed at 
Akron, Dec. 30., 1847. This association has been 
continued to the present time, and has proved a 
most efficient aid in promoting the progress of 
popular education in the state. It meets annually, 
and is conducted with intelligence and spirit. 
A somewhat similar association for mutual con- 
sultation was formed, in 1867, by representatives 
of many of the colleges, which is called the 
Association if Ohio Colleges. Annual meetings 
are held, and the association is doing much good. 
In addition to these state associations, there are 
several more local in character, such as the 
Ninth-Eastern Ohio Teachers' Association, and 
the Centra! Ohio Teachers' Association. There 
are also many county teachers' associations. A 
History of Education in Ohio was published in 
1N76. as "a centennial volume", by order of the 
general assembly of the state. It was accom- 
panied by a volume of Historical Sketches of 
the Public Schools, and another of Historical 
Sketches of the Higher Educational Institutions. 
OHIO CENTRAL COLLEGE, at Iberia, 
founded in 1854, is a non-sectarian institution. 
It comprises an English department, especially 
designed for those preparing to be teachers in 
in common schools; a preparatory department; 
and a collegiate department, wdth a classical and 
a scientific course. Both sexes are admitted. 
The cost of tuition ranges from $18 to $24 per 
year. The Rev. Wm. Maclaren. D.D., is (1876) 
the president. 



666 



OHIO UNIVERSITY 



ONE STUDY UNIVERSITY 



OHIO UNIVERSITY, at Athens, Ohio, 
was founded upon a grant of two townships of 
land by the general government for the endow- 
ment of a state university. This was the first 
educational endowment by the general govern- 
ment, being made in 1787. The lands to be de- 
voted to the support of the university were 
located in 1795 ; and, in 1802, an act was passed 
by the territorial legislature, establishing the 
institution under the name of the American 
Western University. Nothing was done under 
this act ; and, in 1804, the institution was char- 
tered as the Ohio University. Instruction com- 
menced in 1809 ; but a full faculty was not 
organized till 1822. The institution is supported 
by the rents from its endowment and by tuition 
fees. It has a cabinet, apparatus, and libraries 
containing 8,000 volumes. The university com- 
prises a preparatory department and a collegiate 
department, with a classical course of four years, 
and a scientific course of three years. Both 
sexes are admitted. The cost of tuition is 818 
a year in the preparatory, and $30 in the col- 
legiate, department. One student from each 
county of the state is admitted free of tuition. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instructors and 100 
students (46 collegiate and 54 preparatory). The 
presidents have been as follows : the Rev. James 
Irvine, A. M., 1822—4 ; the Rev. Robert G.Wil- 
son, D.D., 1824—39; the Rev. William H. 
McGuffey, D. D., LL. D., 1839^3 ; the Rev. 
Alfred Ryors, D. D., 1848—52 ; the Rev. Solo- 
mon Howard, D. D., LL. D., 1852 — 72 ; and the 
Rev. William H. Scott, A. M., the present in- 
cumbent, appointed in 1873. 

OHIO WE3LEYAN UNIVERSITY, at 
Delaware, Ohio, founded in 1842, is under Meth- 
odist Episcopal control. The grounds consist 
of 30 acres, and contain four college buildings. 
There are cabinets of archaeology, geology, min- 
eralogy, and natural history, and libraries con- 
taining 13,000 volumes. The university has an 
endowment of $300,000 ; and the v?due of its 
buildings, grounds, etc., is $200,000. Scholar- 
ships, admitting the student to all the studies 
required for graduation, can be purchased at the 
university at prices as follows: perpetual scholar- 
ships, $500; for twenty years, $100 ; ten years, 
-$50; six years, $30 ; four years, $20 ; two years, 
■$15. There is a collegiate and a preparatory depart 
ment (with a classical and a scientific course), 
and a teachers' course. In 1875 — 6 there were 
10 instructors, 335 students (141 collegiate), and 
about 700 alumni. The presidents of the univer- 
sity have been as follows: the Rev. Edward Thom- 
son, D. D., LL. D., 1844—60; the Rev. Frederick 
Merrick, M. A., 1860—73 ; the Rev. Lorenzo D. 
McCabe, D. D., LL. D. (acting), 1873—6 ; and 
the Rev. Charles H. Payne, D.D., LL. D., elected 
in 1876. 

OLIVET COLLEGE, at Olivet, Mich., was 
founded in 1844. It is supported by tuition fees 
of from $15 to $21 a year, and the income of 
an endowment of $140,000. The library contains 
about 6,000 volumes. The institution comprises 
a collegiate department, with a classical, a scien- 



tific, and a ladies' course ; and a preparatory 
department, with a classical, an English, and a 
ladies' course. Facilities are afforded for instruc- 
tion in art, music, and normal school branches. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 14 instructors and 317 
students (124 collegiate and 193 preparatory), of 
whom 151 were males and 166 females. The 
presidents of the college have been as follows : 
the Rev. M. W. Fairfield, 2 years ; the Rev. N. 
J. Morrison, 8 years ; the Rev. J. H. Hewitt 
(pro tern.), 2 years; the Rev. Oramel Hosford 
(pro tern .) , 1 year ; and the Rev. H. Q. Butter- 
field, D. D., the present incumbent (1876). 

OLMSTED, Denison, a natural philosopher 
and educator, born in East Hartford, Ct., June 
18., 1791 ; died in New Haven, May 13., 1859. 
He graduated at Yale College, and shortly after 
became a tutor there. In 1817, he was appointed 
professor of chemistry in the University of 
North Carolina; and, while in that position, he 
proposed and completed the first state geological 
survey ever made in the United States. In 1825, 
he was appointed professor of mathematics and 
natural philosophy in Yale College, with which 
institution he remained connected till his death. 
In 1830, he published a theory of hail-storms, 
which, after much discussion, was accepted as 
a valuable contribution to scientific knowledge. 
Three years later, he began an investigation into 
the cause of the shower of shooting-stars which 
occurred in 1833, and made such suggestions in 
regard to them as, followed up by astronomers 
in this country and in Europe, have led to a great 
addition to our knowledge of these singular 
bodies. Professor Olmsted, besides being a fre- 
quent contributor to scientific periodicals, has 
been the author of many text-books on natural 
science, the principal of which are : Introduction. 
to Natural Philosophy (1831); Compendium of 
Natural PhUosopthy (1832); Introduction to 
Astronomy (1839); Compendium of Astronomy 
(1841) ; Letters on Astronomy (1841) ; and Ru- 
diments of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy 
(1844). 

ONE STUDY UNIVERSITY, at Scio, 
Harrison Co., Ohio, under Methodist Episcopal 
control, was opened in the fall of 1859, at Har- 
lem Springs, Ohio, and was known as the Rural 
Seminary, which name it retained until 1867, 
when it was removed to New Market Station, 
and the name changed to New Market College. 
In 1874, the legislature changed the name of 
the village from New Market to Scio ; and 
the name of the college was then changed to 
One Study University. The institution was char- 
tered in 1866; and since then, 111 students have 
graduated. The distinctive feature of this in- 
stitution is the plan of study. Each student 
passes through the course by taking up and 
thoroughly completing one study at a time. It is 
claimed that "a practical test of six years shows 
a great gain in scholarship, and a saving of about 
one-third of the usual time." Both sexes are 
admitted. There is a collegiate (classical and 
scientific), a preparatory, and a normal course. 
Facilities are afforded for musical instruction. 



ONTARIO 



667 



The cost of tuition in the classical and the 
scientific course is SI 2 per quarter, of twelve 
weeks. In 1874 — 5, there were 4 instructors and 
119 students (82 collegiate, 8 preparatory, and 
29 in music). Alfred D. Lee, A. M., has been 
the president from the opening of the university. 
ONTARIO, the most populous province of the 
Dominion of Canada, having an area of 107,780 
sq. m., and a population, according to the census 
of 1871, of 1.020,851, of whom 46(5,786 are 
Methodists; 356,442 Presbyterians; 330,995 Epis- 
copalians; and 274,1(52 Roman Catholics. Origi- 
nally a part uf the old province of Quebec, it was, 
in 1791, organized as an independent province, 
under the name of Upper Canada. In 1841. it 
was reunited with Quebec; and. in 18(i7. it be- 
came a part of the Dominion of Canada under 
its present name. — The first settlers in Ontario 
were chiefly from England and Scotland; and, as 
most of them had received a good education at 
home, they were anxious to provide good schools 
for their children. As early as 1807, each of the 
eight districts into which the province was at 
that time divided, had its grammar school. In 
1816. the legislative assembly passed the first law 
for the organization of primary instruction, and 
appropriated $6,000 for carrying it out. In 1823. 
Sir Peregrine Maitland obtained permission from 
the imperial government to establish a board of 
education for the province, with power to super- 
intend the schools, and manage the university 
ami school lands. In 1844. the Rev. Dr. Ryer- 
son was appointed superintendent of schools; and. 
before entering upon his office, he visited Europe 
and the United States, and presented a report, 
in which he suggested the principles upon which 
the school system of the province was afterwards 
constructed. Dr. Ryerson has ever since remained 
at the head of the school system, the develop- 
ment of which is chiefly his work. In 1850. the. 
ci miprehensive school bill, which was prepared by 
him, became a law ; and, in 1853, an amendment 
act was passed making several improvements in 
the system. Separate Protestant and colore 1 
schools were now permitted, as well as Roman 
Catholic schools. A most important measure, 
making all the public schools free, and introducing 
compulsory education, was passed in 1871, and 
somewhat modified in 1874. The council of public 
instruction consists of the chief superintendent, or 
in his absence, of the deputy, eight members ap- 
pointed by the crown, one member by each of the 
colleges having university powers, one by masters 
and teachers of high schools, one by the public- 
school inspectors, and one by the public and sepa- 
rate school-teachers. Each member holds office 
for two years, and is eligible to re-appointment. 
The council prescribes text-books for the normal, 
. high, and public schools, and makes rules and reg- 
ulations for their government. It has the ap- 
pointment of the high-school inspectors, the cen- 
tral committee of examiners, and the teachers of 
the normal and model schools. It prescribes the 
^qualification of. and grants certificates to, inspect- 
ors, examiners, and teachers, prescribes library 
and school books, and makes regulations for the 



superannuation of teachers, to whom pensions 
are granted. The chief superintendent is ap- 
pointed by the lieutenant-governor. It is his 
duty to see that all moneys drawn from the pro- 
vincial treasury are duly applied, and to have the 
general supervision of the schools. The county 
councils levy for teachers' salaries an amount equal 
to the chief superintendent's apportionment; and 
designate and pay the county's proportion of 
the salary of legally qualified inspectors, each of 
whom must have not more than 120 nor less 
than 50 schools. Where French or German is the 
language spoken, the inspector may have not less 
than 40 schools ; if there are more than 50 schools, 
the county must have two or more inspectors. 
The council is empowered to fill a vacancy in the 
office of inspector, and to appoint not more than 
four persons, who, with the inspector, form a 
board for the examination of teachers. Township 
councils form school sections with not less than 
50 children. The township councils are also em- 
powered to establish township school boards, if 
two-thirds of the sections desire it. each board to 
consist of five trustees: to levy sums required for 
purchasing a township library, and for the support 
of a township model school, of which the coun- 
cilors are the trustees. City, town, and village 
councils have the same powers and duties as 
county and township councils. For every school 
section, a board of three trustees is elected by the 
people. Inspectors are appointed by county coun- 
cils, or by city or town school boards, and may 
be dismissed for misconduct by the lieutenants 
governor, or by the county or town councils. All 
the public schools are free; the rural trustees and 
the municipal councils being required to levy the 
tax upon the taxable property, in order to defray 
the school expenses according as the trustees 
determine. No pupil can be compelled to join 
in any exercise of devotion or religious study 
objected to by the parents ; but pupils may re- 
ceive such religious instruction as their parents 
desire, subject to general regulations. The union 
of the high and public school boards of a city 
is called the Board of Education of that city, 
and this board possesses the same powers as 
the high and public school trustees. Parents 
neglecting to have their children between the 
ages of 7 and 1 2 years instructed for four months 
in the year, are liable to a penalty ; but no Ro- 
man Catholic can be required to attend a public 
school, nor a Protestant, a Roman ( 'atholic school. 
The clergy of any persuasion, or their represent- 
atives, may use the school-house to give religious 
instruction to the pupils of their own church, 
at hast once a week, after 4 o'clock. The daily 
exercises must lie opened by reading a portion 
of the Scripture, and by prayer ; and the Ten 
( 'oiiiinandinents must be taught to all the pupils, 
and be repeated at least once a week ; but no 
pupil need be present at these exercises against 
the written request of his parents. The master 
of the school may suspend, or, with the consent of 
the trustees, may expel a pupil. All teachers are 
required to attend regularly the teachers' meet- 
ings ; and any teacher may be absent two 



ONTARIO 



ORAL INSTRUCTION 



days every half year for the purpose of visiting 
other schools, and observing the methods prac- 
ticed therein. The laws governing Roman Catho- 
lic separate schools are nearly the same as those 
of the public schools. A separate school may 
share in the provincial or municipal grants, but 
not in municipal assessments. The public or sep- 
arate school board of any city may establish an 
industrial school for destitute, vagrant, and de- 
praved children. The number of children between 
the ages of 5 and 16 years, in 1874, was 511,603; 
the number of schools, 4,758 ; the number of pu- 
pils, 464,047 ; and the number of teachers, 5,736. 
The amount expended from grants was $267,782; 
and the amount raised and expended from local 
sources, $2,597,550. The Roman Catholic sepa- 
rate schools, which are included in the above, 
were 166 in number, with 22,786 pupils. — By the 
law of 1871, the former grammar schools were 
changed into high schools. The course of study 
in these schools comprises the English language, 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philos- 
ophy, French, German, Latin, Greek, chemistry, 
botany, physiology, history, geography, book- 
keeping, writing, drawing, and penmanship. The 
governor may confer on any high school, the 
name of collegiate institute, if four masters are 
fully employed, and an average of 60 male pupils in 
the classics is maintained; and such institute may 
receive an additional $750 per annum, while that 
standard is maintained. The number of high 
schools, in 1874, was 103, with 240 teachers, a 
total enrollment of 7,871 pupils, and au average 
attendance of 4,621. The expenditure, including 
a grant of $78,494, was $286,593. Besides the 
public schools, there were, in 1874, 280 colle- 
giate and private schools, organized independently 
of the school laws, with about 8,500 pupils and 
540 teachers. The University of Toronto was 
established, in 1827, as King's College. The in- 
stitution was inaugurated, and the first students 
were admitted, in 1843. The university confers 
the degrees of Master of Arts, and Bachelor of 
Arts. Connected with the university there is a 
faculty of medicine and of law, a school of civil 
engineering, and a department of agriculture, 
each department conferring the usual degrees. 
The University College of Toronto was original- 
ly a part of the university ; but was separated 
from it in 1853. By this act, the university be- 
came the examining body, also conferring de- 
grees in arts, law, and medicine ; and the college 
was constituted a teaching institution for the 
faculty of arts. The course of instruction pre- 
scribed by the university has been adopted by 
the college, and its lectures are given on the sub- 
jects appointed for candidates for the degree of 
B. A., or for the diplomas in civil engineering 
and agriculture. The University of Victoria is 
under the control of the Wesleyan Methodist 
Church. It was opened as an academy for both 
sexes, in 1836, and received the usual university 
powers, in 1841, and its present name. It has a 
faculty of arts, a scientific department, a faculty 
of medicine, a faculty of law. and a faculty of 
theology. It confers the usual degrees in each 



faculty. The Cobourg Collegiate School serves 
as a preparatory department for the university. 
Queen's University and College, in Kingston, 
was established by an act of the legislature of 
Upper Canada, in 1840, as the University of 
Kingston. This act was disallowed ; and, in 
1841, the queen issued her letters patent, incor- 
porating the institution. The first session was 
opened in 1842, with 11 students. A faculty of 
medicine was organized in 1854, but became a 
separate school in 1866, under the name of the 
Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. It 
has its seat in Kingston, and is connected with 
the university. The faculty of law which was 
opened in 1861, was discontinued in 1863. Since 
the opening of the college, 871 students have 
been enrolled, and 526 degrees have been con- 
ferred. The university is under the control of 
the Presbyterian Church. Trinity College was 
established by an act of the legislature in 1851, 
and was opened the same year. The University 
of Trinity College was established by a royal 
charter in 1852, and was empowered to confer 
degrees in divinity, arts, law, and medicine. Ot- 
tawa College, in Ottawa, was incorporated, and 
empowered to grant university degi-ees, in 1866. 
It is under the direction of the Oblate Fathers 
of Mary Immaculate. Albert University, in 
Belleville, was incorporated in 1857, as Belleville 
Seminary, by the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
It received limited university powers in 1866, 
and full powers, in 1871. It has faculties of arts, 
law, music, theology, and engineering, and a de- 
partment of agriculture. There are, also, in the 
province a large number of professional and scien- 
tific schools. Institutions for the special instruc- 
tion of the deaf and dumb, and the blind, for 
orphans, and for vagrants and young criminals 
are also provided. The number of Sunday-schools, 
in 1874, was about 3,500, with 197,00(5 scholars 
and 22,700 teachers. — See Marling, Canada 
Educational Yearbook and Directory for 1876;: 
Lovell's Gazetteei- of British North America? 
(1873) ; Chauveau (formerly minister of instruc- 
tion in the province of Quebec), in Schmid's En- 
ci/clopddie, art. Canada (2d edit., 1876). 
" ORAL INSTRUCTION is a technical term 
in use in the common schools of the United 
States to denote instruction, without textbooks, 
in the nature and uses of common objects, and 
also in the elements of natural science. In a 
certain sense, all instruction given by the teacher 
in the classroom, cither to supplement the text- 
book, or by way of general explanation, may be 
said to be oral ; and, considered in this sense, it 
belongs to every subject taught. But oral instruc- 
tion, as it appears in courses of study, is limited 
to a distinct channel of teaching, and, therefore, 
is not to be confounded with general class in- 
struction in the entire range of subjects. It is 
distinct from object teaching, because it is not 
confined to teaching through sensible objects. It 
deals also with more advanced pupils — those, for 
example, who have passed through the lowest, or 
primary grades, and who may be supposed to 
have benefited by what is known as object teach- 



ORAL INSTRUCTION 



669 



ing. It has to do, moreover, with elementary 
knowledge, anil has been gradually narrowed to 
instruction in natural science. As might be gath- 
ered from the word oral, its leading or cardinal 
idea is instruction without a text-book. The 
teacher is in the place of the book. The informa- 
tion given flows entirely from him ; and the skill 
with which he imparts this, is the measure of his 
success. Closely allied in importance to the fore- 
going, is the principle that the instruction shall 
be familiar. In its methods, it must approach 
closely those that are adopted in an intelligent 
family circle ; it must emulate the kindliness, 
patience, and watchfulness of a parent, or of 
a deeply interested friend. With a clear idea as 
to the kind and amount of instruction to be 
given at each lesson, it must avoid mere amuse- 
ment and puerilities, on the one hand, and the 
danger of a mechanical and hard method, on the 
■other. The test of such familiar instruction is 
the interest which the teacher creates and main- 
tains; the want of life and animation on the part 
of the pupils is an unfailing measure of the 
teacher's short-coming. But instruction to be 
familiar must be fertile in illustration. Iu no 
part of the teacher's work is there greater need 
of versatility. It is in this that the vast advan- 
tage of oral teaching over that which depends on 
the text-book is apparent. Pliancy, variety, suit- 
ableness to the particular wants of certain pupils, 
or of the class as a whole, simple familiar allu- 
sions and illustrations, all come into play. If ex- 
periments are necessary, they should be always of 
the simplest kind, and with the commonest mate- 
rials, such as nearly every child can obtain, if he 
can be induced to imitate the experiments. So far 
as objects are needed, those that are easily obtain- 
able are to be preferred. The approach to the 
pupil's mind through his senses is carefully to be 
kept open; most constantly of all, the avenue of 
sight, although, of course, the other senses are 
not to be neglected. As a natural result of this 
familiar instruction, the interest of the pupils 
will manifest itself in inquiries, and especially in 
a desire to communicate the glimmerings of their 
own knowledge. This will render the exercise still 
more familiar, break down the barrier of reserve 
on the part of the pupils, stimulate observation 
and thought throughout the class, and react on 
the mind of the teacher, compelling perhaps new 
illustrations, a more carefully considered state- 
ment, or fresh investigation outside of school. 
From what has been stated, it will be seen that 
oral instruction is widely separated from lectur- 
ing. The children are brought immediately iu 
contact with the mind of the teacher, by means 
of skillful questioning on his part, by requiring 
from them connected statements, and by stimulat- 
ing them with his approval when a happy answer 
or statement has been made. This method never 
loses sight of class instruction, and, therefore, can- 
not be carried on without the assistance of the 
class. Nor is it a recitation in the generally received 
acceptation of the word. There is no lesson to 
be learned in the sense implied by a recitation, 
nor any to be recited. The memory is of course 



| taxed, but it is not taxed by any lesson to be 
committed as a task. The measure of the pupil's 
interest is the measure of his acquisition. What- 
ever he learns is in no sense compulsory. Skillful 
reviewing is. indeed, used to test the hold that the 
, oral instruction has kept on the pupil, and to 
supplement what has been imparted, by new or 
more lively illustration. But repetition, in a 
mechanical or rote sense, as understood to be an 
underlying principle in text-book instruction, is 
not used in oral instruction. The subjects to which 
oral instruction, as a special method, is usually 
confined, are embraced, underthe head of natural 
■ science. While it does not aim to make the 
instruction in these subjects scientific, it does 
aim to impart such instruction in a methodical 
way, and with the most careful accuracy. Wher- 
; ever classification is necessary, such classifica- 
tion, naturally, becomes more or less scientific. 
Whenever definitions are necessary, they must 
approach scientific accuracy. But the scientific 
nomenclature, except in those cases in which it 
has passed into common use, is carefully avoided. 
Latin or Greek terms, therefore, being burden- 
some to the young, however instructive to the 
adult, are generally to be discarded, and familiar or 
common names to be used. As a thorough 
scientific classification is not the object of oral 
instruction, neither does it endeavor to make the 
treatment of the various subjects exhaustive. It 
has done much of its true work when it has 
i awakened attention, strengthened observation, 
led the pupils to collect illustrative objects, taught 
them to group and arrange what they have ob- 
served, and implanted in them a tolerably clear 
idea of the simpler, elements of the science, to 
which the instruction has been confined. It lias 
done its full work when, in addition to this, it has 
accustomed the pupil to express, in his own 
language, what he has learned and retained, 
without the painful halting and poverty of 
language so often manifest in the class room. 
With some approach to scientific accuracy, oral 
instruction may be defined as the union of con- 
ceptive and objective training. It does not dis- 
card objective illustration, nor does it depend 
entirely on the development of perception to 
furnish new ideas. It proceeds on the principle, 
that, in the mind of every healthy child of eight 
years of age, there is a vast number of tolerably 
distinct conceptions, obtained through the 
senses, as well as from conversation, from read- 
ing, from home instruction, and from play; that 
these conceptions are particularly abundant in 
relation to natural objects; and that it is the of- 
fice of the oral instructor to recognize their exist- 
ence by using them to form more complex ideas, 
or as the nucleuses around which to arrange the 
new ideas imparted during instruction. As to 
the age when this instruction should be given, as 
well as its importance, the following words of 
President Porter, in the Human Intellect, may 
be cited. "The studies which should be first 
pursued are those which require and discipline 
the powers of observation and acquisition, 
and which involve imagination and memory, in 



670 



ORDER 



OREGON 



contrast with those which demand severe efforts 
and trained habits of thought. Inasmuch also as 
material objects are apprehended and mastered 
in early life with far greater ease and success 
than the acts and states of the spirit, objective 
and material studies should have almost the ex- 
clusive precedence. The capacity of exact and 
discriminating perception, and of clear and re- 
tentive memory, should be developed as largely 
as possible. The imagination in all its forms 
should be directed and elevated — we do not say 
stimulated, because in the case of most children, 
its activity is never-tiring, whether they be at 
study, work, or play. We do not say, cultivate 
perception, memory and fancy, to the exclusion 
or repression of thought, for this is impossible. 
These powers, if exercised by human beings, must 
be interpenetrated by thought. If wisely culti- 
vated by studies properly arranged, they will neces- 
sarily involve discrimination, comparison, and 
explanation. To teach pure observation, or the 
mastery of objects or words, without classifica- 
tion and interpretation, is to be ignorant even 
to simple stupidity." Further on, the same author, 
in speaking of the various studies to be prose- 
cuted in childhood says, "Natural history in all its 
branches, as contrasted with the sciences of 
nature, or scientific physics, should be mastered 
with the objects before the eye — flowers, miner- 
als, shells, birds, and beasts. These studies should 
all be mastered in the spring-time of life, when 
the tastes are simple, the heart is fresh, and the 
eye is sharp and clear. But science of every kind, 
whether of language, of nature, of the soul, or of 
God, as science should not be prematurely 
taught."— See How to Teach (N. T., 1874); 
Barnard, Oral Training Lessons in Natural 
Science (N. Y., 1871); Youmans, The Culture 
Demanded by Modem Life (N. Y., 1867); 
Burton, The Culture of the Observing Faculties 
(N. Y.. 1865). 

ORDER, in school management, implies 
(1) the existence of a judicious system of regu- 
lations, and (2) a uniform and habitual observ- 
ance of them by the pupils. It is one of the 
most important elements of a good school, since 
it enables the teacher to concentrate all its edu- 
cative agencies without embarrassment or inter- 
ruption. The characteristics of good order are 
(1) attention on the part of the pupils to the 
legitimate work of the school, (2) obedience and 
respect to teachers, (3) decorous deportment — 
the absence of tumult, rudeness, frivolity, and 
frolicsome actions, calculated to disturb the 
school, and (4) propriety and exactness in the 
school evolutions and drill. Order is the result 
of skill and tact on the part of the teacher; but 
it cannot be fully maintained unless he is vested 
with suitable authority, so as to be able to cor- 
rect disorder, as soon as it manifests itself. Gen- 
eral disorder in a school can result only from 
bad management, indicating incompetency on 
the part of the teacher. "If a school be well or- 
ganized", says Wickersham, "its classes well ar- 
ranged, its work well systematized; if pupils be 
properly employed in study, in recitation, in ex- 



ercise; if school-government be well understood 
and wisely administered, a large proportion of 
the offenses which now occur in school will dis- 
appear." — (See Discipline, and Government.) 

ORDER OF STUDIES. See Course op 
Instruction. 

OREGON, one of the Pacific states of the 
American Union, originally a part of the ter- 
ritory of Oregon, which was organized in 1848,. 
and comprised all the U. S. territory west of the 
Rocky mountains and north of the parallel of 
42°. From this, the territory of "Washington 
was formed, in 1853; and, in 1859, Oregon was- 
admitted into the Union, as a state, with its- 
present limits. Its area is 95,274 sq. m.; and its 
population, in 1870, was 90,923, of whom 346 
were colored persons, 3,330 Chinese. 

Educational History. — As early as 1850, while 
Oregon was yet a territory, itslaws provided for 
the establishment of public schools; but the want 
of teachers, and the unsettled character of the 
population, made it difficult to organize any ef- 
fective system. According to the census of 1850, 
there were in the territory 32 academies; a flour- 
| ishing institute belonging to the Methodists, near 
! Salem; and two female seminaries at Oregon 
City. A general recommendation in behalf of 
education was made by the first constitution of 
the state, adopted in 1859; and certain specified 
sources of revenue were assigned for the produc- 
tion of a permanent school fund. No state super- 
intendent or board of education was, however, 
created, the governor being required to include 
the care of the schools with his other duties; but 
one of the sections provided that, after five years, 
it should be competent for the legislature to pro- 
vide for the election of a superintendent. In 1872, 
a general school law was passed, which created 
the office of state superintendent of public in- 
struction, and provided for the election of county 
superintendents and district directors. This law 
is still in force. The first superintendent was 
Sylvester C. Simpson, appointed, ad interim, by 
the governor, in 1873 ; and, in 1874, L. L. Row- 
land was elected to succeed him. 

School System. — By the law of 1872, which 
went into effect in 1873, the slate board of 
education, consisting of the governor, secretary 
of state, and state superintendent, is charged 
with the care of the public schools. It holds semi- 
annual meetings, at which it examines teachers, 
prescribes a course of study for the public schools, 
designates the text-books to be used, and lays 
down general rules for the management of the 
schools. The diplomas issued by the board are 
of two kinds, life and state — the latter valid for 
6 years throughout the state. It also issues first 
and second grade certificates, valid for 2 years, 
and 6 months, respectively. The state super- 
intendent of public instruction is elected by the 
people for 4 years, and is, ex officio, secretary of 
the board of education. He exercises a general 
supervision over the public schools and over 
subordinate officers; holds annually, at the cap- 
ital, a state teachers' institute, and local insti- 
tutes in the judicial districts; and makes a report 



OREGON 



671 



to the legislature once in 2 years. County super- 
intendents are elected biennially. Their duties 
are to divide their counties into school-districts; 
to establish new districts when directed by a 
majority of the legal voters; to apportion the 
school fund ; to take charge of the school lands, 
selecting in each township the 16th and 36th 
sections ; and to examine teachers, granting cer- 
tificates graduated according to qualifications. 
They are, also, required to visit the schools under 
their jurisdiction, and to make annual reports to 
the state superintendent. Three district directors 
are elected, whose terms of office are 3 years, one 
director being chosen annually in each district. 
A district clerk, also, is annually elected, who 
acts as the executive officer of the board of 
directors. The permanent school fund consists 
of the proceeds of all lands granted to the state 
for educational purposes, except university lands; 
all money accruing to the state by escheat and 
forfeiture; all money for exemption from military 
services; all gifts, devises, and bequests made by 
any person to the state for common-school pur- 
poses; all the proceeds of the lands granted to 
the state by Congress, in 1841; and 5 per cent 
of the proceeds of the land to which the state 
was entitled on her admission into the Union. 
In 1875, this fund, derived mainly from the sale 
or rent of the 500,000 acres of lauds given by the 
general government, amounted to $564,000, be- 
sides about $750,000 not then available. The in- 
come from this was, at that time, $56,400. The 
university laud grant of 66,080 acres has, thus 
far, yielded about $100,000. The school revenue 
is further increased annually by a state 3 mill 
tax, by county and district taxes, by rate-bilLs, 
anil by voluntary contributions. The legal school 
age is from 4 to 20 years; the school year, 60 
days ; the school week, 5 days. The course of 
study comprises orthography, reading, writing, 
mental and practical arithmetic, English gram- 
mar, geography, and modern history. In addition 
to these branches, which are obligatory, others 
may be taught, up to, but not including, training 
for college. In one of the schools, in every dis- 
trict of not less than 10,000 inhabitants, instruc- 
tion is directed to be given in the German lan- 
guage, if applied for by 100 voters. 

Educational Condition. — The whole number 
of schools in the state, in 1875, was 594, of 
which 4 were high schools, 31 were graded 
schools, and 559, ungraded. The income was as 
follows: from state tax, $30,273 ; from interest 
on the permanent fund, $56,400; total, $86,673 
Other items of school statistics are the following: 

Number of children of school age: 

males 23,265 

females 21,396 

Total _ 44,661 

Number of teachers in public schools : 

males 496 

females. . 4.57 

Total ~ 953 

Average duration of school, in days 105A 

Average monthly salary of male teachers $"»1.4. r > 

" " ' •' '' female " $45.50 

Estimated value of school property $350,000 



Normal Instruction. — Provision is made for 
the professional education of teachers by the 
Pacific University, Willamette University, and 
McMinnville College. In the first, a course of 2 
years is provided, admission to which is granted 
after a satisfactory examination is passed in 
arithmetic, penmanship), reading, spelling, En- 
glish grammar, geography, the history of the 
United States, and elementary algebra. A 
limited number of teachers' institutes have been 
held since the organization of the public-school 
system. The .State Teachers' Institute held a 
meeting at Salem, in 1875. 

Secondary Instruction. — Of the 4 high schools 
existing in 1874, the most important is that at 
Portland. Besides giving instruction in all the 
higher English branches, it affords opportunities 
for the study of Latin, Greek, French, and 
German. Its course of study extends over 3 
years. Five private schools and academies exist 
in the state, and there are preparatory classes 
connected with nearly all of the colleges. The 
commercial department of Willamette University 
furnishes instruction to between 60 and 70 stu- 
dents in a single year's course, in this respect 
taking the place of the ordinary business college. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — A 
few institutions of this class exist, the prin- 
cipal being the Portland Academy and Female 
Seminary (Methodist Episcopal), St. Mary's 
Academy for Young Ladies (Roman Catholic), 
and the Bishop Scott Grammar and Divinity 
School (Episcopal). In all these, the grade of 
instruction is secondary, or above; in one. the 
course extending as far as the third year of the 
college curriculum. The Chinese Mission School 
of Portland was established by the Baptists, in 
1874. While imparting religious instruction, it 
also supports an evening school, in which music 
and the ordinary branches of an English edu- 
cation are taught. 

Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
versities are as follows: 



NAME 



Location 


When 
found- 
ed 


Monmouth 
Corvallis 
McMinnville 
Eugene City 
Forest Grove 

Philomath 
Salem 


1SC5 
1868 
1858 
1872 
1854 

1865 
1853 



Denomi- 
nation 

Christian 
M. En. S. 

I'.jj't i>t 

Nun-sect 

Evaug. 

D. Breth. 
M. Epis. 



Christian College 

Corvallis College 

McMinnville College. . . 
Oregon State University. 
Pacific Univ. and Tualatin 

Academy 

Philomath College 

Willamette University 

Of the above, the Oregon State University, 
though founded ill 1872, had not, up to 1875, 
been opened; $25,000 yet remaining to be raised 
by the county, in order to entitle the regents to 
the use of the $60,000 already raised. In all 
the other institutions enumerated in the table, 
both sexes are admitted. St. Helen's Hall, Port- 
land, is the only institution in the state for the 
higher education of women exclusively. The 
j regular course of study occupies 5 years, but 
academic degrees are not conferred. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
Corvailis State Agricultural College (q. v.). 



672 



ORPHAN ASYLUMS 



ORTHOGRAPHY 



though founded by the Methodists, has received 
the congressional grant of 90,000 acres, and is 
the only institution in the state in which in- 
struction in agriculture is given. Though still 
under sectarian control, it receives annually from 
the state an appropriation of $5,000. There is, 
also, a scientific department and a medical de- 
partment in Willamette University. 

Special Instruction. — The Institution for the 
Deaf and Dumb, at Salem, was founded in 1870, 
by an annual appropriation of $2,000 for 2 years. 
In 1873, a further appropriation of $4,500 was 
made, which was increased, in 1874, to $5,000. 
It had, in 1875, 3 instructors, and an average of 
22 pupils. The Oregon School for the Education 
of the Blind was founded at Salem, in 1872, by 
an appropriation of $4,000. It was opened in 
1873 with one instructor and 7 pupils. The fol- 
lowing year, the legislature authorized an an- 
nual appropriation of $2,000 for its support. 
In addition to instruction in the elementary 
branches which are usually taught in common 
schools, special instruction is given in pin-type 
printing, music (vocal and instrumental), plain 
sewing, and fancy work. 

ORPHAN ASYLUMS, or Orphan Houses, 
are institutions in which orphans are received 
and educated. Although some arrangements for 
the support of orphans are met with in the 
history of ancient Greece and Rome, and, to a 
much greater extent among the Hebrews, the 
establishment of special institutions for their 
care and education is due to the influence of 
Christianity. The first orphan houses (orphano- 
trophia) appear to have been founded in the time 
of Constantine I.; and the church law expressly 
placed them under the control of the clergy. In the 
14th century, Prance had a confraternity whose 
chief object was the support of orphans. The 
number of special orphan institutions remained, 
however, comparatively small, until A.H. Francke 
(q. v.) excited a more general interest in their 
behalf, and gave a powerful impulse to their more 
rapid progress. Among the rulers of Europe, 
none gained so great a distinction for a kindly 
and active promotion of orphan education as the 
empress Maria Theresa of Austria. — The num- 
ber of orphan asylums in the United States is 
very large, nearly every state being represented 
in the list. Girard College, in Philadelphia, is, 
in every respect, one of the foremost orphan 
houses of the world. Its founder, Stephen Gi- 
rard (born in Bordeaux, France, in 1750; died 
in 1831, in Philadelphia), left by his last will 
$2,000,000 for the erection of an institution in 
which should be maintained and educated as many 
white male orphans as might bo in need of such 
support. It was opened in 1848, with a class of 
100 orphans, and, in 1875, contained 550 ; but, 
in that year, the erection of additional buildings 
had been resolved upon. The permanent income 
from the estate will support about 1,050 orphans. 
The large majority of orphan houses, both in the 
United States and in Europe, are charitable in- 
stitutions, supported by endowments and volun- 
tary contributions. Quite a number are main- 



tained and controlled by each particular religious 
denomination, a noble rivalry existing among 
the churches of the civilized world, to provide in 
an efficient manner for their own orphans. Only 
quite recently have state and municipal govern- 
ments begun to recognize the care of orphans 
as a duty, and to make appropriations for their 
education. Thus, there were, in 1874, in the 
United States, 21 soldiers' and sailors' orphans' 
homes, chiefly maintained by state appropria- 
tions. — It is natural to expect that, in a great 
many orphan houses, the instruction imparted 
would be inferior to that which children under 
the care of their parents usually receive at school 
and at home. In poorly endowed schools, the 
number of inmates is too large in proportion to 
that of the instructors and other emjrfoi/es ; and, 
consequently, sufficient attention cannot be be- 
stowed upon individual wants. It has been espe- 
cially noticed that the too strict uniformity to 
which orphan children are usually subjected in 
their daily occupations, produces a lack of versa- 
tility and sprightliness, which, when they are dis- 
missed from the asylums, prejudices employers 
against them. The hygienic condition of these in- 
stitutions has also been found, in many instances, 
to be very unsatisfactory. As many orphans are 
the offspring of depraved parents, there is great 
danger from the admission of children of vicious 
habits. It has, therefore, been proposed to bring 
together only a small number of orphans (from 
10 to 20) into a kind of family, and thus to fur- 
nish the best attainable substitute for a good 
home education. Others have recommended that 
orphans should be committed, for their educa- 
tion, to private families rather than to institu- 
tions. Experience, however, has shown that even 
these methods of providing for orphans are by 
no means devoid of danger. A full and inter- 
esting account of the orphan asylums in the 
United States is given in No. 6 of the Circulars 
of Information of the U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, containing Statements relating to Reform- 
atory, Charitable, and Industrial Schools for the 
Young (Washington, 1875). The early history 
of orphan houses is fully treated of by De Ge- 
rando, in his work De la Bienfaisance Pnb- 
liqne. (See also Foundling Asylums, Industrial 
Schools, and Reform Schools.) 

ORTHOGRAPHY, as a science, treats of 
the representation of spoken language by visible 
signs ; it includes a systematic history of such 
signs, and a discussion of the principles accord- 
ing to which they should be made and used. 
Picture writing is first used ; pictures of objects 
are used as signs of the names of the objects, 
then of initial syllables in such names, and final- 
ly of elementary sounds. The pictures, meantime, 
are abbreviated and modified to what we call 
letters. The essential principle of alphabetic 
writing is that a perfect alphabet must have one 
character for each elementary sound in the lan- 
guage, and only one. Subordinate rules are, that 
the characters should be easy to write and to 
distinguish, and shapely ; like sounds should have 
like signs, and similar series of sounds should 



ORTHOGRAPHY 



673 



have analogous sets of signs ; each character 
should be so shaped as to suggest, to some extent, 
the position of the organs of speech in form- 
ing the sound: derived alphabets are esteemed 
the better for embodying important history : all 
nations should use the same signs with similar 
values. No nation has ever made any near ap- 
proach to a perfect alphabet. The growth from 
picture writing goes on without much guidance 
from ideas: and all the qualities which are mere- 
ly matters of history and symmetry, are of little 
consequence in comparison with the essential 
principle of phonetic convenience. A good his- 
torical sketch of writing is to be found in Whit- 
ney's Language and the Study of Language 
i New York. L867); see also Steinthal's Die Ent- 
wickelung der SSchrift (Berlin, 1852). The Anglo- 
Saxon language was reduced to writing in Un- 
man letters by the missionaries, who converted the 

people t< i < 'hii-.tianity.and gave them a pretty g 1 

alphabet. The letters were used in their Roman 
values, or nearly so, and new characters were 
added for the sounds of a in fit, ill in their, [<lh\ 
tli in tliiut', and m. After the Norman conquest, 
chaos came again with Anglo-Saxon, or rather 
English, spelling. A large part of the words of 
each race of the new people were difficult for 
the other to pronounce. The scholars inclined 
to spell in the old book fashion; but the Normans 
dropped the special Anglo-Saxon discriminations, 
and left many of their own letters standing which 
were not pronounced by the people: and many 
letters were inserted to no purpose in ill-directed 
attempts to represent the strange combinations. 
Then followed a change in the whole gamut, so 
to speak, of the vowel sounds. The close vowels 
changed under the accent into diphthongs by- 
taking an or sound before them. The old i as in 
machine has thus changed to ai, as in mine; u 
as in rule has given rise to au, as in house. The 
open and mixed vowels have become closer: <i. as 
in far, changing to a (i. e., e) in/ate or wall, or to 
o in home(A.S.hdm); e as in they, changing to e 
(i.e., s)iri me; o as in foe, changing to oo {i.e., u) as 
in moon I A-S. mdna). Single characters have thus 
come to stand for diphthongs, and the long and 
short sounds, which go in pairs in other languages, 
are denoted in ours by different characters, and 
come from different sources. Intermediate between 
the old it (fur) and e (met) has become established 
a in fit. fire ; between a {far) and o {note), o in 
not and nor, and the sounds of u in but, burn, 
have also arisen. All these have no special signs. 
Four consonants sh, zli. th, dh are in the same 
condition. The people have long since ceased to 
feel any necessity for keeping sounds and signs 
together. Changes go on without any record in 
the writing: etymologists slip in new silent let- 
ters, on the ground of imaginary derivations: old 
monsters, fertile in the popular fancy, propagate 
themselves in the congenial environment : and, 
altogether, we have attained the worst alphabet- 
ical spelling in the world. For the history of all 
these changes, see Fllis's History of English 
Pronunciation (1-ondon, 1867); Sweet's History 
if English Sounds (London, 1874); Haldeman's 



Analytic Orthography (Phila., 1858) : March's 
Anglo-Saxon Grammar (N. V.. 1870) ; and the 

articles Anoi.o-Saxon, and ENGLISH, the Study 
op, with the authorities there referred to. 

Orthography, in a narrower sense, is the art of 
spelling correctly, according to the standard of a 
language. It first demands the attention of teach- 
ers as the art of inculcating the spelling of English 
according to the dictionaries of our language. In 
early times, there was no standard English spell- 
ing. The printers arMed or subtracted letters for 
convenience of spacing; the same word will be 
found spelt several different ways on the same 
page. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary (1755) was the 
first recognized standard. The common way of 
teaching spelling, is to teach from a spelling-book 
the form and name of each of the letters of tin- 
alphabet : then to practice on combinations 
of the letters in pairs, naming each letter and 
then tittering the sound of the combination: 
then to practice in the same way on combinations 
of three letters: then on words of two syllables. 
and so on. These syllables and words are selected 
with care ; similar sounds are grouped together, 
and the groups arranged in a progressive order 
of difficulty in spelling-books. The first steps 
of this process may lie made easier by using blocks 
with the letters on them for the learner to name 
and arrange into syllables; by setting him to 
write the letters on the slate, the paper, or on the 
blackboard: by adding pictures of the objects the 
names of which are spelt: or by the use of rhymes, 
:uid other contrivances of artificial memory. An- 
other method is to begin with words as wholes. 
and, after some progress has been made in reading 
in that way. to direct attention to the separate 
letters, their names, and sounds (word method) 
Teachers proceeding in this way often name the 
letters by the sounds which they have in the w< ird 
tobespelt.and not by their proper names. This is 
sometimes called the phem ic method. Scholars are 
led on to more difficult words. Text-books of ban 1 
words, more or less classified, with rules for the 
most puzzling groups, are prepared, and blanks 
for written exercises in spelling. Some little help 
may be gained by rules, and mnemonic contriv- 
ances ; but the standard spelling of our language 
is so irregular, that continual practice for many 
years is necessary to make any approach to the 
mastery of it. Among the most efficient helps 
to the teacher is the spelling match, for which 
sides are chosen which contend for the victory. 
It should be noted that continual practice in read- 
ing and writing is needed, or training to spell 
aloud in class will not save from mistakes in 
writing. Further, the most important words for 
each person are his own vocabulary, — the words 
which he uses in his own writing. Perfect ac- 
curacy in these is the end most to be desired in 
teaching. If this habit is once established, un- 
usual words will be looked up. when the writer 
has occasion to use them. With all aids and arts. 
good spelling is one of the rare and costly accom- 
plishments ; and, naturally, stress is laid on it as 
the sign of a thoroughly educated person out of 
all proportion to its real value. It is made prom- 



674 



ORTHOGRAPHY 



inent in all civil service examinations and en- 
trance examinations to colleges and universities. 
In the civil service examinations in England, out 
of 1,9*72 failures 1,8G6 candidates failed in spell- 
ing. But it is said that the documents prepared 
by the prime ministers of England show that no 
one of them could have passed these examina- 
tions in spelling. The best teachers in other 
respects often fail in spelling. English orthog- 
raphy is the opprobrium of English scholarship, 
and the greatest hindrance to education and to the 
spread of our language. Our children spend three 
years in learning to spell a little ; while German 
children get further in a twelve month. There are 
about 5,500,000 illiterates in the United States. 
(See articles on Illiteracy and Phonetics.) 
Millions of dollars are spent every year in printing 
silent letters. Earnest efforts are now making for 
reform. The philological associations of Eng- 
land and America, teachers' associations, state 
and national, in England and America, and some 
state legislatures, have committees appointed on 
the subject. Several schemes of reform have 
been presented, the most important of which 
are those of A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman, E. Jones, 
A. M. Bell, and E. Leigh. Mr. Bell has invented 
a set of characters wholly unlike our present let- 
ters, which indicate by their form the position 
of the organs of speech. It can hardly come into 
speedy use in common books. Scholars have be- 
gun to use it somewhat in scientific treatises. 
(See Bell, Visible Speech, London, 1867.) Mr. 
Pitman has proposed an alphabet containing 16 
new letters; and there is already quite a body of 
literature in that alphabet. He publishes a Pho- 
netic Journal.ha.ving a, circulation of 10.000 cop- 
ies in various parts of the world. Charts for lect- 
urers, and for school display, and other means of 
instruction adapted to it, are at hand. Dr. E. Leigh 
has combined a phonetic print, like Pitman's, 
with the standard spelling. (See Leigh, Pro- 
nouncing Orthography, St. Louis, 1864, and his 
later publications in New York.) Elementary 
books for schools, printed according to his system, 
have been used for ten years in St. Louis, Wash- 
ington, New York, Boston, and other cities, and 
are said to save much of the time usually spent 
in learning to read. Editions of most of the 
elementary books (primers, etc.) published in the 
United States are issued in Leigh's print. (See 
Phonetics.) Mr. Ellis and Mr. Jones propose 
systems based on the present spelling, using 
always the same letters for each sound that are 
now oftenest used to denote it, as follows : 
(Mr. Jones's scheme) a as in at, aa {father), 
ai (aid) , au (taught) ,b,c (cat) , ch (chip) , d, e (met) , 
ee (eel),/, g(go), h, i (in), ie (pie), j, I, m, n, ng 
(sing), o (on), oe (foe), oi (oil),oo (ooze), ou (out), 
p, r, s (sun), sh (ship), t, th (their, thine), u (bun), 
ue (hue), v, w, y, z (zeal). This scheme is de- 
fective in giving the letters different values in com- 
bination from those which they have when alone, 
and in representing so many elementary sounds 
by digraphs. Besides, it does not serve to bring our 
spelling into harmony with other languages. Its 
advantage is, that it can be set up from common 



printer's cases, and that it can be read by any one 
who can read the old spelling. (See A. J. Ellis, 
Early English Pronunciation, London, 1867; 
E. Jones, A Revision of English Spelling a Na- 
tional Necessity, London, 1875 ; E. B. Burns, 
Anglo- AmericanOrihogr aphy , New York, 1876). 

According to the principles laid down by the 
American Philological Association, by the In- 
ternational Convention for the Reform of English 
Orthography, held in Philadelphia, August, 1876, 
and by the Spelling Reform Association, which are 
generally approved by scholars, the Roman alpha- 
bet is so widely used that it cannot be displaced, 
and the efforts of scholars in adapting it to English 
should be directed to using it with uniformity 
and in conformity with other nations. The let- 
ters now used in nearly their Roman sound are 
a (far), b, c(k), d, e (met),f,g (go),h, i (pick), 
I, m, n, o (note), p, q, r, s (so), t, u (rude). To 
these it is agreed to add v, w, y,z with their com- 
monest English power. Three new short vowels 
need signs, those in fat, not, but ; for easy intro- 
duction, these should be slight modifications of a, 
o, u, such as for example a, ec v. The Romanic 
languages have heretofore used one sign for a short 
vowel and its corresponding long sound, adding 
a diacritical mark when great precision is needed. 
This would be acceptable in English for a (ask, 
far), a (fat, fare), o (obey, note), o- (not, nor), 
u (full, rude), v (but, burn). For e (let, late) 
two characters are needed, a variation of e look- 
ing like a is of good promise; such as, for example, 
Q as in fate ; i in pick, pique, perhaps may stand. 
For diphthongs there follow ai (by), au (house), 
&i (no'ise), iu (music); but it is best to use for ai 
some modification of i, and for iu some modifi- 
cation of u, such as, for example, j, \\. 

The consonants sh (as s in sugar), zh (as s in 
pleasure), th (as in their), dh (as th in thine), ng 
(as in sing), and perhaps also tsh (as ch in church), 
dzh (as dg in judge) call for single signs ; but the 
present notation will answer tolerably well, if car- 
ried out with uniformity, though scholars seek to 
revive the old signs for th and dh. Thus we have 
described a complete alphabet, such as the prin- 
ciples of the philologists- would seem to call for. 

A first step for teachers who favor this reform 
is to cease to use the old names of the letters 
which do not contain the sounds here given to the 
letters, and call them by names having those 
sounds ; e. g.,a should be called a(re) ; e should 
be named as sounded in met, c as sounded in can. 
Then drop silent letters, and finally spell all 
words with these letters uniformly, according to 
their names. — See J. Hadley, Essays Philolog- 
ical and Critical (N. Y.); "W.D.Whitney, Ori- 
ental and Linguistic Studies, 2d series, (N. Y.); 
Proceedings of the American Philological Asso- 
ciation, 1875, 1876; Address to the American 
Philological Association, by the President, F. A. 
March (Hartford, 1874); S. S. Haldeman, Ana- 
lytic Orthography (Phila.,1858); Proceedings of 
the International Convention for the Amendment 
of English Orthography (Phila., 1876) ; Proceed- 
ings of the Spelling Reform Association (Phila., 
1876) ; Pitman's Phonetic Journal (Bath, Eng.). 



OSKALOOSA COLLEGE 



OWENS COLLEGE 



675 



OSKALOOSA COLLEGE, at Oskaloosa, 
Iowa, founded in 1856, is under the control of 
the Christina denomination. The value of the 
buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000; the 
amount of its productive funds, $30,000. It com- 
prises a preparatory department, a collegiate de- 
partment (with a classical course of four years 
and a Indies' course of three years), a Bible dej lart- 
ment, and a commercial department. Facilities 
are afforded for normal instruction, and for in- 
struction in music, painting, and drawing. The 
cost of tuition is $30 a year. In 1874 — 5, there 
were 6 instructors and 200 students (deducting 
repetitions); namely, irregular, 100 ; collegiate, 
16 ; preparatory, 34 ; Bible department, 14 ; com- 
mercial. 47. P. M. Bruner, A. M., is the pres- 
ident (1875). 

OTTERBEIN UNIVERSITY, atWester- 
ville, Ohio, founded in 1847, is under the control 
of the United Brethren in Christ. It is supported 
by tuition fees and the income of an endow- 
ment of $80,000. The tuition fee, including in- 
cidental expenses, is $24 a year. The university 
comprises a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
ment, with a classical, a scientific, and a ladies' 
course. The last is especially designed for females 
who, however, are also admitted to the other 
courses. In 1874 — 5, there were 12 instructors, 
and 201 students (72 collegiate and 129 pre- 
paratory). The presidents have been as follows: 
William R. Griffith (principal), 1847 — 9; the Rev. 
William Davis, 1849 — 50 ; the Rev. Lewis Davis, 
1850—57 ; the Rev. Alexander Owen, 1858—60 ; 
the Rev. Lewis Davis, D. D., 1860—71 ; the Rev. 
Daniel Eberly, A. M., 1871—2 ; and the Rev. 
H. A. Thompson, D. D., the present incumbent, 
appointed in 1872. 

OWENS COLLEGE (Manchester, England) 
was founded by the bequest of Mr. John Owens, 
a merchant of Manchester, who, at his death in 
1846, bequeathed the bulk of his property, 
amounting to nearly £100,000, to trustees to 
found an institution for teaching such branches 
of learning and science as were or might after- 
wards be taught in the English universities. 
After extensive inquiries, a college was founded 
and opened in 1851, which, like University Col- 
lege, London, was to be in connection with the 
London University, and was to be absolutely free 
from any religious disqualification. The terms 
of the original bequest allowed no portion of the 
endowment to be expended on land or buildings. 
Accordingly, in the earlier years of the college, 
£24,000 was contributed by the trustees and the 
people of Manchester in aid of Mr. Owens's 
bequest and for the foundation of scholarships. 
The home of the college, for twenty -two years, 
was in a large building in Quay St.. which had 
formerly been a private house. But, in 1867, 
the old buildings had become inadequate ; and 
an influential committee was formed to prepare 
a scheme for the erection of new buildings in a 
better part of the city, also for the endowment of 
new professorships, and to make an appeal for 
the necessary funds. The response, in contribu- 
tions and legacies, down to July 1876, was the 



sum of £211,000, contributed partly for spe- 
cial, and partly for general, purposes. In ad- 
dition to this, Mr. Beyer's recent legacy will prob- 
ably yield £100,000 more. The new college was 
opened in 1K73; and, including the site and the 
chemical laboratory, which has room for more 
than 100 students" it cost above £100,000, and 
when completed will cost £50,000 or £60,000 
more. A further sum of £15.000 was expended 
upon the adjoining buildings of the medical 
school, previously known as the Manchester 
Royal School of Medicine, which was now, 
for the first time, united with the college. Ac- 
cording to the new constitution of the college, 
the governors are 42 in number. Fourteen of 
them form an executive committee, called the 
council, which transacts the external business of 
the college, while the senate, i. e., the body of 
professors, transacts its internal or academic 

i business. 

The college began with six professors, several 

i allied subjects being assigned to one chair. 
There are now. 20 professors, and 22 assistants, 
in arts, science, law, and medicine. The prol'ess- 

! orships are endowed : one important result of 

: this is that it is possible to charge lower fees, and 
to bring the benefits of the college within the 

! reach of much larger numbers. The more im- 
portant chairs have an endowment generally of 
£350 a year, to which a large proportion of the 
fees is added. In 1852, evening classes were be- 
gun for the sake originally of school-masters: but 
afterwards of all who chose to come. The Work- 
ing Men's College in Manchester was incorpo- 
rated with these evening classes in 1861, and the 
residt was a large increase in the number of stu- 
dents. These students, in the session ending 
in May, 1875, numbered 863, including 35 who 
were also students in the day classes. La the 

1 same session, there were 375 day students with 
159 medical students, making a total of 1,362. 
'['here are many valuable scholarships and ex- 
hibitions in connection with the college. The 
Rumney and Ramsbottom scholarships, with five 
Whitworth exhibitions, were founded with the 
design of enabling young artisans to pursue 

, scientific studies at the college for two or three 
years. In 1872 — 3, the income of the college, 
out of which it defrayed its general expenditure, 
was about £11.000, of which £6,000 was derived 
from endowments, and £5,000 from students' 
fees. This does not include the medical depart- 
ment. It may be added that a proposal for 
erecting Owens College into a university has 
been widely discussed this year (1876), and has 
met with considerable approval. 

The first principal of the college was the late 
Prof. A. J. Scott ; the second and present prin- 
cipal is Prof. J. G. Greenwood. Students live 
outside the college, and for the most part make 
their own arrangements as to residence. — See 
Tlie Calendar oi the college; Fifth Report of 
the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction 
(1874) with the Minutes of Evidence ; Letter by 
Principal Greenwood in the Athenamm for 
April 10., 1875. 



676 



OXFORD UNIVERSITY 



OXFORD, University of, one of the two. 
great universities of England. Legend ascribes 
its origin to Alfred the Great, and University 
College claims to date from A. D. 872; but of 
this we have no proof. Oxford first became 
famous as a school of learning in the reign of 
Stephen, about 1140. From John it won its ear- 
liest charters; and, under his successor, the num- 
ber of students is said to have risen to 30,000 
(though this included many attendants and me- 
nials) ; at the end of the 14th century, it had fallen 
to 15,000; after the Reformation, to 5,000; it is 
now about 2,500. This popularity iu the earliest 
times was due mainly to the influence of in- 
dividual teachers. Famous men, like Grosseteste, 
Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, and Occam, attracted 
students, who came from the universities of 
Paris and Bologna to attend lectures at Oxford. 
Each teacher lived in a hall, or inn, with his 
students, for colleges did not yet exist. The only 
endowed teachers were the monks. But the rule 
that every student should reside in a recognized 
boarding-house, and the example of University, 
Merton, and Balliol colleges, all incorporated 
toward the end of the 13th century, gradually 
effected the extinction of the halls, and brought 
about the present college system. The old chron- 
icles tell us of the division of the students iuto 
nations — North and South, of the quarrels 
betweeu them even on such questions as Nom- 
inalism versus Realism, of their electing proctors 
to protect their privileges against the chancellor, 
of their long feud and many riots with the citi- 
zens, and of the chancellor's summoning the citi- 
zens in arms to keep the peace, thereby often ad- 
ding fuel to the flames. In 1209, we read of a riot 
so serious that the University incurred papal ex- 
communication, and was forced, with the king, to 
accept the pope's terms; and, after another great 
tumult, subsequent to the Black Death, town and 
university both put themselves into the king's 
hands to settle their differences, the settlement 
made being greatly in favor of the latter. Al- 
though, during the barons' war, in Henry the 
Third's reign, and in the Lollard movement, under 
Edward III. and Richard II., Oxford had shown 
popular sympathies, yet in the next century it 
became decidedly ecclesiastical, and for some 
time the lay element played but a small part in 
it. With the revival of learning, came the fresh 
stimulus of Fox's, Wolsey's, and Henry the 
Eighth's patronage; and ten out of the twenty 
colleges, as well as all the professorships, date 
from 1500, or later. The principles of the Ref- 
ormation were to be carried out by a commis- 
sion sent down to Oxford by Edward VI., but the 
quick succession of Mary prevented this; and we 
find evidence of the Catholic reaction in the foun- 
dation of Trinity (1554), and St. John's (1555). 
Under Queen Elizabeth, Protestantism was def- 
initely established (1571), the statutes of 1549 
being enforced; but very little change occurred ex- 
cept in the matter of religion. Even the old rule 
of enjoining celibacy on the fellows was retained. 
The last contest between the nations took place in 
this reign, in the election of Leicester's successor 



to the chancellorship. James I. granted the par- 
liamentary franchise to the universities in 1606, 
and divided between them such church patronage 
as was still in the hands of Catholics, Oxford tak- 
ing the south of England. Cambridge the north; 
and, in 1617, he made adhesion to the Thirty- 
nine Articles of the Church of England a neces- 
sary qualification for the degree, which was after- 
wards extended to the matriculation. In 1628, 
the election of proctors was taken out of the 
hands of the masters, and given to the colleges in 
turn; and, in 1638, something like a. real exami- 
nation for degrees was introduced in place of the 
merely formal disputations. In the civil wars, 
Oxford sided with Charles I., and consequently 
suffered from Cromwell, though only slightly. 
To Charles II, she was heartily loyal, but even the 
firmest belief in "passive obedience" was shaken 
by his brother's measures. Nevertheless though 
AVilliam was generally welcomed as a savior 
of society, very many of the fellows continued 
friendly to the old dynasty, and talked Jacobit- 
ism against the Hanoverians. 

In considering the actual state and working 
of the University nowadays, we must carefully 
distinguish between it and the colleges. The lat- 
ter are corporate bodies consisting of fellows and 
scholars, possessing property and a building — 
the college proper — where they and the unen- 
dowed students reside. The Univei'sity, while 
technically described as consisting of the "chan- 
cellor, masters, and scholars", consists practically 
of certain fellows and heads of colleges who fill 
various public posts, and administer public trusts. 
Within their own walls, the members of a college 
are independent, the fellows carrying out the 
services, lectures, and organization generally; out- 
side the university, officers intervene, whether 
the proctors to enforce public order, the profess- 
ors to give public instruction, or the examiners 
to test candidates for degrees, and the vice- 
chancellor to confer them. To qualify for these, 
a student must reside in a college or licensed 
lodging-house 12 terms, i. e., three academic years 
of 6 months each, and must pass three examina- 
tions, — Responsions, Moderations, and Final 
Schools. The first is the same for every candi- 
date; in the latter two, however, he has a choice 
of either taking a pass degree, or going in for 
•■honors" in one or more subjects. The Honors 
Schools in Moderations are only classical and 
mathematical; but, in the Final, a choice is offered 
between classics, mathematics, law, history, nat- 
ural science, and theology. As the competition 
in these subjects is strong, and as the result in- 
fluences greatly a man's chances of getting a fel- 
lowship, most candidates defer their final exam- 
ination until their 16th or 18th term, the latter 
being the latest allowed. 

Fellowships are given upon examination, to be 
held either indefinitely, or only if the holder be- 
come a clergyman, and if, in either case, he re- 
main a bachelor. Some few have, of late years, 
been granted (or renewed) to married men. Their 
value varies from £200 to £300 per annum; but 
a resident fellow is generally a tutor also, and for 



OXFORD UNIVERSITY 



67' 



that receives a proportion of the tuition fees paid 
by the students. The average total is then from 
£600 to £800. The fellows manage the affairs 
of the college entirely; one of their number is 
elected head — known by various titles at differ- 
ent places, as rector, provost, master, president, or 
the like — and he is allowed to marry. These are 
all said to be "in the foundation"', as are also the 
scholars — with incomes of from £20 to £100, 
granted by the college, and tenable 4 or 5 years 
— and the exhibitioners, or holders of inferior 
scholarships. Many colleges offer very valuable 
rewards of this kind ; and many large schools 
throughout the country confer similar scholar- 
ships to last during a similar period. Such as- 
sistance, of course, materially lessens a student's 
expenses, which, on theaverage, may be reckoned 
at £200 to £250 a year. A less sum, however, 
will suffice, and frequently does; as is shown by 
the reported expenditure (£60 or even less) of 
several "unattached" students, that is, those who 
attend lectures sis members of the university, 
but live always in lodgings, and are members of 
mi college. Such students were first admitted 
in lSliH, specially to diminish the expense of ac- 
quiring a degree. Their numbers have steadily 
increased: and the object of their institution — 
economy — is certainly gained. There are, also, 
many scholarships offered by the university, in 
contradistinction to the colleges, which are open 
to all under-graduates, and some of which are of 
considerable value. The most important of these 
■are the Ireland. Hertford, I 'raven, and Derby, 
for classical excellence; the Junior and Senior 
mathematical, in their own province; the Bo- 
den in Sanskrit ; the Radcliffe Travelling Fel- 
lowship and the Burdett-Coutts scholarship, in 
science; the 1'usey and Kllerton. and the Hall 
and Houghton, in divinity. Special prizes are 
given for essays in certain subjects ; and one, 
for poetry. The university, besides the award 
of these honors, has also the charge of all 
public examinations, of which it, tixes both 
the manner and the matter, appointing the ex- 
aminers and regulating the standard of knowl- 
edge. Within the last few years, it has exercised 
its powers in creating separate schools — or ex- 
aminations — for law and history (previously 
united) and for theology. It elects and defines 
the duties of the professors, and its own officers. 
Korthe former, the oldest foundations date from 
Henry VIII., who instituted the professorship of 
Divinity. Civil Law, Medicine, Hebrew, and 
Greek. Before his time there was only one — the 
Lady Margaret Divinity (1502); between 1619 
ami L624, five others were endowed, and the 
rest are of later origin. Readers are also ap- 
pointed in several subjects, and for modern lan- 
guages teachers, who hold a somewhat less dig- 
nified position. The whole number of public 
instructors is 50. Their lectures are, in some cases, 
free: in most, a small fee is charged; and, though 
hut few command large audiences, their teaching 
not being supposed to "pay" for the examinations, 
almost all give valuable assistance to the more 
thoughtful and industrious students. — Of the 



university officers, it will be sufficient to men- 
tion the chancellor, the high steward, the vice- 
chancellor, and the proctors. The first was, in 
old times, the ruling head of the University; lie 
was the nominee of the Bishop of Lincoln, and 
the guardian of his rights ami privileges. Gradu- 
ally, the nomination fell into the hands of the 
masters, the ratification only resting with the 
bishop, till, in 1338, that too was taken away by 
a papal bull. At present, he is little more than 
an ornamental appendage; the practical duties of 
his office being discharged by the vice-chancellor, 
who is nominated annually by the chancellor 
from the heads of colleges, and holds office gen- 
erally for a term of four years; under him are 
four pro-vice-chancellors. He is the resident head 
of the university, and presides in all its meetings; 
and, being invested with the powers of a justice of 
the peace, possesses civil and criminal jurisdiction 
over its members. The proctors rank next in 
importance. These are two in number, fellows of 
colleges, elected according to a cycle of rotation, 
for one year only. '1 heir business is to maintain 
discipline among the students outside their college 
walls, to appoint public examiners, and to attend 
meetings of the authorities; and, ex officio, they 
are members of most boards of management for 
university property and trusts. The bigh.-teward 
— who was once elected for his local influence 
and power to protect the university -is now of 
somewhat less importance than the chancellor, 
his only duty being to try serious criminal cases, 
such as treason or felony. The present (l.s7<l) 
high steward is the Farl of Carnarvon; the 
chancellor, the Marquis of Salisbury. The rep- 
resentatives in the Commons arc the Rt. Hon. 
Gathorne Hardy, secretary for war. and the Rt. 
Hon. Ji din Mowbray, both elected 1 ly I 'onvocatioc. 
The assemblies governing — or, we might almost 
say, forming — the University, are four: (1) '1 he 
House of Congregation : (2) The House of Con- 
vocation ; (.'!) The Congregation of the Univer- 
sity of Oxford ; ami (I) The Hebdomadal Coun- 
cil, constituted according to the act of 1854. 
(l)Coitf/rr//nlimi consists of Regents I /. <•., Masters 
of Arts of a certain standing) of all kinds, and 
merely ratifies the nomination of examiners, and 
the ordinary degrees. (2) Convocation consists 
of Regents and Non-Regents (/. e. all admitted 
to Regency, who have kept their names on the 
college books). It transacts all the other corporate 
business of the university, grants moneys, sanc- 
tions statutes, elects to all university offices and 
livings, and chooses the burgesses for parliament. 
In this assembly, the vice-chancellor (or his dep- 
uty) lias the right of veto on all proceedings 
save elections; as have also the proctors if agreed. 
(3) The Congregation qf the University em- 
braces certain officials, and all members of Con- 
vocation residing in Oxford during the year. Its 
business is legislative, the statutes of the Heb- 
domadal Council being promulgated in it. and 
amendments proposed, which, if allowed, are 
passed on to .Convocation for approval or rejec- 
tion. (4) Lastly, we come to the Hebdomadal 
i '■iitncit, in which sit the chancellor, vice-chancel- 



678 



PACIFIC UNIVERSITY 



PACIFIC METHODIST COLLEGE 



lor and proctors, ex officio, as well as 6 Heads of 
Colleges, 6 Professors, and 6 members of Convo- 
cation, elected for a term of 6 years by the Con- 
gregation of the University. This assembly meets 
weekly, and initiates all legislation. 

About twenty years ago, the two universities 
started schemes for the examination of boys — 
under the name of the middle-class local exami- 
nations. In the Junior Group, candidates were 
to be under 16, in the Senior, under 18 years of 
age ; every thing was conducted by nominees of 
the university ; perfect impartiality and a high 
standard of merit were secured ; and the exami- 
nations soon became popular. Scholarships are 
offered at three colleges in Oxford to the most 
distinguished of the senior candidates. Such a test 
has doubtless been of great service in improving 
the teaching in middle-class schools, and in calling 
forth the emulation both of masters and boys ; 
but it has brought with it the apparently inevi- 
table result of "cramming" and overworking boys 
of promise. It has lately been extended to girls, 
by Cambridge and also by Oxford. The latter 
university is behindhand, however, in that it has 
not yet supplied anything analogous to the 
Cambridge higher examinations for women (over 
18 years of age), and to the lectures given by 
Canlabs in support of university extension 
throughout the kingdom ; but, at Oxford itself, 
there has, probably, never been a period when 
teaching was more careful and effective, or study 
more earnest, and its results more highly prized, 
than to-day. 

The names of the colleges with the dates of their 
foundation are as follows: University. A.I). 872 (?), 
incorporated in 1280, from funds left, in 1249, by 
Wm, de Durham for 12 poor masters from Dur- 
ham; Balliol, 1263—8; Merton, founded in 1264, 
at Maldon, removed to Oxford in 1274 ; Exeter, 
1314; Oriel, 1326; Queen's, 1340; New, 1386; 
Lincoln, 1427; All Souls, 1437; Magdalen, 1458; 
Brasenose, 1509 ; Corpus Ohristi, 1516 ; Christ 
Church, 1546—7; Trinity, 1554; St. John's, 1555; 
Jesus, 1571 ; Wadham, 1609 ; Pembroke, 1624; 
Worcester, 1714; Keble, 1870; Hertford, 1874. 
The Halls are : St. Mary's, 1333 ; New Inn, used 
as a mint under Charles I. ; St. Alban's ; and 
St. Edmund's, the last as an adjunct of Queen's 
College. Of the colleges, the largest and richest 
is Christ Church, begun by Wolsey under the 
name of Cardinal College ; completed and en- 
dowed by Henry VIII. ; its under-graduates 
number 249; those at Baliol. 182. The mostcom- 
plete is New College, which has, at its nursery, 



Winchester School, founded by the same munif- 
icent patron, Win. of AVykeham, and proportion- 
ately endowed. New College and Magdalen are 
both famous for their handsome chapels and 
grounds. The total number of undergraduates 
in the calendar for 1876 is 2,542, of whom 213 
are unattached (to any college or hall). The num- 
ber of matriculations was, in the last academic 
year, 718; of conferred degrees: Bachelors', 3,941, 
and Masters', 254. The revenue of colleges and 
university together is £420,000. — Besides the 
above collegiate buildings, there are others of 
great interest, also belonging to the university. 
The oldest is the Divinity School, opened in 
1480, and now used chiefly for conferring de- 
grees. Close to it are the schools (1611 seq.), 
in which examinations are conducted ; and the 
Sheldonian Theater (built by Abp. Sheldon 
from the designs of Wren, in 1683), in which 
honorary degrees are given and prize composi- 
tions read, at the annual commemoration. The 
Bodleian library was founded, in 1597, by Sir 
Thomas Bodley, in place of the small library, 
which had been scattered at the Reformation. 
Bodley bought largely for it during the Thirty 
Tears' War ; but its usefulness dates from 
James I. Connected with it as a reading-room, 
is the library built by Dr. Radcliffe, founder also 
of the Infirmary and the Observatory. The Ash- 
molean museum (1632) is the property of the 
university, which has also its own press. Founded 
about 1672, it was extended in 1714, chiefly 
through the profits of Lord Clarendon's History 
of the Civil Wars, the copyright of which he 
presented to the university. It was removed to 
new buildings in 1833, and is now a very large 
establishment, distinguished by the chancellor's 
name. The most recent building of importance 
is the new museum, elaborately furnished with 
scientific collections and apparatus. The Tay- 
lorian Institute, also, is of late date ; it contains 
a picture gallery and has an endowment for en- 
couraging the study of modern languages. 
Among the under-graduates themselves, there are 
many private clubs ; but the only one of these 
possessing buildings of its own is the Union 
Club, which, besides the ordinary appliances of 
a club-house, has a large debating-room, in which 
the members meet for weekly discussions, during 
term. — See Huber. English Universities, trans- 
lated and edited by J. W. Newman; Oxford 
Calendar and Ten Year Book ; The Student's 
Handbook to the University and Colleges of 
Oxford (Clarendon Press, Oxford). 



PACIFIC, -University of the, at Santa 
Clara, Cal., under Methodist Episcopal control, 
was organized in 1851, and chartered in 1853. It 
admits both sexes. It has productive funds to the 
amount of $40,000, libraries containing about 
2,000 volumes. The cost of tuition varies from 
$8 to 820 per term of 14 weeks, with modern lan- 
guages. The collegiate department has three 



courses: classical, 4 years; Latin scientific, 3 years; 
and scientific, 3 years. There is also a prepar- 
atory and a commercial department. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 10 instructors and 212 students (69 
collegiate and 143 preparatory). The Rev. A. S. 
Gibbons, A. M., M.D., is (1876) the president. 

PACIFIC METHODIST COLLEGE was 
organized in 1861, at Yacaville, Solano Co., Cal.; 



PACIFIC UNIVERSITY 



PARAGUAY 



679 



chartered in 1862 ; and removed to Santa Rosa, 
Sonoma Co.. in 1870. It is under the control of 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Candi- 
dates for a degree have the choice of four courses 
of study. Two are for males — one in letters, and 
one in science; two are for females — a special 
course in letters, and a special course in science. 
Females may also pursue the two former courses. 
The college has a preparatory department, and 
affords instruction in pedagogics, painting and 
drawing, music, and commercial branches. The 
regular tuition fees vary from 830 to §70 per an- 
num. In 1874 — 5, there were 9 instructors ami 
276 students, of whom 59 were of the collegiate 
grade. A. L. Fitzgerald, A.M. (appointed in 
1870) is tlie president (1876). 

PACIFIC UNIVERSITY, at Forest Grove, 
Oregon, chartered in 1853 — 4, is under evangel- 
ical, but not denominational, control. Connected 
with it is the Tualatin Academy, chartered in 
1849. It has an endowment of about $65,000, 
and a library of 5,000 volumes. The university 
has four courses; namely, classical, 4 years, leading 
to the degree of A. B.; scientific, 3 years, leading 
to the degree of B. S.; ladies' course, 3 years, 
leading to the degree of M.S. (Mistress of Sci- 
ence) ; and normal, 2 years. The cost of tuition 
in these courses is $45 per year; in the academy. 
S.'in. In 1875 — G, there were 8 instructors, and 
118 students (13 collegiate and 105 academic). 

PAGE, David Perkins, one of the mosi 
useful and eminent of American educators, born 
at Epping, N. II., July 4., 1810 ; died at Al- 
bany, N. V., Jan. 1., 1848. The first part of 
his life was spent in agricultural labor on his 
fathers farm ; and it was not until his sixteenth 
year that he was permitted to enjoy the ad- 
vantages of any thing beyond an elementary 
education. In 1826, he entered Hampton 
Academy, where he spent two terms preparing 
for the vocation to which he afterwards devoted 
his life. His first service as a teacher was in 
the district schools, from which, in a short time, 
he became associate principal of the Newbury- 
port High School, in wdueh he remained 12 
years. He distinguished himself also as a mem- 
ber of the Essex County Teachers' Association, 
before which he delivered several lectures that 
elicited the highest encomiums from Horace 
.Mann anil others. One of these, on The Mutual 
Duties of Parents and Teachers, was especially 
admired, more than 6,000 copies being printed 
and distributed. As a speaker, Mr. Page was 
fluent and impressive. " He possessed," says 
Horace Mann, " that rare quality, so indispen- 
sable to an orator, the power to think, standing 
on his feet, and before folks." " As a teacher," 
says Barnard, " he exhibited two valuable quali- 
fications, — the ability to turn the attention of 
his pupils to the principles which explain facts, 
and in such a way that they could see clearly 
the connection ; and the talent for reading the 
character of his scholars, so accurately, that he 
could at once discern wdiat were their governing 
passions and tendencies — what in them needed 
•encouragement, and what repression." In 1844, 



preparations were making to open the state nor- 
mal school at Albany, N. Y; and on the recom- 
mendation of Horace Maim and others, in Mas- 
sachusetts, Mr. Page was invited to assume its 
principalship, •which he did the following year. 
The school commenced with 25 pupils ; but. be- 
fore the close of the first term, the number had 
increased to 100 ; and, at the commencement of 
the second term, there were 200 students. 
Numerous obstacles, incident to every experi- 
ment, such as this vas at that time, opposed its 
progress ; but the indefatigable energies, con- 
summate ability, and devoted spirit of its prin- 
cipal overcame them all ; and every new term 
increased the popularity and success of the 
school. Mr. Page's incessant labors, however, 
had exhausted his vital energies ; and at the 
close of December, 1847, he was attacked with 
violent fever, from which he did not recover. 
Few men have possessed that rare assemblage of 
moral and intellectual qualities which made him 
truly a model teacher. " Of the hundreds of 
teachers," says his biographer, " wdio were under 
his care at Albany, there was not one who did 
not look up to him with admiration and love ; 
not one who did not bear, to some extent at 
least, the impress of his character and influence." 
His Theory and Practice of Teaching, origin- 
ally published in 1847, has been universally ad- 
mired, and has had a very wide circulation. — 
See Barnard, American Teachers and Educa- 
tors (N. V„ 18(d). 

PALEONTOLOGY. See Geology. 

PALATINATE COLLEGE, near the vil- 
lage of Myerstown. Lebanon Co., Pa., founded in 
L868, is under the control of the Reformed 
( Jhurch. It has a commodious building situated 
on high ground, amid fine scenery. The institu- 
tion comprises an elementary, an academic, a col- 
legiate, and a musical department. Both sexes 
are admitted. In 1.^74 — 5, there were 7 instruct- 
ors and 208 students. The Rev. George W. 
Aughinbaugh, 1>. I>., is (1870) the president. 

PARAGUAY, a republic of South America; 
area 56,715 sq. m. ; population, about 221,000. 
The inhabitants are chiefly Indians, the Guarani 
language being dominant throughout the repub- 
lic, although Spanish is the official language. 
The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion. 
1 'araguay was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 
1530. It remained a part of the Spanish domin- 
ions until 18 11, when it declared its independence. 
The early history of 1 'araguay presents one of the 
most remarkable attempts ever made to educate 
a barbarous nation. After missionaries of other 
orders had been unsuccessful among the Gua- 
ranis, the Jesuits entered the country, in 1557, 
and met with wonderful success. They collected 
the Indians in villages, which they called reduc- 
tion*, and enlisted their sympathies, by opening 
to them profitable sources of employment, chiefly 
by extending the commerce with mate, the so- 
called Paraguay tea. At the same time they 
strictly forbade them to hold any intercourse 
with the Spanish colonists, and obtained from 
Philip III. a mandate forbidding every body from 



680 PARENTAL EDUCATION 



PASSOW 



entering their reductions without their permis- 
sion. After these measures had been firmly es- 
tablished, they began with a strong hand to put 
their plans into execution. Every reduction re- 
ceived two missionaries, one for religious and 
the other for secular affairs. Every village was 
built in the same style, having in the center a 
large square, fronting on which were the church 
and the school-house. The streets were wide and 
regular. Every luxury, both in dress and habi- 
tation, was strictly prohibited ; but the churches 
were decorated with gold and silver. The Jesuits 
administered all property belonging to the vil- 
lages, and governed by means of the native ca- 
ziques, who, although chosen by the inhabitants, 
were entirely dependent on the fathers. The 
slightest infractions of the law were severely 
punished. The instruction given by them con- 
sisted in teaching to read and write, and to recite 
the catechism ; but, owing to their seclusion 
from the outer world, their acquirements availed 
them but little. Edgar Quinet, one of the most 
bitter opponents of the Jesuits, recognized that 
this method of education, "which would have 
destroyed older nations, was admirably adapted 
to a kind of grown-up children like the Guara- 
nis" ; but, at the same time, he adds that " it 
showed an unsurpassed ability to attract these 
children by granting them every thing, but what 
would have rendered them men." As their power 
increased, the fathers grew more independent, 
and finally broke off all connection with the 
home government. In 1767, a royal decree 
ordered their expulsion from the three provinces 
of Buenos Ayres, Rio de la Plata, and Tucu- 
man, to which they offered no resistance. Their 
reductions gradually disappeared, while the Indi- 
ans relapsed into barbarism. Under the dictator 
Francia (1814 — 1840), who practiced the same 
policy of seclusion that the Jesuit fathers had pre- 
viously adopted, and under Lopez, schools were 
founded, and education generally, though slow- 
ly, advanced ; so that, in 1861, Paraguay had as 
many primary schools in proportion to her popu- 
lation, as any of the other South American states. 
But during the disastrous war that followed, 
education was entirely neglected. Since 1870, 
determined efforts have been made to extend the 
benefits of instruction. The amount appropriated 
for schools, in 1874, was $34,860. The capital, 
Asuncion, formerly, had a colegio, which was 
founded in 1783, and in which, among others, 
candidates for the priesthood were educated. 
Lopez founded a gymnasium under the name 
Academic, Literaria; but the course of in- 
struction embraced only two subjects, Latin 
and philosophy. Subsequently other subjects, as 
mathematics, law. and theology were added. It 
was- re-organized under the name Instituto de En- 
senanza; the establishment of several colleges in 
provincial towns was resolved upon, and a num- 
ber of young men were sent to France to be edu- 
cated as professors. — See Lb Roy, in Schmid's 
JSnci/clopadie, art. Sudamerica. 

PARENTAL EDUCATION.— See Home 
Education. 



PAROCHIAL SCHOOL, an elementary 
school which is united with a parish, and under 
the control of its pastor. Schools of this kind 
arose early in the middle ages. Although the 
mass of the people did not yet appreciate the 
value of school instruction, the popes repeatedly 
urged the erection of parish schools in connec- 
tion with the churches. Teachers of Holy Writ, 
and instructors in ecclesiastical obligations, were, 
in particular, to be appointed in all parishes; 
for it was not conceived that any person could 
profitably take part in divine service, if he had 
not received proper instruction. In France, 
bishop Theodulph of Orleans admonished the 
parish priests to instruct the boys gratuitously 
in science. Charlemagne decreed that youths 
should be educated in reading, singing, arith- 
metic, grammar, and writing. A synod held at 
Mayence, before the middle of the 9th century, 
enjoined that the children be sent either to the 
convent or to the parochial school, in order to 
learn, at least, the creed and the Lord's Prayer 
in the native tongue. — For many centuries, the 
elementary schools grew and developed in close 
connection with the church. The Reformation 
did not change this relation ; and, in Protestant 
as well as in Catholic countries, the common 
school continued to be a parochial school. More 
recently, in most countries, state authorities 
have assumed the chief control of the common 
schools ; and the parochial character of such in- 
stitutions has more or less disappeared ; although 
many governments still delegate to the pastors 
of the established churches certain rights of in- 
spection, and maintain separate schools for dif- 
ferent denominations. In the United States, the 
name parochial schools is now generally applied 
to Roman Catholic and to Episcopalian schools 
which have been organized in close connection 
with the parishes ; because, in the opinion of their 
founders, all elementary schools should provide 
religious as well as secular instruction, and should, 
therefore, have a strictly denominational char- 
acter. (See Denominational ' Schools.) 

PARSONS COLLEGE, at Fairfield, Iowa, 
founded in 1855, is under Presbyterian control. 
It has a campus of 20 acres, 2 handsome and 
commodious brick buildings, philosophical and 
chemical apparatus, and a library of about 700 
volumes. Its productive funds amount to $24,000, 
nearly. There is an academic department, with 
a preparatory and a normal course, and a col- 
legiate department, with a classical (4 years), and 
a scientific (3 years) course. The cost of tuition 
is $30 a year in the academic, and $36 in the 
collegiate department. Both sexes are admitted. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instructors and 63 stu- 
dents (1 collegiate and 62 academic). 

PASSOW, Franz Ludwig Karl Friedrich, 
one of the foremost representatives of lexico- 
graphic literature, born in Ludwigslust, Germany, 
Sept. 20., 1786 ; died in Breslau, March 11., 1833. 
He became, in 1807, professor at the gymnasium 
of Weimar, in 1810, director of the Conradinum 
of Jenkau, near Dantzie, and in 1815, professor 
at the university of Breslau. He was an en- 



PATIENCE 



PEABODY FOND 



681 



thusiastic admirer of Greek culture, and not 
only preferred the Greek language and literature 
to the Latin, but made a practical attempt, in the 
school of Jenkau, to have the study of Greek 
begun before that of Latin. His fame chiefly 
rests on his Greek lexicon, which not only began 
an entirely new era in the history of classical 
dictionaries, but is generally regarded as i me I if the 
most remarkable productions in the entire range 
of lexical literature. The first edition of the wi nk 
(Hdndwdrterbuch den griechischen Sprache, 
2 vols., Leips., 1819 — 24), appeared as a revision 
of the Greek-German lexicon of Schneider; but, 
in the following editions, it was so completely re- 
written by him, that the 4th edition (1831 ) bore 
only his name on the title page. Passow's work 
constitutes the basis of the Greek- English lexi- 
con of Liddell and Scott. (See Greek Language.) 
The Prussian minister of education, A. Falk. 
(q. v.), is a son-in-law of Passow. 

PATIENCE, the calm endurance of neces- 
sary toil or suffering. This quality, though 
similar to perseverance in the prolonged effort 
which its exercise presupposes, differs from it 
chiefly in the equable temper with which that 
effort is made. A patient spirit is one of the 
most important elements in the character of a 
■successful educator. Many occasions, indeed, 
will occur, when patience will be the only virtue 
which will command success. Its cultivation, 
therefore, is desirable both on this account, and 
because of its value in mental discipline. Its 
possession, moreover, is necessary both to the 
teacher and to the pupil. To the former, it is of 
special use in his treatment of the varying dis- 
positions with which he has to deal. The prov- 
ocations to impatience and ill temper are so 
many and so constant, that, without patience, 
the teacher's life will be a continued series of an- 
noyances. Impatience in children is the result 
either of temperament or hereditary predisposi- 
tion ; and, in dealing with it. the teacher should 
remember that nothing so tends to develop ami 
foster it in his pupils, as a constant practical ex- 
hibition of it in his daily intercourse with them. 
As nothing is so infectious as ill temper, so 
nothing tends so rapidly to curb ill temper as 
that quiet forbearance which a patient spirit 
diffuses around it like an atmosphere. The 
mental powers, also, act with much greater effect 
when the calmness of the judgment is undis- 
turbed by ill temper or impatience. Perseve- 
rance may. indeed, exist without patience. and to 
a certain extent may accomplish its objects ; but 

it is safe to say that more than half the g 1 

results which perseverance aided by patience 
might accomplish, are thrown away if patience 
docs not accompany it. 

PAYNE, Joseph, one of the most noted 
English educators of our times, born in 1808 ; 
died April 30., 1876. He received his educa- 
tional training at the University of London, and 
early distinguished himself as a teacher of En- 
glish. For a number of years, he was connected 
with his <il inn muter. In 1873, he was ap- 
pointed to the newly-founded professorship of 



education in the College of Preceptors, the first 
chair in any public institution in England as- 
signed to that subject. He devoted himself, in 
this position, and also by his writings, to the 
promotion of education, making the improve- 
ment of methods of teaching his special object. 
lie was the author of Lectures mi Education, 
and numerous lectures and pamphlets on allied 
subjects. He also took an active part in the 
Woman's Education Union. Mr. Payne con- 
tributed several papers to the proceedings of the 
Philological Society — chiefly on English dialects 
anil the relation of (>ld English to Norman 
French. Among his other publications, were 
text books on English literature, entitled Stud- 
ies in English (5th ed., London, 1864); Studies 
in English Prose ( 1 s- 7 ) : and Select Poetry for 
Children, which had a very large circulation 
(loth ed., 1868). 

PEABODY, George, an American merchant 
and banker, born in Uanvers, Mass., Feb. 18., 
1795; died in London, Nov. 4.. 1869. Mr. 1'ca- 
body's gifts to charitable and educational institu- 
tions have been enormous, if not unequaled. Of 
the latter, the principal are the following : the 
Peabody Institute, in South Rimers, which he 
founded by a gift of $30,000, afterwards in- 
creased to $200,000; a similar institution in 
North Danvers, endowed with $50,000 : the 
Peabody Institute in Baltimore, Md., founded 
by a bequest of $300,000, to which he added 
$700,000 : the Archaeological Institute of Har- 
vard ( 'ollege. with an endowment fund of 
$150,000; ami the department of physical 
science, in Yale College, with an equal fund. 
The total amount of his bequests to the cause 
of education exceeds $5,365,000. 

PEABODY FUND (Educational), an 
endowment of extraordinary munificence, cre- 
ated for educational purposes, by George Pea- 
body (q. v.). the first announcement of which 
was made Feb. 7.. 1867. in the following words: 
" I give one million of dollars for the encourage- 
ment anil promotion of intellectual, moral, and 
industrial education among the young of the 
more destitute portions of the southern and 
southwestern states of the Union." Ten trustees 
were selected by him to cany his wishes into 
effect : and. at a meeting held in New York, 
March 19.. 1867, a general plan was adopted, 
and Dr. Barnas Sears was appointed agent. On 
duly 1.. 1869, Mr. Peabody added a second mil- 
lion to the cash capital of the fund. Besides 
this, there were donations of Mississippi and 
Florida bonds amounting to about $1,500,000, 
not realizing, however, any income. According 
to the donor's directions, the principal must 
remain unchanged for .'in years, the trustees be- 
ing enjoined from expending any portion of 
it or adding to it any part of the accruing in- 
terest. The manner of using the latter, as well 
;is the tiled distribution of the principal, was 
left entirely to the discretion of the trustees, 
who are vested with authority to till vacancies 
in their number. " Not a single Southern state." 
says the agent, " had a modern system of public 



682 



PEDAGOGY 



PBET 



schools when the trustees first entered upon 
their work, and now (1875) no state is without 
such a system, existing at least in law; and every 
state has either already organized or is now 
organizing its schools." While it is not claimed 
by the trustees that all this has been done by 
means of the distribution of the proceeds of the 
fund ; it must be conceded that this great work 
has been greatly aided and stimulated thereby. 
The promotion of primary education for the 
masses has been _ the chief object kept in view ; 
and, in the effort to accomplish it, the trustees 
have followed the " sound maxim of giving help 
to those, and only to those, who help themselves." 
Hence, whenever efficient measures have been 
inaugurated by state, city, or town to estab- 
lish and support a permanent system of schools, 
and aid has been needed to meet the outlay 
necessary at first, contributions have been 
promptly and liberally made to supplement the 
funds publicly raised. The rules followed in the 
distribution have been as follows: (1)A11 schools 
aided must have at least 100 pupils, with a 
teacher for every 50 ; must be properly graded, 
and must be continued during ten months in the 
year, with an average attendance of not less than 
85 per cent ; (2) The trustees act in concert with 
the state authorities, and with the co-operation 
of the state superintendent in each ; (3) The 
largest sum given to a school of 100 pupils is 
$300 ; to one of 200 pupils, $600, and to one 
of 300 pupils, $1000 ; but always on the condi- 
tion that the district pay at least twice the 
amount given from the fund. 

PEDAGOGY, or Pedagogics (Gr. ira/da- 
yayia, from iraic, tratcJiJf, a boy, and aycrydc, lead- 
ing or guiding) , the science and art of giving in- 
struction to children, particularly in school, or 
as by a school-teacher (iraidayuyde). This term 
is more generally used in Germany than in the 
United States or Great Britain, in which the 
theory and art of the teacher or educator is de- 
signated as instruction or education; indeed, 
the word pedagogue is, in these countries, used 
as a term of reproach. For information in re- 
gard to the various departments of pedagogy, 
see EnucATioN, Instruction, Didactics, etc. 

PEET, Harvey Prindle, a noted teacher 
of the deaf and dumb, born in Bethlehem, Ct., 
Nov. 19., 1794; died in New York, Jan. 1., 1873. 
The ordinary life of the country boy, working 
on the farm in summer, and attending the district- 
school in winter, when associated with an ardent 
thirst for knowledge, is by no means an inap- 
propriate school for the development of a self- 
reliant character. Such was the early life of Dr. 
Peet, with this additional advantage, that he was 
surrounded by a society exceptionally refined and 
cultivated for a country town. At the age of 21, 
he began to teach; but, becoming ambitious for 
a college education, he entered upon a course of 
study while he was teaching, and having finished 
his preparatory course at Andover, Mass., entered 
Yale College, from which he graduated in 1822. 
He received an invitation to teach in the Amer- 
ican Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, 



and entered there upon a career which he never 
afterwards abandoned. His own qualifications, 
and the society of several eminent and successful 
instructors in this peculiar field, soon gave him 
a proficiency that led to his appointment as 
steward of the institution, and, shortly after- 
wards, to his selection, by the directors of the 
New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 
for the situation of principal. He entered upon 
his new duties in 1831, and found, in the neces- 
sary re-organization of the institution, ample field 
for all his energy. In the training of teachers 
for the instruction of the unfortunate class with 
whom he was associated, his peculiar ability and 
patience were more particularly manifested. This 
work of re-organization and instruction was long 
and arduous; but the marked improvement which 
followed placed the institution on a higher level 
of usefulness and reputation, that afterwards led 
to the rebuilding of it on an enlarged scale, and to 
its incorporation by the state, Dr. Peet becoming 
its president. This position he continued to hold 
till his death. — His peculiar service in the cause 
of deaf-mute instruction deserves not only com- 
mendation but careful study by all engaged in 
that peculiar field of educational labor. In 1844, 
Horace Mann, after an extended examination of 
the school systems of Europe, made the assertion 
that the institutions for deaf-mutes in Prussia, 
Saxony, and Holland were decidedly superior to 
any existing in America; the ground of this asser- 
tion being that while the American system taught 
pupils to converse by signs only, the systems 
in those countries taught the pupils actually to 
speak, as well as to understand spoken language, 
and that this latter was the only way in which 
their defect could be thoroughly remedied. Mr. 
Mann's great reputation, though not shaking Dr. 
Peet's belief in the superiority of his favorite 
method — that of signs, made it necessary to 
answer this charge in the most conclusive way. 
To this end, Dr. Weld, of the Hartford Asylum, 
and Dr. Day, of the New York institution, were 
sent to Europe on a tour of investigation; and, in 
the New York institution, a class of the most 
promising pupils was formed for practice in artic- 
ulation and lip-reading. After a year's exper- 
iment, the class proved a failure, and the ex- 
haustive report made by Dr. Day, on his return 
from Europe, did not sustain Mr. Mann in his 
assertions. Dr. Peet regarded uneducated deaf- 
mutes as children in intelligence; because, of the-- 
avenues through which intelligence is increased 
and perfected, two — hearing and speech — are 
closed from birth. An evidence of this childish 
condition is found in the fact that their minds 
are engrossed by concrete ideas to the almost en- 
tire exclusion of abstract ones. Having satisfied 
himself of this, therefore, instead of attempting to 
impose upon these immature minds complex and 
abstract ideas, such as only a person in the full 
possession of his faculties can entertain, he placed 
himself on their level, and endeavored to watch 
the very birth of thought, following the processes 
by which perceptions become conceptions, and 
studying the nature of the conceptions so formed. 



PEET 



PEIRCE 



683 



This led him to adopt a strictly natural method 
in the instruction of deaf-mutes — a method 
which should conform to the natural, in the kind 
of objects first presented for observation, and in 
the order of presentation. According to this 
plan, the first to be employed are simple, tan- 
gible, or sensuous, objects, the abstract ideas, 
formed by a generalization of these, having no 
existence till the concrete ideas have become per- 
fectly familiar by long usage. As to the means 
to be employed for communicating with deaf- 
mutes during instruction, his position was always 
that articulation, except in its most elementary 
stage, being an arbitrary method for the com- 
munication of thought, can be learned, with any 
degree of accuracy, only by persons in possession 
of the faculties of both ear and speech; that deaf- 
mutes, therefore. i. e., born deaf-mutes, will only 
lose time and patience by attempting to acquire 
t he faculty of speech: and that their efforts should 
be turned to the developing and perfecting of 
t 'ie sign language as their most efficient means 
of conversation. Exceptions to this are made 
in the case of semi-mutes, by which term he 
meant those who had lost the faculty of hearing 
after they had learned to speak or read, the 
semi-deaf, and a few deaf-mutes of exceptional 
ability; but as these constitute only about fifteen 
per cent of the whole number of the deaf, the 
method to be pursued should be that which will 
benefit the remaining eighty-five percent. While, 
however, he considered the sign language the 
only one natural to deaf-mutes, and therefore 
the fittest for the development of their minds, 
it was necessary to keep constantly in view, not 
only the means by which they were" to com- 
municate with each other, but more especially the 
means by which they were to communicate with 
the world around them, with the members of 
which they were to associate, as nearly as possil ile, 
on terms of equality. For this purpose, the deti- 
ciency of the sign language is at once evident. 
In the investigation of the causes of this defi- 
ciency, Dr. Peet discovered that the natural lan- 
guage of signs had a syntax of its own, which dif- 
fered from spoken English principally in the fol- 
lowing particulars: (1) the order of expression 
is inverted; (2) the time is marked once only, as 
in the Hebrew; (3) of the radical elements, there 
are no variations corresponding to parts of speech; 

(4) there are no inflections to denote gender, 
/number, person, case, voice, mood, or tense; 

(5) particles and pronouns are seldom used. 
Methodical or arbitrary signs, were, therefore, 
necessary to supply these deficiencies, and the 
extent to which these should be used, and the 
method of using them, became a subject not only 
of difficulty but of controversy. Dr. Feet looked 
upon the deaf-mute, while learning written 
English, as in the condition of an English boy 
learning any foreign language — Latin, for in- 
stance. To such a boy, the English word and 
the I .at in word were both, he thought, direct 
representatives of the idea. His opponents held, 
on the contrary, that only one of these — the En- 
glish word — was the direct representative; and 



that the Latin word represented the idea indi- 
rectly, ('. e., through the English one. Holding, 
therefore, as he did. that the written word and 
the sign were equally direct representatives of 
the idea, he considered that, in the use of lan- 
guage, the sign should be dropped as soon as 
possible, and the idea attached directly to the 
written word. Acting on these views, Dr. Peet 
prepared, for use in his institution, a course of 
instruction, arranged to embody two other prin- 
ciples; namely, that ideas should be taught before 
words, and that difficulties should be gradually 
and singly overcome. It is not necessary, how- 
ever, to describe the manner in which these ideas 
are practically illustrated, in his series of text- 
books, or to trace their further development in 
subsequent works. Enough has been said to in- 
dicate the distinctive character of his system ; and 
the success which has attended the use of it in 
the institution which he conducted so many 
years, and which is, at present, under the care of 
his son. Isaac Lewis Peet — trained under parental 
care for the work — appears to be an ample vin- 
dication of its correctness. Df the place Dr. Feet 
should hold in the ranks of those noble men who 
have given their lives to the work of education, 
of his high place among the exceptional men 
who have devoted their energies to the difficult 
task of lifting the veil from intelligences clouded 
by misfortune, there can be no question. The 
essentially < hristian character of the work un- 
dertaken, the ability and patience with which 
it was pursued, and the success with which it 
was attended, must always claim our admiration 
and demand for Dr. Peet a place among the 
benefactors of his race. Besides his Course of 
Instruction, and History of the United States 
(1869). Dr. Feet's published works are to be 
found in articles furnished to various periodicals, 
in annual reports, addresses, and discourses. By 
means of these, in addition to his own researches, 
the results reached by De Gerando, Schmalz, 
and Guyot were first brought to the attention of 
the English-reading public. Perhaps, his most 
valuable contribution, however, was the Report 
on the Legal Rights and Liabilities of the Deaf 
and Dumb, published in the Herald of Health. 
(Xew York, 18(18). It will be seen at once that 
deficiency of intellect on the part of deaf-mutes 

[ raises important questions in regard to their legal 
rights. This report furnishes valuable infor- 
mation on marriage, the disposal of property, 
the comprehension of the oath, and many other 
subjects; and being unique in kind, and sup- 
plying, as it does, information not hitherto at- 

. tamable, it will long be quoted as an authority. 
— See Barnard, American Teachers and Edu- 
cators; Stle, Summary of the Recorded Re- 
searches and Opinions of H. P. Peet (Wash- 
ington. 1873), reprinted from American Annals 
if the Deaf am/ Dumb. 

PEIRCE, Cyrus, a noted teacher, born in 
Waltham. Mass.. August 15., 1790; died in West 
Newton, Mass., April 6., I860. He was edu- 
cated in the district school of his native place, 

I and in Harvard College, from which he graduated 



684 



PEIRCE 



PENMANSHIP 



in 1810. For two years, he taught school in 
Nantucket, but. in 1812, returned to college to 
prepare himself for the ministry. After three 
years spent in the study of theology, the per- 
suasions of his former patrons at Nantucket in- 
duced him to return to the charge of the school 
he had relinquished there; and, for three years 
more, he devoted himself to the work of teach- 
ing. At the end of that time, he entered the 
ministry, in which he continued eight years. Sus- 
pecting, however, that his want of a pleasing ad- 
dress was preventing him from using h'is energies 
to the best effect morally, and that the faults he 
sought to correct in adults, could be dealt with 
more successfully, if taken at an earlier period, 
he determined to abandon the pulpit for the desk 
of the teacher. Accordingly, he associated him- 
self with a relative, and opened a school at North 
Andover, but their want of agreement as to dis- 
cipline and methods of teaching led to a sepa- 
ration after four years; and, in 1831, he returned 
to Nantucket where, for six years, he conducted 
a large and flourishing school. One of his most use- 
ful measures was the grading of the public schools 
of Nantucket. This led, shortly after, to his ap- 
pointment as principal of the high school in that 
place, which position he held for two years. At 
the end of that time, he accepted the invitation, 
extended by Horace Mann, to take charge of 
the normal school at Lexington, the establish- 
ment of which had been decided upon as an ex- 
periment by the state board of education. Only 
three pupils presented themselves at the opening 
of the school, and the prospect was most dis- 
heartening. The thoroughness of Mr. Peirce's 
instruction, however, and his ardent devotion to 
his work soon attracted attention; the apathy 
with which his labors were regarded by a large 
majority of the friends of education gradually 
gave place to confidence ; and the superiority of 
the graduates of his school to ordinary teachers 
soon placed the new system in the pathway of 
assured success. During the three years of his 
labors at Lexington, more than fifty teachers "were 
graduated, and the testimony generally given as 
to their fitness for the profession was cordial and 
almost uniform. In connection with the normal 
school, he established a model school; in which 
the methods he taught were put to a practical 
test under his own supervision. From 18-12 to 
the close of his life, his time was passed in teach- 
ing, and writing essays on education. The prin- 
cipal characteristics of Cyrus Peiroe were his 
deep moral convictions, unwearied patience, and 
conscientious devotion to duty — the deepest im- 
pression left on the minds of all -with whom 
he was associated being that of his unswerving 
integrity. As the principal of the first normal 
school in America, specially chosen for the work 
by one so eminent in the educational annals of 
the United States, and justifying that choice by 
self-sacrificing and effective work, at a critical 
moment, his name will always be accorded a 
prominent place among American educators. — 
See Bakxakd, American Teachers and Educa- 
tors (New York, 1861). 



PENMANSHIP, writing with the pen ; al- 
though the term is sometimes used to indicate 
any kind of handwriting, or chirograph y, the 
pen beiug the most important instrument for 
writing. The ability to write is one of the two- 
fundamental characteristics of an educated per- 
son, the inability to read and write constituting 
what is technically called illiteracy ; and yet, in 
advanced education, a legible or elegant style 
of handwriting is not considered of great im- 
portance ; for the cases are very few in which a 
candidate either for admission to a college or 
university, or for a graduating diploma, is re- 
jected for not being able to write, any scrawl, 
however illegible or inelegant, being usually ac- 
cepted as evidence of such ability. "The conse- 
quence is, that good penmanship has not been 
, the distinguishing feature of college graduates, 
! but rather the reverse. When the value of this 
; accomplishment, in every sphere of life, is con- 
! sidered, it will be obvious that the policy of thus 
j disparaging penmanship as the accomplishment 
of a scholar is an entirely mistaken one. It is 
true that it cannot be considered as an element 
of superior instruction ; but those who have the 
direction of that grade of instruction, should al- 
ways insist upon the completion of the inferior 
grades as an indispensable prerequisite for ad- 
mission to higher studies. In elementary schools, 
penmanship constitutes a very important branch 
of instruction ; and, in these, sufficient time 
should be given to it to insure, at least, a respect- 
able degree of excellence to each of the pupils. — 
There are various so-called systems of teaching- 
penmanship, but the underlying principles are 
the same in all, the difference chiefly consisting 
in a diversity in the arrangement of the elements 
of the letters, with slight modifications in their 
forms and mode of execution, and in the exer- 
cises for practice. In order to write well, the 
pupil must have (1) a thorough knowdedge of 
the forms of the letters, and (2) a command of 
the lien to execute them. These two fundament- 
al acquirements must be made simultaneously, 
except that some previous elementary instruction 
and practice in drawing wdll aid the pupil very 
much in his first lessons in penmanship. In these 
lessons, the forms should be adapted to the 
pupil's untrained muscles, and should increase 
in complexity and difficulty paripassu with the 
training of the hand and arm. The proper posi- 
tion of the body and the correct mode of hold- 
ing the pen are indispensable prerequisites to< 
successful work. Lessons in penmanship also 
presuppose a careful analysis of the elementary 
forms of the letters; and, in this respect, systems 
greatly differ. They have, however, many points 
in common — indeed every thing that is essen- 
tial. Commencing with straight lines, to be made 
| at the proper slope, and with perfect parallelism, 
the pupil advances progressively to the pot-hook, 
the loop, the ellipse, as in the letter o, etc., till, 
by practicing these and their combinations, he 
has mastered all the small letters of the script 
alphabet, when he proceeds, in a similar manner, 
with the capitals, from which he passes to words. 



PENN COLLEGE 



PENNSYLVANIA 



685 



phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. The copy- 
book should not be used after the pupil has be- 
come thoroughly fainiliar with the proper forms 
of the letters, and thus acquired a fair style of 
writing. Much time is frequently lust in com- 
pelling pupils, year after year, to write copies. 
Quantity as well as quality should be required ; 
excellence in penmanship consisting both in cor- 
rectness and speed of execution. Many useful 
exercises may be blended with practice in pen- 
manship, as the learning of the forms used in 
business, such as bills, receipts, modes of super- 
scribing and addressing letters, etc. Practice in 
calligraphy, or artistic penmanship, is also of 
use. but should not lie carried to an extreme in 
schools. The remarks of an experienced teacher 
may here be cited: ■■Constant vigilance, and 
continual correction of errors, are indispensable 
to the formation of a good hand. To know how 
to execute well, then, is the grand requisite in 
the teacher ; the next, to furnish good models ; 
and the third, to have a quick eye to detect 
faults, and a persistent determination for their 
correction. These conditions existing, and the 
principle carried out. your pupils will write well, 
with a reasonable amount and duration of prac- 
tice." (Gideon F. Thayer, in Barnard's Journal 
of Education.) — See also Pavson, Dunton, etc. 
Theory ami Art 0/ Penmanship (N. Y., 1863) ; 
Wickersham, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 
1865) ; How to Tench (N. V., 1874). 

PENN COLLEGE, at < Iskaloosa, Iowa, under 
the control of the Friends, was incorporated in 
1866 as Iowa Union College Association of 
Friends. The name was changed in IsT.'i. It 
has an endowment of $5,000, and a library of 
about 2,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $30 
a year. The institution comprises a collegiate 
(a classical and a scientific course), a preparatory, 
a normal, and a business department. I toth sexes 
are admitted. In 1874 — 5, there were 12 in- 
structors, and 38 collegiate, 1 83 preparatory. 41 
normal, and 32 business students, of whom some 
belong to more than one department. John W. 
Woody. A. M., is the president (1876). 

PENNSYLVANIA, one of the largest and 
most important of the thirteen original states of 
the American Union. Its area is 46,000 sq. m., 
ami its population, in 1870, was 3,522,050, of 
whom 65,294 were colored persons. Its popula- 
tion in 1875, was estimated at 3,941,400. 

Educational History. — This subject will be 
treated under the following heads : (I) The 
Colonial period:. (II) Under the constitution of 
1790; (III) Under the constitutions of 1838 
and 1873. 

I. The Colonial Period. — From the founding 
of Penn's colony on the banks of the Delaware, 
may be said to date the beginning of Pennsyl- 
vania's educational history. The first plan of the 
proprietary government drafted by Penn before 
leaving England, in 1682, stipulated that "the 
governor and provincial council shall erect and 
order all public schools, and reward the authors 
of useful sciences and laudable inventions in said 
provinces." During the following year, a law 



was enacted by the council of the province, which 
provided that a school should be established for 
the education of the young. Immediate steps 
were taken to put this enactment into execution. 
rhe governor and the council, perceiving "the 
great necessity there is of a school-master Jor the 
instruction and sober education of youth." elect- 
ed one Enoch Flower, a teacher of several years 
experience, to open a school. The branches re- 
quired to be taught were, reading, writing, and 
the casting of accounts. According to the most 
authentic records, this was the first school estab- 
lished within the present territorial limits of 
the state. In different parts of the province, 
other schools were organized. In 1692. a school 
was opened at Darby I now- in Delaware Co.) ; 
and in 1 698, the Society of Friends established 
a school in Philadelphia, where all the children 
and servants, male and female, "might be taught, 
and provision made that the poor might be 
taught gratis." The motto of the school. -Good 
instruction is better than riches." was selected 
by Penn. In 1701, the charter of this Friends' 
School was confirmed by a new patent from 
Penn, bearing date. October 25.. 1701, and, also, 
by another, in 1708, whereby the corporation 
was ■• forever thereafter to consist of 15 discreet, 
religious persons of the people called Quakers, 

i by the name of < Iverseers of the Public School. 

I founded in Philadelphia at the request, cost, and 
charges, of the people called Quakers." Another 
charter was granted by Penn, in 1711. for ex- 
tending the lights and privileges of the corpora- 
tion. This was the first public school in Penn- 
sylvania ; and the design of the governor and 
council in establishing this institution is best set 
forth in the preamble of the last charter, which 
reads as follows : 

" Whereas the prosperity and welfare of any people 
depend hi a great measure, upon the good education 
of youth, and their early introduction in the principles 
of true religion and virtue, and qualifying them to 
serve their country and themseives by breeding them 
in reading, writing, and learning of languages and use- 
ful arts and sciences, suitable to their sex, age, and 
degree: which cannot be affected, in any manner, so 
well as by erecting Public Schools for the purpose 
aforesaid.' 1 

As the early settlers pushed their way west- 
ward, the progress of education was accelerated 
by the prosperity of the thrifty colonists. Thus 
far, the schools established had been chiefly 
under the direction of the governor and pro- 
vincial council ; though no special provision was 
mad( by the authorities regulating the number 
of schools in accordance with the number of 
families in each settlement, as was done in some 
other colonies. — It should be distinctly under- 
stood that the school established by the Society 
of Friends in 1698, and supported by them and 
conducted under their direct and exclusive con- 
trol, was open indiscriminately to persons of all 
religious denominations, and was, for more than 
half a century, the only public school in the 
province. In the mean time, new settlements 
had been formed in various parts of the province; 
and the school, by reason of its location as well 



686 



PENNSYLVANIA 



as the want of accommodations, had long been 
inadequate to meet the educational necessities 
of the province. Private schools were, there- 
fore, called into existence, whenever the colonists 
could find means and the opportunity to provide 
for them. — Among the early German settlers the 
proper instruction of their youth was a subject 
of deep concern. As early as 1755, they num- 
bered 30,000 souls ; and, wherever a sufficient 
number were settled, the church and the school- 
house were erected. From 1760 until the close 
of the Revolution, the vicissitudes of the colony 
were so great as to prevent the establishment 
of any educational system whatever. At the 
close of the Revolution the first fundamental 
law adopted by the people recognized the 
right to provide schools and defray the expense 
thereof, to a certain extent, from the public 
funds. 

LT. Under the Constitution of 1790. — The con- 
stitution of 1790 required that the legislature 
should " provide by law for the establishment of 
schools throughout the state in such a manner 
that the poor may be taught gratis ;" and, also, 
that " the arts and sciences shall be promoted in 
one or more seminaries of learning." The con- 
stitutional convention of 1790, however, did not 
contemplate the establishment of a system of 
common schools which should be free to all the 
children of the commonwealth, nor, prior to 
1830, was the establishment of such a system 
recognized by many as a legitimate object of 
state legislation, or even regarded as a matter of 
great public concern. The opinion which long 
prevailed was, that this duty belonged exclusive- 
ly to parents and guardians; and when the legis- 
lature, soon after the adoption of the constitu- 
tion, took action on the subject, nothing more was 
done than to make provision whereby the poor 
children in every district were to be enrolled for 
the purpose of attending school if they wished, 
their tuition to be paid out of the county funds. 
Laws of the same import were enacted in 1802, 
1801, and 1809. That of the last date was entitled 
"An act to provide for the education of the poor 
gratis," and remained in force up to the time of 
the adoption of the first common-school system, 
in 1834. The new system was called by those 
who disliked it the " pauper system," as it drew 
a line of distinction between the rich and the 
poor, the children in all the schools being divided 
into two classes known as pay scholars and 
paupers. The whole number of children who were 
brought into the schools, in the year 1833, the 
last in which these acts were in force, was only 
17,467, and the whole amount expended in their 
behalf, $48,466.25. Opposition to the pauper 
system manifested itself from the beginning; but 
many years elapsed before the friends of a 
broader and better system, were able to make 
their influence felt in the legislature. This in- 
fluence was increased in 1818, when Phila- 
delphia was exempted from the operation of 
the pauper system, by the passage of a special 
act, which provided for the education of its 
children at the public expense. This same 



' act, with a few changes, is still in force in 
that city. In 1827, a number of citizens, re- 
siding in the city and county of Philadelphia, 
formed an association for the promotion of edu- 
cation in the state, by the establishment of a 
system of public schools ; and, after considerable 
j agitation, the measure, being strongly urged by 
George Wolf, then governor, was adopted by the 
legislature, April 1., 1834. The act passed was, 
however, defective, and encountered the most vio- 
I lent opposition. Luring the legislative session 
I of 1834 — 5, thousands of petitions were pre- 
sented, asking for the repeal of the law, and few 
of the representatives had sufficient courage to 
defend it openly. Notwithstanding this, it was 
defended by Thaddeus Stevens, then a represent- 
ative from Adams County, who, at this critical 
moment, made one of his most eloquent appeals 
in its behalf, and thus saved the system. Accord- 
ing to the report of James Findlay, secretary of 
the commonwealth, and superintendent of com- 
mon schools, ex officio, only 93 districts, out of 
900, accepted the system during the first year it 
was in operation. The average length of the school 
term at that time was 3| months ; the number 
of schools, 451; and the number of pupils in at- 
tendance, 19,864. The average salary paid to 
teachers was not quite $16 a month. Opposition to 
the law creating the system, continued to in- 
crease as its defects became more apparent. One 
of the first official acts of Governor Ritner, in 
1835, was to appoint as secretary of the common- 
wealth Thomas H. Burrowes, who, by virtue of 
his office, became superintendent of common 
schools. He remained, through his whole public 
career, a steadfast friend of the system. In 1835, 
a new bill was presented "to consolidate and 
amend the several acts in relation to a system of 
education by common schools," in securing the 
passage of which both Mr. Stevens and Mr. Bur- 
rowes rendered valuable assistance. The accept- 
ance of the new law was made optional with 
each district, the citizens being allowed to vote 
on the question of the continuance of the public 
schools every third year. The great work now to 
be done was to secure the adoption of the system 
by the people, and to put it into operation. Mr. 
Burrowes, the superintendent, undertook this 
work. He visited nearly all the counties in the 
state, delivered addresses, explained the law, pre- 
pared the necessary forms, — and succeeded in 
placing the system upon a firm basis. His suc- 
cess was so great that, in the third and last re- 
port made during his term of office under Gover- 
nor Ritner, he was able to present the following 
statistics : accepting districts, 840 ; number of 
schools, 5,269 ; number of teachers, 6,732 ; num- 
ber of pupils, 174,733. The state appropriation, 
also, had reached the sum of 8308,819; a tax had 
been raised for the support of schools, amount- 
ing to $385,788; and the average school term 
had been extended to 5| months. 

Forty years elapsed from the time of the or- 
ganization of the state government to the adop- 
tion of the common-school system. It must not, 
however, be inferred that, during this period, 



PENNSYLVANIA 



68T 



there was no legislation relating to education ; 
such as there was, however, was generally in the 
interest of private schools. The policy of the 
legislature seemed to be, to establish, first, acad- 
emies, colleges, and universities. The whole 
number of acts passed, mostly in behalf of such 
institutions, was 186 ; and the whole amount, of 
appropriations, in money or its equivalent, be- 
stowed chiefly on corporate bodies, including 
academies, colleges, and universities, reached 
nearly $300,000. In 1833, there were 2 universi- 
ties, 8 colleges, and 50 academies, all of which 
had been liberally aided by the state. 

III. Education under the Constitutions of '1838 
and 1873. — In 1838, a convention met in Phila- 
delphia to revise the constitution of the state. 
On the subject of education, it recommended, 
without change, the provisions found in the con- 
stitution of 1790. The common-school system 
had now been in operation several years, and 
was gradually commending itself to the people. 
Important changes in the law took place from 
time to time. In 1848, the people having pre- 
viously, in the triennial election, in every part of 
the state, voted for the continuance of the sys- 
tem, an act was passed extending it over the en- 
tire state. At this time, 360,000 youths of the 
commonwealth were enrolled in the public 
schools, and taught about five months in the year, 
at a cost of about .'5600.000. In 1849, all the 
laws relating to schools were collected and codi- 
fied. In January, 18:V2, Thomas H. Burrowes 
commenced the publication of an educational 
journal, the title of which, at the end of the first 
half year, was changed to the Pennsylvania 
School Journal; and, in 1855, it became the of- 
ficial organ of the school department. In 1870, 
•James P. Wickersham, the state superintendent, 
became its editor; and, since that time, it has 
gained largely in influence and circulation. On 
the 28th of December, 1852, a small number of 
prominent teachers and friends of education met 
at llarrisburg and organized the State Teachers' 
Association, which has convened annually since 
that time. In 1854, a general school law was 
passed, which created the office of county super- 
intendent, abolished committees in sub-districts, 
assigning, instead, additional duties to school di- 
rectors, authorized the appointment of a deputy 
state superintendent, introduced uniformity of 
text-books into the schools of each district, fixed 
the minimum school term at 4 months, and 
authorized boards of school directors to levy a 
special tax annually for building purposes. April 
17., 1855, the Lancaster County Normal Insti- 
tute was opened in Millersville by J. P. Wicker- 
sham, who was then superintendent of the above 
named county. In 1857, the normal school act 
was passed, also a law separating the office of 
state superintendent from that of secretary of 
the commonwealth, and creating, at the same 
time, the department of common schools. The 
county superintendency, which had just been put 
in operation, under the new law, was, at this 
time, so unpopular, that, at times, it seemed as 
if its enemies would succeed in bringing about 



its abolition. Principally, however, through the 
efforts of the state superintendent. Mr. Hickok, 
the office was retained ; and his administration 
throughout was successful in the highest degree. 
— In 1859, the Millersville Normal Institute, 
under the supervision and principalship of its 
founder, was recognized by the state authorities 
as the first normal school under the law. In 
1867, cities and boroughs of over 10.000 inhabit- 
ants were authorized to elect superintendents ; 
teachers' institutes were legalized in all the 
counties of the state, and authority was given 
to the state superintendent to issue a high grade 
of certificate, called the permanent certificate, to 
teachers possessing superior qualifications. 

Article x. of the constitution of 1873 de- 
clares that the general assembly shall provide an 
efficient system of common schools, for all chil- 
dren above six years of age. and shall appropriate 
each year at least $1 ,000,000 for its support. It 
prohibits the use of any of this money for the 
support of sectarian schools, and provides that 
" women twenty-one years of age and upwards, 
shall be eligible b> any office of control or man- 
agement under the school laws of this state". It 
changes the title Superintendent of Common 
Schools to Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
and makes the term of that office four years. 

The following table gives the leading items 
of schools statistics for 1866 and 1876. thus 
showing, in part, the progress of the common- 
school system during the last ton years : 



18G6 



lS7(i 



Number of districts 1,863 2,103 

" "schools 13,146 17,41)7 

" " graded schools. 2,800 5,1157 

" "pupils 789,889 902,345 

Cost of tuition $2,748,796.08 - 1,856,888.91 

" "school-houses 725,000.00 1,735,148.87 

Total cost of system 4,195,258.57 9,163,928.68 

State appropriation 355,000.00 1,000,000.00 

The state superintendents have been as fol- 
lows: James Fiudlay. 1835 — 6; T. H. Burrowes, 
1836—8 ; F. R. Shunk, 1839—41 ; A. V. Par- 
sons, 1841—2; Charles McClure, 1843—5; 
Jesse Miller, 1846—8; Townsend Haines, 1849 
—50 ; A. L. Russell. 1851—2 ; F. W. Hughes, 
Is;,:; -4; 0. A. Black. 1854—5: A. G. Curtin, 
1856 — 7. The persons above named filled the 
office of superintendent, by virtue of holding 
the office of secretary of the commonwealth. 
In June, 1857, the Department of Common 
Schools was organized; and. since that time, the 
following named persons have been commis- 
sioned as superintendent: H. O. Hickok. 1858 
— GO; T. II. Burrowes, 1860— 63; C.R. Coburn, 
1863—6 ; J. P. Wickersham, from 1866 to the 
present time (1877). 

School System. — The educational interests of 
the state are intrusted to a superintendent of 
public instruction, who is appointed by the gov- 
ernor of the commonwealth, and confirmed by 
the senate. His term of office is 4 years. His 
duties are to decide all controversies between 
school officers ; to give advice and explanation 



688 



PENNSYLVANIA 



relative to the common-school law, the duties of 
school officers, and the rights and duties of 
parents, guardians, teachers, and pupils ; to sign 
all orders on the state treasurer for the payment 
of the state appropriation to the several districts, 
and for salaries of county superintendents ; to 
prepare blank forms for the use of school officers 
and the department of public instruction ; to 
commission county, city, and borough superin- 
tendents ; to appoint trustees for normal schools, 
and committees to examine annually the grad- 
uating classes of the state normal schools ; to till 
all vacancies among county superintendents ; and 
to make an annual report to the governor and 
the state legislature. — The school directors of 
each county meet in convention at the county 
seat, on the first Tuesday of May, every third 
year, and elect a county superintendent for a 
term of three years, and fix his salary for the 
same time. He must be a legal resident of the 
county ; and must have one of the following 
documents : a diploma from a college, a diploma 
from a state normal school, a professional or 
permanent certificate, or a certificate of com- 
petency from the state superintendent. He 
must, also, have s kill and experience in teach- 
ing. — The duties of the county superintendent 
are, to examine teachers and give certificates, 
setting forth the qualifications of applicants ; to 
visit the schools as often as possible, and give 
instruction in teaching and school government ; 
to see that orthography, reading, writing, arith- 
metic, geography, and grammar are taught in all 
the schools ; to hold annually a teachers' insti- 
tute which must remain in session 5 days ; to 
annul certificates of teachers for incompetency, 
cruelty, negligence, or immorality ; to examine, 
affirm, and" forward to the state department the 
annual reports of the several boards ; and to make 
an annual report to the state superintendent. 
Cities and boroughs having not less than 7,000 
inhabitants, may elect superintendents of their 
own. The duties and "powers of such officers 
are similar to those of county superintendents. 
The state is divided into school-districts ; each 
township, borough, and city constituting one 
district. School directors, generally six in num- 
ber, are elected in each district by the people 
for a term of 3 years, and constitute the district 
school board. The officers of each of these boards 
area president, a secretary, and a treasurer. It is 
the duty of the president to issue warrants for 
the collection of taxes ; to sign all orders, deeds, 
and contracts ; to attest by oath or affirmation 
the correctness of the annual statement of ex- 
penses, liabilities, etc., which must be presented 
to, and accepted by, the department of public 
instruction before a warrant for the annual state 
appropriation is issued. The duties of the secre- 
tary are to keep minutes of all the proceedings 
of the board ; to prepare duplicates for the tax 
collector ; to prepare and forward the annual 
district report and certificate ; to examine and 
approve monthly reports of teachers; and to keep 
in charge all valuable papers. The treasurer 
receives all moneys, disburses the school moneys 



on proper orders ; and settles his accounts an- 
nually with the board and auditors. The school 
boards must organize each year within ten days 
after the first Monday in June. Their duties 
are to establish a sufficient number of schools ; 
to fill vacancies in the board ; to levy a tax for 
school and building purposes ; to select sites for, 
and erect, school houses ; to fix the length of the 
school term ; to appoint teachers and fix salaries; 
to grade schools when necessary ; to direct what 
branches shall be taught ; to decide what text- 
books shall be used ; and to visit the schools at 
least once a month. These boards, also, may dis- 
miss teachers for cruelty, negligence, incompe- 
tency, or immorality. They pay all expenses by 
order on the treasurer, and pubhsh annually a 
statement setting forth the receipts and expend- 
itures of the district. The school revenue is 
derived from the following sources : (1) a state 
appropriation of not less than $1,000,000. to be 
annually distributed among the several districts 
upon the basis of the number of taxable citizens; 
(*2) a school tax not to exceed 13 mills on each 
dollar of the assessed valuation, to be levied and 
collected annually, to pay teachers' salaries and 
other necessary expenses of the schools ; (3) a 
"building tax" to be levied and collected annually, 
if the school board deem it necessary, but not to 
exceed the amount levied for school purposes. 
This tax is used in paying for sites for school- 
houses, and the erection and repairs of school 
buildings. The studies to be pursued in the 
common schools, not being strictly designated 
by law, have been left, by the interpretation of 
the state superintendent, to the discretion of the 
local boards, who are governed In their decision 
by the wants of their districts. These boards, 
also, may establish separate schools for colored 
children, whenever they can be so located as to 
accommodate 20 or more pupils. The school 
age is from 6 to 21 years ; the school year, 
5 months of 22 days each. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school districts in the state is 2,103 ; the num- 
ber of schools. 17,497, of which 5,957 are graded. 
The school revenue, exclusive of $28,000 for nor- 
mal schools, for the year ending June 1., 1876, 
was as follows : 
Fromlocal tax- $8,659,738.67 

" state appropriation.. . 972,000.00 

Total $9,631,738.67 

The expenditures for common-school purposes 
were as follows : 

For tuition $4,856,888.91 

For building, purchasing, and 

renting school-houses 1,735,148.87 

For fuel, contingencies, etc. 2,471,890.90 

Total $9,003,928.68 

The principal items of school statistics for 
1876 are as follows: 
Number of children enrolled in public schoola. 902,345 

Average daily attendance 578,718 

Number of teachers, 20,192 

Average monthly salary of male teachers $38.72 

" " " female " $30.42 

Estimated value of school property $26,265,925.28 



PENNSYLVANIA 



689 



Normal Instruction. — The normal school law, 
enacted in 1857, divides the state into 12 dis- 
tricts, allowing one normal school in each. Nine 
have already been organized, and are in operation 
under this act. Philadelphia has a girls' normal 
school, which was opened in 1848. The whole 
number of students who attended the state nor- 
mal schools during 1875, was '.\.~'li; the number 
of graduates, 191; the number of prof essors and 
teachers, 1 14; the number of volumes in the libra- 
ries, 13,000 ; the value of buildings and grounds, 
$940,000; the whole amount appropriated to all 
the schools. 8350,000. The entire income from 
all sources during the same time was $357 ,990.9 1 ; 
total expenditures for all purposes, $350,173.83. 

Teachers' Institutes. — In 1867, a law was 
passed requiring a teachers' institute to be held 
once a year in each county, to continue in ses- 
sion 5 days. To defray the expenses, superin- 
tendents are entitled to draw from the county 
treasury a sum of money not exceeding §200. 
The attendance of teachers in 1E75, was 13,523; 
the number of school directors. 1,812 ; the num- 
ber of instructors and lecturers, 435 ; the whole 
amount expended was $21,100.54. 

Secondary Instruction. — The number of pub- 
lic schools in the state in which instruction in 
the higher branches was given in 1875, was 1,001. 
Besides these, there were 88 academies and sem- 
inaries, that reported to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation, and also 7 preparatory schools, and 10 
business colleges. 

Superior Instruction. — The following is a list 
of colleges and universities in the state : 



[The names of those 


lor females exclusively are print- 


ed in italics; those for both sexes, in 


Small Caps.] 






JJate 1 


NAME 




of 


Denomi- 








nation 






tcr 




Allegheny College.. 


Meadville 


1817 


M. Epis. 


Alirntown FeynafeColl. . 


Allentown 


1867 


Bef. 




Carlisle 


1783 


M. Epis. 


Franklin and Marshall 










Lancaster 


3853 


Ref.Ger.) 


Haverlord College. . . . 


HavenordColl. 


1833 


Friends 


Irving Female College. . 


Mechanicsburg 


1857 


Non-sect. 


Lafayette College. . . . 


Easton 


1826 


Presb. 


La Salle College 


Philadelphia 


1S63 


R C. 


Lebanon Valley Coll . . 


Annyille 


ISliT 


Un.Breth. 


Lehigh University 


So. Bethlehem 


1866 


Pr. Epis. 


Lincoln University. . . 


Chester Co. 


1854 


Presb. 


Mereersbnrg College. 


Mercersburg 


1H65 


Ref. 


MoNuNGAHELA COLL . . 


Jefferson 


1867 


Bap. 


Muhlenberg College. . 


Alleutown 


18G7 


Lith. 


New Castle College. 


New Castle 


1875 


Non-sect. 


Palatinate College. 


Myerstuwn 


18G8 


Ref. 


Pennsylvania College. 


lirttvsburg 


1832 


Ev. Luth. 


Penn. Female Collegt.. 


Collegeville 


1858 


Non-sect. 


Penn. Frmale College. . 


Pittsburgh 


1869 


Non-sect. 


Penn. Military Acad. . 


< 1l StiT 


1862 


Non-sect. 


Pitt$imr<)h Female '.'<>!/. 


Pittsburgh 


1854 


M. Epis. 


St. Francis College . . . 


Loretto 


1844 


R C. 


St. Joseph's College.. . 


Philadelphia 


1852 


R. C. 


St. Vincent's College.. 


Latrobe 


1870 


R. C. 


SWARTHMORE COLLEGE 


Swarthmore 


1864 


Friends 


Thiol College 


Greene ville 


1870 


Ev. Luth. 


Univ. at Lewisburg. . 


Lewisburg 


1846 


Bap. 


University of Penn.. . 


Philadelphia 


1755 


Non-sect. 




Freeland 


1869 


Ref. 




Villanova 


1848 


R. C. 


Washington and Jef- 










Washington 


1802 


Presb. 


Waynesburg College. 


Wayuesburg 


1850 


Cu. Presb. 


Western Univ. of Penn. 


Pittsburgh 


1819 


Non-sect. 


Westminster Coll... 


NewWilmingt'n 


1852 


Cu.Presb. 




Chambereburg 


1869 


Presb. 



| For further information in regard to these in- 
stitutions, see the respective titles, in other parts 
of this work. 

Professional ami Scientific Instruction. — 
Many of the institutions enumerated under the 
head of superior instruction have special depart- 
ments in which professional or scientific instruc- 
tion is given. The principal schools of each class 
are enumerated in the following tables: 
MEDJOAL Schools. 



Hahnemann Med. Col. 
lege of Philadelphia. 

Jefferson Med. College 

Penn. Coll. of Dental 
Surgery 

Phila. College of Phar- 
macy 

Phila. Dental College. 

Woman's Med. College 
of Pennsylvania 



Location 



Philadelphia 
Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 
Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 



a -a 



o s a 



1S4S 

1825 



1856 



1S22 
1863 



140 

r.uii 



316 
105 



Schools ok Science. 



Location 



Franklin Institute.... Philadelphia 
Polytechnic College of 

the State of Penn. ... Philadelphia 
Penn. State College. , . I State College 
Wagner Free Institute 

of Science j Philadelphia 

Theological Schools. 



144 
300 
to 
1200 











NAME. 






Denomina- 






A* 
P o 


tion 


'Augustinian College . . 








of Villanova 




1848 


R. C. 


Crozer Theological 










Upland 


1867 


Bap. 


Div. School of Prot. 








Epis. Church 


Philadelphia 


1862 


Prot. Epis. 


Moravian College and 










Bethlehem 


1864 


Moravian 


Meadville Theological 












1846 




Missionary Institute. . 


Selin's Grove 


1858 


Evan. Luth. 


St .Michael 's Seminary 


Pittsburgh 


1845 


R. C. 


St. Vincent's Semiuarv 


Philadelphia 





R. C. 


Theol. Seminary of St. 








Chas. Borromeo 


Lower Merion 


1833 


R. C. 


Theol. Seminary of the 








Rtf. Church 




1831 


Ref. 


Theol. Seminary of Ev. 








Luth. Church 


Gettysburg 


1827 


Evan Luth. 


Theol. Seminary of Ev. 










Philadelphia 





Evan. Luth. 


Theol. Seminary of 








Un. Presb. Church. . . 


Allegheny 


1830 


Un. Presb. 


Western Theol. Sem. 








of Presb. Church.... 


Allegheny 


1844 


Presb. 



Special Instruction. — The Pennsylvania Insti- 
tution for the Deaf and Dumb was founded at 
Philadelphia, in 1821. The minimum age for 
admission is Id years. It combines with a course 
of elementary instruction in common school 
branches, special instruction in industrial pur- 
suits, principally shoe-making and tailoring. The 
number of instructors, in 1875, was 17 ; the 
number of pupils. 338. The number of gradu- 
ates, since the organization of the institution, is 
l,5u6. There is a day school for deaf-mutes at 



690 PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY 



PA. MILITARY ACADEMY 



Pittsburgh, which was founded in 1869, as a part 
of the school system of that city, and is supported 
partially by a small appropriation from the city 
school fund. The Pennsylvania Institution for the 
instruction of the Blind, at Philadelphia, was 
founded in 1833, as a private institution, but has 
been for some time in receipt of a state appro- 
priation, which, in 1875, amounted to $39,000. 
It gives instruction in music and common-school 
branches, and special instruction in a large num- 
ber of mechanical and industrial pursuits. The 
number of instructors and employes, in 1876, 
was 63 ; the number of pupils, 207. Since its 
foundation, 885 pupils have been admitted. The 
Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-Minded 
Children was established, in 1853, at Media. In 
1875, the number of instructors and employes 
was 60 ; the number of pupils, 225. Of 372 
children admitted since 1 864, about 247 have 
been dismissed in an improved, and 49 in a self- 
supporting, condition. The three institutions 
above mentioned are open to inmates from the 
two adjoining states, New Jersey and Delaware. 
Girard College was established, in 1848, for the 
benefit of white male orphans born in Pennsyl- 
vania. The course of study covers from 8 to 9 
years, and includes common-school branches, and 
such additional studies as fit for progress in prac- 
tical or business life. The Educational Home for 
Boys, and the Lincoln Institution, both in Phila- 
delphia, are intended principally for orphans; the 
latter, for those of soldiers especially, though 
others are admitted. Elementary instruction is 
given in both. The Aimwell School Association, 
in Philadelphia, was incorporated in 1859, its 
origin being traced to the efforts of Anne Parish, 
a Friend, who resided in Philadelphia in 1796. 
The association formed by her numbered at first 
only three members, but, in 1799, had increased 
to eighteen. Their object was to teach poor girls 
the common English branches and sewing. The 
association now numbers 119 members. In- 
struction of an elementary grade, or in special 
branches, is also given in 2 reform schools, and 
more than 30 orphan homes and industrial 
schools in various parts of the state. 

PENNSYLVANIA, University of, in 
Philadelphia, comprises four departments : the de- 
partment of arts, the Towne scientific school, the 
department of medicine, and the department of 
law. It grew out of a charitable school established 
by subscription in 1745, became an academy in 
1749, and was chartered, in 1755, as The College, 
Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia. 
It was created a university in 1779; and, in 1791, 
the present organization was established. The med- 
ical department dates from 1765, and the law de- 
partment from 1789. In 1865, an Auxiliary Faculty 
of Medicine was constituted, for the purpose of 
supplementing the ordinary course of medical in- 
struction by lectures given during the spring 
months on certain collateral branches of science. 
The university buildings, situated in the portion 
of the city known as West Philadelphia, are new, 
and comprise a hall for the departments of arts, 
science, and law, the medical hall, and the uni- 



versity hospital. The institution has extensive^ 
chemical and physical apparatus, cabinets of fos- 
sils and minerals, and valuable medical cabinets. 
The libraries contain about 20,000 volumes. The 
endowment amounts to about $1,000,000, of 
which only one half is, at present, productive. 
The cost of tuition in the departments of arts and 
science is $150 a year. The regular course in the 
department of arts, comprising the usual collegiate: 
branches, is four years. The regular courses in 
the scientific school, each of four years, are: 
(1) analytical and applied chemistry and min- 
eralogy; (2) geology and mining; (3) civil en- 
gineering; (4) mechanical engineering; (5) draw- 
ing and architecture; (6) general course. There 
is also a post-graduate course. In 1875 — 6, the 
number of professors was as follows : department 
of arts, 13; science, 14; medicine, 7; medicine- 
(auxiliary faculty), 5; hospital 12; law, 5; total, 
deducting repetitions, 43, besides which, there 
were 5 lecturers and other instructors. There 
were 857 students; namely, arts, 114; science, 126; 
medicine, 415; medicine (auxiliary), 110; law, 92. 
The charity schools connected with the university 
(one for boys and one for girls) affording instruc- 
tion in the English branches, had three teachers- 
and 136 pupils. Charles J. Stille, LL. D., is- 
(1876), the provost of the university. 

PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE, at Gettys- 
burg, Pa., founded in 1832, is under Lutheran 
control. It grew out of the Gettysburg Gymna- 
sium, an institution that had been established for 
the preparation of young men for the Lutheran 
ministry. It is supported by tuition fees and the 
income of an endowment of $140,000. The col- 
lege has an astronomical observatory, chemical 
and philosophical apparatus, a chemical laboratory, 
and a botanical and a mineralogical cabinet. The 
libraries contain 19,550 volumes. There is a clas- 
sical and a special scientific course, and a prepar- 
atory department. The cost of tuition, in the 
college, is $50 a year ; in the preparatory depart- 
ment, $39. In 1874 — 5, there were 12 instructors 
and 152 students (83 collegiate and 69 prepar- 
atory). The presidents have been as follows: the 
Rev. Charles Philip Krauth, D.D., 1834—50; the 
Rev. Henry Lewis Baugher, D. D., 1850 — 68; and 
the. Rev. Milton Valentine, DVD., the present in- 
cumbent (1876), appointed in 1868. 

PENNSYLVANIA MILITARY ACAD- 
EMY, at Chester, Pa., was founded in 1862, 
and is designed for resident cadets only. It has. 
commodious buildings situated on an elevated 
site, the grounds comprising 25 acres, in part 
tastefully laid out and ornamented with trees. It 
has astronomical, chemical, mathematical, and 
physical apparatus, and a library of 1,200 
volumes. The cost of tuition, board, etc., is 
$550 a year, with music extra. The courses of 
instruction are the English (2 yrs.), collegiate 
preparatory, scientific (4 yrs.), civil engineering 
(4 yrs.) , chemical and mining engineering (each 
I yr.), designed for graduates in civil engineering, 
and collegiate or classical (4 yrs.). The degrees 
conferred are S. B., C. E., Ph. B., M. E., and A. 
B. Military instruction, theoretical and practi- 



PA. WESTERN UNIVERSITY 



PERSIA 



691 



cal, is given. The former is optional ; the latter 
is required of all, and consists of drills in in- 
fantry and artillery tactics etc. In 1876 — 7, 
there were 10 instructors and 126 students 
(scientific course, 113; English course, 13). The 
number of graduates (all 0. E.), including those 
of 1876, is 76. Col. Theodore Hyatt, M. A., is 
(1876) the president. 

PENNSYLVANIA, The Western Uni- 
versity of, at Pittsburgh, Pa., was founded 
in 1819. It is undenominational, and is sup- 
ported by tuition fees, ranging from $72 to $100 
a year, and the income of an endowment of 
$275,000. It has a well-equipped astronomical 
observatory (situated in Allegheny), a cab- 
inet containing over 10,000 choice specimens in 
geology, conchology, mineralogy, and zoology, 
extensive philosophical and chemical apparatus, 
and libraries containing about 6,000 volumes. 
The university has a collegiate department, with 
a classical course of 4 years, two scientific courses 
of 3 years each, and two engineering courses 
(civil and mechanical) of 4 years each, leading 
respectively to the degrees of A. B., Ph. B. or S. 
B., and, C. E. or M. E.. besides, a preparatory 
department, with a classical and an English 
course of 3 years each. In 1875 — 6, there were 
16 instructors and 272 students, of whom 186 
were preparatory and 86 collegiate (20 unclas- 
sified, 11 engineering, 28 scientific, and Is clas- 
sical). The present chancellor is (1876) George 
Woods. LL. I)., appointed in 1858. 

PENSIONS, Teachers'. The justice and 
expediency of granting pensions to teachers of 
public elementary schools, on retiring after a j 
long and faithful service, have frequently been 
urged ; and, with others, the following arguments 
have been advanced in support of such a meas- 
ure : (1) The office of elementary teacher re- 
quires an amount of bodily and mental vigor, 
patience, tact, and elasticity of spirit, rarely met 
with in any one who has spent twenty or thirty 
years in a harassing profession ; (2) the salaries 
received by such teachers afford them no suffi- 
cient margin by means of which to make ade- 
quate provision for old age ; (3) there is no 
prospect that the salaries of teachers will be in- 
creased to any great extent in the future ; since, 
by means of normal and training schools, the 
supply of teachers is generally greater than the 
demand ; (4) since, therefore, teachers cannot 
themselves make due provision for old age, the 
government employing them should do so ; be- 
cause, if it does not, the service will suffer by 
the retention of aged and worn-out teachers 
beyond the period of superannuation. In view 
of these facts, the Committee of Council on Edu- 
cation, in England, by a minute dated Dec. 21., 
1846, enacted the following: "That a retiring 
pension may be granted by the Committee of 
Council to any school-master or school-mistress 
who shall be rendered incapable, by age or in- 
firmity, of continuing to teach a school efficient- 
ly ; provided that no such pension shall be 
granted to any school-master or school-mistress 
Who shall not have conducted a normal or ele- 



mentary school for fifteen years, during seven, 
at least, of which such school shall have been 
under inspection." This minute was afterward 
modified, and the amount to be annually ex- 
i pended in pensions was limited, Aug. 6.. 1851, 
to £6,500 ; but, subsequently, even this was 
ignored. English teachers and their friends 
j have, however, claimed that the government 
having held out the inducement to persons to 
enter upon and continue in the service as teach- 
ers, is morally bound to grant the pensions thus 
virtually promised. In 1872, a Belect committee 
of the House of Commons, appointed to con- 
sider the matter, reported against the teachers' 
claims; but the code of 1876 permits the payment 
of pensions. — In 1876, a law permitting such 
pensions passed the assembly, in the state of 
New York, but failed in the senate. — In Prus- 
sia, teachers of public schools, being regarded 
as state officers, are entitled to pensions. Every 
teacher, however, is required to make an annual 
contribution to the pension fund (from 1 to 2 
per cent of his annual salary), and has also to 
pay into the same one-half of his first year's 
salary. Special funds have been established, by 
private munificence, in connection with many of 
the schools, for the support of the widows and 
orphans of deceased teachers. The Pestalozzi- 
rerein of Germany is a society one of the spe- 
cial objects of which is to aid superannuated 
teachers. — In France, the pensions of school- 
teachers and their widows are regulated by the 
I law of June 9., 1853. All the pensions are 
[ entered in the grand book of the public debt. 
In aid of the pension fund, contributions are 
made from the following sources: (1) a deduc- 
tion of 5 per cent of the regular salary ; (2) one- 
twelfth of the first year's salary, and of every in- 
crease of salary ; (3) all deductions made in con- 
sequence of absence, and all fines imposed upon 
teachers. A teacher begins to be entitled to a 
pension when he is 60 years of age, or after hav- 
ing been in office 30 years. The amount of the 
pension is based upon the average of the incomes, 
subject to the above deductions, received during 
the last six years of service. (For a full account 
of French legislation on this subject, see Greard, 
La Legislation de I' Instruction Primaire, vol. 
in.) — In Servia, in 1875, regulations were 
adopted granting to teachers who resigned after 
ten years' service, 40 per cent of the salary pre- 
viously received, and 2 per cent more for every 
additional year's service, for 35 years, after 
which the teacher, of whatever grade, is entitled 
to his full salary as a pension. 

PERCEPTION, or Perceptive Faculties. 
See Intellectual Education. 

PERSIA, a country of western Asia, having 
an area of about 638,000 sq. m., and a popula- 
tion estimated at 5,000,000, nearly all of whom 
are Mohammedans. 

I. Ancient Persia. — Among the Indo-Ger- 
manic tribes west of India, the Bactrians were 
the first to attain any considerable culture. 
They were, however, soon reduced in impor- 
tance by the neighboring and kindred nation, 



692 



PERSIA 



the Medes, and subsequently still more by the 
Persians, who in the 6th century B. 0., under 
Cyrus the Great, overran a large part of west- 
ern Asia. While China had its family educa- 
tion, and India that of caste, education in Per- 
sia was decidedly a national institution. There, 
as in India, the people were divided into sev- 
eral distinct castes; but the separating line 
was not strictly drawn; and, before the king, all 
were equal. The state, as represented by the 
king, was the highest object of veneration; and 
all interests, whether of caste, of the family, or 
of children, were subordinated to it. The edu- 
cation of the people was like their life. In 
Persia, the child was born and educated for 
the state ; and, for that reason, we see here, for 
the first time, physical combined with mental 
education. The national education of the Per- 
sians comprised the first twenty-four years of 
life. Very little was done for the education of 
girls, since they occupied, as among most of the 
oriental nations, an inferior position. Boys re- 
mained, up to their 7th year, with the women; 
but after that, the national education began. In 
all the larger towns, there were public educa- 
tional institutions in which the boys lived to- 
gether. These schools were open to every one, 
as any Persian could legally occupy the highest 
offices. In their schools, they were instructed 
to practice truth, justice, and self-command, and 
were trained in riding, the use of the bow and 
arrow, and other weapons. Reading and writing 
were also taught, but in a limited degree. On the 
completion of his 1 5th year, the boy was regarded 
as entering upon the age of a young man. The 
bond connecting the parents and the children was 
now dissolved ; for the young man, now belong- 
ing to the state, must prepare himself, by suitable 
physical exercises, for the chase and for war. 
On completing his 25th year, the youth became a 
man and a citizen. He accepted the duties which 
he had to perform up to his 50th year, after which 
he was obliged to care for the general welfare by 
supervising or conducting the education of the 
boys. Persian education was, on the whole, an 
effort to impart moral and physical perfection. 
School instruction seems to have been neglected, 
probably because the state needed, at first, only 
moral and physical excellence in its citizens ; for 
when the Persians had become a great nation, 
they regarded the preparation for citizenship as 
the grand object of education; and, if in this 
they partly lost sight of the individual, they, 
for the first time in history, recognized educa- 
tion as a matter of public concern — a duty of 
the state. This principle was, however, not fully 
carried out ; for the female sex were almost en- 
tirely excluded from public education, and the 
great mass of the people had no time for it, be- 
ing forced to work in order to support the king 
and his servants, or to expose their lives in war. 
Xenophon tells us that, besides the general edu- 
cation, there was a particular education for 
the higher classes. In the dialogue Alcibiades 
(which is ascribed to Plato), the education of 
the kings is described as follows : "At the com- 



PERU 

pletion of his 7th year, the boy learns to ride 
and to hunt; and, in his 14th year, he is handed 
over to the so-called royal preceptors. These are 
four noble Persians, selected for then- virtues, 
and known as the wisest, the most just, the most 
temperate, and the bravest of men." 

II. Modern Persia. — According to the in- 
stitutions of modern Persia, the boy, in his 6th 
year, is consigned to the care of a private teacher, 
or is sent to school. It was formerly considered 
unnecessary to educate girls; but, at the present 
time, in Persia, female education is steadily gam- 
ing ground. For the poorer classes, there are 
mixed schools, in which instruction is given for 
a certain small compensation; but all schools are 
private institutions, and any man able to write 
may open a school. As soon as the children 
possess a knowledge of the alphabet, and can 
spell with some facility, the Koran is taken up, 
which is read by the teacher with an Arabic ac- 
cent, and is repeated and learned by heart by 
the children, without being translated or under- 
stood by them. At the same time, the most im- 
portant and most difficult study, writing, is be- 
gun. The teacher writes a line as a model, and 
the children are required to imitate the char- 
acters on a piece of paper. When the Koran 
has been read several times, the children are 
given Saadi's Oidistan to read ; and they read 
the numerous tales contained in this work with- 
out understanding their meaning, and learn its 
epigrams by heart. This is considered the high- 
est attainment of education; for the Persians 
like to spice their conversation with quotations. 
On completing their 10th year, the poorer boys 
enter the business of their father, or accept the 
position of page. The wealthier boys, however, 
are consigned to the care of a teacher, who in- 
structs them in grammar and letter-writing, ex- 
plains to them difficult passages from the legends 
and the laws, and reads with them the Shah 
Nameh [Booh of Kings) of Firdousi,the odes of 
Hafiz, and other works. This generally com- 
pletes their education, and, at the 15th or 16th 
year of age, they enter the civil or military 
service of the state. Recently, high schools or 
colleges have been established in the principal 
cities, on the European plan. The studies pur- 
sued are astronomy, astrology, rudimentary 
chemistry, alchemy, logic, metaphysics, mathe- 
matics, theology, and the Arabian and Persian 
languages. In the government college, in Teheran, 
instruction is given in French and English. 
Shiraz has the largest number of colleges (ten), 
but the most extensive college is at Ispahan. For 
a full account of the educational system of mod- 
ern Persia, see Polak, Persien. Das Land tend 
seine Bewolmer (Leipsic, 1865). 

PERU, a republic of South America, having 
an area of 510,000 sq. m., and a population of 
about 2,500,000. Of the inhabitants, 57 per 
cent are Indians, 22 per cent, half-breeds, 14 per 
cent, whites, and 7 per cent, negroes and their 
descendants. Nearly all the inhabitants be- 
long to the Roman Catholic Church. Peru 
was first discovered by Francisco Pizarro, who, 



PERU 



PESTALOZZI 



693 



in 1531, began the conquest of the country for 
the king of Spain : and. in less than twenty 
years, the Spanish rule was completely estab- 
lished. Among the Spanish provinces of South 
America, which, during the first part of the 
lllth century, achieved their independence. Peru 
was the last to rebel: but, in 1826, it gained a 
final victory over the Spaniards, by the capture 
of Callao. — Under the incas. the native rulers 
of Peru, the people made considerable advance- 
ment in education ; but they remained, in this 
respect, inferior to the Aztecs. The Spaniards, 
soon after their conquest of the country, began 
to introduce their educational system. The uni- 
versity of Lima was founded in 1551; and, in 
1571, its faculties were regularly organized. In 
1650, it had over 20 professors of the Spanish 
and Quichua languages, law, medicine, philoso- 
phy, and theology. Besides the university, 
there were in Lima several other institutions of 
learning, one of which was particularly devoted 
to giving instruction in Latin and literature. 
The elementary schools were free, and even 
furnished the children with books and writing 
materials. Owing to the numerous civil wars, 
education was, for a long time, at a stand-still 
in the republic. In 1855, public instruction of 
all grades was placed under the supervision of a 
direction general de estudios; and, since that 
time, it has made steady progress. President 
Pardo. in his message of 1874, states that "ad- 
mission to the universities is now confined to 
such as are quite prepared to enter upon uni- 
versity studies. A number of competent teachers 
have been engaged in Europe, and the services 
of many more will be engaged. Arrangements 
are likewise on foot for the establishment of 
suitable normal schools. The departmental coun- 
cils are authorized to institute correctional agri- 
cultural schools for uneducated children, to be 
supported out of certain branches of the ordinary 
contributions." According to the latest accounts, 
there were in the republic 700 elementary or pri- 
mary schools. Of these, 502 (450 for boys, and 52 
for girls) were public, and 288 (206 for boys, and 
82 for girls) were private. The number of pupils 
was 34.326, of whom 20,687 were boys, and 4.630 
. were girls. The normal school for primary 
teachers, in lima, had 300 pupils; of whom, 36 
were supported by the state. In order to improve 
female education, the Peruvian congress, in 1 873, 
passed a law that every community of more than 
500 inhabitants, should establish a school for 
girls. There are 5 universities — in Lima, Trujillo, 
Ayacucho, ( 'uzeo, and Puno. These universities, 
however, only confer degrees, the studies being 
pursued in colegios, of which there were, accord- 
ing to the latest accounts, 30, and of these, 3 were 
for girls. The largest of these were the Colegio 
de San Carlos, and the Colegio de In Tndepen- 
dencia. both in Lima, the latter of which is con- 
sidered the best medical school in South America. 
There are also 38 private colegios, of which 14 
are for girls; and. in the principal cities of the 6 
dioceses, there are so called seminarios concilia- 
res, in which, besides theology, mathematics and 



law are taught. There is. also, in Lima a mil- 
itary school, a school of navigation, and a school 
of midwifery. — See Le Roy in Schmid's Ency- 
clopadie, art. Sudamerica. 

PESTALOZZI, Johann Heinrich, one of 
the greatest of modern educators, was born Jan. 
12., 1746, at Zurich, Switzerland, and died at 
Neuhof, Febr. 17., 1827. As he lost, when only 
six years old, his father, who was a physician 
of modest means, his training depended chiefly 
upon his mother. Even in early youth. Pestalozzi 
evinced those characteristics which distinguished 
him through life — piety, sympathy for the poor 
and degraded, a love of children, and an uncom- 
promising sense of justice. In compliance with 
the wish of his grandfather, who was a Protestant 
clergyman, he studied theology; but his very 
first effort at preaching proved such a decided 
failure, that he turned directly to the study of 
law. About this time (1764), Rousseau's £mi!e 
fell into his hands, and gave him the hope that 
his longings for the improvement of his country's 
lower classes could be successfully satisfied. He 
had come to realize that the principal cause of 
the misery of the multitude was their ignorance, 
which prevented a proper and advantageous use 
of the political rights they enjoyed. His fun- 
damental conclusion, therefore, was, that where 
the masses are stupid and brutalized, democracy 
can produce no blessings: and, hence, that his first 
effort should be to aid in the rearing up of good 
citizens, the preparing of devoted hearts and 
manly intellects for his country. He proposed 
to effect this result not simply by instruction 
lint by a judicious blending of industrial, intel- 
lectual, and moral training. He rightly saw that 
it was not enough to impart instruction to chil- 
dren, but that their moral nature should be par- 
ticularly cared for. and habits of activity instilled 
into them through agricultural and industrial 
labors. To his way of thinking, the great draw- 
back on the side of industry was the weakening 
of the natural affections and the development of 
the mercantile spirit, without having the moral 
resources and consolations afforded by rural oc- 
cupations. He, therefore, preferred to withdraw 
to a farm, there to gather about him the children 
of the poor, and to foster, in the coming men and 
women, the taste for domestic life and the senti- 
ment of human dignity. Previous to the purchase 
of land in order to put his scheme into practice, 
he retired to the estate of a friend, celebrated for 
his improved methods of cultivation, and there 
prepared himself for his new task with his usual 
zeal. In 1769, he bought a tract of about 100 
acres, and named this possession Neuhof. In 
the same year he married a lady of means and 
culture. By 1775, the place was ready for the 
realization of his projects. He opened what may 
be considered the first industrial school for the 
poor. He gathered about him a number of 
ragged and half-starved children, and lived with 
them the life of the poor, in order to teach them, 
in their poverty, how to become active members 
of the great human family. He soon found, 
however, to his great sorrow, that these vagabond 



694 



PESTALOZZI 



children could never be made to accommodate 
themselves to the laborious and regular life 
he desired, as long as their parents were not far 
removed ; for the latter had but too frequently 
encouraged vagabondage as a source of income. 
In 1780. his own straitened financial circum- 
stances obliged him to abandon the enterprise. 
His experience he embodied in the publication 
Evenings of a Recluse (1780), which proves 
that, in the midst of his failures, he had profited 
by important discoveries in the realm of human 
knowledge, and in the principles which underlie 
all true processes of education, — results which 
have transmuted his individual disappointments 
and failures into blessings for the world. He 
published, in this little treatise, a programme 
for his future exertions, surveyed the mode of 
life of the people, and laid bare their defi- 
ciencies, indicating the only remedy ; namely, 
a return to nature and to truth. The general 
favor with which his views were received in- 
duced him to follow with other writings in 
their advocacy. Of these publications, his Lien- 
Jmrd unci Oerlrud (Basel, 1781 — 9, 4 vols.) — 
.a popular tale, presenting a picture of exalted 
:virtue in the midst of crime and error — created 
■quite a sensation. It circulated far and wide, 
>and was translated into many languages. The 
government of Berne decreed him a gold medal, 

■ which he was afterwards obliged to turn into 
money to supply his family with the necessaries 
of life. Not until 1798, did Pestalozzi's oppor- 
tunity come again to put his theories into practice. 
-In this year, his friend Legrand, one of the Swiss 

Directory, appointed him to establish an orphan 

■ school at Stanz, in the canton of Unterwalden. 

•The French revolution had given rise to turbu- 
lence and anarchy. Stanz had been sacked by the 
French troops, and stood in flames. Thousands 

.were homeless. Many a child saw itself bereft 
of parents and friends. Of such children, Pes-' 
talozzi gathered eighty in the Ursuline convent,' 
which had been spared; and alone (his wife hav- 
■ing remained at Neuhof) he cared for them, lived, 
•played, and prayed with them, and earnestly in- 
structed them. He "manifested an amount of 
'vigor, self-forgetfumess, and enthusiasm such as 
the world has seldom seen combined in the soul 
of one frail mortal" (Krusi). "I had to act," 
says he himself, "amidst a confusion of elements, 
.and amidst unbounded misery; but the zeal that 
"urged me on to seize the possibility of realizing, 
•at last, the dream of my entire life would have 
■transported me to the summit of the highest 
Alps, and through air and fire." His aim was 
■to impart to the school the character of a family. 
Being without books and without apparatus, he 
^directed his whole attention to those natural ele- 
ments which are found in the mind of every 
child. He taught numbers, instead of figures; 
-living sounds, instead of dead characters; deeds of 
jfaith and love, instead of abstruse creed's; sub- 
. stance, instead of shadow; realities, instead of 
; signs. His main object seemed to be, to ascertain 

■ the kind of instruction most needed by the 
children, and how to base it upon their previous 



knowledge. When he saw them interested, he 
pursued the same topic for hours, and left it only 
when the interest flagged or the point was 
gained. He gave them no lessons to commit to 
memory, but always something to investigate. 
They gained little positive knowledge, but their 
love of knowledge and power of acquiring it in- 
creased daily. Being without assistance, he was 
driven by necessity to set the elder and better- 
taught scholars to teach the younger and more 
ignorant ; and thus he struck out the mutual in- 
struction system, which, about the same time, 
Lancaster (q. v.) was, under somewhat similar 
circumstances, led to adopt in England. At the 
end of a single term, the result of this course of 
instruction was manifestly great. r lhe children 
had improved so much, both physically and 
morally, that Pestalozzi said : "They seemed en- 
tirely different beings from those I had received 
six months before, neglected, ragged, and filthy." 
But yet the troubles of that agitated period 
would not allow him to continue his benevolent 
labors. Already, in 1799, the orphan house was 
converted into a military hospital, and Pestalozzi 
left Stanz. A vacancy in a school at Burgdorf, 
in the canton of Berne, was offered him shortly 
after, and he promptly engaged to fill it, though 
a very inferior position for a man who had made 
.all Europe talk about his theory of education. 
But, even from this humble position, he was dis- 
missed in a very short time, the head-master per- 
ceiving that Pestalozzi had succeeded in gaining 
the attention and affection of the children in a 
higher degree than he himself. Fortunately, 
another school in the town, taught by an old 
dame, made room for him; and, in this obscure 
place, he taught until the vacant chateau was 
placed at his disposal for the establishment of a 
normal school. Several well-known educators, 
Kriisi, Tobler, and Buss, joined him in the en- 
terprise; and it was not long before the celebrity 
and success of the school led the government to 
adopt and support it. In 1803, when the castle 
was needed by the Bernese authorities, Pestalozzi 
was assigned a deserted monastery in Munchen- 
Buchsee, near Hofwyl, and was invited to co- 
operate with Fellenberg (q. v.), who had sus- 
tained a similar establishment at that place for 
nearly 20 years. The two educational reform- 
ers failed, however, to agree in plans; and Pesta- 
lozzi was, in 1805, permitted to occupy the va- 
cant castle of Yverdun, canton of Vaud. There 
he met with his greatest success. Celebrated 
men and women of the refined nations of the 
world visited the institution, and went away 
speaking only words of praise. His corps of in- 
structors had been strengthened, from time to 
time, until it contained 22. Among the pupils 
of Yverdun, nearly every nation of Europe was 
represented. Many of the students were of 
mature mind, and were graduates of other 
schools. The school was, of course, a home. 
The pupils were made to rise early, their food 
was good but plain, and special attention was 
paid to physical exercise. The contemplation o£ 
nature and her laws was regarded as first in the 



PESTALOZZI 



PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 695 



•curriculum of study, and from it a basis was 
secured for formal exercises in language and 
composition. According to Pestalozzi's plan, 
composition comes before analysis, and the use 
of language before rules. Mathematics was the 
branch in which the pupils made the greatest 
progress; and that because the science of num- 
bers could be most easily brought within the 
laws of progressive development, which form 
the basis of the Pestalozzian philosophy. His 
principle was : " The organism of the human 
.mind is subject to the same laws that nature 
universally observes in the development ot her 
.organic products." Hence, he founded all knowl- 
edge on perception, and demanded that, by a 
progress as uninterrupted as possible, and with a 
•constant incitement of the pupil to self-activity, 
he should be made to advance from what had 
:been already acquired by him to higher results, 
these results being arrived at as consequences 
•following from what had been previously estab- 
dished. Objects themselves became, in Pesta- 
lozzi's hands, the subjects of lessons tending to 
. the development of the observing and reasoning 
•powers — not lessons about objects. For the suc- 
cessful accomplishment of his purpose, he classi- 
fied all science in its relation to the work of in- 
struction, and adopted, by analogy from nature. 
: the doctrine of form and number as universal 
educational means, and to these added, ultimately, 
that of sound. Tliis continues, to our day, the 
.guide of objective teaching, though improve- 
. inent has been made in classification. He as- 
■signed to form the subjects drawing, writing. 
and geometry; to number, arithmetic, in all its 
departments; and to sound, speaking, reading, 
singing, and all the possible exercises of the 
organs of speech. He placed under sound, 
•geography, history, and natural science ; but 
-modem object teachers have provided a special 
jclass, called that of place. .Special attention, 
.however, was directed by Pestalozzi to moral 
. and religious training as distinct from mere in- 
struction. His object was to lead the pupil to 
:the living source from which spring humility, 
self-devotion, and an active striving for perfec- 
tion of character. And here, too, gradation and 
.& regard to the nature and susceptibilities of 
children were conspicuous features of his sys- 
tem. The one great fundamental principle of 
.his pedagogical system, is the natural, progres- 
sive, and symmetrical development of all the 
power* and 'facilities of Ike human being. This 
.great truth had long existed as an intellectual 
.conviction in the minds of philosophers, and had 
even been expressed in proverbs and apothegms: 
but it was Pestalozzi who first showed, by nat- 
ural experiment, how it might be made the 
basis of universal education, and the means by 
which humanity might be elevated. (For a crit- 
icism on Pestalozzi's system, see Kruesi, Pes- 
talozzi: His Life, Work, and Influence.) 

Unfortunately for the material success of 
Pestalozzi, dissensions arose among his teachers, 
in which he himself became implicated. The num- 
ber of liis pupils rapidly diminished, the estab- 



lishment became a losing concern, and Pestalozzi 
was again involved in debt, wdiich even the pub- 
lication of his works in a collected form (Stutt- 
gart and Tubingen, 15 vols., 1819 — 2C) failed 
to liquidate. In 1825, he retired from his 
laborious duties to Neuhof, where his grandson 
then resided. His good wife had died in 1815; 
and, in great despondency and mortification, he 
spent his remaining days. A great many insti- 
tutions bear his name ; and the first centennial 
anniversary of his birth was celebrated, in 1846, 
with appropriate ceremonies, not only in Switzer- 
land but all over Germany. At his grave, a 
monument was erected by the canton of Aargau. 
The best biography of Pestalozzi in German is 
that by Blochmann (1840). the latest by Morf 
(1864). In French, the most complete is by 
( havanne (1853). In English, the latest is by 
Ivrusi (Cincinnati, 1875). — See also Barnard, 
Pestalozzi and Pestalozzian ism (Xew York, 
1859), and the article Object Teaching. 

PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS. The 
healing art has, for ages, embraced both the ap- 
plication of therapeutical knowledge and the 
supply and preparation of remedial agents; and, 
until the separation of these branches as the arts 
of medicine and of pharmacy, at a comparatively 
recent time, the history of medicine, and of med- 
ical schools and literature, embodied that of 
pharmacy; while, on the other hand, at an earlier 
period, both medicine and pharmacy were 
merged, to a large extent, in the pursuits and 
history of alchemy. Aside from the earliest 
traditions of the first crude stages of medical and 
pharmaceutical science in Egypt, at so remote an 
age as the 1 6th century B. C, as recorded in the 
Papyrus Ebers, the art of pharmacy, as a spe- 
cial branch of that of medicine, seems to have 
been first practiced among the Arabs ; and 
establishments, recognized for the supply of re- 
medial agents, are said to have been first insti- 
tuted in Bagdad, in the year 754 A. 1). The 
first systematic attempt at a methodical collec- 
tion and classification of recognized formula? is 
said to have been compiled by the Arab physi- 
cian and philosopher Sabor ebn Sahel, in the 
latter part of the 9th century. In conjunction 
with medicine, pharmacy was first taught, as a 
branch of university instruction at the celebrated 
school at Salerno. During the following cent- 
uries, the establishing of pharmacies and meas- 
ures for a legal regulation of the art of pharma- 
cy extended into western Europe ; and the 
newly established universities became centers of 
research and learning. Yet. the absorbing prob- 
lems of the transmutation of base metals into 
gold, and of the existence of a universal remedy, 
potent to avert disease, to heal sickness, to main- 
tain or restore youth, and to prolong' life, for 
centuries engaged the aims and inspired the ef- 
forts of the wisest and most learned men, in a 
search throughout nature for the " philosopher's 
stone" and the " elixir of life." The long pur : 
suit of these phantoms, and the visionary but 
most productive speculations of alchemy, re- 
sulted in the accumulation of a vast amount of 



696 



PHAEMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 



chemical and physical knowledge, and in the most 
important discoveries in the domain of chem- 
ical operations, processes, and products. These 
added largely to the compass of the materia 
me'dica, and contributed much to prepare that 
revolution in the intellectual world, no less than 
in the material resources of men, which, at the 
close of the last century, culminated in the over- 
throw of old ideas and systems, and laid a foun- 
dation for the modern theories of chemical philos- 
ophy, for the subsequent wonderful strides in 
their practical applications to all the affairs of 
industrial and social life, and for their productive 
influence upon the advancementof physiological, 
pharmaceutical, and analytical chemistry. — Dur- 
ing the struggles of this remarkable revolution, 
which, among its other results, separated medi- 
cine and pharmacy as independent correlative 
branches, the latter was the leading and most 
successful cultivator of chemistry, and attained 
at that time, and especially at the close of the 
last and the first half of the present century, in 
continental Europe, its culmination. It supplied 
from among its ranks the newly-created chairs 
both of chemistry and of pharmacy, and fre- 
quently of botany also, at the universities and 
special schools for medicine, pharmacy, agri- 
culture, and kindred arts ; the increasing 
branches of chemical industry and manufacture, 
too, were largely and successfully occupied and 
cultivated by pharmacists. Pharmacy emanci- 
pated itself more and more, in the civilized coun- 
tries, from co-education with, and subordination 
to, medicine ; special schools, or at the univer- 
sities, special chairs, for instruction in pharma- 
ceutical chemistry and pharmacognosy, were es- 
tablished ; and both the standard of qualification 
and the practice of pharmacy, like that of med- 
icine, were restricted and controlled by the 
state. Since the middle of the present century, 
by the rapid strides in the progress and applica- 
tion of the physical sciences, particularly of 
chemistry in its various relations, the position 
of pharmacy has somewhat changed. Chemistry 
has risen to a commanding station among the 
physical sciences, and in the industry and wealth 
of nations ; its application in the manufacture 
and supply of all chemical products cheaply on 
a commercial scale, has largely deprived the 
pharmacist of one of the original and most im- 
portant and instructive objects of his pursuit, — 
the preparation of medicinal chemicals and many 
of the pharmaceutical products. On the other 
hand, pharmacy is losing scope by the decrease 
in the use of medicines, in consequence of the 
general increase of hygienic knowledge, and the 
progress of medical science. The former pre- 
eminently professional character of pharmacy 
has, in consequence, gradually given way to a 
more mercantile and trade aspect. But, notwith- 
standing the diminution of its resources and of 
its former scope of application, the requisite 
standard of proficiency is, as yet, every-where 
maintained ; and, in countries of a growing civi- 
lization, pharmaceutical education is continually 
and correspondingly raised. Most countries, there- 



fore, at present, either have special schools for the 
higher education of pharmacists, or else afford 
instruction in the pharmaceutical branches at 
universities, or medical or technical institutions. 
In the amount of the preparatory education 
required, the high standard of scientific and 
practical qualification, and the restrictions en- 
forced by law and controlled by the government, 
Germany ranks highest. The candidate for 
apprenticeship must have attained maturity for 
the second class ( Ober-Secvnda) of the gymna- 
sium, or must have passed through areal school. 
The apprenticeship must last three years; during, 
which time the pupil's progress, and the obliga- 
tory instruction by his master, are controlled 
by annual examinations by a delegate of the 
district government. At the close of the appren- 
ticeship, and after successfully passing an exami- 
nation before a board, also appointed by the 
district government, the candidate has to com- 
plete his practical experience by serving for three 
years more as clerk ; and he is then entitled to 
enter upon the obligatory course of university 
study at any one of the 20 German universities. 
He is free to attend such lectures as he may- 
choose ; and, at the close of each lecture term, 
he may select another university, according to 
his option ; while the state requires, with un- 
compromising severity, the satisfactory passage- 
of a comprehensive final examination. To this- 
the student is only admitted after having at- 
tended the lectures and laboratory instruction 
for at least three lecture terms (IS years) ; and, 
upon passing it, the state grants him a license for 
the practice of pharmacy throughout the empire. 
Many graduates choose to acquire, by a continu- 
ation of university and laboratory studies, and 
by the subsequent passage of an examination be- 
fore the philosophical faculty of a university, the 
degree of Ph. D. — Similar, and nearly equally- 
strict, is the course of pharmaceutical education 
and qualification in Austria, Hungary, Russia,. 
Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark; 
but somewhat less strict in Roumania, Italy, and 
Greece. In France, pharmaceutical education is. 
controlled by the state so far that students, after 
a more or less brief experience in drug-stores, 
have to attend, for one or two years, the lectures 
at one of the pharmaceutical schools at Paris, 
Nancy, or Montpellier, or at the medical and 
pharmaceutical schools at Nantes or Marseilles, 
and subsequently must pass an examination. 
Upon the satisfactory passage of this, the student 
receives, according to the time of his study and 
the price he is able to pay, the diploma as a. 
pharmacien of the first, or of the second class. 
The former is entitled to establish himself indis- 
criminately, while the latter is allowed to do so 
only in small cities. The standard of pharma- 
ceutical education is somewhat higher in Bel- 
gium and the Netherlands, but perhaps less strict 
in practical proficiency. The student has first 
to attend lectures, and then to attain skill and 
experience in pharmacy, when he is admitted 
to examination and subsequently to practice. In 
Spain and Portugal, the course of pharmaceutical 



PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 



PHILADELPHIA 



097 



education, and the qualification required on the 
part of the state, seem to be similar to those in 
Prance. The three Spanish universities in Mad- 
rid, Barcelona, and Granada, and the medical 
schools at Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra, in Port- 
ugal, afford lectures to pharmaceutical students. 
Education in this department, in Turkey, while 
it is not uniformly obligatory, embraces an ap- 
prenticeship of three years, and a subsequent 
attendance upon the lectures at the Imperial 
Institute, in Constantinople, which also has 
the direction of the examination, and grants 
licenses to those who apply for and pass it suc- 
cessfully. In Great Britain, the state has exert- 
ed an obligatory influence on the qualification 
of pharmacists since 1868 ; but it leaves this 
control to the Pharmaceutical Society of (ireat 
Britain, and to the Privy Council. The only re- 
striction consists in a registry statute, requiring 
two successive examinations: a preliminary one 
for registration as " apprentice or student", and a 
minor examination, for a license as "chemist and 
druggist", or a major examination for a license 
as " pharmaceutical chemist." The state of 
pharmacy, and the standard of pharmaceutical 
education, in the various countries of Spanish 
and Portuguese America, is comparatively little 
known. In several of them, as for instance, in 
Mexico, Brazil, Peru, and others, the state exer- 
cises a more or less strict, although not uniform- 
ly efficient, control; while, in other states, either 
the qualification for the practice of pharmacy is 
not restricted, or the control is more nominal 
than real. Pharmaceutical education and prac- 
tice in Canada stand in close relation to those of 
Great Britain and the United States. 

The standard of pharmacy and pharmaceu- 
tical education in the United States is not uni- 
form, because it is not obligatory ; and until 
recently it has been left entirely to individual 
option and efforts. AVhile sporadic attempts to- 
ward some kind of legal regulation have mostly 
failed of virtual effect, yet a strong and increas- 
ing body of accomplished pharmacists, largely 
strengthened by the immigrated German element, 
has grown up ; and, by its influence and efforts, 
has contributed gradually to raise the standard 
of pharmacy, and to attain, in several states, and 
in a number of the largest cities, some authori- 
tative control of the qualification of pharma- 
cists. Chartered local associations (colleges of 
pharmacy) have been established in these cities 
and states, and they have, in pursuit of their 
aims and objects, founded schools of pharmacy. 
Chartered schools of pharmacy were in existence, 
in lHTIi, in the following cities: Philadelphia 
(founded in 1821); New York (1831); Balti- 
more (1855); Chicago (1859); Boston (1867); 
Ann Arbor (1868); Cincinnati (1870); St. Louis 
(1871); Lmisville (1871); San Francisco (1872); 
Washington. D. C. (1873); Nashville (1873). 
These institutions grant, upon their own mutual- 
ly recognized authority, diplomas with the de- 
gree of Graduate of Pharmacy, to those candi- 
dates, without regard as yet to their preliminary 
education, who have had experience in drug- 



stores for four years, have attended at least two 
courses of lectures at one of the pharmaceutical 
schools, or at some medical or kindred college, 
where chemistry, chemical analysis, botany, phar- 
macognosy, and practical pharmacy are taught, 
and who subsequently have passed a satisfactory 
examination before a board of trustees of the 
College of Pharmacy. The colleges and schools 
of pharmacy in the United States have thus far 
acted harmoniously in their voluntary and suc- 
cessful efforts for a gradual and uniform eleva- 
tion of the scope and the standard of education 
and proficiency among pharmacists. The most 
serious drawback to general and permanent re- 
sults consists in the absence of any authoritative 
national or state restriction and control of the 
practice of pharmacy, and in a consequent excess- 
ive and detrimental overcrowding of the pro- 
fession, and for causes previously stated, in a 
general decrease in the compass of legitimate ap- 
plication, and in the resources and material pros- 
perity of the art of pharmacy. 

PHILADELPHIA, the chief city of the 
state of Pennsylvania, and the second in popu- 
lation in the United States, the number of its 
inhabitants, in 1K70, being 674,022, and the es- 
timated number, in 1876, 750,000. 

Educational History. — The first school opened 
in the city of Philadelphia was the private En- 
glish school of Enoch Flower, in 1683. Recom- 
mendations in favor of education had been pre- 
viously made by William Penn, but had not 
been acted on. In 1689, the Society of Friends 
established a public school — not public, however, 
in the modern acceptation of the word, since it 
was founded " at the request, costs, and charges, 
of the people called Quakers." This school is 
still in existence. In 1750, a charitable school 
for young men was founded by Franklin ; and, 
by 1752, the number of schools in the colony of 
Pennsylvania — and probably, therefore, in Phil- 
adelphia — must have considerably increased, as 
the legislature, in that year, found it expedient 
to appoint trustees and managers for them. The 
provisional constitution of the state, adopted in 
1770, declares, in its 44th section, that " a school 
shall be established in each county by the legis- 
lature, for the convenient instruction of youth, 
with such salaries to the masters, paid by the 
public, as may enable them to instruct youth at 
low prices ;" but no immediate steps appear to 
have been taken to make this provision of any 
practical value. In 1786, a tract of 60,000 acres 
of land was set apart by the legislature for the 
public schools of the state; and the 7th section of 
the constitution of 1790 provides that "the legis- 
lature shall, as conveniently as may be.provide by 
law for the establishment of schools throughout 
the state, in such manner that the poor may be 
taught gratis." The dissatisfaction, however, 
caused by this law, rendered it inoperative for 
several years. In 1809, another act for the free 
education of the poor was passed; but the same 
dissatisfaction caused the law to remain a dead 
letter, the rich objecting to being taxed in behalf 
of the poor, and the poor being too proud to ac- 



698 



PHILADELPHIA 



cept as a gift the education of their children. 
These objections on the part of the two classes 
appear frequently in the early legislation of the 
•colonies in regard to free public schools. When 
it became apparent that the law of 1809 was of 
no practical value, a supplement was procured in 
favor of the city of Philadelphia, by which the 
commissioners of Philadelphia County, with the 
approval of the councils and commissioners of 
districts, were directed to establish public 
schools. Under this system, 2,000 children re- 
vived instruction in 1816, at an expense of 
$23,000. Serious objections to this system, 
however, were made, on account of its class dis- 
tinctions, and its want of economy, which re- 
sulted in the formation of the Society for the 
Promotion of Public Economy, of which Rob- 
erts Vaux was chairman. In 1818, this society, 
both composed of, and aided by, the ablest 
and most influential citizens of Philadelphia, 
procured the passage of an act which provided 
for the free education of all the children of the 
«ity, and which did not contain the objectionable 
features of previous acts. This erected the city 
and county of Philadelphia into a separate 
school-district, each district of the city being de- 
nominated a section. Sectional directors were 
appointed by the several councils, as well as con- 
trollers, one from each section, to be known as 
the Board of School Controllers. Of this board, 
Roberts Vaux was the first president. This act 
is generally regarded as the foundation of the 
present common-school system of Philadelphia. 
It applied, however, to that city alone ; and the 
people, failing to discriminate between its pro- 
visions and those of the law of 1809, which was 
still in force in the remainder of the state, in- 
cluded them all in their condemnation. The 
friends of the Philadelpliia law, therefore, formed 
an association known as the Pennsylvania 
Society for Promoting Public Schools, with 
branches in various parts of the state ; and de- 
termined, if possible, to procure the passage of 
a new common-school law, which should extend 
the advantages of the local law over the state. 
This was accomplished in 1834, when a general 
law was passed providing for the free education 
of all persons in the state between the ages of 6 
and 21 years. Faults were soon found, however, 
with the practical operation of this measure; and 
attempts were made to repeal it, but failed, 
owing largely to its able advocacy by Thaddeus 
Stevens, then a member of the legislature. In 
the session of 1835—6, an improved law was 
passed, after an animated contest in the legis- 
lature, and remained in force substantially till 
1854. Shortly after the establishment of the 
schools on a permanent basis, it was discovered 
that the elementary character of the instruction 
given was inadequate to the wants of the city. 
In 1838, accordingly, the Central High School 
was opened, with 4 teachers and 63 pupils. 
This was followed, in 1840. by the establishment 
of the Girls' High and Normal School, an in- 
stitution which, in 1875, reported an average 
attendance of 641 students. The growth of the 



schools is best shown by the following figures: 
attendance in 1820, 5,369 ; in 1830, 5,371 ; in 
1840, 23,192 ; in 1850, 48,056 ; in 1860, 63,530; 
in 1870, 82,891 ; in 1875, 95,552. 

School System. — The city constitutes one school 
district, known as the First School-District of 
Pennsylvania. The control and management of 
the public schools is intrusted to a board of 
public education consisting of 31 members, one 
from each ward, with a subordinate board for 
each ward. The members of the board are ap- 
pointed for 3 years by the judges of the court of 
common pleas, and of the district court. They 
exercise a general supervision over the common 
schools, making such rules for their own goverm 
ment and for that of the schools, as they deem 
expedient. They appoint a secretary and an 
assistant secretary, whose powers are limited. 
There is no city superintendent. The schools are 
supported by a city tax. They are divided into 
primary, secondary, grammar, and high schools; 
and it is claimed that this distinction was first 
made in Philadelphia. There are, also, consol- 
idated schools and night schools. The number of 
the schools, in 1875, was 224 primary, 127 sec- 
ondary, 29 consolidated, 63 grammar, and 2 high 
schools. 

The principal items of school statistics are as 
follows : 

Total attendance in 1875 95,552 

Average " " " 82,975 

Number of teachers, males 77 

" " females. 1,801 

Total 1,878 

Receipts ■ $1,646,929.29 

Expenditures 1 ,034,653.26 

The studies, taught in the primary schools, are, 
reading, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic — men- 
tal and practical — and music, accompanied by 
exercises in dictation, object lessons, and gymnas- 
tics, and by instruction in morals and manners. 
•To these are added, in the secondary schools, ar- 
ticulation and pronunciation, drawing, composi- 
tion, definitions, and geography, and a general 
review of the studies pursued in the previous 
grade. The studies peculiar to the grammar 
schools, are grammar and history, with instruc- 
tion in, and reviews of, previous studies. Pupils 
from the grammar schools are admitted to the 
Central High School and to the Girls' Normal 
School semi-annually, upon a satisfactory ex- 
amination by a committee of principals of the 
boys' and girls' grammar schools. The Central 
High School, in addition to the studies usually 
pursued in schools of this class, gives instruction 
in Latin, German, the natural sciences, the higher 
mathematics, and mental and moral philosophy. 
It is authorized to confer upon all students who 
complete the 4 years' course, the degree of Bach- 
elor of Arts, and that of Master of Arts upon 
all graduates of not less than 5 years' standing 
who shall be entitled to it. The number of stu- 
dents in attendance, in 1875, was 601. The Girls' 
Normal School grants diplomas to its pupils at 
graduation. The average number of students ip. 
attendance, in 1875, has been previously stated 



PHILADELPHIA 

to be 641 ; the number in its graduating class 
was 13.). Annual examinations of applicants for 
the position of teacher, or special examinations, 
when necessary, are held by a committee of the 
board of education, assisted by principals of 
mar seh ' 
Ci 



PHONETICS 



699 



ant Episcopal Church ; the Evangelical Lutheran, 
Theological Seminary ; the Jefferson, the Eclec- 
tic, the Hahnemann, and the Women's Medical 
colleges; the Pennsylvania College of Dental 
Surgery; the Philadelphia Dental College; and 



tar schools, and members of the faculty of the the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy There 
entral High .school. 1 wo grades of certificates are. also, a philosophical and a historical society 
—principals certificates and assistants' certifi- academies for science and art, and many libraries' 
cates— are issued, the first, to persons not under ' PHILANTHROPIST, or Philanthropi- 
-u years of age who pass a satefactory exam- num, the name of an educational institution, 
} nation m the studies prescribed by the board; , founded in 1774, bv Basedow (q. v.). It soon 
econd, to persons not under 17 years of | became so famous that its admirers, who were' 

called Philanthropinists, expected from it an 
entire regeneration of educational systems, and 
founded numerous schools, in imitation of it, as a 
model. Most of these were short-lived, that 
founded by Salzmami (q, v.), at Schnepfeuthal, 
alone maintaining itself until the 19th century. 
Some of the principles and practices on which 
the Philanthropinists laid great stress, have beeft 
generally abandoned by modern educators; others 



. 17 
age who obtain, in the same studies, a .stated 
average somewhat less than that necessary for 
the position of principal. The holder of a prin- 
cipal's certificate is immediately eligible to any po- 
sition lower than that of principal ; and, after one 
year's teaching,, is eligible to the position of prin- 
cipal of a primary school; after 2 years' teaching, 
to that of a secondary school; and, after 3 years' 
teaching, to that of a grammar school. The holder 



<tt an assistants certificate may hold the position have quite commonly been accepted, and have 

>Ot fl.SSlKt:UlT. Ill nilV mil, It,, Bnknnl. «„^1 „ C O i «t . j 1 . .1 , C . 



of assistant in any public, school; and, after 3 
years' teaching, may become principal of a pri- 
mary or secondary school. Principals and assist- 
ants' certificates are also issued to the graduates 
of the Cirls' Normal School. The number of 
public evening schools opened in 1875 was 47, — 
20 for males, 11 for females, 10 for both sexes, 
and 6 for colored people (both sexes). They re- 
mained open 4 months, the aggregate number of 
pupils being 14,443; the number of teachers, 
226. Three important events, occurring in I 875 
in connection with the common-school system of 
the city, may be mentioned. The first was the 
offer of the trustees of the University of Penn- 
sylvania to receive into its scientific department 
annually, for a four years' course, 10 pupils from 
the public schools free of expense. The second 
was a similar offer from the directors of the 
Philadelphia School of Design— 10 female pupils 
:being offered free instruction in art for the pre- 
scribed course, of 4 years. The third event of im- 
portance was the examination made, during the 
summer, by a committee of the board of educa 



contributed to the progress made by the science 
and art of education in our days. — See Quick, 
Educational Reformirs (('inc.. 1874). 

PHILOLOGY. See Language. 

PHONETICS (Or. ^v V t,ku, from H, 
voice), a term used to denote not only the 
science of voice-sounds ( phonology), but the arts 
of phonotypy (printing words by their sounds), 
aaAphanography (writing words by their sounds). 
It is also used to designate phonetic teaching, or 
the practical application of phonetics. In all 
these cases, the use of the term phonetic as an 
adjective is more common; as, phonetic science, 
phonetic print, phonetic writing, and phonetic 
teaching. In tin's article, these will be severally 
treated in the order here enumerated. 

1. Phonology, or phonetic science, is, properly, 
a branch of the science of nan/stirs, which em- 
braces a consideration of the sounds used in 
speech, as well as those used in singing, and in 
other departments of music. I 'honology is related, 
on the one hand, to' physiology; as far as the organs 
of speech, and their action, are 



.. concerned ; and, 
tion and a corps of scientists, into the sanitary on the other, to philology, being now recognized 
condition of the schools of the city. The results ; by the most eminent philologists as 



of their inquiries have been arranged in tabular 
form, and published ; and, bearing as they do 
upon the schools of other cities and states, can- 
not fail to be of permanent interest and value. 
The number of private, denominational, and 
parochial schools in Philadelphia is very large ; 
but no statistical report of their number or re- 
sources is attainable. The institutions for higher, 
professional, scientific, and special instruction 



lying at the 
very foundation of that science, and hence of 
much greater importance than any mere ortho- 
graphic etymology can be. — This subject can be 
best presented and understood by approaching it 
from the side of our own language, and consider- 
ing ( 1 ) the elementary sounds of that language, in 
their natural order and relations; and (2) the his- 
tory of their development. A general view of sys- 
tematic and comparative phonology may then be 



are, also, numerous, chief among which may be presented. The English language contains nearly 
enumerated, in addition to those given under 
the title Pennsylvania (q. v.), Oirard College, 
which, though not, strictly speaking, an educa- 
tional institution of a superior grade, but an or- 
phan asylum , provides an 8 i years' course of study 
for the children and youth under its care ; the 
Polytechnic College, incorporated in 1853 ; the 
Franklin Institute ; the Wagner Free Institute 
of Science ; the Divinity School of the Protest- 



all the sounds needed for a full outline of pho- 
nology; and, moreover, in Webster's and Worces- 
ter's dictionaries (now very generally accepted as 
standards of reference, — in the United States, 
universally adopted as such), there is to be found 
a complete analysis of these sounds — one in 
which they fully agree, though neither presents 
them in their natural order, giving them merely 
as the particular sounds of the letters. In ar- 



700 



PHONETICS 



ranging them according to the latest results of 
phonetic science, we may take these distinctions 
as we find them in the dictionaries, where they 
are correctly made : (1) the sixteen simple vowel 
sounds heard in the following words : fate (same 
as ei in veil), fat, care, far, ask, all, what (same 
as o in nol) ; mete (same as i in pique), met, fin, 
note, whole [recognized as an English sound, but 
not sanctioned in orthoepy], rede, p«ll, us, um. 
These naturally arrange themselves in the fol- 
lowing order, with the addition of ii and o from 
the German to complete the scale : 

VOWELS. 
Full Vowels. Stopped Vowels. 

Long, when accented. Staccato or exploded. 

Brief, when unaccented. Always short in English. 





FRONT MIDDLE 


BACK 


FRONT 


MIDDLE BACK 




SERIES SERIES 


SERIES 


SERIES SERIES SERIES 




pique kuehn 


rude 


fill 


Kuenste pull 


(1) 


1 It 


u 


i 


II u 




veil Goethe 


note 


met 


Boecke whole 


(2) 


e 





e 







care lier 


all 


fat ws what 


(3) 


far 

a 


U 




13 9 V 

ask 

a 






Diphthongs. 






my oil 


out 


tune use 




£ vt 


VI 


I 


he fi 



The full and stopped vowels occur in pairs, 
and in three corresponding series, as shown in 
the following table : 

pique fin kuhn Kunste 

i i ii li 

veil met Goethe Boecke 

a e o o 

care fat her ws 

ge a o 9 



rude pull 
H U 
note whole 

e o 

all what 

e v 



far ask 

a a 



No distinction is made in these tables between 
the sound of e in term or i in girl, and that of 
u in urn or in furl. These sounds, however, 
though kindred, are distinguishable, and are so 
marked by Webster, who says, "The vulgar uni- 
versally, and many cultivated speakers both in 
England and America, give the e in such words 
the full sound of u in urge, as murcy for mercy, 
turm for term, etc. But, in the most approved 
style of pronunciation, the organs are placed in 
a position intermediate between that requisite 
for sounding u in furl and that for sounding e 
in met, thus making (as Smart observes) 'a com- 
promise between the two'." The vowel sounds, 
as arranged in the above tables, may be thus de- 
scribed. Starting from the fundamental sound, 
a in far (or a in ash), they branch upward in 
(1) a front series, with the tongue rising upward 
and forward, to i in pique ; (2) a middle series, 
with the tongue rising to it, directly upward, 
and not pushed forward or backward ; and 
(3) a back series, with the tongue rising upward 
and backward to u in rude. The succession in 



the order of the sounds as judged by the ear, 
corresponds to that of the movements of the 
tongue, as perceived by the muscular sense. The 
diphthongs are arranged below the simple vowels 
according as they terminate in the upper front 
vowel i or the upper back vowel u. The rela- 
tions of the full and corresponding stopped vow- 
els to each other, as affected by quantity, may 
be further studied by the aid of the following 
arrangement of words, in which they respective- 
ly occur in accented and unaccented syllables 
(the double letters indicating prolonged sounds) : 
eat eternal kuAn Kunste 
i it It 



%l 
mate 

ee 



ee 

care 



it 

i 

maternal 

e 



Goethe 




Bocke 




met 

e 

clairvoyant cur 
£6 89 



carry 



99 



curry 
9 



prude 


prudentia 


UU 


U 


. 


wood 


UU 


U 


oak 


location 


00 







spoken 


00 





aught 


authentic 


VV 


V 




not 


•DV 






part 

aa 



aa 



partake 

a 



ask 

a 



It may be observed that the stopped vowels 
do not, and cannot, rise quite so high in the 
scale as their corresponding full vowels; but 
this difference is reduced to a minimum in the 
fundamental pair, a a, and in the lower front 
pair, as B- 

The following is a synoptical arrangement of 
consonant sounds, the German guttural ich be- 
ing added, [a, indicates aspirates ; t, subtonics ; 
u, nasals ; I, liquids ; v, vowel consonants] : 

CONSONANTS. 





LIP 


LIP- 


TONGUE- 


TIP- 


TOP- 


ROOT- 






TEETH 


TEETH 


TONGUE 


TONGUE 


TONGUE 




up 






(one 


cMn 


cat 


(a) 


P 






t 


ch 


C 




be 






do 


jar 


get 


w 


b 






d 


J 


g 






J/ 


thin 


US 


she 


ic/t 


(a) 




f 


th 


S 


sh 


d) 






ueil 


this 


zone 


usual 


Tac/ 


(0 




V 


dh 


Z 


zh 


9 




me 






no 


seraor 


Bin/? 


(n) 


m 






n 

let rare 


n 


ng 


(I) 


wftat 






1 n 




he, 


(a) 


we 








ye 


h 


(v) 


W 








J 





For an account of the development of the 
present method of indicating these sounds in the 



PHONETICS 



701 



English language, the reader is referred to the 
article on Orthography. 

II. Phonetic Print. — The elementary sounds 
■of the English language are usually represented 
in dictionaries by diacritical marks ; but various 
methods of phonotypic notation, other than this, 
have been employed. That of Dr. Edwin Leigh 
has been extensively used for school purposes, 
and has attained a considerable degree of pop- 
ularity. An ingenious system of representation 
approximating to the diacritical, is used in 
Shearer's Combination Speller (N ew York, 1 874). 
The notation employed in the above vowel an 1 
consonant scales, using only the common letters 
of the alphabet for temporary and critical use, 
is in substantial accordance with the plans of 
Dr. Thornton (1790), of the Dutch alphabet, of 
Mr. Ellis in the Alphabet of Nature (1844), and 
Pakroti/pe (1868), of Prof. Haldeman (1860), 
and of S. P. Andrews (1876). It is not incon- 
sistent with those of Pickering, Lepsius, and 
others, which have been used in printing Asiatic 
and new languages. It harmonizes these various 
plans, and is in very exact accordance with a 
phonotypic plan that is, perhaps, as good as any 
yet proposed, and has, moreover, a good and 
facile script corresponding to both. 

III. Phonography, or phonetic writing, in its 
more general sense, would include any script in 
which the letters are used to denote sounds ; but 
it is now appropriated, in a special sense, to Pit- 
man's particular system of phonetic shorthand. 
Eor an account of various efforts to construct a 
phonetic long-hand script, for the English and 
other languages, see the publications of Isaac 
Pitman and Elias Loyly. For a history of 
short-hand {stenography), see a valuable treatise 
by Mr. Pitman published in connection with his 
" Fonoti/pic Journal," in 1847, in which he 
describes 120 systems, and gives the alphabets 
of 86 A-B-C systems, from that of Tyro — 
Cicero's freedman — (B. C. 60), down to those of 
Gurney (1753), Byrom (1767), Taylor (17*6), 
Mavor (1789), Lewis (1815), and Floyd (1818) ; 
giving, also, specimens of passages written in the 
seven most successful systems, and adding the 
alphabets and specimens of the seven phonetic 
systems from Tiffin (1750) to Sproat (1846). — 
Pitman's phonography was invented in 1837, 
and so thoroughly matured by its author before 
1844, that its main features remain unchanged; 
though, with the co-operation of leading phonog- 
raphers in England and America, some of its 
minor details have been improved or modified. 
It can be studied in Pitman's manuals, especially 
those of I860 and 1865 ; or as it appears in the 
text-books of Andrews and Boyle (Boston, 1 846 ) ; 
Longley (Cincinnati, 1851), Graham (X. Y., 
1858), Ben Pitman (Cincinnati, 1855), Marsh 
(San Francisco, 1868), Munson (1ST. Y., 1866), 
and E. V. Burns (N. Y., 1872). In connection 
with any of these (especially those prior to 1 860) , 
Parkhurst's Stenophonographer (N. Y., 1852 — 
76) can be used, and will give to the investigator, 
teacher, or practical reporter, the history and 
discussion of the various improvements, proposed I 



or made, since 1852. — Phonography, notwith- 
standing its many advantages over the ordinary 
script, has made but little progress since that 
time as a general method of writing, its use, 
at present, being almost exclusively technical. 
Hence, it has not been generally introduced as a 
branch of instruction, except in commercial 
schools, or for the special purposes of preparing 
for the occupation of the reporter. 

IV. Phonetic teaching now quite generally 
constitutes a part of the lowest grade of ele- 
mentary instruction, its object being to facilitate 
the teaching of children to read. (See Phonic 
Method.) By means of phonetic exercises, the 
vocal organs of children are trained to clearness 
and correctness of enunciation, while the ear is 
cultivated so as to be able readily to distinguish 
sounds. At the same time, children necessarily 
acquire a better idea of the use of letters and of 
the sounds which they are employed to denote. 
Most educators, at the present time, recommend 
this mode of teaching ; although there is some 
diversity in the manner in which it is applied. 
Beginning with simple words in which single 
letters are used to denote simple sounds, and in 
which no silent letters occur, the child is led to 
perceive the use of the letters, and to associate 
with them their proper sounds, the teacher 
passes progressively to more complex and ir- 
regular combinations, until the pupil is able to 
analyze words into their component sounds, and 
state how these sounds are represented. After 
such preliminary exercises, in order that the 
pupil may fully understand the relations of the 
sounds to each other, and be systematically 
drilled in their utterance, all the elementary 
sounds must be presented synoptically. This is 
done by phonetic charts, which should exhibit 
(1) a logical enumeration of the elementary 
sounds, illustrated by their use in well-chosen 
words; and (2) the letters of the alphabet with 
their various sounds, and diphthongal combina- 
tions. Very many of the faults in articulation 
so frequently met with may be prevented or re- 
moved by persistent drilling in the elementary 
sounds. These phonetic drills may comprise 
exercises in the vowel sounds by themselves; 
but the consonant sounds are often most effect- 
ively practised in combinations with vowels. In 
teaching persons, wdiether children or adults, to 
pronounce a foreign language, this training is in- 
dispensable. Of course, it should be preceded 
by a careful investigation into the particular 
defects which constitute what is called the 
" foreign accent." so that the elementary sounds 
involved may be made the special subject of the 
drill. Phonetic analysis should not cease in the 
lower grades, but should, at every stage, consti- 
tute a part of the regular reading or elocution- 
ary exercises. Like the fingers of the pianist or 
violinist, the vocal organs need constant tech- 
nical exercise in order that tKey may perform 
their office most effectively. The enunciation 
of the open vowel sounds constitutes a most 
important part of vocal training. (See Voice, 
Culture of the.) 



702 



PHONIC METHOD 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION 



PHONIC METHOD, a term applied to a 
method of teaching reading, in accordance with 
which pupils are taught, in pronouncing words, 
to use the sounds of the letters, instead of their 
names, so that they may at once perceive the 
result of the combination, and thus without dif- 
ficulty give the correct pronunciation. For ex- 
ample, when the pupil is required to pronounce 
the word dog, he does not say de-o-ge, dog, but 
gives to each letter the proper sound, phoneti- 
cally, and thus at once pronounces the word dug 
as the necessary product of the elements thus 
combined. This method is considered by teach- 
ers to possess many advantages over the old- 
fashioned way of compelling the pupils to learn 
the names of the letters of the alphabet, and 
then teaching them to read by spelling exercises. 
(See Orthography.) 

PHONICS. See Orthography, and Phonet- 
ics. 

PHRENOLOGY. See Character, Discern- 
ment of. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION may be defined 
as that systematic training of the bodily powers 
which tends to render them, in the highest pos- 
sible degree, efficient in their several functions. 
The necessity for this training is generally ac- 
knowledged, as a basis for the higher depart- 
ments of education. Among the ancients — the 
Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, especially, 
the highest respect was accorded to physical cult- 
ure ; and the means employed were generally 
well adapted to the purpose, although merely 
empirical ; but, at the present time, the re- 
searches of science ought to supply a far better 
and more accurate basis for an effective system 
of bodily training. — Physical education looks to 
two objects : (1) to encourage" a normal devel- 
opment of bodily powers ; and (2) to check mor- 
bid growth. Incidentally to these, of course, 
the preservation of health, that is, protection 
against disease, is an important object ; since a 
condition of health is the foundation upon which 
all physical culture must rest ; indeed, if chil- 
dren are successfully protected from morbid in- 
fluences and disturbances, normal development 
must result. 

(1) The application of appropriate means to 
stimulate or guide the development of the bod- 
ily powers constitutes what is called physical 
training. This training may be (1) general, or 
(2) special. Up to a certain age, all physical 
exercise must have for its object general develop- 
ment ; beyond that, the special purpose of the 
training must dictate the nature of the exercise 
to be employed. Military drill, it ia true, is 
often employed in schools to promote general 
development, but there is very much required in 
military discipline that is quite unnecessary for 
ordinary physical culture. The importance of 
systematic exercise has been considered in the 
articles calisthenics and gymnastics (q. v.) . Such 
exercise, however, must not look exclusively to 
muscular development ; but to the prompt use 
of muscular power in obedience to the dictates 
of mind. Such power systematically exercised 



in any given direction becomes almost automatic, 
as is seen in the case of the skillful oarsman, 
rider, or swordsman ; or in adepts in athletic 
games, such as those of ball and cricket. AH 
such means of physical culture become of special 
value, as bringing the powers of the body under 
the immediate control of the will ; and, hence, 
under the name athletics, they have been gener- 
ally encouraged by those who have the direction 
of superior education. In the same category, are 
to be placed the exercises which regard the due 
development of other physical powers, as the 
senses, the vocal organs, the lungs, and, in a closer 
relation to intellectual education, the brain. 
Educators err greatly in forgetting that the 
brain is a physical organ, and that its exercise is 
subject to the same laws and to the same limita- 
tions as other bodily organs ; and that, therefore, 
physical considerations should have a controlling 
weight in determining the means and, to some 
extent, the methods of intellectual training. (See 
Brain.) — Many are inclined to regard the direc- 
tion of physical training as unnecessary. They 
think that the physical powers of children and 
youth receive, in the instinctive and irrepressible 
exercises natural to that age, a sufficient educa- 
tion for ordinary purposes. From this view 
arises a neglect which is fraught with serious 
injury. Not only does the individual fail to act 
appropriately and energetically at every trying 
period of his life ; but, in most cases, his action 
falls somewhat below what is required for effect- 
ive results, through want of the full co- operation 
of the bodily powers; and, toward the close of life, 
decrepitude is accelerated by the partial atrophy 
occasioned by imperfect development and by 
disuse. 

(2) To check morbid growth or to prevent dis- 
ease, careful attention must be given to the sur- 
roundings of the child, particularly in school ; 
as there he is subjected to constant restraint; 
and, hence, cannot exercise his natural instincts 
which would prompt him to escape from such 
surroundings. The preservation of children 
from morbid influences, in school depends upon 
a great variety of circumstances, for a full enu- 
meration of which, see Hygiene, School. — The 
practical aim of physical education, under the in- 
fluence of modern fife, is almost always intellect- 
ual. Gymnastics and calisthenics, however, in- 
directly exert a moral influence which, of itself, 
makes their practice desirable. This is that 
magnanimity which is produced in generous 
minds by the consciousness of bodily health and 
power, and a disposition to use that power 
worthily. A feeling of inferiority has always 
associated with it an element of immorality, 
which leads its possessor to acts of duplicity and 
meanness to preserve his equality. There is still 
another phase of physical education to be con- 
sidered — that which relates to the joint action 
of the mind and body through the medium of 
the senses. (See Ear, Eye, and Senses, Educa- 
tion of.) The minute subdivision of labor char- 
acteristic of the age in which we live, by giving 
a utilitarian value to the cultivation of the 



PHYSICS 



PHYSIOLOGY 



703 



senses is rapidly constituting this an element of 
increasing importance. Already, the success of 
numerous trades and employments is dependent 
upon a nicety of discrimination by means of the 
eye. the ear, the taste, or the touch; and the number 
of these is steadily increasing. The cultivation 
of the senses, therefore, is desirable from a merely 
utilitarian point of view ; while for general cult- 
ure, such as is required in many of the arts, its 
absolute necessity is manifest. Many considera- 
tions and interests, therefore, conspire to make 
the subject of physical education one of con- 
stantly increasing importance. 

PHYSICS. "See SctENCB. 

PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. <fiot(, nature, and Uyoc, 
discourse), the science which treats of vital 
phenomena — as contradistinguished from anato- 
my, which treats of the structure of living 
bodies and the materials of which they are com- 
posed. In the course of education, it presup- 
poses some preliminary knowledge of chemistry, 
physics, anatomy, and especially of microscopic 
anatomy, or histology; and, in turn, it precedes the 
study of hygiene, or the laws of health, and that 
of pathology, or the science of abnormal function. 
As a science, physiology is of recent origin ; though 
the name has been in use from antiquity. Like all 
other natural sciences, as I >alton observes, "there 
is only one means by which physiology can be 
studied ; that is. by the observation of nature." 
It has been built up by experiment ; and many 
of its most essential truths, and these in their 
practical results the most important to man- 
kind, have been gained through vivisection. As 
the principal foundation of hygiene, it is obvi- 
ous that its principles should be so far made an 
element of general education as may conduce to 
a just appreciation of nature's sanitary code. 
How this may best be accomplished is a question 
that has hardly -received the attention it deserves. 
School physiology, in many cases, consists of a 
smattering of anatomy; in others, of a still more 
unsubstantial fabric of information regarding 
function ; or, in still others, of a blending of the 
two with hygienic doctrines, often based not on 
a wide conception of biological truths, but on 
the meager knowledge gained by personal ex- 
perience. The difficulty has always consisted in 
attempting to build upon too narrow a founda- 
tion, and that by means of an erroneous method. 
Thus, the attempt is made to teach the elements 
of physiology without a sufficient groundwork 
of chemistry and physics, and exclusively from 
books, instead of from practical experience in 
the laboratory. The results have been — as those 
of book learning and lecture teaching in natural 
science, without observation and experiment, 
always must be — unreal and evanescent ; hence, 
by such instruction the true nature of vital 
phenomena is never clearly apprehended; and 
the h} T gienic deductions are, of course, corre- 
spondingly illogical. Doubtless, a great amount 
of knowledge has been imparted, in these later 
days, to the people in general on this subject ; 
but the advance that has beeu made in sanitary 
practice is, probably, due not so much to the 



results of school education, as to the improved 
education of medical men. and to their advice 
spoken and written to communities, learning by 
practical experience the penalty of infringing 
hygienic laws. The real requisite in general 
education on this subject, appears to be, that, 
when a sufficient foundation has been laid, a 
practical course of biology should be employed 
to elucidate the general laws of life ; and then 
the habit of scientific thought and reasoning, 
formed by such training, will lead to a correct 
application of general principles to the special 
conditions of human life. Some such course of 
biological study as A Course of Practical Instruc- 
(ion in Elementary Biology, by Huxley and Mar- 
tin, might properly form a part of the curriculum 
of every collegiate institution: and, in all schools 
of a lower grade, as much preparation should be 
made for such a course as is practicable. Ob- 
jective teaching, in outline, of anatomy, by the 
dissection of the lower animals, accompanied by 
such simple practical suggestions as arise from 
the interpretation of the mechanical arrange- 
ments of the body, may be early commenced ; 
but, in all cases, this foundation should be laid 
systematically, with a definite end in view, and 
by instructors who have qualified themselves to 
teach, by following a complete practical course, 
such as is above suggested. Teaching merely from 
text-books and by pictures, will be almost useless, 
because superficial ; and no demonstrations, even 
from the best models, can ever be so effective 
as those from actual dissections of the lower ani- 
mals. A pupil will gain a better idea of the 
appearances presented by his own organs, and of 
their own relations to one another, from seeing 
a demonstration of those of a rabbit or a dog, 
for example, than from any rigid, and necessarily 
unreal, model, however skillfully constructed and 
colored. Such models, however, admirably subr 
serve secondary demonstrations. The educator 
who contemplates laying a foundation for physi- 
ology should refer to A Course of Elementary 
Practical Physiology, by Foster and Lingley — a 
work intended to succed that of Huxley and 
Martin, above mentioned. From this guide to 
laboratory work, he will learn what physiological 
investigation implies and requires ; and he will 
realize upon what basis rests the information 
contained in the re-organized physiological text- 
books; such as Barton's Treatise on Human, 
Physiology, Flint's Physiology of Man, and 
the more reliable of school physiologies, such as 
Huxley's Elementary Lessons in Physiology, and 
Dalton's Treatise, on Physiology and Hygiene, 
and Draper's Anatomy and Physiology. To 
aid him in demonstrations of the dissections of 
the lower animals, he should have at hand a 
trustworthy treatise on human anatomy, such 
as Morrell's Student's Manual of Comparative 
Anatomy mid Guide to Dissection, and Mivart's 
Lessons in Elementary Anatomy. Every teacher 
should, also, be familiar with Carpenter's Prin- 
ciples of Mental Physiology; also, by the same au- 
thor, Principles of Comparative Physiology, and 
Principles of Human Physiology. (See Science.) 



704 



PIARISTS 



PIO NONO COLLEGE 



PIARISTS, or Fathers of the Pious 
Schools, a religious order in the Roman Catholic 
Church, the members of which are specially de- 
voted to the gratuitous instruction of youth. This 
order was founded by Joseph of Calasanza, or 
Calasantius, a Spanish priest, by the opening of 
a free school, at Rome, in 1597. A large number 
of children were soon gathered in this school, 
under the instruction of Calasanza and his asso- 
ciates; and, by a decree of Paul V., the association 
assumed the rank of a religious congregation. 
Soon afterward (1622), it was made a religious 
order, Calasanza being its first general, and 
soon spread through Germany, Poland, Italy, 
and some other countries. In 1860, the Piarists 
had 33 houses in Germany, 28 in Italy, 32 in 
Hungary, 14 in Poland, and at least 30 in Spain. 
In Italy, they have since baen suppressed ; and 
the only country in which they conduct, at 
present, educational institutions of note, is the 
Austro - Hungarian Monarchy. In Cisleithan 
Austria, in 1870, they had 29 houses, with 297 
members ; included in which were 4 under -gym- 
nasia. (See Roman Catholic Church.) 

PICTURES. One of the earliest efforts of 
the human mind, after spoken language, appears 
to ba the communication of ideas by tangible ob- 
jects. The use of pictures and images is com- 
mon among savages every-where. It is no less 
characteristic of the infant mind among civilized 
races, children being not only interested in look- 
ing at pictures, but, by a natural prompting, at- 
tempting to imitate them. The first ideas which 
the child takes from objects being concrete, 
its means of expressing them takes the concrete 
form — its first effort being, as near as possible, a 
reproduction of the objects themselves. Not till 
a higher development has been reached, is it 
fitted to make use of a system in which purely 
arbitrary forms are employed. This early and 
almost universal instinct, therefore, involving, as 
it must, the ability to understand ideas so com- 
municated, suggests the peculiar fitness of this 
method for use in the instruction of children. 
This form of expression being attended with so 
much pleasure, it finds its natural place in the 
kindergarten system ; and we find, accordingly, 
various exercises there for the employment of it. 
It is even extended into the ordinary school sys- 
tem in the shape of object lessons. But this 
method, useful as it is at certain stages, has its 
limitations. It should not be forgotten that, 
with children, the object itself, for purposes of 
instruction, is always better than any represen- 
tation of it. As the picture of an animal, for 
instance, is only one phase of the form of that 
animal, and does not usually take into con- j 
sideration size, color, and many other essential 
qualities, only a very imperfect impression can 
be gained from it. This fact should suggest the 
limitations mentioned. These have reference ■ 
principally to the end to be attained, to the cor- 
rectness of the picture, and the number and 
nature of the objects represented. As to the 
correctness of the picture, little need be said; as 
modern publications, in this respect, show a 



constant improvement, and leave little to be de- 
sired. The number of objects represented in 
each picture should be limited, single figures 
being, at first, given ; afterwards two or three. 
The objects represented, also, should be familiar 
things, and several of a kind, inasmuch as, by 
the contemplation of these, the child's conceptive 
faculty, or imagination, and powers of general- 
ization are exercised. In this respect, also, the 
right method in primers and elementary books, 
is, as a rule, instinctively taken — though not al- 
ways. The value of this last restriction, at a 
later period, may be easily illustrated. If the 
object be to give an idea of some animal never 
seen — the camel, for instance — the task is made 
comparatively easy from the child's having seen 
illustrations of somewhat similar objects with 
which it is familiar ; as the horse, cow. etc. It 
seizes at once upon the points of resemblance, 
and, immediately after, upon the points of dif- 
ference, and thus makes a positive addition to 
its knowledge. But let the same child be con- 
fronted with a picture of a star-fish, or a print- 
ing-press, and the probability is, if it has never 
seen these or any similar objects, that it will 
get only a very imperfect idea of either. The 
reason is obvious. With no previous prepara- 
tion, it is called upon to establish in its mind an 
entirely new conception, solely from the picture, 
without any corresponding tangible basis in its 
experience. The result is a thwarting of the 
tendency to generalization — so strong with chil- 
dren always — and a confusing of the mind by 
an indistinct conception, invariably accompanied 
with a loss of interest. The special uses to 
\ which pictures are put, whether as diagrams in 
illustration of particular studies, or as part 
of a higher, artistic education, need not here be 
considered. The publication of the Orbis Sen- 
sualium Pictus, by Comenius, .was, probably, 
the earliest attempt to use pictures as a direct 
and systematic means of instructing children. 
(See Comenius.) 

PIO NONO COLLEGE, at St. Francis Sta- 
tion on Chicago and North-western Bailroad, 4 
m. from Milwaukee, Wis., was founded in 1871. 
It is under Roman Catholic control, and admits 
none but Catholics. It is supported by tuition 
fees, which, including board, tuition, etc., are $55 
per quarter of 2 J months. For music, telegraphy, 
and phonography there is an extra charge. The 
course of study embraces thorough instruction 
in the English, German, and French languages, 
mathematics in all its branches, book-keeping 
and history. The number of pupils, in 1875 — 6, 
was about 60. The first president was the Rev. 
Joseph Salzmann, D. D., who was succeeded by 
the present incumbent (1876), the Rev. Theo- 
dore Bruner. The normal school at the same 
place, for the education of teachers and organ- 
ists for Catholic schools and churches, has been, 
since the organization of the institution, under 
the same presidency as the college. In 1876, 
this school had 70 pupils. A Catholic deaf and 
dumb institution, in connection with the normal 
school, was founded in 1876. 



PITTSBURGH 



705 



PITTSBURGH, a large and important city 
of Pennsylvania, having a population, in 1*70, 
of 121,215, which, in 1876, was estimated to 
have increased to 130,000. The town was laid 
out in 17fi4, incorporated as a borough in 1794, 
and as a city in 1816. Since that time, its bound- 
aries have been enlarged no less than five times 
—in 1836, '45, '66, '08, and '72. 

Educational History. — Pittsburgh promptly 
availed itself of the pro visions of the state school 
law of 1834 (see Pennsylvaxiai; and, the next 
year, a public school was opened, which com- 
menced with an enrollment of only 5 pupils. 
From that time till 1855, the Pittsburgh schools 
were under the control of the state, and each 
ward board had full control of the educational 
and financial interests of its own school ; but, at 
the latter date, the legislature, by a special act, 
consolidated the several wards into one school- 
district, placing the management of the schools 
under the control of a central board of educa- 
tion, composed of one member from each ward, 
or sub-district, to be elected by the ward board. 
The following year, the first public high school 
was established. In 1868, in pursuance of an act 
establishing the office of city superintendent of 
schools, George J. Luckey was elected to that 
office, to which he has several times been re- 
elected, his fourth term expiring in May, 1 878. 
Previous to his election, there was great diversity 
in school management and methods ; but, under 
his earnest and efficient administration, a good 
degree of uniformity has been established. 'J 'he 
following shows the growth of the public schools 
since their consolidation in one school-district, in 
1855. In 1856, the enrollment of pupils was 
6.724; in I860, it was 7,608 ; in 1865, it hail in- 
creased to 8,743; in 1870. to 12,883 ; in 1875, to 
20,483 ; and, in 1876, to 21,488. 

School System. — The general management of 
the system is vested in the Central Board of 
Education, consisting of 36 members, one from 
each district, and holding office for three years, 
one-third of the board being changed each year. 
There are, besides, sub-district boards, one in 
each ward, each consisting of 6 members, having 
the same term of office as the members of the 
central board, and one-third retiring annually. 
Each of these ward boards appoints its own 
teachers, and levies the tax necessary for the 
payment of janitors and other expenses ; but the 
central board appoints the teachers of the high 
school, fixes the salaries of all the teachers em- 
ployed in the city, and levies the tax necessary 
for their payment. It has the exclusive control 
of the high school, and prescribes the text-books 
to be used in all the schools. — The course of in- 
struction prescribed for the ward schools com- 
prises the usual common-school branches, in- 
cluding music and drawing. There are 1 3 grades, 
embracing a 7 years' course. Pupils, in passing 
from the ward schools to the Central High 
School are required to pass an examination in 
reading, spelling, grammar, composition, arith- 
metic, algebra, geography, history, and the ele- 
ments of natural philosophy, besides writing, 



drawing, music, and calisthenics. In order to 
succeed in this examination they must give, on 
an average, 65 per cent of correct answers in all 
the studies, and not fall below 40 per cent in any. 
The High School is divided into three depart- 
ments ; (1) academical, (2) normal, and (3) com- 
mercial. 'I he studies pursued in the academical 
department are Latin, Greek, German, algebra, 
geometry, trigonometry, surveying, astronomy. 
chemistry, physics, botany, physiology, physical 
geography, zoology, geology, general history, 
composition and rhetoric, mental and moral 
philosophy, mechanical and free hand drawing, 
elocution, and music. In the normal department, 
the course consists of arithmetic and algebra; 
English grammar, literature, and composition ; 
geography ; the history and constitution of the 
United States ; drawing and music ; physiology 
(by lectures); elements of chemistry, geology, and 
physics ; theory of teaching, and two or more 
weeks' practice in the same. The commercial 
course includes the department of theory (3 
months), the intermediate department (3 months), 
and the department of practice (4 months). — 
The superintendent has authority by law to call 
teachers' institutes, and. like the county super- 
intendents, to draw from the county treasury 
moneys for their support ; also to elect a com- 
mittee on permanent certificates for the city of 
Pittsburgh. Four stated sessions of the teachers' 
institute are held annually in the city ; namely, 
on the third Friday evening and the following 
Saturday forenoon of the months of January, 
March, May, and October ; and a three days' 
session during the week preceding the annual 
opening of the schools. The stated meetings are 
! devoted to professional lectures and discussions, 
and practical exemplifications of methods by the 
introduction of actual classes of pupils, who re- 
ceive lessons in the presence of the institute. — 
Examinations for teachers' licenses are held by 
the superintendent, assisted by a board of ex- 
aminers, in accordance with the general law of 
the state. 

School Statistics. — Besides the Central High 
School, there are 39 ward schools, each of which, 
in pursuance of the law of 1869 consolidating 
the wards, is known by a distinctive name, in- 
stead of a numerical designation. There are also 
evening schools. The other items of importance, 
for 1876, are as follows : • 

Number of pupils enrolled 21,488 

Average monthly enrollment 17,180 

Average daily attendance 14,501 

Enrollment in evening schools 4,086 

Attendance in evening schools 1,769 

Number of teachers in day schools. 419 

Total tax levied for school purposes $602,041.37 

Total valuation of school property $1,904,500.00 

Cost per pupil, on annual enrollment $16.00 

There are 9 secondary schools, including 2 
commercial colleges, and 1 school of design , em- 
ploying 45 teachers, and attended by 2,297 pu- 
pils. The Roman Catholic parochial schools are 
attended by 8,073 pupils. — For information in 
regard to higher institutions of learning, see the 
article on Pennsylvania. 



706 



PLATO 



POETRY 



PLATO, one of the greatest of the Greek 
philosophers, was born at Athens, 429 or 430 
B. O, and died about 348. He was of illustrious 
descent, on both his father's and his mother's side; 
but very little is definitely known regarding his 
early life. From his own writings, we learn that 
he intended to enter public life, but became dis- 
gusted with the corruption and general depravi- 
ty of the times, and turned his attention to the 
study of philosophy. When he was twenty years 
old, he became a pupil of Socrates; and, for eight 
years, he constantly attended his great teacher. 
After the death of Socrates, Plato made ex- 
tended journeys, and, about 389, spent a short 
time at the court of the tyrant Dionysius, in 
Syracuse. After an absence of twelve years, he 
returned to Athens, and founded a school for the 
instruction of youth in the principles of philos- 
ophy, in a small garden in the Academia, a pub- 
lic grove or park which Academus had given 
for gymnastic exercises; and hence, Plato's school 
was called the Academy. Adorned with statues, 
temples, and sepulchers, surrounded with high 
trees, and intersected by a gentle stream, it af- 
forded a delightful retreat for contemplation. 
How much Plato valued mathematical studies, 
as a preparation for higher speculations, appears 
from the inscription he put over the entrance of 
his private house, in winch he gave instruction to 
a few select disciples : Let no one ignorant of 
geometry enter here. He was attended by a crowd 
of hearers of every description. Among them 
were many who became celebrated as statesmen 
or as philosophers. Even women attended, and 
people of distinction did not hesitate to be his 
hearers. (See Athens, and Academy.) He was 
surnamed the Divine, because of his wisdom and 
learning. Statues and altars were erected to his 
memory, and the day of his birth was long cele- 
brated as a festival. Under his name we have 41 
dialogues, 13 letters, and a collection of philo- 
sophical definitions ; but only the dialogues have 
been positively ascertained to be genuine. Plato, 
alone among the pupils of Socrates, had carefully 
studied all the philosophical systems of antiquity 
as far as they were accessible to a Greek inquirer; 
and, in his dialogues, he considers the various 
theories in turn, and develops his own system 
only in his strictures in relation to them. As 
with Socrates, so with Plato, ethics, i. e., the 
metaphysical idea of the good, is the principal 
subject of philosophy. The highest good is not 
pleasure, nor knowledge alone, but the greatest 
possible likeness to the Divinity, as the absolute 
good. Virtue is the imitation of God, or the free 
effort of man to attain to a resemblance to his 
original, or, in other words, a unison and har- 
mony of all our principles and actions, according 
to reason, whence results the highest degree of 
happiness. Virtue is one, but compounded of 
four elements : wisdom, courage or constancy, 
temperance, and justice; these are otherwise 
termed the four cardinal virtues. They arise 
out of an independence of, and superiority to, 
the influence of the senses; they are the product 
of the health and beauty of the soul. — The state, 



being a society of individuals, is, therefore, sub- 
ject to the same obligations on a large scale- 
Its end shoidd be liberty and concord; its highest 
mission, the training of the citizens to virtue. 
The education of youth should be regulated by a 
consideration of the duties which they are ex- 
pected to perform in the state. In the ideal 
state, each of the three principal functions and 
corresponding virtues of the soul is represented 
by a particular class of citizens : (1 ) the rulers, 
whose virtue is wisdom; (2) the guardians or war- 
riors, whose virtue is valor; and (3) the manual 
laborers and tradesmen, whose virtue is obedience 
and self-restraint, and whose training should be; 
only in their particular trades. The education 
of the other or higher classes is to begin as early 
as the third year of age, and to continue until 
the sixth, by the narration of myths ; to be fol- 
lowed, from 7 to 10, by gymnastics ; from 10 to 
13, by reading and writing; from 14 to 16, by 
poetry and music; from 16 to 18, by mathe- 
matical sciences ; and from 18 to 20, by mili- 
tary exercises. At this last age, the first sifting 
takes place — those of inferior mental capacity 
but valorous, to become warriors; the rest to 
continue until the age of 30, learning the 
sciences in the more exact and general form 
becoming their maturity. Next, the talent for 
dialectics is tested ; and then follows a second 
sifting. The less promising are given practical 
public offices ; the rest pursue the study of dia- 
lectics until the age of 35, and are then intrusted 
with positions of authority, continuing in the 
study of philosophy, so as to become, finally, the 
best fitted in the state for its highest offices. 
Regarding a good teacher as one of the agents 
most essential for the formation of good pupils, 
Plato lays down rides by which to distinguish 
between a good and a bad teacher, and recom- 
mends those in power to exercise the utmost scru- 
tiny and care in the selection of instructors to be 
employed by the state. — This theory of educa- 
tion, principally set forth in his Republic and in 
his Laws, was probably never fully reduced to 
practice; yet the spirit of all his doctrines seems to 
have exerted a powerfid influence over his coun- 
trymen for centuries. For an account of Plato's, 
attempt to establish a model government in Syr- 
acuse, see Grote, History of Greece, vols. x. and 
xi. The best English edition of Plato's Dialogues 
is by Jowett (Oxf. and N.T., 1871). For litera- 
ture on Plato's- Philosophy, and the different 
editions of his writings, we must refer to Ueber- 
weg, History of Philosophy ; on his educational 
system, see Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogiky 
vol. I.; Kapp, Platan's Erziehungslehre (Minden, 
1833); Bomback, Entwickelung der Platonischen 
Erziehungslehre (Rottweil, 1854) ; Wittmann, 
Erziehung und TJnterricht bei Plato (Giessen, 
1868) ; Cramer,, Geschichte der Erziehung im 
Alterthum (Elberf., 1838) ; Draper, Intellectual 
Development of Europe (rev. edit., 1876). 

POETRY, or the written expression of 
beauty, is an important instrument in certain 
departments of intellectual culture, besides aid- 
ing in the education of the emotions and sensibil- 



POETRY 



70T 



ities, and in the cultivation of taste. (See Esthetic; 
Culture.) — The pupil's first, knowledge of writ- 
ten poetry is usually obtained from the school 
reader. The manner of its presentation there. 
however, is susceptible of improvement. The 
free use of figures of rhetoric, and of obsolete or 
unusual words and phrases, renders poetry in- 
appropriate to the minds of children till after 
the usual modes of expression have become 
familiar. Its proper time for presentation, there- 
fore, is when rhetoric is studied — that is, during 
the latter part of a high-school course, or in 
the college. Yet nothing is more common than 
to find a highly-involved passage from Shake- 
speare, or an abstruse paragraph from Words- 
worth, in a reader intended for pupils of from 
ten to fifteen years of age. — Some vague or half- 
considered idea that these passages are, in some 
way, to serve as models, by being tlms presented, 
or are necessary for elocutionary purposes, is 
probably in the mind of the compiler. But what 
should we think of the music teacher who should 
present a symphony of Beethoven, as a model, to 
a beginner practicing the scales? The parallel 
case is quite as absurd. The residt is bad in 
two ways: (1) the unintelligibility, to the child, 
of such a poetical selection deprives it of all 
use as a model ; and (2) the disgust thus occa- 
sioned becomes permanent, and leads the pupil, 
even in manhood, to avoid a reperusal of the 
author thus used. How many persons, of mature 
years, date their dislike to Milton, for instance, 
from an enforced use of his works as reading or 
parsing exercises in early youth ! The introduc- 
tion of poetry into the school curriculum should 
follow the natural plan, the first poems used 
being exceedingly simple, containing no words 
beyond the vocabulary of the child, and treating 
of subjects and objects of every-day familiarity. 
An excellent plan would be to place, as an intro- 
ductory lesson in reading, a paraphrase in prose 
of the poem to be used. In this way, the pupil. 
being possessed beforehand of the meaning of 
what he is approaching, is at liberty to give more 
attention to the poetical mode of expression, 
this being the principal thing to be considered ; 
for, if the meaning were the principal thing, 
prose would be preferable — it being more direct 
and in more familiar language. — The fact that 
rhythmical language is, in many cases, of assist- 
ance to the memory, indicates its peculiar fitness 
for certain educational purposes. By its aid, 
abstract truths and arbitrary rides may often be 
fixed in the mind, in a way not possible by any 
other. Moral truths, also, may often be better 
retained in the memory by their expression in 
rhythmical form. The experience of most 
persons will probably furnish illustrations of this 
fact. There appears to bo a limit to this use of 
rhyme, however, determined partly by the nat- 
ure of the things to be remembered, and partly 
by the esthetic effect produced by such use. It 
may be said, in general, that all concrete ideas 
and relations, — those which, upon suggestion, 
call up in the mind material images — do not 
require the aid of rhyme to fix them in the 



memory; while ideas and relations of an es- 
sentially abstract or arbitrary nature, are more 
easily retained in the memory by a rhythmical 
expression of them. As an illustration of a vio- 
lation of the first proposition, maybe mentioned 
a rhymed text-book on geography. In the study 
of geography, the definitions, descriptions, etc., 
being always accompanied by pictures and maps, 
are firmly fixed in the mind by the eye — the 
most effective of all the agents used in acquir- 
ing knowledge. To call in the aid of the ear, 
therefore, is superfluous, and tends, rather, to 
distraction. If there had been originally any 
vagueness of conception left by the image ad- 
dressed to the eye, the ear might, with propriety, 
be called in to aid it ; but, from the nature of 
things, this is impossible. The picture of a 
material ohject will always present to the mind 
I a clearer idea of it, than any verbal description. 
A further objection, in this case, is. that the 
rhymed version, degenerating, as it is almost sure 
to do, into grotesque doggerel, familiarizes the 
mind of the pupil with the most degraded form 
of poetry, and tends to unfit it for an appre- 
ciation of the higher. In regard to the second 
proposition mentioned above, it may be said that 
we naturally seek some short, succinct form for 
expressing generalizations, and abstract and ar- 
bitrary relations, which shall make them conve- 
nient for use ; and that form is often found. If 
the poetic form would enable us to remember 
them more distinctly, and if no objection to its 
use could be raised, it would be allowable ; but 
if this form, besides adding little to our ability to 
remember, is open to the additional objection 
that it presents to the undiscriminating mind of 
the pupil a bad poetical model, it would seem 
that it ought not to be used. It can hardly be 
claimed that rhymed versions of the Lord's 
Prayer, or of the Proverbs, for instance — of the 
propositions of geometry, or of the rules of 
arithmetic, have helped us materially to learn 
more readily or appreciate more fully the truths 
contained in them. The very nature of some 
truths is averse to ornament; and the use of it, in 
such cases should be discountenanced. — A fre- 
quent result of the appreciation of the beautiful, 
which underlies all poetry, is the attempt of 
youth sooner or later to write poetry. Every 
teacher's experience will supply instances of this. 
This inclination usually makes its appearance 
between the ages of 15 and 20, in minds that 
have a natural taste for beautiful objects, after 
a considerable command of language has been 
obtained, and before the realities of life have 
come to darken, with their shadows, the bright 
sky of youth. As not one in a hundred, how- 
ever, of those who write verses, at this age, will 
become a poet, the teacher's course is plain. His 
method of cure should be. unsparing criticism, 
but applied in a kindly spirit. It will require only 
a few exposures of bad rhymes, false similes and 
metaphors — and of these, the most preposterous 
will generally be found to be the most cherished 
by the writer — to recall the would-be poet to a 
more sober and useful pursuit. 



708 



POLITENESS 



PORTUGAL 



POLITENESS. See Manners. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY. See Social 
Economy. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. See Scien- 
tific Schools. 

POPULAR, EDUCATION. See Educa- 
tion, and National Education. 

PORTUGAL, a country in the south-west of 
Europe, having an area of 35,813 square miles, 
and a population, in 1872, of 4,367,882, nearly 
all of whom belong to the Roman Catholic 
Church, and speak the Portuguese language. 

Educational History. — The first ruler in 
Portugal to exert himself actively in behalf of 
education was Dom Diniz, in the 13th century. 
In 1290, he founded the University of Lisbon, 
which, after several changes of locality, was 
finally settled at Coimbra ; he also established 
elementary schools for the poorer classes. In 
1540, the Jesuits were called to Portugal, and 
gradually obtained an almost complete control of 
secondary instruction; but, in the 18th century, 
they were expelled from the country by Pombal. 
At the same time, a decree was issued to secu- 
larize instruction, and faculties of philosophy 
and mathematics were added to the University 
of Coimbra. No record in relation to elementary 
instruction is found until the 18th century; and 
the number of primary schools, previous to 1772, 
was only about 400, while Greek and Latin were 
taught only in convent schools. Pombal estab- 
lished 257 Latin primary schools, and founded 
and provided for 21 professorships of rhetoric 
and history, besides schools of philosophy, logic, 
metaphysics, and the moral sciences. He also 
gave his attention to the endowment and super- 
vision of seminaries for the priesthood, and re- 
organized the University of Coimbra after the 
model of the Italian universities. With the 
overthrow of Pombal, the clergy and nobility 
again resumed control of public education. Dur- 
ing the wars and revolutions of the first half of 
the present century, education was necessarily 
neglected. In 1836, a general system for the 
re-organization of the public schools of all grades 
was prepared by Be Compos, vice-rector of the 
Coimbra University. This was modified by the 
regulations of 1844. In 1875, a new law was 
prepared by the minister of the interior, which 
is now in force. 

Primary Instruction. — According to the law 
of 1875, there must be two classes of primary 
schools, — the elementary, and the higher element- 
ary schools. Instruction is free only in the 
former. Every parish must have separate ele- 
mentary schools for boys and for girls; but, in 
very small parishes, mixed schools are allowed. 
Every arrondissement must have a higher ele- 
mentary school. Teachers are appointed by the 
communal council, upon the nomination of a 
school commission. This commission consists of 
three members of the communal council, a rep- 
resentative of the charitable institutions of the 
commune, and the sub-inspector of the arron- 
dissement. The communal council can remove 
teachers, but only in connection with the signer 



of the contract of appointment, after a trial of 
the accused, and after the school commission 
has passed a unanimous resolution to that effect. 
At the head of the educational system, is the 
supreme council of studies; with the minister of 
the interior as president, and the rector of the 
university of Coimbra, or his delegate, as vice- 
president. It is, furthermore, composed of eight 
regular judges and a large number of irregular 
judges. The regular judges are men distinguished 
for learning and good character; while the irreg- 
ular judges are professors at Coimbra, or grad- 
uates from that university. Candidates for the 
position of teacher must be twenty-one years of 
age, and possess a certificate of health and mor- 
als, signed by the pastor of their place of resi- 
dence. They must pass a public examination, 
which is intended to ascertain their maturity of 
mind, rather than their actual acquirements. 
Teachers are of two degrees. Those of the first 
degree are appointed either for life or for three 
years ; those of the second degree, for life only. 
Instruction is given in the primary schools daily, 
except on Sundays and holidays; but when there 
is no holiday during the week, Thursday is free. 
The daily sessions are from 8 to 11 o'clock in the 
forenoon, and 2 to 5 in the afternoon, from Oc- 
tober till Easter; the rest of the year, from 7 to 
10 A. M. and from 3 to 6 P. M. The study com- 
missioners may also authorize teachers to form 
evening classes for adults. Every year the study 
commission publishes a list of all children of 
school age. The names of those parents who fail 
to have their children registered, are read by the 
minister from the pulpit, and a list of them is 
nailed to the church door. Upon repeated of- 
fenses, fines are imposed. In the same manner, 
regular attendance is enforced. The branches of 
instruction in the elementary schools comprise 
reading, writing, arithmetic, language, morals, and, 
for girls, sewing. In the higher elementary schools, 
there are taught, in addition to these branches, 
linear drawing, history, the elements of the nat- 
ural sciences, and agriculture. Five seminaries 
are to be established for male, and two for female 
teachers. In 1869, there were, 1,997 schools for 
boys and 362 for girls, making a total of 2,359. 
The number of pupils enrolled was 117,305, of 
whom 99,358 were boys, and 17,947 girls. The 
number of pupils attending the schools was 
62,937, of whom 52,720 were boys, and 10,217 
were girls. Besides these, there are many ex- 
cellent private schools in the principal cities. 
There were also 5 normal schools for males, with 
100 students, and one for females, with 20 
students. 

Secondary Instruction.- — Secondary instruc- 
tion is imparted in lyceums, which correspond 
pretty much to the French institutions of that 
name. At some of the lyceums, agriculture and 
rural economy are taught; and, at Funchal, 
Madeira, and other places on the islands belong- 
ing to Portugal, French and English; while, in 
other places, the course of studies comprises 
chemistry, natural history, mechanics, book-keep- 
ing, trigonometry, mathematical geography, and 



POTTER 

other branches. Greek. German, and English are 
not obligatory: but a knowledge of these lan- 
guages is advantageous at the final examination. 
Candidates for the appointment of professor in 
a lyceum must be at least 25 years of age. The 
examination is both oral and written. Graduates 
of the Coimbra university are preferred, and the 
appointments are made for life, and in the name 
of the king. Besides the lyceums of the state, 
there are private colleges, the teachers of which 
must also possess a license to teach. They are 
likewise subject to inspection by the government. 
Teachers in the lyceums, as well as in the pri- 
mary schools, are exempt from taxation and mil- 
itary duty. Independently of the lyceums. the 
government may establish Latin classes in 120 
of the most important places near the capitals 
of the several districts. These classes are in- 
structed in public buildings, have each a library, 
and are provided with the necessary books of 
instruction. The number of lyceums, in 1809, 
was 21, with 3.744 students. 

Superior Instruction. — Superior instruction 
is afforded in the University of Coimbra, which 
has five faculties : theology, medicine, math- 
ematics, and philosophy. In 1859, Dom Pedro V., 
in order to excite a greater interest in education, 
opened, at his own expense, a faculty of belles- 
lettres, with five professorships, which hold the 
same rank as those of the university. The Univer- 
sity of Coimbra has from 900 to 1,000 students. 

Special Instruction. — Special instruction is 
given in the following schools: 19 theological 
schools and courses, one polytechnic school at Lis- 
bon, and one at Oporto, 3 medico-surgical schools, 
one school of veterinary surgery, one general 
agricultural institute, one commercial school, five 
industrial schools, two academies of fine arts, one 
conservatory of music, an army school, a navy 
school, and a military college, in Lisbon. — See 
Sch.mid. Pddar/oc/ische E/tct/c/opadie, art. Portu- 
gal- Bracheixi. Die Staaten Europa's; Chronik 
des Volkssch/dioesens, 1875: Report of the U. S. 
Commissioner of Education for 1873. 

POTTER, Alonzo, an American educator, 
born in Beekman, N. Y., July 6., 1800; died in 
San Francisco, Feb. 4., 1865. He graduated 
with first honors at Union College in 1818, be- 
came a tutor there in 1819, and, in 1821, was 
made professor of mathematics and natural phi- 
losophy. While holding the latter position, he 
declined the presidency of Geneva College. He 
was rector of St. Paul's church, Boston, from I 
1826 to 1831, which position he resigned in the 
latter year to accept that of professor of moral 
philosophy in Union College, of which institu- 
tion he became vice-president in 1838. He was 
made bishop of Pennsylvania in 1845, which po- 
sition he held till his death. He was the author 
of a treatise on logarithms, and one on descrip- 
tive geometry, both prepared for the use of his 
classes while professor in Union College, but not 
published. His most noted educational work 
was that published in connection with G. B. 
Emerson, entitled The School and the School- 
master (1842). Besides this, he was the author 



PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OP 709 

of many addresses, discourses, etc., upon subjects 
connected with education. Interesting notices 
of his life and works may be found in Bishop 
Stevens's funeral sermon (Oct. 19., 1865). and in 
Memoirs of the Life and Services of the Rt. Rev. 
A. Potter. D. 1).. LL. !>., by the 'Rev. Br M. 
A. Be Wolfe (Phila., 1871). 

PRACTICE, Schools of. See Teachers' 
Seminaries. 

PRAXIS (Gr. irpazic, from jrpanmiv, to do), 
a particular form of exercise designed to afford 
practice to the pupils ; as a praxis for parsing or 
analysis, in teaching grammar. 

PRECEPTORS, College of (London), is a 
body founded in 1 846 to enable teachers, partic- 
ularly in private schools, to acquire a sound 
knowledge of their profession, and to give 
them the opportunity of ohtaining certificates 
attesting their attainments and fitness to teach. 
The first promoters of the college, deploring 
the incompetency of so many teachers, desired 
that every one entering the profession should 
provide himself with such a certificate, as a 
guarantee to the public and to his fellow- 
teachers. The movement (which had originated 
at Brighton) spread rapidly; and, within a year, 
there were 1000 members. (As to the qualifica- 
tion for membership, see below.) These were 
formed into a corporate body, in 1849. The 
lowest diploma which the college grants is 
that of Associate, next come those of Licen- 
tiate and Fellow. Candidates for all these 
diplomas are examined in the science and art of 
education; and are excused the other subjects, if 
they have previously passed elsewhere what is 
recognized as an equivalent examination. One 
peculiarity of the examination for those who 
have to pass in all the subjects, is. that each sub- 
ject may be taken up separately, and the rest 
when the candidate pleases. This is very con- 
venient for hard- worked teachers who have 
little leisure. There is not, however, a very 
large demand for these diplomas. The number 
of persons, male and female, at present holding 
them is 338, of whom 49 are Fellows. 130 
Licentiates, and 159 Associates. Unfortunately, 
in regard to the membership, the very error, 
for many years, was committed which the 
college was founded to do battle against. The 
promoters intended to include among the first 
members all persons of respectability, both males 
and females, who were at the time engaged 
in teaching, and paid a yearly subscription of 
one guinea. But they also intended, at no 
distant date, but a date, not assigned, to sub- 
ject all candidates for membership to examina- 
tion. Amid the pressure of other business, 
however, and of crippled resources, the latter 
intention was lost sight of. It would seem, also, 
that there had been some laxity in the grant- 
ing of diplomas. The consequence was that 
A. C. P., L. 0. P., F. C. P. witli M. 0. P. became 
involved in one common depreciation. It must 
be understood that the college, in its documents, 
had always drawn a clear distinction between 
examined and unexamined members — a distinc- 



710 PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF 



PRESBYTERIANS 



tion which the general public could not be ex- 
pected to bear in mind or even to apprehend. 

The investigations of the Schools Inquiry 
Commission, along with a general movement on 
the part of various learned bodies for stricter 
conditions of membership, drew the attention of 
the more active members of the college to the 
necessity of reform ; and, since the spring of 1870, 
no member has been admitted without either be- 
ing examined by the college, or showing that he 
has passed, elsewhere, one of the examinations 
specified in the regulations. The college, there- 
fore, was never in a more healthful and hopeful 
State than at the present time. The stricter reg- 
ulations have not diminished the number of 
applications for membership, there being 97(5 
members in Nov., 1876. Of these, 243 are also 
holders of diplomas. The remaining 95 holders 
of diplomas are not members, and do not share 
in the government of the college. — The journal 
of the college, which publishes reports of its 
proceedings, is the Educational Times, which 
was commenced in Oct., 1847, and is published 
monthly ; but, though the official organ, it is not 
the property of the college. 
, In 1872, a professorship of education was 
instituted ; and the late Joseph Payne was 
appointed to the chair. He commenced his first 
course, at the beginning of 1873, to a class of 
about 70 teachers, most of whom were ladies. 
The office has since been held by the Rev. R. 
H. Quick, author of Essays on Educational 
Reformers (London and Cincinnati) ; by Mr. 
Meiklejohn, lately appointed to the new chair 
of education at St. Andrews, Scotlaud ; and by 
Mr. Groom Robertson, professor of logic at Uni- 
versity College, London. 

- There are other kindred duties, in addition to 
those at first contemplated, which the college has 
undertaken. At Christmas, 1850, it conducted 
its first examination of schools ; and the system 
was in full operation in 18 54, two years before the 
scheme of the Society of Arts, and four years be- 
fore that of the University of Oxford. These 
examinations are held every half year at various 
centers, simultaneously; and certificates, with 
prizes for the most distinguished, are bestowed 
upon the successful boys and girls. The number 
of candidates at these examinations, in 1875, was 
about 2,800, coming from about 150 schools. 

There is also a system in operation for the 
examination of schools by visiting examiners ; 
under which the examiner makes an official 
report of the state of the school, but no certifi- 
cates are granted. The College, moreover, con- 
ducts the preliminary examinations in arts, for 
various medical corporations. The number of pu- 
pils at these examinations is about 5,800 a year. 

In June 1861, were commenced the monthly 
meetings of members and their friends, at which 
papers on educational subjects are read and dis- 
cussed. These meetings tend to "corporate feel- 
ing and helpful union," for those members, at 
least, who live in London or its vicinity. The 
papers, many of them of great value, are gener- 
ally reported at length in the next number of the 



Educational Times. There is an educational 
library of nearly 4,000 volumes, to which con- 
stant additions are made, mostly by gift. — ■ 
The college is managed by a council of 48 
members, twelve of whom retire every year. 
They are elected at a general meeting of mem- 
bers. In addition to these 48, all ex-presidents 
of council become members of it for life. Among 
the presidents of the council, have been Dr. 
Jacob, late of Christ's Hospital; Dr. Kennedy, 
late of Shrewsbury; and Dr. Haig-Brown, of 
the Charterhouse. At present Dr. J ex-Blake, of 
Rugby, is the president. 

The college is doing a good and useful work 
for middle-class schools, and its further useful- 
ness is hindered only by its want of funds. It 
needs a more complete educational library, a 
more commodious home than its present one (at 
42 Queen Square, Bloomsbury), and an endow- 
ment for its professorship. For this last purpose 
between £400 and £500 has been contributed up 
to the present time. In 1875, the members' sub- 
scriptions yielded £521; the net profits from the 
examinations produced a sum perhaps somewhat 
larger than this ; and there seem to be no other 
sources of income. — See a paper by J. Payne on 
the history of the college in the Educational 
Times, July, 1868; The Charier, Regulations, and 
other documents of the College ; Speech of Dr. 
Jex-Blake, in the Educational Times for Feb., 
1876 ; Demojest and Montucci, De I'Enseigne- 
ment Secondaire en I 'Angleterre, vol. I.; /Schools 
Inquiry Commission, vols. I., iv., vn., ix. (1868). 

PREPARATORY SCHOOLS, schools for 
secondary instruction, in which pupils are pre- 
pared for admission to the college or university. 

PRESBYTERIANS, a denomination of 
Christians distinguished by their support of a sys- 
tem of church government by presbyters, in oppo- 
sition, on the one hand, to Episcopalians (q. v.), 
and, on the other, to Congregationalists (q. v.). 
The Presbyterians, in this respect, agree with 
the Reformed churches (q. v.), and were, like 
them, modeled after the plan laid down by Cal- 
vin, in his Institutes. The Presbyterians con- 
stitute the established church in Scotland, and 
are a numerous body in all other parts of the 
British Empire, as well as in the United States. 
Both in Europe and in the United States, they 
are divided into a number of independent or- 
ganizations. In 1875, delegates from a large 
number of Presbyterian and Reformed churches 
met in London, England, to form an Alliance of 
Reformed Churches throughout the World, 
which is to be a voluntary and co-operative, but 
not an organic union. We treat in this article 
(I) of the Presbyterians in the British Empire ; 
and (II) of the Presbyterians in the United 
States. 

I. Presbyterians in the British Empire. — • 
(1) The bulk of the population of Scotland has 
been Presbyterian since the middle of the 16th 
century ; and, at present, the aggregate number 
of the different Presbyterian bodies exceeds 85 
per cent of the total population. The established 
church, called the Church of Scotland, has about 



PRESBYTERIANS 



711 



1,300 congregations ; the Free Church of Scot- 
land (organized in 1843), 900; the United 
Presbyterians, 000; and, besides these, there are 
several smaller bodies. The progress of edu- 
cational institutions of all classes has, therefore, 
been, to a great extent, under the influence of 
the Presbyterian Churches. (See Scotland.) 
No church in Europe has taken more prompt 
and energetic steps for the general diffusion of 
school education than the Presbyterians of Scot- 
land. As early as 1095, it was enacted "that 
there be a school founded and a school-master 
appointed in every parish by advice of the pres- 
byteries, and to this purpose that the heritors 
do, in every congregation, meet among them- 
selves, and provide a commodious house for a 
school, and modify a stipend to the school- 
master, which shall not be uuder 10 merks 
(£6 13s. -id.) nor above 20 merks". As almost 
all the population of the country is Presbyterian, 
the common-school system has preserved a pa- 
rochial character. When, in 1843, the Free 
Church of Scotland was organized, it was re- 
solved to erect schools in connection with the 
congregations of the Free Church, and the edu- 
cational scheme which, in consequence, has 
sprung up, is co-extensive with the parochial 
system of the Established Church. In 1873, of 
2,108 schools inspected by the government in- 
spectors. 1,379 belonged to the Established and 
577 to the Free Church; while, of non-Presby- 
terian schools, there were 80 belonging to the 
Episcopal, and 00 to the Catholic Church. — The 
Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
and Aberdeen are in organic connection with 
the Church of Scotland, by means of theological 
professorships ; while, at St. Andrews, an entire 
college, St. .Mary's, is appointed solely to the 
teaching of theology and the languages connected 
with it. The Free Church has established a 
divinity school in Edinburgh, called the New 
College of the Free Church. This college, which 
was completed at a cost approaching £40,000, is 
provided with a more complete staff of profess- 
ors than any similar institution in Scotland, 
and with more effectual means of training an 
educated ministry than is to be found elsewhere 
in Great Britain. The Free Church has also built 
a divinity hall in Aberdeen. It has also two 
normal schools, — one in Edinburgh and one in 
Glasgow, for the training of school-masters. The 
teachers receive a salary from a general fund, 
which is raised by monthly contributions in all 
the congregations, and which is divided, at the 
end of the year, according to a certain scale, 
proportioned to the qualifications of the re- 
spective teachers. — The United Presbyterians 
have likewise a divinity hall. The number of 
their Sunday-schools is 12,129, with 92,502 
scholars. 

(2) In Ireland, the Presbyterians constitute 
about 8 per cent of the total population, and are 
almost confined to the province of Ulster. In 
the schools of the National Board of Education, 
the Presbyterian children, in 1874, numbered 
115,258, equal to about 11 per cent. — A Pres- 



byterian college (Magee College) was opened 
at Londonderry, Oct. 10., 1865. In 1840, Mrs. 
Magee, widow of the Rev. William Magee, a Pres- 
byterian minister, left £20,000 in trust for the 
erection and endowment of a Presbyterian col- 
lege. This sum was allowed to accumulate for 

t some years, until eventually the trustees were 
authorized, by a decree of the Lord Chancellor, 

j to select a convenient site at or near London- 
derry. The Irish Society have granted an an- 
nual endowment of £200 to the chair of natural 
philosophy and mathematics, and £250 for five 
years toward the general expenses of the col- 
lege. The Rev. Richard Dill, who died in 1858, 
bequeathed £5,000, to establish two professor- 
ships. The appointment of the trustees is vested 
in the General Assembly. The professors are 
required to sign the Westminster Confession of 
Faith, but no religious test is prescribed for 
students. — The majority of the Irish Presby- 
terian ministers are educated in the General As- 
sembly's '1 heological College, at Belfast. Previous 
to the passing of the Irish Church Act, in 1809, a 
parliamentary grant of £1.750 per annum suf- 
ficed for the maintenance of six professors, at 
£250 each, leaving £250 to defray the expense of 
management. The government, on the passing 
of the act, granted a sum of £43,970 as compen- 
sation; and the interest of this sum, together 
with that on £5.000 subscribed by friends of the 
institution, and the fees of the students, makeup 
the annual income. Patrons have recently add- 
ed prizes, worth from £20 to £50 per annum. 

(3) In England, the first presbytery was 
formed in 1572 ; and. for a time, the Presby- 
terians formed the leading Puritan element in 
the ( Ihurch of England. At the time of the West- 
minster Assembly. Presbyteriamsm was, for a 
short time, even raised to the position of the 
established religion of England. The Presby- 
terians having been overthrown politically at the 
Restoration, and crushed ecclesiastically by 
their ejection from the national church, a large 
portion gradually merged into Congregationalism 
or Unitarianism. The scattered fragments of the 
old orthodox Presbyterianism of England form- 
ed, in 1836, the English Presbyterian Church, 
which, in 1870, numbered 157 congregations, 
and 29,045 communicants. It had also 2,926 
Sunday-schools, with 27,000 scholars. By a union 
with the United Presbyterians of England, con- 
summated in 1870, the number of the Congre- 
gations was raised to 263, and that of members, 
to 50,000. The Church has a theological college 
at London, which is partially endowed, and is 
under the charge of three professors. 

(4) British Dependencies. — In the Dominion 
of Canada, the Presbyterians are, in point of 
numbers, the third among the religious denom- 
inations, being only exceeded by the Roman 
Catholics and the Church of England. The four 
provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and 
New Brunswick, had, in 1871, a population of 
107,259 connected with the Church of Scotland, 
and 437,439 persons connected with various 
Presbyterian bodies. Ontario has a Presbyterian 



712 



PRESBYTERIANS 



university at Kingston, called Queen's University 
and College, "which received a royal charter in 
1841, and contains the four faculties of theology, 
law, medicine, and arts. In Quebec, there is 
McGill University, at Montreal, with several 
affiliated colleges, and, in Nova Scotia, a Pres- 
byterian college, at Halifax. In Australia, the 
colony of Victoria had, in 1876, 3 Presbyterian 
colleges —Scotch College at Melbourne, Geelong 
College, and Ballarat College. 

II. The Presbyterians in the United States in- 
clude several bodies, here considered separately. 

(1) Presbyterian Church in the United States 
of America. — Presbyterian churches had been 
established in Maryland before the close of the 
17th century. In 1716, the first synod was 
formed, and in 1788 the General Assembly was 
organized. The Cumberland Presbyteriaus se- 
ceded in 1810; and, in 1838, the Church divided 
into the Old School and the New School, which 
reunited in 1871. The churches in the South- 
ern States withdrew in 1861, and have since 
maintained a separate organization. In 1876, 
there were under the jurisdiction of the General 
Assembly 4,744 ministers, 5,077 churches, and 
535,210 members. The Presbyterian Church, 
from the earliest period, has been an earnest 
worker and strenuous advocate for education ; 
and one of the chief causes of the secession of 
the Cumberland branch was the tenacity with 
which the General Assembly insisted on high 
educational qualifications for ministers. As 
early as 1739, a proposition was brought before 
the Synod of Philadelphia for the erection of a 
school or seminary of learning. The synod ap- 
proved of the design and appointed a 
committee to carry it into effect, and in 
1744, a synodal school was established. The 
College of New Jersey, at Princeton, chartered 
in 1746 and opened in 1747, was founded 
under the auspices of the Synod of New 
York. Other institutions have been organ- 
ized under Presbyterian auspices, as follows : 
Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, 
Pa., 1802 ; Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., 
1815; Maryville College, Maryville, Tenn., 1819; 
Centre College, Danville, Ky., 1823 ; Hanover 
College, Hanover, Ind., 1827; Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pa., 1831; Wabash College, Crawfords- 
ville, Ind., 1832 ; Lincoln University, Oxford, 
Pa., 1853 ; University College, San Francisco, 
Cal., 1859 ; Blackburn University, Carlinville, 
111., 1867; King College, Bristol, Tenn., 1868 ; 
University of Wooster, Wooster, O., 1870 ; 
Evans University, Evans, Col., 1874 ; and Par- 
sons College, Fairfield, Iowa, 1875. Three, colleges 
are jointly under Presbyterian and Congrega- 
tional control; namely, Knox, at Galesburg, 111., 
1841 ; Beloit, at Beloit, Wis, 1847 ; and Olivet, 
at Olivet, Mich., 1828. The academies and female 
colleges under the auspices of the denomination 
are numerous. The Church has 13 theological 
seminaries, as follows : at Princeton, N. J., 
1812 ; at Auburn, N. Y., 1820 ; Western, Alle- 
gheny City, Pa.,1825; Lane, Cincinnati. O., 1832; 
Union, N. Y. City, 1836; at Danville, Ky., 1853; 



Theological Seminary of the Northwest, Chicago,. 
111., 1859 ; Blackburn University (theological 
department), 1867; at San Francisco, Cal., 1869; 
German, Newark, N.J., 1869; German, Dubuque, 
la., 1870 ; Lincoln University (theological de- 
partment), 1871; and Biddle Memorial Institute 
(theological department), Charlotte, N. C, 1867. 
Of these, the last two are for colored people, and 
the two immediately preceding them, for Ger- 
mans. In 1875 — 6, they had, in all, 56 professors, 
and 578 students. The number graduating that 
year was 134. The board of education of the 
Church, in 1876, received $72,040, and gave 
financial aid to 458 students (222 theological, 218 
collegiate, and 18 academical). In the same year, 
the Church maintained, for freedmen, 39 day 
schools, with 65 teachers and 3,176 pupils, and 
5 higher schools, with 903 students, of whom 
43 were preparing for the ministry. The foreign 
mission field of the Presbyterian Board embraces 
— besides several Indian tribes in the United 
States — Mexico, the United States of Colombia, 
Brazil, Chili, Liberia and Gaboon (Africa), 
India, Siam, China, Japan, Persia, and Syria. 
The mission schools had 13,501 pupils in 1876. 

(2) The Presbyterian Church in the United 
States, frequently, also, called The Presbyterian 
Church South. — On the 4th of December 1861, 
commissioners from all the presbyteries of the- 
Presbyterian Church within the Confederate 
States met in Augusta, Ga., and organized as a. 
General Assembly. The style and title chosen 
for the Church was, The Presbyterian Church 
of the Confederate States of America; but after, 
the capitulation of the Confederate armies, the 
name was changed as above. After the close 
of the war, the presbyteries in Kentucky and 
Missouri, with a large majority of the con- 
gregations and people, united themselves with 
the Southern Church. This Church now (1876) 
consists of 12 synods, 62 presbyteries, 1,821 
churches, 1,079 ministers, and 112,183 commu- 
nicants. The moneys contributed for all the pur- 
poses in the last ecclesiastical year amounted to 
§1,138,681. The General Assembly, through 
committees of its appointment, maintains for- 
eign missions in the Indian Territory, Mexico, 
South America, Greece, Italy, India, and China; 
and domestic missions in new and destitute- 
localities in the South. It also aids in the educa- 
tion for the ministry of young men of limited, 
means, and in the publication and dissemination 
of a religious and doctrinal literature. It has a. 
publishing house in Richmond, Va. The Pres- 
byterian Church declares, in its constitution, that 
"because it is highly reproachful to religion, 
and dangerous to the Church, to intrust the holy 
ministry to weak and ignorant men, the presby- 
tery shall try each candidate, as to his knowledge 
of the Latin language, and the original languages 
in which the Holy Scriptures were written. 
They shall also examine him in the arts and 
sciences." The first written text required of the 
candidate is " a Latin exegesis on some common 
head in divinity." The common requirement in. 
its presbyteries is equal to the curriculum, irt 



PRESBYTERIANS 



713 



most American colleges. The demands of the 
Church for the education of its ministry and its 
own youth have every-where made it the patron- 
ess of learning and engaged it in the founding of 
institutions for higher education. It has been 
the pioneer of education in nearly all the older 
Southern communities. During the civil war, 
many of the institutions of learning founded 
and endowed by the Presbyterian Church in the 
South, perished by the loss of endowments in the 
general financial wreck. Among them, were 
Oglethorpe University, Ga., Oakland College, 
Miss., La Grange College, Tenn., and other 
valuable institutions of 1 -ss prominence. Centre 
College, Ky., was lost through decisions of the 
United States courts in favor of a minority ad- 
hering to the old Assembly. Others were sus- 
pended by the enlistment of the students in the 
armies, and were crippled by the partial loss of 
endowments. The following, founded and en- 
dowed by Presbyterians, survived the disasters 
of the war, and now. under Presbyterian control 
or auspices, are rendering valuable service to the 
country: Hampden Sidney College, Va., David- 
son College, N. C, Stewart College, Tenn., West- 
minster College, Mo., King College, Tenn., and 
Austin College, Texas. Central University, at 
Richmond, Ky., has been founded and success- 
fully opened since the war. The synods of Nash- 
ville. Memphis, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, 
and Texas, conjointly, have also projected a uni- 
versity (the South- Western) to be strictly under 
Presbyterian control, for which they are now 
soliciting an endowment. It has been located 
at Clarkesville, Tenn. Stewart College has been 
merged in it. The financial prostration of the 
South since the war, has rendered the endow- 
ment of its institutions of learning slow ami dif- 
ficult. — Of academies and schools, competent to 
prepare boys for college, or young men for the 
university, or to give a good mathematical and 
classical education, thorough as far as it goes, to 
those whose means do not admit of more elaborate 
courses, there is a great insufficiency throughout 
the South. Those which had previously ac- 
quired success and reputation, were generally 
broken up through the disastrous effects of the 
war, and the poverty and depression of the people 
have operated to the discouragement of effi 'its 
to establish others. Of such institutions, there 
are some of a high character, maintained under 
Presbyterian auspices ; as, the Bingham School, 
Mebanesville, N. C, Pleasant Ridge Academy, 
Green Co., Ala., Edgar Institute, Paris, Ky., 
Military and Classical Institute, Danville, Ky., 
Finlay High School, Lenoir, N. C. and Kemper 
Institute, Hooneville, Mo. — The Southern Pres- 
byterian Church has two theological seminaries, 
each endowed and furnished with buildings, 
libraries, and four professors of eminent ability 
and learning: Union Seminary, at Hampden 
Sidney, Va., and Columbia Seminary, at ( 'olum- 
bia, S. C. It has recently established a third, at 
Tuscaloosa, Ala., for the education and training 
of colored men for the ministry; and for this, it 
is now gathering an endowment. There are no 



Presbyterian schools or colleges for girls in the 
South endowed beyond the provision of build- 
ings, apparatus, and libraries; but there are many 
institutions under Presbyterian control or au- 
spices, in which every reasonable comfort is com- 
bined with advantages for the thorough educa- 
tion and accomplishment of girls. Among these, 
are many female colleges, collegiate institutes, 
and seminaries which afford a high grade of in- 
struction, and are widely esteemed for general 
excellence and efficiency. 

The work of education for the ministry is con- 
ducted by the General Assembly, through an 
executive committee located at Memphis. Tenn. 
In the last ecclesiastical year, the committee 
received from the churches, for this purpose, 
$15,131, from which 95 young men. prosecuting 
their studies at various colleges and theological 
seminaries, received assistance. 

(3) The Cumberland Presbyterian Church. — 
This Church was organized February 4.. 1K10, 
in a log cabin, in Dickson Co., Tenn.. by three 
Presbyterian ministers. It grew out of the con- 
troversies incidental to the GreatWestern Revival 
of 18D0, which is regarded by many as one of the 
most important religious movements in the his- 
tory of the Protestant Church of the United 
States, as it firmly fixed the people of the Valley 
of the Mississippi in the Christian faith. After 
ten years of anxiety and distress, the new Pres- 
byterian Church was organized upon what is 
claimed to lie a medium theology, as between the 
extremes of low Arminianisin (Semi-Pelagian- 
ism)and high Calvinism (Autinomianism). In it. 
an evangelical follower of John Calvin or of 
John Wesley could alike feel at home. The 
( hurch grew very rapidly. The Min utes of the 
Forty-Sixth General Assembly, 1876, show 26 
synods, including nearly 125 presbyteries, ex- 
tending over the territory between the Great 
Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico, and reaching from 
the Appalachian Mountains on the east, to the 
Pacific Ocean on the west. The following sta- 
tistical summary is approximately correct: minis- 
ters, 1,275; licentiates, 280; candidates, 220; 
congregations, 2,000 ; elders, 6,750 ; deacons, 
-.1100; total comniunicants,100,000; personsin the 
Sabbath schools, 55,000; value of church proper- 
ty, $2,250,000 ; contributed during the year, 
$350,000. The following are the principal institu- 
tions of learning under the control of this Church: 
Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., founded in 
1829, discontinued in 1861; Cumberland Univer- 
sity, Lebanon, Tenn.. founded in 1842, which has 
the leading law school in the South ; Bethel Col- 
lege, McKenzie, Tenn., 1847 ; W'aynesburg Col- 
lege, Waynesburg, Pa., 1850; McGee College, 
College Mound, Mo., 1853, now suspended; 
Lincoln University, Lincoln. 111., I860; Trini- 
ty University, Tehuacana, Texas, 1876; Cane 
Hill College, Boonsboro. Ark.. 1852. The General 
Assembly, in 1876, approved the establishment 
of a Union Medical College, in connection with 
the three universities of the Church, namely, 
Cumberland, Lincoln, and Trinity. It is to be 
located at St. Louis, or some other large city. 



714 



PRESBYTERIANS 



Waynesburg, Lincoln, and Trinity, admit young 
ladies on equal terms with young men. There 
are also several institutions exclusively for girls, 
owned by, or under the patronage of, the Church. 

(4) The United Presbyterian Church of North 
America was founded, in 1858, by the Union of 
the Associate, commonly called Seceder, Church 
(which originated in the secession of the Erskines 
and others from the established church of Scot- 
land, in 1733, and sent its first missionaries to 
America, in 1753), and the Associate Reformed 
Church, which was formed, in 1782, by the 
union of part of the Associate Church and part 
of the Reformed, or Covenanter, Church, which 
organized its first presbytery in America in 
1770. The Church, in 1876, had 8 synods, 57 
presbyteries, 77,414 members, and 638 Sabbath 
schools with 53,364 scholars. 

Previous to the Revolutionary war, the As- 
sociate Church in Scotland, and that in America, 
were not two churches but one; and its ministers 
were educated in Scotland. From the first, the 
ministers were well educated, most of them hav- 
ing received university degrees. Even when the 
churches in the colonies suffered from a scarcity 
of clergymen, they did not propose to license the 
uneducated, but to provide for an education as 
thorough as that of a Scottish university. In 1764, 
the Presbytery (organized in 1754) made a re- 
quest for more ministers, and for one able to teach 
"the languages and philosophy", which brought 
from Scotland, the Rev. John Smith, who, for the 
next four years (1778 — 1782), by appointment 
of the Presbytery, "directed the studies of such 
as were pursuing a course with a view to the holy 
ministry." The way was prepared for ecclesi- 
astical as well as for political independence. The 
reception of a minister from a division of the 
Seceder Church (Burgher), different from that 
(Anti- Burgher) by which the ministers of the 
American Presbytery had been sent out, pre- 
pared the way for a separation, which was prac- 
tically effected in 1784, when the Presbytery of 
Pennsylvania prepared and adopted a "Narra- 
tive and Testimony" in addition to the Confes- 
sion of Faith, without consultation with the 
borne synod. Although, after this, many of its 
ministers came from Scotland and Ireland, often 
with a formal appointment, yet from this date, 
more than before, the Church proposed to edu- 
cate its own clergy. In 1792, a log-house was 
built for a theological seminary; a good num- 
ber of books, contributed largely by friends in 
Scotland, were placed in Eudolpha Hall ; and 
the Rev. Dr. John Anderson was elected pro- 
fessor. The first of its ministers educated in the 
United States was licensed in 1795. At the time 
of the union, the Associate Church had 253 min- 
isters, almost all educated in its own seminaries. 
The Associate Reformed Church was independ- 
ent of the mother churches from the beginning. 
In 1796, its synod resolved to establish a fund 
to sustain a professor of theology, and to assist 
students. The fund ($5,000), with avaluable li- 
"brary, was collected, for the most part, by the 
Bev. J. M. Mason, D.D., in Scotland and England. 



The seminary was established in New York City 
in 1804. At the time of the union, it had 231 
ministers, almost all American by birth and edu- 
cation. Now (1876) the United Presbyterian 
Church has three theological seminaries : one at 
Xenia, Ohio (1855), the legal successor of those 
at Service, Pa. (1792—1819), at Philadelphia 
(1821—6), at Canonsburg (1821—55), at Ox- 
ford, Ohio (1839—58), at Monmouth, 111. (1858 
— 74); a second at Newburg, N. Y., which was 
at first in New York City (1804 — 21), and was 
removed to its present location in 1829, where, 
except an interval of 9 years (1858 — 67), it has 
continued in operation ; and a third at Alle- 
gheny City, Pa., which has received students every 
year since its establishment, in 1825. Over 500 
students have been educated in the third, and 
over 800. in the others. The endowment fund 
of Xenia is $30,000; of Newburg, $50,000; and 
of Allegheny, $80,000. All have good buildings 
and libraries, numbering 6,000, 5,000, and 8,000 
volumes, respectively. Previous to 1852, the As- 
sociate and Associate Reformed churches made 
no attempt to found independent colleges. Their 
members joined with other Presbyterians in 
establishing and endowing colleges, as in the 
case of Jefferson, Canonsburg, Pa. (1802 — 65), 
often taking a leading part in the enterprise, 
and frequently furnishing the presidents, most 
of the professors and students, and the largest 
share of the funds. A Presbyterian College was 
started in Washington, Iowa (1855 — 64), but was 
soon abandoned. Ohio Central, at Iberia, Ohio, 
was, for a time (1867 — 75), under the control of a 
presbytery of the United Presbyterian Church; 
and, under another presbytery, was placed Lin- 
coln College (1872), Greenwood, Mo.," Westmin- 
ster College, New Wilmington, Pa. (1852), estab- 
lished by the Associate Church, and Monmouth 
College, Monmouth, 111. (1855), by the Associate 
Reformed Church, became the property of the 
United Presbyterian Church in 1858. These in- 
stitutions have been open, from the first, to both 
sexes, as well as to colored students. Knoxville 
(Temi.) College (1876), costing $20,000, is for the 
education of colored students. The Freedman's 
Board of the U. P. Church, organized soon after 
the slaves were emancipated, reported, in 1876, 
its receipts for the previous year as amounting 
to $12,388. The college at Knoxville is sustained 
by this board, and is designed to furnish teach- 
ers and preachers for the I'reedmen. In the U. P. 
foreign mission stations, a large number of boys 
and girls (about 3,000) are under instruction 
every day. The Training College, Osiout, Upper 
Epypt, in 1874, had an attendance of 84 art 
students and 10 theological students, the whole 
! number being 237. It has also a building and 
an endowment fund. — No ladies' seminary has 
been endowed in the U. P. Church, but many 
excellent schools have been conducted and 
patronized by the members. The Church has a 
board of education, which reported to the Gen- 
eral Assembly, in 1876, that its total receipts 
for the year had been $2,673. This board aided 
20 young men in preparing for the ministry. 






PRIMARY INSTRUCTION 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



715 



PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. See Edu- 
cation. 

PRIMER (Lat. liber primarius, a little book 
containing the offices of the Roman Catholic 
Church, so called because used at prime — prima 
hora — the first hour), originally a small book of 
prayer's, or for elementary religious instruction, 
but, at the present time, an elementary reading- 
book of the lowest grade. The literature relating 
to primers, or A-B-C books, is very curious and 
interesting, some of these books having had great 
fame on account of their long and extensive use. 
One of the very earliest was Luther's (or Melanch- 
thon's) Chilli's Little Primer, containing the 
Lord's Prayer, etc. (See Luther.) In 1534, a 
Prt/mrr in Enqlyshe with certain prayers, etc., 
was printed by John Byddell; and. in 1545, King 
Henry VIII. ordered an English Form of Public 
Prayer, or Pri/mer, to be printed ; and to be 
"taught, lerned, and red" throughout his domin- 
ions. Bienrod's primer, containing an illustrated 
alphabet, was the earliest publication of this kind 
in German, dating back to the middle of the 
lfith century. The horn-book was the simplest 
and most noted of primers. (See Horn-Book, 
and Christ Cross Row.) The Royal Primer 
of Great Britain and the New England Primer 
also had great fame. — See Barnard's Journal, 
vol. xii., art. A-B-C Boohs a/al Primers. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a British 
province of North America, formerly (until 1799) 
called St. John, having an area of 2,175 square 
miles, and a population, according to the census 
of 1871, of 94,021. It was under French rule 
until 1703, when it was ceded, by the treaty of 
Paris, to the British. In 1 873, it became a mem- 
ber of the Dominion of Canada. 

The free-school system dates from 1853; but 
the existing law went into operation in 18G8. The 
lieutenant-governor appoints a board of educa- 
tion, consisting of 11 members, including the 
two provincial examiners. This board may can- 
cel a teacher's license on proof of misconduct, 
may alter a school site on the requisition of two- 
thirds of the householders, and may also alter 
district boundaries. There are five trustees for 
each district, elected by the resident householders. 
Two trustees are elected and two retire annually. 
The trustees may allow the school-house to be 
used as a place of worship, and may also permit 
the teacher to hold an evening school therein. 
Exclusive of grammar-school masters, there are 
two classes or grades of teachers. Those of the 
lower grade must be qualified to teach book- 
keeping, English grammar, reading, arithmetic, 
and geography; while those of the higher grade 
are expected to be proficient in algebra, geom- 
etry, trigonometry, mensuration, surveying, nav- 
igation, and the use of the globes. If the 
school of his own district is not in operation, a 
child may attend the nearest school, unless the 
attendance there exceeds 50. All residents from 
5 to 17 years of age are entitled to attend the 
district school. The normal school is under the 
control of the board. A grammar school may be 
•established for two adjoining districts, instead i 



of district schools ; but the teacher must be 
competent to teach Latin, Creek, and French. 
The salaries of the teachers range from £40 to 
£100 a year, paid from the provincial treasury. 
In 1874, there were 355 schools in operation, of 
which 18 were grammar schools. The number 
of pupils was 10,292, and of teachers 453. The 
number of teachers licensed during the year was 
40. besides whom the normal school had 27 pupil- 
teachers. In addition to the public schools, there 
are several private institutions. A higher educa- 
tion is provided for hi two colleges, — Prince of 
Wales College (Protestant Episcopal), and St. 
Dunstau's (Roman Catholic). — See Marling, 
Canada Educational Directory for 1876 ; 
Lovell's Gazetteer of British North America. 

PRIZES. See Emulation. 

PROGRAMME. See School Management. 

PROMOTION. See School Management. 

PRUSSIA. See Germany. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS, Free Schools, or 
Common Schools, are designations applied to 
schools established for the free elementary edu- 
cation of all the children in a community or state. 
The support of such schools, either wholly or in 
part, by the state, presupposes that it is for the 
general interest of every community to promote 
the diffusion of education among all classes. (See 
National Education.) In ancient times, this 
principle was recognized by free or democratic 
states. Sparta based her safety and prosperity 
upon the proper education of every child in the 
community ; and Athens had public schools for 
all classes of her free citizens. It was, however, 
reserved for modern times, and for the free states 
of the American Union to carry out this principle 
to the fullest extent, providing gratuitous edu- 
cation, of every grade, for all classes — making 
common schools not eleemosynary institutions, 
but seminaries in which the children of the rich 
and the poor might meet together in common, 
and share alike in the blessings and advantages 
of education. Free schools, so called, that is, 
"schools for the gratuitous instruction of poor 
children can be traced back," says Barnard, "to 
the early ages of the Christian Church. Wher- 
ever a missionary station was set up, or the 
bishop's residence, or seat (cathedra, hence 
cathedral) was fixed, there gradually grew up a 
large ecclesiastical establishment, in which were 
concentrated the means of hospitality for all the 
clergy, and all the humanizing influences of 
learning ami religion for that diocese or district." 
Connected with these, were the song scoles, 
where poor boys were taught to chant, and lecture 
scoles, where clerks were instructed in reading, 
and subsequently, grammar schools, for classical 
instruction. Convent schools, connected with the 
monasteries, were the germs of the universities; 
and the endowments which these schools received 
from princes and prelates enabled them to afford 
an education to the children of the indigent as 
well as to those of the wealthy. (See Cathedral 
Schools.) Royal grammar schools were founded 
out of the old endowments by Henry VIII. 
(See Grammar Schools.) " The free schools in 



716 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



PUPIL TEACHER 



England," says Barnard, "were originally estab- 
lished in towns where there was no old convent- 
ual, cathedral, royal, or endowed grammar schools. 
With very few exceptions, these schools were 
founded and endowed by individuals, for the 
teaching of Greek and Latin, and for no other 
gratuitous teaching. The gratuitous instruction 
was sometimes extended to all the children born 
or living in a particular parish, or of a particular 
name. All not specified and provided for in 
the instruments of endowment paid tuition to 
the master." (See England.) For the history 
of public or free schools in other countries, and 
in the several states of the American Union, see 
under the respective titles. — One of the most im- 
portant questions in regard to public schools is, 
whether the education afforded should be wholly 
free, or whether, in the case of all children whose 
parents are able to pay, a tuition fee should 
be demanded, gratuitous instruction being given 
to those only who are in indigent circumstances. 
In many countries, the latter system is in oper- 
ation. The arguments against it were clearly 
and forcibly summarized at a meeting of the 
Birmingham (England) school board, in June, 
1875, acting in behalf of the free system : 
"(1) Because compulsory education is enforced 
in the interest of the whole community, and will 
be most effectually and economically carried out 
under a free system; (2) because the cost of this 
education is unfairly distributed by any other 
plan ; (3) because the fees act as a direct tax 
upon attendance, and tend accordingly to prevent 
the result for which the schools are established, 
the expense incurred, and the compulsory laws 
enforced; (4) because the alternative practice of 
partial exemption is calculated to pauperize great 
numbers of persons who have hitherto escaped 
any form of charitable relief." In defense of a 
free system, many citations, both of opinion and 
fact may be made. Talleyrand said : "The chief 
object of the state is to teach children to become 
one day its citizens. It initiates them, in a man- 
ner, into the social order by showing them the 
laws by which it is governed, and giving them 
the first of their means of existence. Is it not 
just, then, that all should learn gratuitously what 
ought to be regarded as the necessary condition 
of the association of which they are to become 
members ? This elementary instruction seems to 
be a debt which society owes to all, and which 
it must pay without the slightest deduction." 
This sentiment has been repeated by scores of 
the best and most liberal thinkers. It is con- 
tended that the establishment of free schools by 
the state is not only proper as an act of justice, 
but expedient as a measure of policy. England, 
it has been said, pays for pauperism and crime 
five times as much as for education; while 
Switzerland pays seven times as much for edu- 
cation as for pauperism and crime; and, it is 
contended that wherever free education prevails, 
there is more freedom, more public and private 
virtue, and more social and political stability. — 
It has been said, on the other hand, that uni- 
versal education unfits the members of a com- 



munity for the lower and more laborious pur- 
suits of life; at any rate, that it reduces the 
ranks of the mechanic and day-laborer, and in- 
ordinately increases those of the professions, and 
of those connected with commercial life, thus 
diminishing the producers and increasing the 
non-producers. But to this, it is replied that 

(1) the education of the masses will, under all 
circumstances, not extend beyond elementary in- 
struction, which will be beneficial in every pur- 
suit, however humble; (2) those who from lowly 
stations rise to positions of eminence by means 
of free education, must do so by means of talents 
the proper exercise of which must be beneficial 
to the community; and (3) many of those who 
are denominated non-producers are often the 
persons who, by their inventions and discoveries, 
increase the producing power of labor sometimes 
a hundred-fold. The inventor of the steam-engine, 
the cotton-gin, or the sewing-machine, might 
never have done a day's labor in his life; but he 
certainly would not have been a non-producer 
on that account. Scotland offers an instructive 
example of the effects of a free system of edu- 
cation. Dr. L. Playfair, in a speech delivered 
June 20., 1870, said : "Every peasant in Scotland 
knows that it is his own fault if he does not ac- 
quire such knowledge in his own school as will 
enable him to aspire to the university. Out of 
3,500 students at the Scotch universities, about 
500 are the sons of wage-making artisans or 
peasants." A similar state of things exists 
in nearly all of the United States. There is, 
however, no lack of peasants or farmers in either 
country. (See Moeley, The Struggle/or National 
Education, London, 1873.) The educated intel- 
ligence and industrial skill, not merely the mus- 
cular power of its people, constitute the most im- 
portant and most productive part of a nation's 
capital ; and this the free school is the most 
effective instrumentality in maintaining and en- 
larging. (See Crime and Education.) 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS, English. See Eng- 
land. 

PUNISHMENT. See Corporal Punish- 
ment, and Fear. 

PUPIL-TEACHER, a term used, chiefly 
in England, to designate a boy or a girl employed 
to perform certain duties connected with the 
teaching and management of a school. The 
English Elementary Education Act of 1870, re- 
quires that "pupil-teachers (1) be not less than 
13 years of age, at the date of their engagement; 

(2) be of the same sex as the certificated teacher 
under whom they serve, except that, in a mixed 
school, female pupil-teachers may serve under a 
master, and may receive instruction from him 
out of school hours, on condition that some re- 
spectable woman, approved by the managers, be 
invariably present during the whole time that 
such instruction is being given; (3) be presented 
to the inspector for examination at the time and 
place fixed by his notice; (4) pass the required 
examinations and produce the proper certificates; 
(5) that not more than four pupil-teachers are 
engaged in the school for every certificated 



PYTHAGORAS 

teacher serving in it. — Such a system is favorable 
to economy, but cannot be productive of the 
best results in the teaching of the school. It is 
an offshoot of the monitorial system (q. v.) ; and. 
to some extent, is subject to the same objections. 
Hence, we find complaints of its inefficiency, 
arising from the circumstance, inseparable from 
the system, that ''pupil-teachers are regarded too 
much as teachers, and too little as pupils." A 
correspondent of the Schoolmaster (Loudon, July 
17.. 1875). writing from personal experience, 
says: "Schools can frequently be found where 90 
or 100 children are placed under a master, who, 
instead of being supplied with teachers compe- 
tent to instruct the several classes into which the 
scholars must necessarily be divided, is only 
furnished with one. or perhaps two lads, whom 
he is expected to instruct in the art of teaching. 
in addition to the ordinary duties of the school." 
Of course, the pupils, in such a school, must be 
very imperfectly taught. In December, 1874, 
there were employed in the public schools of 
England and Wales, 20,162 certificated teachers, 
1,999 assistants, and 27,321 pupil-teachers. The 
engagement of pupil-teachers is for five years, at 
the end of which time they may be admitted 
into a training college, on passing the required 
examination. — The system of pupil-teachers 
formerly prevailed in some of the cities of the 
United States, notably in the city of New York, 
in which it was continued, in the schools of the 
Public School Society, for many years. These 
pupil-teachers, called monitors, were, as in the 
English schools, apprentices, and were expected 
to attend a Saturday or evening normal school ; 
and, on passing a final examination, were em- 
ployed as full teachers. This system has ceased 
to exist in most of the American schools. 

PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated Greek philos- 
opher, born on the island of Samos, in 580 B. C.; 
died in Metapontum. in southern Italy, about 
500. He was so enthusiastic in his search for 
knowledge that he spent 30 years (as is said) in 
travel, in order to obtain it, visiting Egypt, 
Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylonia, India, and even 
Gaul. Too modest to take the title tropdf (wise 
man) , he was the first to assume that of tpu.6oo<jioc 



QUEBEC 



717 



(lover of wisdom). "He was." says Schmidt (His- 
tory of Education), " the first Greek in whom the 
spirit of the East was united with that of the 
West, and in whom the culture of Babylon, 
Egypt, and westernmost Asia combined to de- 
velop that of the Greeks in a new and glorious 
form." At Croton. in southern Italy, whither 
he emigrated about 530 B. C, he established his 
famous school, and enunciated the doctrines of 
his peculiar system, the fruit of his researches 
and contemplations. Of this system, the metemp- 
sychosis was a cardinal principle, co-ordinate with 
that of the purification of the soul (m-Sapaic), 
since the former was the necessary agency for 
effecting this purification ; and the latter, in its 
ultimate consummation, was designed to bring 
man into a fit condition to hold communion with 
the Deity (iiui'/uv r.J Bn.1 ). Self-knowledge 
he regarded as the indispensable condition for 
self-improvement — as the basis of all culture, 
the highest aim of which is to obtain a full 
understanding of the essence and relations of the 
objects around us, and to live in harmony with 
them, and with the true end of man's being. 
Music (/jovoik!/ iratfaia.) was in itself one of the 
most important instruments of this culture, em- 
bodying and typifying the harmony of the uni- 
verse, as well as aiding the soul in its efforts to 
bring itself into the same harmony. Religious 
devotion was an important means to consum- 
mate this result ; and hence he based education 
upon religion. The good of society could be pro- 
moted only by such education, the fruit of 
which would necessarily be civil and political 
liberty, because it would produce nobleness of 
sold in every citizen. His practical system, there- 
fore, comprehended special means for the educa- 
tion of children, as well as the instruction of 
adults. His school at Croton was, however, 
designed only for the latter ; and its peculiar 
rules, practices, and arrangements deserve a care- 
ful study. — See Schmidt, History of Education 
(N.Y., 1872); Grote, History of Greece; Schmiht, 
Geschichte der Pddagogik, vol. I.; Zeixer, Die 
Pythagorassage (Leipsic, 1865) ; TJebebweg, 
History of Philosojihy, trans, from the German 
(N. Y., 1872). 



QUADRrVIUM. See Arts. 

QUEBEC, a province of the Dominion of 
Canada, having an area of 193.355 sq. miles; 
and a population, in 1871, of 1,191,516. (See 
Ontario.) 

Educational History. — The first school in the 
province was that of the Franciscan Father Du- 
plessis. at Three Rivers, founded in 1616. In 1632. 
the Jesuits, who afterward exercised great in- 
fluence on education, opened their first school in 
Quebec for the instruction of the Indians; and, in 
1635, they founded the Seminary of Notre Dame 
des Anges, which afterward became the Jesuit 
college of Quebec. For over a century, education 
remained almost exclusively in the hands of the 



Catholic clergy. Among the larger schools estab- 
lished during this period, were the convent of 
the Ursulines. founded in 1639, the Seminary of 
Quebec, in 1 678, and the theological seminary in 
Montreal, in 1647. In 1653, Sister Margaret 
Bourgeois founded the order of the congregation 
of Notre Dame at Montreal, and established a 
number of schools. The Recollets and Jesuits 
also supported many primary schools. In 1737, 
the Christian Brothers undertook the task of 
popular instruction, but were unsuccessful, owing 
to the apathy of the government and of the set- 
tlers. In 1774, the order of Jesuits was sup- 
pressed in Canada, and its estates vested in the 
Crown. It was not, however, until 1831 that 



718 



QUEBEC 



these estates were surrendered to the provincial 
parliament for the support of education. In 
1801, an act was passed providing for the estab- 
lishment of free schools, under the Royal Insti- 
tution for the Advancement of Learning. This 
act produced but slight results ; and the Royal 
Institution, at present, has charge of very little 
else than of the McGill institutions, and these 
only by the special desire of their founder. 

School Law. — The principal provisions of the 
present school law are as follows : The estates 
of the Jesuits form the so-called Superior Edu- 
cation Investment Fund, the revenues of which, 
together with other moneys appropriated for the 
purpose, form an income fund, to be distributed 
among the universities, and all other educational 
institutions, except the elementary schools. To 
this fund, $20,000 is annually added from the 
revenue of the province; and a sufficient amount 
must be added from the common-school fund, 
so as to make up the sum of $88,000. The 
council of public instruction is appointed by 
the lieutenant-governor, consisting of 1 fi Roman 
Catholics and 8 Protestants. The superintend- 
ent is president, ex officio, and a member of both 
committees, with a vote in that of his own 
religion. The council makes rules for schools 
and examiners, and selects, or causes to be pub- 
lished, the books to be used, except those on 
religion and morals ; and it may hold the copy- 
right thereof, the profits accruing from which 
go to the income fund. It may, also, revoke a 
teacher's certificate for sufficient cause. Every 
municipality elects a board of five commission- 
ers, who hold office for five years. The religious 
minority in any municipality may dissent ; and 
may nominate, in writing, to the chairman of the 
commissioners three trustees, who may exercise, 
in respect to the dissentient schools, the same 
powers that the commissioners have in regard 
to the common schools. The commissioners ap- 
point the teachers, and regulate the studies, fees, 
etc. No other books than those prescribed by 
the council can be used ; but the cure, priest, or 
officiating minister has the exclusive right to des- 
ignate the books for religious instruction to be 
used in the schools of his faith. The schools 
are open for children from 5 to 16 years of age; 
but a fee may be charged only for those from 7 
to 14. Separate schools for girls may be estab- 
lished. Inspectors are appointed by the lieuten- 
ant-governor ; and, in their visits, have the power 
of the superintendent, from whom they receive 
instructions. The resident clergy of the denom- 
ination to which the school belongs, the superior 
judges, the members of the legislature, resident 
justices of the peace, the warden or mayor, the 
senior captain and superior resident officers of 
militia and the superintendent, are school visit- 
ore, and, as such, may take part in the exami- 
nations of teachers, and have access to all docu- 
ments. In Quebec and Montreal, the corporation 
appoints six Roman Catholic, and six Protestant 
commissioners, one-half to be renewed annually. 
Otherwise, the same law applies to these cities as 
to the rest of the province. Any fabrique, i. e. 



the cure and church-wardens of a parish, may 
establish one school for every hundred families, 
and acquire and hold, for each school, property 
not exceeding $400 in value. Such schools may 
be placed for one or more years under the school 
laws, if the fabrique and school commissioners 
agree ; and the cure or church-warden of any 
fabrique contributing not less than $50 a year 
j to a school under commissioners, may hold the 
office of commissioner ; but no fabrique or 
school can be united with the schools of com- 
missioners of another faith. 

Primary Schools. — In 1873, there were 3,254 
elementary schools under the school laws, with 
141,990 pupils; 4 normal schools, with 246 pu- 
pils; 156 independent schools, with 6,261 pupils; 
220 dissentient schools, with 7,665 pupils; 129 
teaching convents, with 24,236 pupils, and 343 
model schools, with 28,588 pupils. Of the dis- 
sentient schools, 186, with 6,156 pupils, were 
Protestant; and 34, with 1,509 pupils, were 
Roman Catholic. During the same year, 662 
candidates for teachers' certificates were ex- 
amined, of whom 58 were rejected. There 
were, in 1874, three normal schools; the Jacques 
Cartier, with 43 male pupils, and the McGill 
school, with 6 male and 106 female pupils, both 
in Montreal ; and the Laval school, in Quebec, 
with 43 male and 56 female pupils ; making, in 
all. 254 pupils for the three normal schools. 

Secondary Schools. — There are two classes of 
colleges, — classical and industrial, which occupy 
a position similar to the high schools of Ontario. 
They are chiefly boarding-schools, although a 
few day scholars are also admitted. The course 
of studies in each comprises those usually taught 
in high schools. The time necessary to complete 
the course, varies from 4 to 10 years. The total 
number of colleges, in 1873, was 37, with 7,113 
students. 

Universities. — There are three universities, — 
McGill College and University, in Montreal; the 
University of Laval, in Quebec ; and the Uni- 
versity of Bishop's College, in Lennoxville. 
McGill College was established by a bequest of 
James McGill, a merchant of Montreal, who died 
in 1813. By royal charter, which was received 
in 1821, and amended in 1852, the governors, 
principal, and fellows of McGill College con- 
stitute the corporation of the university; and, 
under the statutes framed by the governors, 
have the power of granting degrees in all the 
arts and faculties in McGill College, and colleges 
affiliated with it. These are Morrin College, in 
Quebec; the Congregational College of British 
North America, in Montreal ; and the Pres- 
byterian College of Montreal. Teachers trained 
in the McGill Normal School are entitled to 
provincial diplomas. McGill University had. in 
1873, 12 professors and 42 students in the legal 
faculty, 12 professors and 130 students in the 
medical faculty, and 10 professors and 290 stu- 
dents in the faculty of arts. The University of 
Laval, in Quebec, was founded in 1852, and re- 
ceived the royal charter the same year. It 
is governed by the Roman Catholic Church. 



QUESTIONING 



RAIKES 



719 



The Quebec Seminary is the collegiate depart- 
ment of Laval University. The university had, 
in 1873, 5 professors and 54 students in the 
theological, 5 professors and 37 students in the 
legal, 9 professors and 88 students in the medical 
faculty, and 19 professors and 97 students in 
the facility of arts. The University of Bishop's 
College, in Lennoxville, is governed by the Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church. It was opened in 
1845, and. in 1853, received the royal charter 
which gave it university powers. It had, in 
1873, a theological faculty, with 5 professors and 
54 students, and a faculty of arts, with 9 pro- 
fessors and 88 students. A medical faculty has 
been organized since that time. There is also a 
large number of professional colleges and col- 
legiate schools. — See Marling, Canada Educa- 
tional Directory and Yearbook for 1876; 
LovELt,'s Director)/ of British North America 
(1873) : Ohacveau (formerly minister of public 
instruction in Quebec), in Sghmid's Enci/c/ojiddie 
(2d ed„ 1876). art. Canada. 

QUESTIONING. See Interrogation. 

QJJl'NTIl.IAN (Quinti/iamts), Marcus Fa- 
bius, a Roman teacher and educational writer, 



was born probably in C 'alagurris, Spain, in 40 
A. D. ; died about 118. He was the first 
public teacher of oratory at Rome, receiving a 
regular salary from the imperial treasury, and 
continuing his instruction for about '2(1 years. 
His principal work, De Institutions Oratorio 
Lihri XII. called also Institulianes Oratorio;, 
is of considerable importance in the history of 
education, as the first and second books contain 
Quintilian's views on all important educational 
questions. He insisted that the education of the 
child should begin with the nurse, who should 
teach the child a correct pronunciation. He 
strongly recommended public schools in prefer- 
ence to private schools. The study of Greek 
should begin before that of the native language 
(Latin) ; and the course of instruction should 
embrace reading, writing, grammar, music, and 
geometry. Elocution should be taught by an 
actor. The educational principles commended by 
Quintilian, have, however, only the training of 
good rhetoricians in view. — See Pn.z, Quintilian, 
ein Lehrerleben aus der rSmischen Kaiserzeit 
(Leipsic, 1863) ; Barnard's Journal of Edu- 
cation, vol. x. and xi. 



RABANUS {Hrabanus or Rhabanus) Mau- 
rus, one of the greatest scholars of the middle 
ages, born about 776, died in 856. He re- 
ceived his education partly in the monastery 
of Fulda, and subsequently studied at Tours, 
where he became the favorite pupil of Alcuin. 
Having returned to Fulda, he assumed the direc- 
tion of the convent school. When he was elected 
abbot of Fulda, in 822, he gave up the instruc- 
tion of the non-clerical, but continued that of 
the theological, students. The school of Fulda 
became, through him, one of the most famous 
of the age. Young men from Germany, France, 
and Italy flocked to it in great numbers, and its 
pupils were eagerly sought for as good teachers. 
Rabanus has frequently been called the first 
teacher of Germany (primus pr acceptor Ger- 
mania>), not only because he instructed large 
numbers of young men. through whom learning 
was spread throughout that country, but 
also because he was the first to instruct in the 
German language, and to establish a school for 
other than clerical students. Among his nu- 
merous works, was a kind of encyclopaedia of 
knowledge, entitled De Universo, which exerted 
considerable influence upon the progress of edu- 
cation in the middle ages. — See Kdnstmann, 
Rabanus Magnentius Maurus (1841); Bach, 
JJeber Rabanus Maurus, als Schopfer des deut- 
schen Sell ul u-esens (1835); Spengler, Leben des 
heiligen Rhabanus Maurus (1856). 

RACINE COLLEGE, at Racine. Wis., 
founded in 1852, is under Protestant Episcopal 
control. It has a classical and a scientific course, 
with a classical and a mathematical school as 
preparatory institutions. The regular charge for 
tuition, board, etc., is $400 per year. The 



library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 18 instructors and 180 students (35 
classical, 10 scientific, 102 in the classical school, 
and 33 in the mathematical school). The Rev. 
James De Koven, P.P.. is (1877) the warden. 

RAGGED SCHOOLS. See Reform 
Schools. 

RAIKES, Robert, an English printer and 
philanthropist, born at Gloucester, 1 735 ; died 
April 5., 1811. His attention was specially di- 
rected to the condition of the children of the 
poor, on taking a walk one Sunday through the 
suburbs of his native place. He engaged four 
women, keepers of dame schools, to instruct as 
many children as he should send to them on 
Sunday, for which they were to receive a shilling 
each. The children came in large numbers, caus- 
ing a marked improvement in the manners and 
morals of the place. In these efforts, he was greatly 
aided by the Rev. T. Stock. This was the origin of 
our present Sunday-school. By means of publica- 
tions, notably that of a letter of Mr. Raikes in 
the Gentleman's Magazine, in 1784, public at- 
tention was called to his scheme ; and the system 
was adopted in all the principal towns and cities, 
and spread rapidly through Great Britain, even 
attracting the attention of the queen, who ex- 
pressed her approbation to Mr. Raikes in person. 
The first obstacle he encountered was a want of 
funds to pay the teachers. This was soon over- 
come by the teachers' offering their services 
gratuitously. The secular teaching, which was a 
part of the original Sunday-school system, was 
discontinued, with the exception of reading which, 
for a long time, held its place. In course of time, 
however, week-day schools becoming general, 
this was given up ; and the Sunday-school, as we 



720 RANDOLPH MACON COLLEGE 



RAUMER 



now know it, took its place among recognized 
educational agencies. From that time, its spread 
has been rapid and uninterrupted ; and through- 
out Great Britain and the United States, the 
Sunday-school is now the constant attendant 
ot the church. — See Sketch of the Life of 
Robert Raikes and the History of Sunday-Schools 
(New York) ; and W. M. Cornell, Life of Rob- 
ert Raikes (New York, 1864). (See also Sunday- 
Schools.) 

RANDOLPH MACON COLLEGE, at 
Ashland, Va., chartered in 1832 and or- 
ganized in 1834, is under the control of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It has 
productive funds to the amount of $25,000, ex- 
tensive philosophical and chemical apparatus, a 
cabinet of minerals, and libraries containing 
1 1 ,000 volumes. The course of study is distributed 
into separate schools, including schools of Latin, 
Greek, English, French, German, pure mathe- 
matics, applied mathematics, natural science, 
chemistry, physiology and hygiene, moral philos- 
ophy and metaphysics, Biblical literature, and 
oriental languages. The degrees conferred are 
Graduate in a school, Bachelor of Science, 
Bachelor of Arts, and Master of Arts, the last 
three requiring graduation in several schools. 
A handsome new lecture hall has recently been 
erected. This, with the other buildings, now 
planned, and an additional endowment fund, 
will considerably increase the facilities of the in- 
stitution. The tuition fee for three or more 
schools is $75 per year. Candidates for the 
ministry are exempt from the payment of 
tuition fees. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instruct- 
ors and 235 students. The Rev. James A. 
Duncan, A. M., D. D., is (1876) the president. 

RATICH, Wolfgang, a distinguished Ger- 
man educator, was born in 1571, at Wilsten, in 
Holstein, and died in 1635, at Rudolstadt. A 
difficulty in his speech compelling him to give up 
the design of becoming a preacher, he applied 
himself to the study of the Hebrew and Arabic 
languages, and mathematics. He claimed to be 
the inventor of a new system of instruction, 
vastly superior to the prevailing ones. In 1612, 
he addressed a memorial to the Diet at Frank- 
fort in behalf of his system, in which, he as- 
serted, that not only could old and young in a 
short time easily learn Hebrew, Greek, Latin. Ger- 
man, philosophy, theology, and the arts and scien- 
ces, but that uniformity of language and religion 
could be introduced into the whole empire. Sev- 
eral princes were led to interest themselves in his 
scheme. Professors Hel wig and Jung, of Giessen, 
and Granger, Brendel, Walter, and Wolf, of Jena, 
were invited to investigate it. They judged it 
excellent in theory, and made a favorable report 
upon it. Ratich agreed with Prince Ludwig. of 
Anhalt-Kothen, and Duke John Ernest, of Wei- 
mar, to instruct children by his new system, and 
also by it to qualify teachers to give instruction 
in any language in less time, and with less labor, 
than by any other method used in Germany. A 
printing-office was furnished him in Kothen, 
and his books were printed in six languages. A 



school was established for him, with 135 schol- 
ars. But Ratich proved incompetent to give 
practical effect to his theories. He became un- 
popular, and, being an earnest Lutheran, fell 
under the ban of the religious prejudices of 
a community attached to the Reformed faith. 
His school failed, in a short time. Prince Lud- 
wig quarreled "with him, and, in 1619, impris- 
oned him ; but released him in 1620, upon his 
giving a written declaration that "he had 
claimed and promised more than he knew, or 
could bring to pass." His system was now 
attacked by some who had been his friends. 
The Countess Anna Sophia von Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt, however, recommended him to the 
Swedish chancellor Oxenstiern ; and, at the re- 
quest of that statesman, Drs. Bruckner, Meyfart, 
and Ziegler having examined his method, made 
a favorable report upon it, in 1634. — Ratich, 
without doubt, had a practical conception of the 
objects of education. He preferred to give in- 
struction in those branches which could be made 
useful in life, rather than to pay so much atten- 
tion to the dead languages. In his memorial to 
the Diet at Frankfort, he held that the child 
should first learn to read and speak the mother- 
tongue correctly, so as to be able to use the 
German Bible. Hebrew and Greek should then 
be learned, as the tongues of the original texts 
of the Bible, after which Latin might be studied. 
His views were embodied in a number of rules, 
or principles, the chief of which are : (1) Every 
thing should be presented in its order, a due 
regard being always had to the course of nat- 
ure ; (2) Only one thing should be presented at 
a time; (3) Each thing should be often repeated; 
(4) Every thing should be taught, at first, in the 
mother-tongue ; afterward, other languages may 
be taught; (5) Every thing should be done with- 
out compulsion ; (6) Nothing should be learned 
by rote ; (7) There should be mutual conformity 
in all things ; (8) First the thing by itself, and 
afterward the explanation of it ; that is to say, 
a basis of material must be laid in the mind before 
any rules can be applied to it ; thus, in teaching 
grammar, he gave no rules, but began with the 
reading of the text, and required that the rules 
should be deduced from it ; (9) Every thing by 
expression, and the investigation of parts. In 
his Methodus, he has left minute directions to 
teachers concerning the details of the course, and 
the proper methods of instruction ; but they are 
very prolix, and impose an immense amount of 
labor on the teacher, without seeming to call for a 
corresponding degree of exertion on the part of 
the pupil. Comenius, after reading his book, re- 
marked that he " had not ill displayed the faults 
of the schools, but that his remedies were not 
distinctly shown." Ratich 's works were written 
in Latin, and are diffuse, tedious, and some- 
what pedantic. 

RATJMER, Karl Georg von, a German 
professor and author, born in Worlitz, April 9., 
1783 ; died in Erlangen, June 2., 1865.. He was 
educated at Gottingen. Halle, and Freiberg, and 
was appointed to a position in the mineralogical 



READING 



721 



bureau in Berlin, in 1811 ; and. shortly after, to 
that of professor of mineralogy in the university 
of Brealau. He acted as aid to Gneisenau in the 
campaign of L813 — 14 against the French. From 
1819 to I823,hewasa professor in the university 
of Halle, and afterward taught in Nuremberg till 
1827, when he received the appointment of pro- 
fessor of natural history and mineralogy in the 
university of Erlangen. He is chiefly known by 
his geographieal and geological works ; but his 
principal claim to the attention of educators is his 
Cteschichteder Padagogik, or History of Peda- 
gogy, published in 4 volumes (Stuttgart, 184C — 
55). An English translation of the larger portion 
of this work has appeared in Barnard's Journal 
of Education; also, separately, under the title 
German Educators. 

READING, as the basis and instrument of 
all literary education, is the most important 
branch of school instruction. After the child 
has learned to talk, he may be taught to under- 
stand, and to give vocal expression to, such writ- 
ten language as is adapted to his degree of men- 
tal development. To do this involves an asso- 
ciation, in the mind, of the printed form of the 
word (1) with its proper sound, or pronunciation, 
and (2) with the idea which it is intended to 
express. In teaching children to read, the first 
of these processes requires the principal atten- 
tion ; but, as progress is made, the second con- 
stantly increases in importance. The word, and 
not the letters composing it. is the true element 
in reading. Xo one can be said to know how 
to read who is obliged to stop at the word, and 
study its composition, before he can pronounce 
it. The due meaning and pronunciation of every 
word must be immediately recognized by the 
mind, without pause or hesitation, in the act of 
reading. But the word is made up of separate 
characters, representing elementary sounds ; and 
hence arises a diversity of methods in teaching 
children to pronounee words. The alphabet 
method, or A-B-C method (q. v.), requires that 
the chilil should learn the names of all the letters 
of the alphabet, and then, by means of a spelling 
process, learn the proper pronunciation of their 
combinations. This process is condemned by 
most teachers of the present time, as long and 
tedious, as well as illogical ; the method most 
generally preferred being that denominated the 
word method (q. v.), by which the child learns 
at once to pronounce short words, and is taught 
the sounds and names of the letters, by an anal- 
ysis of them. When the sounds of the letters 
are used instead of the names, the process has 
been called the phonic method (q. v.), which, in 
modern didactics, is most generally approved. 
Certainly, it is more rational to expect that a 
child will perceive the true pronunciation of a 
word through an analysis of the sounds: of the 
letters, than by using their names, many of which 
afford no key to the sound. For example, if the 
word be cut. the child reaches the pronunciation 
at once by enumerating the sounds k-a-t ; while 
by spelling, he is obliged to say se-a-te, introdu- 
cing sounds entirely foreign to the word. In the 



I one case, the mental association required is sim- 
ple and direct ; in the other, it is complex and 
indirect. It is true that, by long and diligent 
rote-teaching, children learn to read by the latter 
method; but the question arises, are they not 
to a certain extent unfitted for cither instinct ion 
by so illogical a process' Auxiliary to the phonic 
method, and. indeed, dictated by its needs, is the 
phonetic method, in which the absurd contradic- 
tions of the alphabet are removed by using the 
letters slightly modi£?d, so as to have a character 
for each separate sound, and each sound repre- 
sented by one, and only one, character. (See 
Orthography, and Phonetics.) These various 
methods are dictated by what may perhaps be 
called the mechanics of reading; but, in con- 
nection with that, the teacher must always beat- 
in mind, that what the child is learning to pro- 
nounce is a symbol of thought : and. hence, at 
every step, the pupils understanding is to be ad- 
dressed. Beading, as a part of education, has a 
twofold object : (1) to understand what is read ; 
and (2) to give proper oral expression to it ; 
that is to say, reading is either for the purpose 
of gaining information for one's self, or for im- 
parting information to others. To teach a pupil 
to read properly implies far more than correct 
elocution. It implies the development of that 
judgment and spirit which, being brought to the 
perusal of useful books, or other reading matter, 
will enable the student to gather up information, 
and, in every available manner, make the realm 
of books tributary to his own mental wants. 
Hence, as auxiliary to reading, the proper mean- 
ing of words, phrases, and idioms must be taught ; 
and exercises must be employed for the purpose 
of ascertaining to what extent the pupil has re- 
ceived correct ideas from what he has read. 
When the object is to teach the pupils elocution, 
the exercises should be specially adapted to that 
end. Thus, the pupil, having read in order to 
understand for himself, should be required to 
read the same passage for the information of his 
fellow pupils. For this purpose, it has been rec- 
ommended, in class teaching, to permit only 
the pupil reading to use the book, all the others 
being required to listen ; because, in this way, 
the pupils will be on the alert to hear and know 
the meaning of what is read, and will, besides, 
better appreciate the true end of reading ; while, 
on the other hand, the one reading will endeavor 
to pronounce correctly, enunciate distinctly, and 
emphasize naturally. Reading-books should be 
constructed with a special reference to the accom- 
plishment of this object ; and hence, the lessons 
should be adapted, at each stage, to the mental 
status of the pupils. Moreover, the material 
should not consist of mere fragments, without 
any logical continuity ; but should be of such a 
character as to discipline the mind in connected 
thinking upon suitable subjects, and to awaken 
an interest in the minds of the pupils. Fsually, 
this essential object of reading in schools is de- 
feated by the use of extracts from essays on dif- 
ficult, abstract subjects, or from authors whose 
style is too complex, and whose vocabulary is too 



T22 



REAL SCHOOLS 



ponderous for children. Simultaneous reading 
is commended by some teachers as an elocution- 
ary drill, as being useful (1) to impart habits of 
distinctness of enunciation, (2) to remove the 
habit of too rapid or too slow a style of reading, 
(3) as a means of voice culture for elocution. — 
See Currie, Principles and Practice of Com- 
mon-School Education; Wickersham, Methods 
of Instruction; How to Teach (N. Y., 1874). 
(See also Elocution, and Voice.) 

REAL SCHOOL, or Heal Gymnasium, 
the name used in Germany to designate a kind of 
high school. This term was used as early as 170(5; 
but the first permanent real school was founded 
by J. J. Hecker in 1747. (See Germany, and 
Hecker.) The real schools are utilitarian in char- 
acter, and aim to teach, like the scientific depart- 
ments of the American college, only those branches 
designed to develop the practical man. They are 
strictly the people's schools, and aim to fit espe- 
cially for occupation in trade and industry. Hence 
they are sometimes called higher burgher schools. 
Their course of study is more advanced than that 
of the elementary and common schools ; and they 
should always bear the name, as they do in some 
instances, real gymnasia, because they are the 
preparatory schools for institutions affording to 
the would-be merchant, artist, artisan, etc., ad- 
vantages like those offered by the classical gym- 
nasia to the future theologian, lawyer, physician, 
etc. The realists claim that the gymnasium is a 
preparatory school for the patient toiler in in- 
vestigation, giving a training unfit for practical 
life ; but that the real schools meet this want by 
educating the boy to become ^practical man, not a 
scholar. They pay less regard to verbal knowl- 
edge, but more to mathematics and its appli- 
cation to the arts, and arrange the whole course 
so as to facilitate the development of those 
mental habits which are favorable to the highest 
practical success, and yet provide an adequate 
intellectual culture. According to the Prussian 
school regulation, their purpose is to afford a 
scientific preparatory training for those higher 
pursuits which do not absolutely require academ- 
ical studies under any special faculty. The Prus- 
sian government, though it has refused to sup- 
port these schools, obliging the towns in which 
they are located to maintain them, has recog- 
nized their efficiency by permitting, since 1871, 
graduates of those of the first order to be re- 
ceived into the different branches of the civil 
service, and to be relieved from military duty, 
like gymnasia students, after one year's service, 
instead of three, with the privilege of advance- 
ment to the commissioned ranks in case of mobil- 
ization. Since the unification of the German 
nation, the schools of this order in the different 
states are being brought to a standard harmonious 
with the Prussian. Those of northern Germany 
are quite well regulated ; those of southern Ger- 
many are slowly but steadily improving. — The 
general division and management of the real i 
schools of the first order are the same as those of 
the gymnasia. The course of study extends over 
nine years and through six classes. The average 



age of admission is nine years, and of discharge,, 
eighteen. The attention which the gymna- 
sium gives to the classical languages, the real 
school pays to the modern. \V hile the former 
schools teach only French, and merely enable 
the learner to read it without a dictionary, and 
to compose in it with moderate ease; the latter, 
substituting English for Greek, give the learner 
a good knowledge of both French and English. 
Thus, the same familiarity which the classical 
student acquires with the history of ancient litera- 
ture, the realist acquires with modern literature. 
AVhile ancient history is not ignored, the events 
of the last three centuries, and the political 
changes which brought about the present status 
of civil society are carefully considered. Far 
greater attention, also, is paid to the exact scien- 
ces. There are some real gymnasia whose students- 
are exempt from the restrictions put upon the 
graduates of the real school. They teach Greek, 
though less of it than the classical gymnasia,, 
and permit the substitution of a modern for a 
classical language, in the last two years of the 
course, or, at least, for Hebrew, which is an 
elective study in all the Prussian gymnasia. Of 
the real schools of inferior order, the so-called 
higher burgher school has a course extending 
through only seven years, the prima, or highest 
class, alone requiring two years ; while all other 
classes require one year's attendance. The real 
schools of the second grade provide, in their 
lower classes, for elementary and common- 
school training. They also permit a deviation 
from the regular course, and provide for elective 
studies, among which is Latin ; but some ex- 
clude Latin altogether. These schools are 
certainly misnamed ; they are, really, of the 
third grade, and the higher burgher schools are 
of the second grade. In 1875, an effort was be- 
gun to modify the course of the gymnasia so as. 
to admit of a choice of classical or scientific 
study, in order to do away with the real schools; 
but the probability is that the last-named schools 
will continue in their present organic form, pos- 
sibly so modifying their course of study as to 
ignore the wants of the civil service, to which 
hitherto more or less attention has been paid, 
and to secure greater efficiency of training for 
mechanical and commercial pursuits. In Ger- 
many, there are now about 300 real schools of 
the first order, and 600 of the inferior grade. 
In the German provinces of Austria, there are 
37 of the first grade, and about 100 of an inferior 
grade. Keal schools have been generally estab- 
lished in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and very 
recently, in Eussia, where they are rapidly in- 
creasing. — See Mager, Die deutsche Burgerschule 
(Stuttgart, 1840) ; Loth, Die Realschul-Frage 
(Leips., 1870) ; Kreissig, Veber Realismns mid 
Realschidwesen (Berl., 1872), fair, critical, and 
complete ; Gallenkamp, Die Reform der hoke- 
ren Lehranstalten (Berl., 1874) ; Schmidt, Ge- 
schichle der Padagogik, vol. n.; and, especially, 
Barnard, German Teachers and Educators. 
Against their maintenance, see Laas, Gymna- 
sium und Realschule (Berl., 1875). 



RECESSES 



RECITATION 



723 



RECESSES. See Hygiene, School, and 
School Management. 

RECITATION, a term used in American 
colleges and schools, to denote the rehearsal of a 
lesson by pupils before their instructor, or the 
repetition of something committed to memory. 
The manner in which the teacher should con- 
duct the daily recitations of his class is a matter 
of very great importance, since apparently perfect 
recitations may be gone through with which not 
only have little educative value, but may even be 
productive of positive harm to the mind of the 
pupil. The surest, guide, in this respect, is that 
which is derived from a consideration of the es- 
sential meaning of the word education, no method 
of recitation having any value which does not 
keep constantly in view the development of the 
pupil's mentai powers. It should always be re- 
membered by the teacher that the supreme ob- 
ject of the recitation is to accustom the pupil, by 
daily practice, to use the faculties of winch he 
is possessed. Many a so-called recitation results. 
by too much explanation on the part of the teach- 
er, in a reversal of the functions of the teacher 
and his class — the former reciting to the latter. 
instead of the latter to the former. The passive j 
attitude of mind in which pupils listen to a long 
explanation is the very attitude from which 
they need to be roused. There are two stages 
in the development of a mental power as pro- 
duced by the exercises of the class room: (1) the 
knowing what to say; and (2) the saying of it. 
The first stage the pupil is supposed to have 
reached by the study of the lesson; the second, 
and most important one, is not passed through 
by the pupil in the case above supposed. Of far 
greater service is it, therefore, to the pupil, to be 
allowed to state the result of his study in his 
own language, halting and imperfect though it 
be, than to compel him to listen to an exposition 
by the teacher. Under the first condition, it will 
be apparent, at every step, whether he really 
understands his lesson; and, if he does, everyday 
will add to the copiousness of his vocabulary, 
and his ease of mental action, and give to his 
recitation its highest educative result; while, 
under the second — the condition of a "passive 
recipient", — there will always be apparent to 
every discerning person, an inexact apprehension 
of the thought presented, a certain degree of 
insincerity, strengthened into a mental habit 
through fear of ridicule, and mental powers 
"rusting in disuse". Even apt pupils, under such 
conditions, will become, at best, theorists or 
dreamers — critics, ready to pass judgment upon 
others' performances, but powerless to act for 
themselves. The utmost that can be claimed for 
this method is, that a single faculty, that of 
memory, has been cultivated; while this culti- 
vation has been accomplished not only by the 
neglect, for the time being, of the other powers, 
but at their expense; since the pupil is daily be- 
coming confirmed in the idea that they are 
properly exercised, and, by pursuing all future 
studies in the same way, acts to their permanent 
injury. It is not intended by this to discoun- 



tenance the explanation of those difficult points 
which will always occur, sometimes through a 
feebleness of the pupil's understanding, and at 
others through a failure of the text-book to sup- 
ply a link necessary to the continuity of thought. 
Such explanations are legitimate, and should be 
made in language suited to the pupil's compre- 
hension; the most thoughtful educators agreeing 
in this, that one of the gravest errors on the part 
of the teacher is an explanation in terms so un- 
familiar as to be unintelligible, or so as to leave 
on the mind of the pupil only a vague and un- 
satisfactory impression. One of the most con- 
spicuous merits of an able teacher is his ability 
to explain, in concise and simple language, the 
difficulties which necessarily beset the paths of 
his pupils. But it must always be borne in 
mind that one of the greatest merits of a recita- 
tion is to compel the pupil to discover and present 
for himself the difficulties which he has encount- 
ered. — The method of simultaneous recitation is, 
open to the objection that by it the errors of 
backward pupils — and those, therefore, who are 
most in need of instruction — are concealed under 
the readiness of the more forward. The result 
usually anticipated from this method, i. e., a 
quickening of the mental powers of backward 
pupils under the spur of emulation, does not ap- 
pear in practice. Says an eminent teacher, 
••Simultaneous recitation may sometimes be use- 
ful. A few questions thus answered may serve 
to give animation to a class, when their interest 
begins to flag; but that which may serve as a 
stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. 
As an example of its usefulness, I have known a 
rapid reader tamed into due moderation by 
being put in companionship with others of 
slower speech, just as we tame a friskful colt by 
harnessing him into a team of grave old horses. 
But aside from such definite purpose. I have seen 
no good come of this innovation.'' Though this 
method is resorted to often from necessity in 
large schools, its operation should be carefully 
watched. It is open, also, to the objections com- 
mon to all rote teaching, the answer committed 
to memory from the book being never so sure an 
indication of the pupil's apprehension of the 
meaning, as his answer, before the class, in his 
own language. This latter furnishes not only an 
accurate register of the pupil's real progress, but 
is a mental exercise of the highest value, since it 
leads to accuracy of conception and expression, 
and increases the power of continuous thinking. 
(See Concert Teaching.) — The first requisite 
for skillfully conducting a recitation is a thor- 
ough preparation by the teacher for the partic- 
ular lesson he is to hear, so that he may be able 
to follow each step taken by the pupil, and may 
stand ready, at any moment, to supply the needed 
word in which the pupil is striving to embody 
his thought. This word, in case the pupil's con- 
ception of the idea is correct, but its expression 
unfamiliar, will usually be some simple generic 
one for which the special or technical word may 
properly be substituted by the teacher. Another 
point to be remembered is the order in which the 



'724 



RECITATIONS 



REFORM SCHOOLS 



different parts of a subject are presented. Where 
these parts depend upon each other by a natural 
progression, as they frequently do, a skillful 
teacher will so order the recitations of a class 
that those parts of the subject which are the 
natural stepping-stones to other parts, shall be 
presented first, such an arrangement conducing 
powerfully to a correct comprehension of the 
subject as a whole. In some studies — in the 
natural and exact sciences, almost always — this 
method is absolutely necessary; but, while in 
other branches its value is not so apparent, the 
advantage to be derived from its adoption is 
generally considerable. — A thorough compre- 
hension by the pupils of the subject under con- 
sideration will insure the maintenance of three 
other conditions necessaiy to success in teaching, 
and usually quite strenuously insisted on by 
writers on the subject; namely, animation, at- 
tention, and a natural tone. When pupils under- 
stand what they are reciting, their attention and 
animation are, by that fact, made certain; and a 
natural tone is instinctively adopted. In youth, 
the appetite for new truths is so eager, the ex- 
ultant feeling which accompanies the conquest of 
difficulties is so keen, that the reflection of this 
•in the voice and manner of the pupil is a matter 
of certainty. Indeed, their opposites, — inat- 
tention and want of animation, are generally 
considered by educational writers as an indica- 
tion of a want of comprehension — as the sure 
test by which the teacher may, at any moment, 
judge of the success of his instruction. The length 
of recitations has been more carefully considered 
during the past few years than ever before, the 
weight of authority having constantly inclined 
to a diminution of the time considered proper 
for this purpose only a generation ago. Currie, 
for example, considers that fifteen minutes is the 
proper medium for classes of very young children, 
twenty being the maximum; while half an hour 
is the average for classes generally, the fixing of 
the attention for a longer period not being at- 
tended with profit. In classes of older children, 
and in advanced instruction, the time of recitation 
may, of course, be considerably prolonged beyond 
these limits, the principle, however, being still 
carefully observed. — D. P. Page says on this 
subject : "Asa motive for every teacher to study 
carefully the art of teaching well at the recitation, 
it should be borne in mind that then and there 
he comes before his pupils in a peculiar and 
prominent manner; it is there his mind comes 
specially in contact with theirs, and there that he 
lays in them, for good or for evil, the foundations 
of their mental habits. It is at the recitation in 
a peculiar manner that he makes his mark upon 
their minds; and as the seal upon the wax, so his 
mental character upon theirs leaves its impress 
behind." — See D. P. Page, Tlieory and Practice 
of Teaching (N. T., 1854); Currie, Common 
School Education, and Early and Infant School 
Education (Edinburgh, 1857); Le Vaux, The 
Science and Art of Teaching (Toronto, 1875); 
and J. P. Wickersham, School Economy (Phila., 
1868). 



REFORM SCHOOLS, or Reformatories, 

are institutions founded for the purpose of re- 
claiming children who, from various causes — 
neglect, early subjection to evil influences, innate 
depravity, etc., — have entered upon a career 
of vice or crime. Such schools strive not only 
to prevent the youth from committing offenses 
which must be dealt with by law, but to edu- 
cate him so that his influence shall be active 
for good. Though the name reform school has 
been somewhat loosely applied to various houses 
or institutions for reclaiming children or youth 
from evil courses, an important distinction exists 
between such institutions and the reform school 
proper. Notwithstanding this strict definition, 
however, the term will be used in this article to 
designate all institutions whose object is, by 
active educational means, to reclaim their in- 
mates whether under judicial sentence or not. 
The manner in which this reclamation has been 
effected in different countries, furnishes an inter- 
esting chapter in the history of human ingenuity 
and philanthropy. The history of reform schools 
in Germany begins with the Reformation, when 
work-houses were established in Amsterdam, Ley- 
den, Hamburg, Lubeck, and other cities, for the 
purpose of giving occupation to those who were 
prohibited from vagrancy by laws then first en- 
acted. Young thieves were placed in the care of 
the magistrate to receive religious instruction, 
and every work-house was provided with a special 
department in which refractory children were 
placed for discipline. Parents were permitted 
to send there obstinate or froward children to 
undergo treatment, either gratuitously or for a 
small charge, which entitled them to certain priv- 
ileges. The benevolent movement thus begun 
soon led to the establishment of houses of correc- 
tion, industrial schools, orphan houses, and kin- 
dred institutions, all differing somewhat from the 
reform school and from each other, but all spring- 
ing from substantially the same idea — the rescue 
of children from a condition, actual or prospect- 
ive, of vice or crime. The originator of the mod- 
ern reform school in Germany was J. D. Falk, 
who formed a society, called Friends in Need, 
which, in 1818, had found homes for 300 chil- 
dren, to whom elementary instruction was 
given in religion and industrial branches. The 
institution thus founded at Weimar was named 
Lutherhof , and was followed by the establish- 
ment of similar ones in Erfurt, Goldberg, and 
Liiben. Contemporaneous with the institution of 
Falk were those of Overdyk and Diisselthal, 
founded by Counts Adalbert and Werner von 
der Ricke, which are still in existence, and have 
an average attendance of 300 children. The re- 
form school of Beuggen, in the southern part of 
Baden, was founded in 1816. It was the first 
school of the kind in southern Germany, and was 
followed by one in Neuhof, and a reform school 
for girls in Erlangen. The first reform school 
in Berlin was opened in 1825, and has recently 
been very much enlarged. It is the model on 
which similar institutions have been organized at 
Memel, Frankfort, on the Oder, Posen, Konigs- 



REFORM SCHOOLS 



725 



berg, and Stettin. The foundation of houses of 
correction, however, by the government, lias 
caused the disappearance of all these later in- 
stitutions except that at Stettin. A house of 
correction was founded in Hamburg, in 1 829. 
At the present time, there are 12 houses of this 
class in Prussia, 3 in Saxony, 1 in Wfirtemberg, 
1 in Hamburg, and 1 in Bremen. A reform 
school was established in Liehtenstein, in 1836, 
and another in Tempelhof, in 1843 — both in 
connection with the normal schools in those 
places. There is also a central school of this 
class at Reutlingen. with 7 associated schools or 
branches. It appeal's that Wiirtemberg has 
done more in this direction than any other Ger- 
man state. In 1867, it contained 32 reform 
schools: "20 Protestant, 5 Catholic, and 1 Jew- 
ish, with accommodations for 1,667 children, and 
an actual attendance of 1,269. Many societies 
exist for the purpose of bringing neglected chil- 
dren into homes and schools, all of which work 
under the direction of a central committee of char- 
ity. In Switzerland. 7 farm and reform schools 
were established between 1811) and 1830 ; from 
1830 to 1810, 12 more were founded; from 1841 
to 1846, 10 more ; and from that to the present 
time, 15; so that now Switzerland has 44 schools 
of this kind, with 1,543 pupils. In Baden, in 
1 843, a Protestant school was founded at Dur- 
lach, and a Catholic one at Mariahof, the pupils 
in each numbering about 50. The most cel- 
ebrated of these reform schools, however, was 
the Raub.es Haus, formed in Hamburg by .1. II. 
Wichern. in 1833. As this has been for a long 
time a model for schools of the kind, a short ac- 
count of its organization and management will 
not be out of place. In 1833, J. EL Wichern 
went, with his mother, to live on a small, rude- 
ly cultivated farm near Hamburg, taking with 
him, in accordance with a vow made to compan- 
ions in a home missionary society, 12 boys gath- 
ered from the worst haunts of vice and misery in 
the city. The organization naturally suggested 
to him by the circumstances, was that of the 
family; his mother personating the mother of the 
family, and himself the father. Here the boys 
received elementary instruction, mental and re- 
ligious, and were trained to labor on the farm. 
The project attracted general attention; and, from 
time to time, other cheap houses were built, some 
for boys, and some for girls, each to accommodate 
about the same number of inmates, till, in time, 
the rough farm was converted into a little village 
with its church, school house, workshops, anil 
gardens. This was the origin of the "family plan," 
since adopted in reformatory institutions in many 
parts of the civilized world". The fundamental 
idea of the Rauhes Haus. however.originally pro- 
claimed and never lost sight of, was that of mis- 
sionary work among poor and neglected children. 
It became at once a training school for mission- 
aries. The heads of families, teachers, overseers 
of workshops, etc.. formed a religious brotherhood 
known as the Brotherhood of the Rauhes Haus, 
the members of which, after serving an a] iprei itice- 
ship in this simple community, where poverty 



was their lot, and devotion to duty their only 
reward, went out into the world as missionaries, 
particularly among the poor. From its foundation 

| to 1867, the Rauhes Haus had received and edu- 

| cated nearly 800 children, the average annual 
attendance being about 1 20. The number of per- 
sons connected with the establishment, in the 
year mentioned, was 450. The whole number of 
reform schools in Germany, in 1867, was 354. 
The influence of the Rauhes Haus has been very 

i great, reformatory institutions on the family plan 
having been established in Russia. Switzerland. 
France. Belgium, Sweden, England. and in many 
of the states of the American Union. — The first 
reform school in England was founded near Lon- 
don by the Philanthropic Society, in 1788. This 

I was followed by one in Warwickshire, in 1818, 
in which outdoor labor was first made a part of 
the training. In 1830, another school was estab- 
lished by Captain Brenton, who believed that no 
person under the age of 16 should be sent to 
prison. His institution, however, and that in 
Warwickshire were closed for want of support. 
In 1834, a reformatory school for girls was estab- 
lished at Chiswick, to which the name of The 
Victoria Asylum was given. In 1838. a separate 
prison was established at Parkhurst for prisoners 
under the age of 16, the discipline in which was 
reformatory rather than penal. The institution 
founded by the Philanthropic Society at St. 
George's in the Fields became, through lack of 
interest in its success, at first a poor-house, and 
afterwards a penitentiary; and, in 1850, was dis- 
continued, its property being removed to Redhill 
in Surrey, where, on the family plan, it now con- 
stitutes the largest reformatory in England. 
Since that time, schools have been established at 
1 lard wicke Court, Kingswood, Stoke Farm, and 
Saltley. In 1854, the Reformatory Schools Act 
was passed, magistrates being authorized to com- 
mit to reform schools youths under 16 years of 
age. for not less than 2 nor more than 5 years, 
making an allowance in each case for their main- 
tenance. In Scotland, industrial schools were es- 
tablished, at the same time, for destitute and 
vagrant children under 14 years of age. In 1856, 
there were 34 reform schools in existence in 
Great Britain; and, in 1863. there were 64 in ex- 
ist, ■nee, with an attendance of 4.677, of whom 
1 ,000 were girls. The English law divides reform 
schools into two kinds: reform schools proper, 
intended for correction ; ami industrial schools, 
intended for prevention, admission to one or the 
other being determined by differences in age and 
previous condition in regard to crime. In 1873, 
there were in Great Britain 45 reformatories for 
boys, and 20 for girls, with 4,424 inmates in the 
former, and 1,151 in the latter. The number of 
industrial schools at the same time was lull, with 
an attendance of 7.598 boys, and 2..";S7 girls. — 
In England and Scotland, there is another 'lass 
of reform schools, called ragged schools, designed 
to bring together and instruct poor and neglected 
children — generally boys, and thus prevent them 
from falling into vice and crime. The idea of 
such schools is attributed to John Pounds, a 



726 



REFORM SCHOOLS 



poor shoe-maker of Portsmouth, who, in 1819, 
commenced to gather around him the ragged 
children of his district, in order that he might 
instruct them as he sat at work; and in this 
benevolent task, he continued till his death, in 
1839. A more effective movement in that direc- 
tion was commenced by Sheriff Watson, of Aber- 
deen, in which city a ragged school was opened 
in 1841 ; but there was a large Sunday-school of 
this kind in London, in 1838; and the Field 
Lane school was opened in 1843. Through the 
systematic efforts of the Ragged School Union 
of London, a large number of such schools have 
been established. These include day and evening 
schools and Sunday-schools. Similar schools 
under different names have been organized in 
other countries. 

In France, reform schools are known as cor- 
rectional and penitentiary colonies. Some are 
founded and supported entirely by the state, 
others, by individuals, under government sanction . 
The maximum age is 1(5. The penitentiary colony 
receives children who have committed crime 
through ignorance, and who are acquitted, there- 
fore, from want of evidence of criminal intent, 
but are thought to require special training, and 
young prisoners sentenced for more than mo ntlis 
but not more than 2 years. The correctional colony 
receives prisoners sentenced for more than 2 years, 
and insubordinates from the penitentiary colony. 
In 1862, there were 36 colonies for boys, and 25 
for girls ; the number of inmates being 6,604 
boys, and 1,878 girls. The most successful of 
the French reform schools is that at Mettray, 
founded by Demetz, in 1839. The inmates 
are divided into families of 50; the average 
number in the school or colony being, at the 



present time, 700. Agricultural and mechanical 
labor is carried on, the colony being, in large 
measure, self-supporting. Less than 4 per cent of 
those who have left the colony have relapsed into 
crime. The success of the school is largely attrib- 
uted to the correspondence and supervision kept 
up between it and the pupils after they have left. 
The number of similar organizations founded 
after the example of Mettray is 411. — In Belgium, 
agricultural reform schools exist at Ruysselede, 
Wynghene, and Beernem. They form practically 
one institution, the object of which is the rec- 
lamation of juvenile delinquents of both sexes, 
who are not criminals. — In the United States, 
the name usually given to the reform school is 
house of refuge. The oldest institution of the kind 
is that on Randall's Island. N .Y ., which wasfound- 
edin 1825. It is the largest reformatory of its class 
in the United States, the average number of its in- 
mates being 800. They are of both sexes, and are 
sent to the institution upon conviction for petty 
offenses. Their discipline consists of daily labor 
for 6 or 8 hours, and study for about 3 hours. 
The period of detention depends upon their con- 
duct; and, on their discharge, homes are found for 
the more deserving. The house of refuge in Boston 
was opened in 1827; that in Philadelphia, in 
the following year; and that in New Orleans, in 
1847. The establishment of reformatories as 
state institutions was first made in Massachusetts, 
in 1848, the state reform school at Westborough 
being then established. Since that time, individ- 
uals, cities, and several of the states, have estab- 
lished schools, many of them on the family plan. 
A list of such institutions existing at the present 
time in the United States, is given in the sub- 
joined table : 



Reform Schools in the United States. 



NAME 



City and County Industrial School 

Connecticut Industrial School for Girls 

" Reform School 

St. Mary's Reformatory 

State Reform School 

Indiana Reform Institute for Girls 

House of Refuge 

Iowa State Reform School 

State Reform School (girls) 

House of Refuge 

Boys' House of Refuge 

State Reform School 

House of Refuge for Juvenile Delinquents 

House of Ref. & Institution for Colored Children 

Maryland Industrial School for Girls 

City of Boston Almshouse School 

House of Reformation for Juvenile Offenders. . . . 

State Industrial School for Girls 

Lawrence Industrial School 

House of Employment and Reformation 

State Primary School 

Plummer Farm School 

State Reform School 

Worcester Truant Reform School 

Detroit House of Correction 

Michigan State Reform School 

Minnesota State Reform School 

House of Refuge 



San Francisco, Cal. 

Middletown, Ct 

W. Meriden.Ct 

Chicago, 111 

Pontiac, 111 

Indianapolis, Ind.. . 

Plaiufield, Ind 

Eldora, Iowa 

Salem, Iowa 

Louisville, Ky 

New Orleans, La.. . 
Cape Elizabeth, Me. 

Baltimore, Md 

Bowie, Md 

Orange Grove, Md.. 

Boston, Mass 

u it 

Lancaster, Mass. . . . 
Lawrence, Mass. . . . 

Lowell, Mass 

Monson, Mass 

Salem, Mass 

Westborough, Mass 
Worcester, Mass... 

Detroit, Mich 

Lansing, Mich 

St. Paul, Minn 

St. Louis, Mo 



When 




founded 


Control 


1858 




1870 


Corporate 


1854 


State 


1863 


— 


1871 


State 


1874 


State 





State 


1868 


State 


1865 


Municipal 


1850 


Municipal 


1852 


State 


1855 


Municipal 


1873 


Corporate 


1866 


Directors 


1856 


Municipal 


1827 


Municipal 


1856 


State 


1874 


Municipal 


1851 


Municipal 


1866 


State 


1870 


Private 


1848 


State 


1863 


Municipal 


1861 


Municipal 


1856 


State 


1868 


State 


1854 


— 



REFORMED CHURCHES 
Reform Schools in the United States (continued). 



727 



When 




founded 


Control 


1 s.v, 


State 


1867 


State 


1871 





1857 


Municipal 


1868 


Municipal 


18IJK 


Municipal 


1870 


— 


1854 


Trustees 


1867 


— 


1857 


— 


18M 


Managers 


1825 


Corporate 


1845 


Private 


1KC7 


Trustees 


1846 


State 


1863 


Municipal 


1850 


Municipal 


1868 


Catholic 


1870 


Municipal 


1869 





1857 


State 


1869 


State 


1875 


Municipal 


1854 


— 


1826 


Managers 


1850 


State 


1854 


Managers 


1-;:; 


Private 


1850 


Municipal 


1m;/, 


State 


IBM) 


State 


1873 


Trustees 


1869 


Territorial 



New Hampshire State Reform School 

New Jersey State Reform School 

State Industrial School (girls) 

Truant Home 

House of the Good Shepherd 

Industrial School 

House of the Holy Family Association etc. 

House ot Mercy 

Home for Women 

House of the Good Shepherd 

Home for Fallen and Friendless Girls 

House of Refuge 

The Isaac T. Hopper Home 

The Midnight Mission 

Western House of Refuge 

New York Catholic Protectory 

House of Refuge 

Protectory for Boys 

Home of Refuge and Correction 

The Retreat 

State Reform School 

Ohio Girls' Industrial School 

House of Refuge 

Pennsylvania Reform School 

House of Refuge (white) 

House of Refuge (colored) 

Western House of Refuge 

Sheltering Arms 

Providence Reform School 

Vermont Reform School 

Industrial School for Boys 

Girls' Reform School... 

Reform School of the District of Columbia. 



Manchester, N. II. 
Jamesburg, N. J.. . 

Trenton. N. J 

Brooklyn, N. V 

E. New York, N.Y. 
New York, N. Y... 



Randall's Island, N. Y. 
New York, N.Y 



Rochester, N. Y. . . . 
Westchester, N. Y.. 
Cincinnati, O 



Cleveland, O. 



Lancaster, O 

Lewis Centre, O.. 

Toledo, O 

Allegheny, Pa.. . . 
Philadelphia, Pa. 



Pittsburg, Pa 

Wilkinsburg, Pa. . 
Providence, I! I. 
Waterbury, Yt. . 
Waukesha, Wis. 
Washington, D.C.. 



REFORMED CHURCHES.— After the 
rise of the Reformation, in the 16th century, it 

was for a time common to divide the Protestants 
of Europe into two large bodies, the Lutheran 
Church (q. v.) and the Reformed Church. The 
latter included all the ecclesiastical organization . 
which regarded Zwingli and Calvin as their 
earliest and foremost leaders. In the British 
Isles, these churches assumed the name Presby- 
terians (q. v.); and the name Reformed Churches 
was henceforth only applied to the churches of 
this type on the continent of Europe. When 
the Evangelical Church was formed, by the union 
of the two sister churches in Prussia, in lslT. 
and afterward in other parts of Germany, the He- 
formed Church entered heartily into the union, 
ceasing to exist in name, but not in spirit or life. 
In .Switzerland, the Netherlands, Austria. Hun- 
gary, France, and Russia, the Reformed Church 
•continues to exist under its old name. In the 
United States, offshoots of the German Reformed 
and Dutch Reformed churches occupy a prom- 
inent place among the churches of the country. 
This subject will be distributed under the follow- 
ing heads: (I) The Reformed Churches of Eu- 
rope; (II) The Reformed Churches in the New 
World. 

I. The Reformed Churches of Europe. — 
(1) The Reformed Church of Gfermcmy properly 
commenced its history in the Palatinate, in the 
year 1563, when the Elector Frederick published, 
for the use of his schools and churches, the Hei- 
delberg Catechism, which had been prepared by 
iwo professors of the university of Heidelberg — I 



Olevianus, a disciple of Calvin, and Ursinus, a 
disciple of Melanchthon. The tenets of the Re- 
formed Church were also accepted in Bremen, 
Nassau, Anlialt. I.ippe. Hesse Cassel, and by the 
Elector of Brandenburg; but were never enter- 
tained by more than a small minority of the Ger- 
man Protestants. They are closely allied to what 
has been called, in history, Melanchthonian Lu- 
theranism. 'I he university of Heidelberg was the 
most famous school connected with the German 
Reformed Church. (2) In Holland, the Reformed 
( hurch became early the prevailing religion, and 
greatly distinguished itself by its interest in both 
popular and university education. The eager 
choice of a university, in preference to a perpet- 
ual annual fair, by the people of Leyden, in 
1574. is a well-known incident. A free univer- 
sity was also established at Franeker, in 1585. 
The universities of Groningen and Utrecht were 
founded, respectively, in 1014 and 1636. In 
these famous schools, most of the ante-Revolu- 
tionary ministers of the Dutch Church in 
America, who were of Hollandish birth, had 
been trained, being about 70 in number. The 
cause of education in Holland was identified 
with that of Protestantism. At the Synod 
of Dort (1618 — 19), decrees were passed in 
behalf of education, and parochial schools were 
established throughout Holland. Intelligence 
so rapidly increased in this little state that she 
was called compendium orbis. Motley says that 
the New England pilgrims had previously 
found the system of free schools already estab- 
lished in Holland. The Reformed Church, as 



728 



REFORMED CHURCHES 



the church of the majority of the people and of 
the government, has exerted, and stDl exerts, a 
considerable influence upon the entire educational 
system of the country, although the school law 
sanctions the principle of unsectarian instruction. 
A theological faculty is connected with each of 
the universities of Leyden. Utrecht, and Gron- 
ingen, which, in 1874, had an aggregate of 10 
professors and about 300 students. The Church, 
in 1875, had 1.340 congregations, 1.600 clergy- 
men, and. in 1869, a population of 1.956,593 
souls. The Christian Reformed Church, which 
separated from the state church, on the ground 
that the latter was subject to Rationalistic in- 
fluences, in 1875, had 340 congregations and 240 
ministers: and. in 1869, a population of 107,123 
souls. This Church has a theological seminary 
at Kampen. (See Netherlands.) (3) In Switz- 
erland, the Reformed Church is still, as in the 
Netherlands, the church of the majority of the 
people (about 1.500,000, or 58 per cent of the 
population), and is the state or national church in 
all the Protestant cantons. As such, it is directly 
or indirectly connected with educational institu- 
tions of all grades. (See Switzerland.) The- 
ological faculties are connected with the univer- 
sities of Zurich. Bern, Basel, and Geneva. As the 
church is without self-government, but is entirely 
ruled by the state authorities. Free Churches 
have been organized in a number of cantons, 
which have established theological schools at 
Geneva, Lausanne, and Xeufchatel. (4) In 
Austria propir, Hungary, France, and Russia, 
the Reformed Church constitutes only a small 
minority of the population, but has been re- 
organized and supported by the state govern- 
ments. In Austria proper, the Reformed popula- 
tion amounts to 112.000 (0.51 percent): in Hun- 
gary, to 2,143.000 (13 per cent): in France, to 
467.000 (1.29 percent); and. in Russia, to about 
260,000 (0.3 per cent). The school laws of these 
countries provide for some kind of co-operatiou 
by the clergy of the recognized religions in all 
schools supported by the state : and the theolog- 
ical schools are, to a much greater extent than in 
Switzerland, under the control of church boards. 
The church of Austria has. in common with the 
Lutheran Church, an evangelical theological fac- 
ulty at Vienna : Hungary has Reformed colleges 
at Pesth, Saros-Patak. Kecskemet, Debreczin, 
and Nagy-Enyed : France has a Reformed fac- 
ulty of theology at Montauban. 

II. Reformed Churches in the yew World. — 
There are two branches of the Reformed Church 
in the United States. After the nationality of 
the colonies in which they originated, they were 
formerly called the Dutch Reformed Church and 
the German Reformed Church; but, of late. 
both have changed their official names, and the 
former now calls itself the Reformed Church in 
America: the latter, the Reformed Church in the 
United States. The former, in 1876, consisted of 
506 churches. 546 ministers, and about 75,000 
communicants, and represented a population of 
about a quarter of a million. The latter had 650 
ministers, 1,350 congregations, and a member- I 



: ship of 150.000, representing a population of 
about 250.000 souls. In the former, the Dutch 
language has, in all the old congregations, given 
way to the English: in the latter, the same is the 
case, in a majority of the congregations, in respect 
to the German ; though, owing to the extensive 
immigration of Germans, the number of Ger- 
man-speaking congregations is still on the in- 
crease, and 2 of the 6 synods into which the 

1 church is divided. 4 of the 16 periodicals, and 2 of 
the literary institutions, are exclusively German. 
(1) The Reformed Church in America, for- 
merly known as the Reformed Didch Church, is- 
the oldest body of the Presbyterian form of gov- 

! eminent and doctrine in the United States, 'lhis 

| denomination consisted originally of the Dutch 
and Walloon colonies, planted by the West India 

] Company on the Hudson and Delaware rivers, 

! and on Long Island. The West India Company 
repeatedly promised to provide and support min- 
isters and school-masters in New Netherlands, 
though these promises were often forgotten. The 
people, at such times, though poor, taxed them- 
selves. School-masters were obliged to undergo 
an examination before the classes; and the office 

j could not be assumed voluntarily. The yet un- 
published voluminous correspondence between 
the Dutch churches in America and the parent 
church in Holland, has frequent references to the 

i subject of schools. While parochial schools in con- 

' nection with the Dutch Church have not become 

! general in America, nevertheless the church of 
New York has maintained such a school from 
1633 to the present time. (See Dunshee. His- 

: tori/ of the School of the Butch Reformed Church 
of New York) A Latin or high school was- 
also founded as early as 1659. — The English gov- 

I ernors were naturally opposed to the Dutch 
schools, and sought to anglicize the whole popula- 

! tion. It became increasingly difficult, to secure 
ministers from Holland, lhis fact forced the 
subject of American institutions and the need of 
an American trained ministry upon the attention 
of the people. Those who had been trained in 
the universities of Europe, thought that no ade- 

' quate education could be provided in America; 
but the churches must nevertheless be supplied 
with ministers. The debate grew very warm, and 
divided the church into parties for 17 years. In 
the mean time, about a dozen American youths, 
were sent to Holland for education: and about 
as many were trained by pastors in this country 
before 1771, when the denomination became ec- 
clesiastically independent of Holland. An effort 
was made (1755) to found a theological chair for 
the Dutch in King's ( Columbia) College, by an 
amendment to the charter of that institution;, 
but the plan was not acceptable to the people. 
A charter was secured, in 1766. for a distinctive- 
ly Dutch institution in New Jersey, but this was 
thought to be un-American. A charter upon 
the most liberal principles, and capable of in- 
definite expansion, was finally secured (in 1771) 
for Queen's (Rutgers) College, situated at New- 
Brunswick. Union College, at Schenectady, was. 
also organized, largely under Dutch patronage. 



REFORMED CHURCH KS 



729 



as may be seen from the fact that it has given 
more than 100 ministers to the Reformed (Dutch) 
Church. Dope College was organized in lsii.'i. 
in Holland, -Michigan, to meet the necessities of 
the more recent emigrants from Holland. There 
is a theological department in connection with 
the college. — Efforts were made immediately 
after ecclesiastical independence (1771), to found 
a theological seminary. The Revolution delayed 
the work; but, in 1784, the Rev. John H. Living- 
ston, a graduate of the University of Utrecht, 
and the last of the American youths who had 
gone to Holland for education, was appointed 
professor of theology ; and Dr. H. Meyer was 
appointed, at the same time, professor of the 
sacred languages. In 1810, this seminary was lo- 
cated permanently at New Brunswick, and was 
united with Rutgers College until 1864. It has 
sent forth (1784 — 1876) 657 ministers. If to 
these be added 27 American youths, educated 
here or elsewhere before 1784, and about 50 in 
Hope College, we have a total of 734 persons edu- 
cated directly by this church for her own min- 
istry, besides those educated for other professions. 
The Theological Seminary now has property at, 
New Brunswick, N T . J., amounting to almost 
$350,000, and four well-endowed professorships. 
Hertzog Hall is a spacious residence for students ; 
Suydain Hall contains lecture rooms and a fully 
equipped gymnasium : and Sage Hall contains a 
library of about 27,000 volumes, and is receiving 
constant additions. A board of education (or- 
ganized in 1828) affords aid to needy students. 
Its own and other educational funds under 
the control of the denomination, amount to 
$160,000, with direct yearlv contributions, from 
the churches, of from $10,000 to §15,000 more. 
(2) The Reformed Church in the United Stab s, 
originally called the German Reformed Church, 
was founded by emigrants from Switzerland, Hol- 
land, and the Palatinate, in Germany, in the early 
part of the last century. As the fathers of the 
Reformed Church were accustomed to parochial 
schools in (Germany, when they emigrated to 
this country, they sought, at an early day. to es- 
tablish such schools in connection with their con- 
gregations. The school and the church belonged 
together; and the teacher, accustomed to play the 
orgau and to conduct the singing in the sanctuary, 
was next in rank to the minister in public esti- 
mation. The schools, of course, were all religious 
and Christian, and in them the New Testament, 
the psalter, and the Heidelberg catechism were 
used as text-books. This was generally the case in 
both branches of the German Church, Reformed 
and Lutheran; but. as the country was new and 
many of the people poor and scattered, they were 
often unable to secure even the services of the 
ministers of the gospel, much less school-masters 
to instruct their children. There was, therefore, 
a sad decline, for a time, both in religious and 
educational interests. But in 1746, Rev. Michael 
Schlatter came to Pennsylvania as a missionary 
under the direction of the Reformed Church of 
Holland, and proceeded not only to organize 
churches, but also to establish schools. He was 



shocked at the ignorance prevailing among the 
young people, and did much to improve their 
condition. He collected money in (iermany, Hol- 
land, and England for the establishment of 
schools and the support of teachers, in which 
good work he was assisted by the authorities of 
the province and many patriotic citizens. In many 
places he succeded in building up schools which 
continued to flourish for a long time, and hence 
may be regarded as the first superintendent of 
public instruction in the state. In 1787, the 
legislature of Pennsylvania granted a charter for 
the establishment of Franklin College, at Lan- 
caster, Pa., and. in addition, made a grant of 
10,000 acres for this object from the public 
domain; which grant, although at first more ex- 
pensive than profitable, became in the course of 
time valuable. The project originated with a num- 
ber of reputable citizens of Cerman extraction; 
and, as it was intended more particularly for the 
benefit of the German population, "through whose 
industry and patriotic services the state had 
arisen to such a high degree of prosperity," it was 
in effect, placed under the control of the Lutheran 
and Reformed people. It excited considerable in- 
terest at the time and enlisted the warmest 
sympathies of such patriots as Hush and Frank- 
lin, of Philadelphia. It received its name from 
the latter, who was president of the state. In- 
tended from the first to be an institution of a 
high order, something like a German university, 
it nevertheless continued to be. for many years, 
only a respectable high school, and did not attain 
to the dignity of a college until the year 1853. — 
The. German population looked with suspicion on 
the free-school system when it was first broached 
in Pennsylvania, because it did not make ad- 
equate provision for the religious education of 
youth, seeming to eliminate the religious ele- 
ment altogether. They were, from the beginning, 
supporters of parochial schools, and were then, 
as they are still, wedded to the idea that educa- 
tion and religion ought to go together. They 
yielded at last in their opposition, because com- 
mon schools seemed to be the best that could be 
had under the circumstances. Their German gov- 
ernors. Wolf and Ritner, the one of Lutheran and 
the other of Reformed persuasion, under whose 
administration, and by whose support, the pres- 
ent free-school system was introduced into the 
state, had much to do in reconciling them to the 
new order of things. With the consolidation of 
this system, the old parochial schools, in a great 
measure, passed away. As far as the Reformed 
( lurch is concerned, however, it may be said, 
that while it supports public schools as a ne- 
cessity and a great public benefit, it would gener- 
ally prefer a system of parochial schools, if they 
could be maintained in a flourishing condition. 
It may also be said, judging from some of the 
recent ecclesiastical utterances, that it, is probable 
the church will yet revive these schools in some 
degree, not in opposition to the public schools, 
but to serve as their proper supplement, and as 
a vindication of the theory of Christian edu- 
cation. 



730 



REFORMED CHURCHES 



REGENTS OP THE UNIVERSITY 



In the year 1825, the Synod of the German 
Reformed Church, in order to increase and im- 
prove the character of its ministry, established 
a theological seminary at Carlisle, Fa., under the 
charge of Dr. Lewis Mayer, in close connection 
with Dickinson College ; but, as the seminary 
was removed to York, Fa., in 1829, it soon be- 
came evident, that, in order to give it the neces- 
sary efficiency, a classical school was needed. Such 
a school was, therefore, established in connec- 
tion with the seminary ; and, under the care of 
Dr. Frederick Augustus Rauch, a ripe scholar 
from the father-land, who took charge of it in 
1832, and Prof. Samuel W. Budd, a graduate of 
Princeton College, it nourished, and accomplished, 
for the time being, the work of a college for the 
Church. In the fall of 1835, it was removed to 
Mercersburg, Pa., where, having received a charter 
from the legislature, it was converted into a reg- 
ular college, under the name and title of Mar- 
shall College. Dr. Rauch was its first president; 
and to him it owes its German- American charac- 
ter, that of an American institution pervaded with 
the spirit of German science and literature. In 
the year 184,1, at the early age of thirty-five, he 
died, in the midst of his rising fame, deeply la- 
mented by all who knew him. Dr. Rauch 's place 
in the college was ably filled by the Rev. John 
Williamson Nevin, from the year 1811 to 1853, 
who during the same time served as the regular 
professor of theology in the seminary, which had 
been removed to Mercersburg soon after the re- 
moval of the high school. Dr. Nevin labored to 
promote the interests of the college with much 
energy and self-sacrifice, and gave it a national 
reputation ; but, whilst it flourished internally, 
and performed important service in the cause 
of education, letters, and sound learning, it suf- 
fered from the want of an adequate endow- 
ment, which at times made even its permanence as 
an institution problematical. Accordingly, when 
the trustees of old Franklin College, at Lancaster, 
which had an endowment of over $50,000, but 
was without college classes or college arrange- 
ments, proposed to unite the two institutions, the 
proposition was favorably received ; and they 
were consolidated by an act of the legislature, 
under the name of Franklin and Marshall Col- 
lege. This arrangement went into operation in 
1853, since which time the college has pursued 
a successful career in the midst of a large German- 
American population, upon whom it has acted as 
an educational stimulant with greater influence, 
perhaps, than any purely American institution 
could have exerted. The German language is a 
regular branch of study, as much so as Latin and 
Greek. In its philosophical course.the college seeks, 
in accordance with the idea of its first president, 
Dr. Rauch, to unite the practical spirit of this 
country and England with the speculative and 
idealistic tendencies of the father-land. At the 
same time, much stress is laid on the religious 
training of the students. To accomplish this ob- 
ject, the students and the families of the professors, 
in the seminary and college, are organized into a 
regular congregation under the direction of classes. 



The students serve as deacons and elders; and the 
professors — such as are clergymen, as pastors. 
Collections are taken up for benevolent purposes 
every Sabbath, and students are prepared for 
confirmation yearly by a course of catechetical 
lectures. The college has, thus far, performed a 
very important service for the cause of education 
among a large and intelligent class of people. Pre- 
vious to its organization, in 1835, comparatively 
few young men of German extraction went to 
college at all; and but few of the German-Amer- 
icans, even in the ministry, had enjoyed the ben- 
efit of a classical training. Now college graduates 
from this source, filling important positions in 
society, are counted by scores or hundreds. Many 
of them, in turn, have been active in founding 
other colleges and classical schools in different 
parts of the country. The Reformed Synod of Ohio 
has a flourishing literary (Heidelberg College, q.v.) 
and theological institution at Tiffin, Ohio. Mer- 
cersburg College, which grew out of a high school 
that was established after the removal of Mar- 
shall College to Lancaster, is a young and vigor- 
ous institution. It is the child of the Mercersburg 
Classis. Catawba College, at Newton, N. O, under 
the jurisdiction of the North Carolina Classis, 
although it suffered much in the loss of its en- 
dowment during the war, has been revived, and 
shows signs of returning prosperity. Palatinate 
College, at Myerstown, Pa., carries its students 
as far as the junior class. It is located in a 
populous German section of the state, and is per- 
forming a good work. It is also a church insti- 
tution, and is owned by the Lebanon Classis. 
Ursinus College (q.v.), at Collegeville,, Mont- 
gomery Co., Pa., was opened a few years ago, by 
the Rev. J. H. A. Bomberger, and others wdio 
sympathized with him in his theological tenden- 
cies. It has manifested considerable energy, but 
is not under any direct ecclesiastical control. 
Clarion Collegiate Institute, at Rimersburg, Pa., 
and Blairstown Academy. Blairstown, Iowa, are 
classical high schools, established by the classes 
within whose bounds they are located. The for- 
eign German population of the Church have two 
institutions under their care : Calvin Institute, 
at Cleveland, Ohio; and the Mission House, at 
Howard's Grove, Wis. The one is a classical 
school ; and the other, a theological seminary. — 
AVhile the growth of institutions for the educa- 
tion of young men has been encouraged, female 
education has not been overlooked in the Re- 
formed Church. The East Pennsylvania Classis 
has established the Allentown Female Seminary, 
at Allentown, Pa., under the presidency of 
Rev. W. R. Hofford, A. M. In the Maryland 
Classis, Rev. Geo. L. Staley has a seminary of 
a high order, for females, at Knoxville, Md. ; 
Rev. J. Hassler, A. M., has another at Mercers- 
burg, Pa.; and Rev. Lucian Cort, A. M., has also 
the management of one at Greensburg, Pa. These 
institutions are, at present, in a thriving condition 
and give promise of being well patronized by the 
people of the Reformed Church. 

REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
See New York. 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 



REUCHLIN 



731 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is that which 
lias for its special object the cultivation of that 
faculty of the human soul by means of which it 
is enabled to realize the existence and constant 
presence of the Deity, to know Him. and to com- 
mune with Him in worship and prayer. Some 
have designated this the relit/inns sentiment ; but 
strong exception has been taken to that term, as 
belittling the basis of religion in the human soul. 
An experience of human nature, in its various 
degrees of culture, shows that there are what 
may be called religious intuitions, common to all 
minds of whatever grade of development ; but 
that while these may prompt to worship, yet, 
without religious instruction, they can lead only 
to superstitious and debasing practices. The re- 
ligious or spiritual instinct does not necessarily 
involve any act of the intellect ; for those whose 
intellectual education and endowments are quite 
inferior, often show a surprising degree of spirit- 
ual insight and religious fervor. This fact, how- 
ever, does not supersede the necessity of appeal- 
ing to the understanding in imparting a knowl- 
edge of those religious truths which have been 
communicated by divine revelation ; but, in re- 
ceiving these truths, the intellect assumes the 
attitude of faith rather than of inquiry ; that is 
to say, having become satisfied of the authentici- 
ty, or the authority, of the source whence these 
truths, or dogmatic teachings emanate, it does 
not exercise its powers to establish their validity, 
but only to conceive them in their true import 
and relations. Hence, the intellect is not to be 
cultivated by means of religious instruction : al- 
though its exercise cannot wholly be dispensed 
with. The specific office of religious education 
is thus twofold: (1) to cultivate the religions 
instincts ; and (2) to impart religious truth. The 
one is accomplished by means of devotional exer- 
cises ; the other, by dogmatic teachings. — In the 
first stages of religious education, appropriate 
exercises constitute almost the only agency 
needed, nothing but the simplest religious truths 
being requisite (such as are usually contained in 
the catechism); but, in the more advanced period 
of culture, the importance of dogmatic instruction 
increases. Simple prayers and hymns, with just 
enough teaching to enable the child to realize 
their full significance, are the usual and the 
most effective means of exercising the religious 
faculty. It must, however, be borne in mind, 
that the mere saying of a prayer, or the singing 
of a hymn, will not necessarily give this exercise, 
any more than merely committing to memory a 
definition or a rule will exercise the intellect. The 
mechanical repetition of prayers, in religions 
education, is just as useless as rote-teaching in 
intellectual education. By an inattention to this 
principle on the part of parents and religious 
teachers, no doubt, many children become dis- 
gusted with religious devotion, while others 
imbibe the notion that religion is only a matter 
of forms and ceremonies, or the repeating of 
the catechism. In either case, the religious in- 
stinct becomes dormant for the want of due 
exercise. 



The relation of moral and religious education 
should be carefully studied. In brief, it may be 
said that the former deals with the relations 
which mankind sustain to each other ; and the 
latter, with those which man as a spiritual being 
sustains to the Infinite Spirit, the ( 'mitor and 
Preserver of all things. In the one, the principle 
addressed is that of conscience (q.v.), the sense 
of right ; in the other, it is the religious principle, 
the spiritual instinct, by which man is brought 
into communion witk his Maker. (See Moral 
Education.) In a certain sense, these two de- 
partments of education are independent ; for 
conscience operates independently of religion ; 
but a rebgious sanction is the strongest founda- 
tion for moral precepts. For this, the Christian 
revelation affords the fullest authority, the "first 
and great commandment" being to love God ; 
and the second, "to love thy neighbor as thyself." 
The several departments of education are not to 
be divorced from one another, but all are to be 
carried on together, so as to produce a harmonious 
development of character. (See Harmony of De- 
velopment.) — In imparting religious instruction, 
the same principles are to be applied as in intel- 
lectual education, as far as language is the vehicle 
of the instruction. Very much of the religious 
teaching given in the Sunday-school is of no 
value, because of the neglect to observe these prin- 
ciples. Committing to memory formulated dog- 
mas, verses from the Bible, doctrinal lessons, etc., 
without any proper appreciation of their signifi- 
cance, can be of little service ; and in some cases 
may do positive harm. Oral instruction plays a 
most important part in this kind of teaching ; 
and Bible expositions, when clear, definite, and 
illustrative, always prove the most effective as 
well as the most attractive means of instruction. 
— The questions as to the relation of religious and 
secular instruction are considered in the article 
on Denominational Schools. — (See also Bible. 
and Sunday-Schools.) 

REUCHLIN, John, one of the foremost 
representatives and promoters of classical studies 
in the 1 5th and 1 (ith centuries, was born at Pforz- 
heim, in 1455, and died at Stuttgart, June 30., 
1522. His lectures on Greek authors, delivered 
at the university of Basel, are regarded as 
the first, of the kind. He disagreed with Eras- 
mus in regard to the true pronounciation of 
Greek, and those who adopted his views, were 
called Reuchlinists. (See Creek Language.) The 
Hebrew grammar, published by him in 1506, 
under the title Rudimenta Hebraicae Linguae, 
was largely instrumental in introducing the 
study of this language into the sphere of ordi- 
nary studies. In consequence of his appreciation 
of Jewish learning, he was violently attacked by 
the Dominicans. The emperor, having been pe- 
titioned to order all the books of the Jews de- 
stroyed except the Old Testament, Reuchlin was 
directed by the Elector of Mayence to declare 
what should be done in the matter, lie decided 
that only those books that directly attacked 
Christianity should be destroyed. He was now 
subjected to active persecutions. His enemies 



I 



732 



EEWAEDS 



RHETORIC 



declared him to be a heretic, and accused him of 
being secretly inclined to Judaism. He was tried 
by Hoogstraaten, at Mayence, and his writings 
were condemned to the flames. He appealed to 
the Pope; and the case was referred to the Bishop 
of Spire, who decided in Reuchlin's favor. An 
appeal from this decision was taken to Rome, 
but was never directly acted upon. A league of 
Reuchlinists (so called) was formed to take the 
part of Reuchlin. It assumed the champion- 
ship of the cause of classical learning, as opposed 
to the scholasticism which had prevailed, and en- 
listed the co-operation of many of the most dis- 
tinguished men of Germany. In 1519, Franz 
von Sickingen ordered the Dominicans to make 
good to Reuchlin all the costs of court which 
he had incurred in consequence of their pro- 
ceedings against him, and to give security 
against his further prosecution ; and they did 
so. In 1520, Reuchlin read lectures at Ingol- 
stadt, under the patronage of the Duke of Ba- 
varia, on Hebrew grammar and the Plutus of 
Aristophanes, to more than three hundred hear- 
ers. A few months before his death, he was 
invited to teach Hebrew and the Greek gram- 
mar in the university of Tubingen. 

REWARDS, as an instrument of family or 
school discipline, are benefits or privileges con- 
ferred to incite children to well-doing. Primarily, 
the offer of a reward, as an incitement to effort 
on the part of the pupil, appeals to hope, as pun- 
ishment does to fear (q. v.): but there are other 
elements of individual character also addressed, 
depending on (1) the nature of the reward of- 
fered, and (2) the individuality of the pupil. 
Thus, the pupil who is particularly fond of praise, 
if offered a valuable gift as an inducement to do 
right, would strive to obtain it as a striking 
token of his teacher's approval; while one who 
was naturally acquisitive, or eager for gain, 
would regard only the intrinsic value of the 
reward. Hence, in one case, the pupil's approba- 
tiveness would be stimulated; and, in the other, 
his acquisitiveness; but in neither would the 
sense of duty be cultivated. The necessity of ex- 
ercising great care in offering rewards will, 
therefore, be obvious. While an appeal to hope 
as an incentive to do right, is in most cases, if 
not always, preferable to an appeal to fear; yet, 
it must be borne in mind that rewards as well as 
punishments constitute only a temporary expe- 
dient in the discipline of children, and should, as 
soon as possible, give place to a direct appeal to 
conscience, or the sense of right. (See Con- 
science.) When rewards are offered to a number 
of pupils, to be conferred upon those who excel 
all the others, they become prizes, and are liable 
to all the objections which have been urged 
against the prize system ; but when rewards 
{premiums), whether gifts of money, books, pict- 
ures, or other articles of value, or merely tickets 
or certificates of merit, are offered to all who 
reach a certain specified standard of merit, either 
in study or behavior, these objections are ob- 
viated; as, although the mercenary spirit may 
still be addressed, there is not the same liability 



to injustice, or the same cause of envy and 
jealousy. Rewards may, however, consist merely 
of special privileges conferred upon meritorious 
pupils; such as dismissal before the usual time 
for closing school, permission to occupy some post 
of honor or authority in connection with the 
management of the school or class, or to engage 
in some special sport or recreation planned by the 
teacher, as a means of encouraging well-doing. 
All these, doubtless, have their place in a proper 
scheme of school discipline ; and, when used 
with discrimination, are beneficial. — A system of 
rewards has been objected to as appealing to the 
lower, rather than to the higher, motives; but an 
educator must not be led astray by any tran- 
scendental view of human nature. He must rec- 
ognize the moral imperfections of his pupil, and 
strive to lift him gradually to a higher plane of 
thought and action. In this connection, it has 
been properly remarked, "whatever may be pos- 
sible in the mature man, in the line of that sub- 
lime abstraction, virtue is its own reward, the 
child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor 
are they demanded of him. They may, it is true, 
be gradually wrought by instruction into the 
body of his thought, for the sake of their ulti- 
mate effect on his principles as a man; but, em- 
braced, as he is, in a world of perceived realities, 
and only capable of attaining the subtler ideals 
by passing to them through the fine gradations 
of a progressively reduced and sublimated reality, 
it is absurd and tyrannous to rob him of the 
stimulus, guidance, and aid of proper rewards as 
outward realities foreshadowing the ideal of 
absolute virtue, and rendering possible both its 
conception and attainment." — See Jewell, 
School Government (New York, 1866); Mor- 
rison, Manual of School Management, s. v. 
Discipline (5th ed., Glasgow, 1874). 

RHETORIC (Gr. pTjTopirf, art of oratory) 
was originally applied to that branch of study in 
which students were trained for public speak- 
ing. In Greece and Rome, the orator was di- 
rectly the most powerful exponent of truth and 
opinion. As a teacher, as well as a persuader, 
his influence was, to a great extent, confined to 
his hearers ; and eloquence was, therefore, in the 
greatest request. But, even in the writings of 
the three greatest of the ancient rhetoricians, — 
Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, there is evidence 
that rhetoric embraced compositions not intended 
for delivery in public. In modern times, rhet- 
oric as an art treats of all composition, whether 
spoken or written. It has been well defined as 
the art of discourse, and discourse itself as " the 
capacity in man of communicating his mental 
states to other minds by means of language." It 
embraces poetry as well as prose " because," as 
Campbell says, "the same medium, language, 
is made use of ; the same general rules of com- 
position, in narration, description, and argumen- 
tation, are observed ; and the same tropes and 
figures, either for beautifying or invigorating 
the diction, are employed by both. The versifi- 
cation is to be considered as an appendage.rather 
than a constituent of poetry." In the most 



RHETORIC 



733 



recent treatises on rhetoric, elocution, or the art 
of delivery, has been omitted. Bay very justly 
says, " that this mode of communication is not 
essential. The thought may be conveyed by the 
pen or by the voice. Elocution, or the vocal ex- 
pression of thought, is not, accordingly, a neces- 
sary part of rhetoric." In Whately's treatise 
(Elements of Rhetoric), however, a work con- 
siderably used by students, a large part is de- 
voted to elocution. — It has often been observed 
that there must have been orators before there 
were rules in oratory ; and this is often used as 
an argument for undervaluing the study of rhet- 
oric, just as kindred arguments are advanced 
against the study of logic and grammar. But 
there can be no question that immense progress 
has been made through the critical study of 
writers of standard reputation, by comparing, 
discriminating, and deciding on, their faults and 
graces, thus teaching us what to avoid. and what 
to emulate. In its best sense, rhetoric presup- 
poses an acquaintance with logic — the science 
and art of reasoning; because conviction and 
persuasion are two of the great objects present 
in the minds of speakers and writers. It also re- 
quires an acquaintance with grammar, as teach- 
ing the proper arrangement of words and sen- 
tences. Rhetoric may be regarded from two points 
of view: (1) as a purely critical study; and 
(2) as the constant practice of an art. To the 
extent that either of these views becomes more 
prominent in the teacher's mind, will the 
character of his instruction be affected. It is 
quite possible to prepare students to recite well 
in the statement of principles and definitions ; 
and yet the same students may be veiy deficient 
in the development or expression of spoken or 
written thought. The condition of such stu- 
dents may lead us to say with Butler : 

" For all a rhetorician's rules 

Teach nothing but to name his tools.'' 

In the celebrated treatise of Blair, Lectures on 
Rhetoric and BellesLettres, taste and style are 
so treated as to occupy a very large part of 
the subject. It is largely so with Campbell's 
Philosophy of Rhetoric. Whately drew par- 
ticular attention to the subject of invention ; 
but he follows style with a chapter on elocution. 
The practice, at present, which seems to be in- 
creasing in favor with teachers, is to omit elocu- 
tion, or the training in mere delivery, and to ex- 
tend the importance of invention even beyond 
that assigned to it by AVhately. The two great 
divisions of rhetoric are thus invention and 
style. There can be no question as to the im- 
portance of invention in rhetoric. The arrange- 
ment of the thoughts according to their logical 
dependence must be the foundation of the 
art of discourse. Good thinking must always 
precede good writing. The office of invention 
is to train the pupil to habits of correct think- 
ing. It does more than this ; it seeks to sup- 
ply the thought. Thus, invention is naturally 
divided into two parts, — the supplying of the 
thought, and its proper arrangement ; and of 



these two divisions, the second is dependent on 
the first. In a cyclopaedia, where the space is 
necessarily limited, it will not be expected that 
any systematic development of the steps and 
processes used in invention can be given. The 
reader is referred, on this and on other points, 
to the works enumerated at the end of this 
article. While, however, there is no dispute as 
to the place of invention in rhetoric as an art, it 
may reasonably be doubted, whether it can be 
properly studied at the early age when pupils 
are usually required to study rhetoric. In many 
of its steps, it is essentially logical, and presup- 
poses an acquaintance with that subject, — and 
this again demands some considerable maturity 
of mind. The preparation of arguments, or the 
art of influencing the will by discourse, is a 
power the development of which goes on past 
middle age ; but it is a power that cannot be 
successfully trained in very early years. The 
chief danger in teaching this particular division 
of rhetoric, is that it may be made too scientific. 
There are few young minds so trained, or of such 
native vigor, as to be capable of dwelling long, 
and with benefit, upon even well enunciated 
truths and definitions ; but, even where it is 
insisted on and continued, the results are not 
always beneficial. 

The second grand division of rhetoric — style 
deals more particularly with the form of the 
thought. Perhaps no word has given more dif- 
ficulty to define. Without speech, " thought is 
not possible in reality." Though so endlessly 
variable in its form, so subtle as almost to defy 
minute analysis, so subject to the moods of 
thought, and yet so plastic as to conform to its 
most sinuous and involved movements, we soon 
realize by a little study, how completely it is a 
part of the thinking. The thought and the 
style are thus seen to be one living body. As a 
subject of study, it is that part of rhetoric which 
has always created and maintained the greatest 
interest in the minds of young students. Treat- 
ing of the form of the sentence, and also of its 
component words, it depends, to some extent, on 
grammar, and may be said to follow it, in a nat- 
ural order of study. It is, therefore, to young 
minds more suitable than the other division — 
invention. The practice which it requires in 
the substitution of words, the inversion of sen- 
tences from grammatical to rhetorical forms, 
the use of rhetorical figures, the expansion and 
contraction of language, furnishes a constant 
stimulus to mental exertion. Such exercises in 
style show the student how powerfully the thought 
is influenced by the vehicle of thought, how it 
may be modified by the substitution of a clearer 
word, or remarkably affected by a different 
position of the same words. 

The advantage of sentential analysis in the 
careful study of style can scarcely be overrated. 
The arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, 
peculiar to the great English writers, affect most 
powerfully the turn of the thought, and are open 
to investigation through this analysis. The 
kind of sentences they use, and the variety in 



734 



EHBTOEIC 



RHODE ISLAND 



which they indulge, give that harmony of move- 
ment so indescribably pleasing. We, thus, see 
from what arise the clearness and greatness of 
Hume, the energy and brilliancy of Macaulay, 
the grace of Irving, the manly vigor of Sydney 
Smith, the philosophic calmness of Helps, the 
incomparable plasticity and fire of Byron's prose. 
Perhaps no part of rhetoric offers a finer field 
for both teacher and student than the application 
of sentential analysis to an investigation of the 
striking peculiarities in the style of great writers. 
— In no branch of study, is there greater necessity 
for abundance of practice on the part of the 
student. In none is there greater necessity that 
the student, and not the teacher, should do the 
chief part of the work. The value of rhetoric, 
as a branch of study, is to be tested by its prac- 
tical utility, by what it contributes towards de- 
veloping clearness, force, and beauty of expression 
in language. Any thing else, however scientific, 
iu this branch must prove to the young student 
a comparatively barren and irksome task. In 
this light, the constant application of a few 
simple principles to the criticism of great writers 
is an admirable part of the training. In Blair's 
Lectures on Rhetoric, there is a series of papers 
from Addison illustrating this view; and it is to 
be doubted whether modern treatises on rhetoric, 
aiming at a more philosophic treatment of the 
subject, while they have gained in scientific ar- 
rangement, may not have lost some of this crit- 
ical training. Accuracy, as well as force of ex- 
pression, purity, propriety, grace, are, to most 
students, the result of constant, careful practice, 
combined with criticisms on distinguished writ- 
ers. Franklin, in his autobiography, gives a 
most interesting account of what can be accom- 
plished under limited opportunities, without a 
teacher, by careful criticism and revision. The 
various steps, related in his remarkably simple 
English, are worthy of the notice of those en- 
gaged in the instruction of youth. — In the two 
leading American colleges, Harvard and Yale, 
the time allotted to the study of rhetoric is, in 
the former, a part of the sophomore and junior 
years ; in the latter, the senior year, although 
lectures on rhetoric are delivered to the sopho- 
more class. Supposing the average age of stu- 
dents, at the time of admission, to be 17 — and 
this is, probably, below the true average — it 
may be said that rhetoric, as a distinct branch of 
study, is pursued by the students in their twen- 
tieth year. This age gives some degree of ma- 
turity. By a thorough course in the classical or 
modern languages, students are, to a certain ex- 
tent, prepared to enter upon the study of inven- 
tion and the criticism of style. — See Kames, Ele- 
ments of Criticism; Addison, Essays onParadise 
Lost, in the Spectator; BhAiB.,Lectures on Rhetoric 
and Belles-Lettres ; Campbell, Philosophy of 
Rhetoric; Whately, Elements of Rhetoric; De 
Quincey, Rhetorical and Critical Essays, art. 
Style; Herbert Spencer, Essays, Moral, Polit- 
ical, and JEsthetic, art. Style; *H. N. Day, The 
Art of Discourse (N. T., 1869). (See also 
Belles-Lettres.) 



RHODE ISLAND, one of the original 
states of the American Union, and the smallest 
of all now composing it, having an area of 1,306 
sq. m., and a population, according to the cen- 
sus of 1870, of 217,358. 

Educational History. — It is claimed by Rhode- 
Islanders that the first school established by 
public vote in New England, was at Newport,. 
R. I., in 1640. The early town records are very 
defective ; but it appears, from Callender's His- 
torical Discourse (1738), that, in 1640, Mr. 
Robert Leuthal was, by vote, " called to keep a 
public school for the learning of youth," and, 
further, that an appropriation of one hundred 
acres of land was made for the permanent sup- 
port of a school, " for encouragement of the 
poorer sort, to train up their youth in learning.'' 
This school tract of 100 acres was allotted in 
what is now the town of Middletown ; but, in 
1661, was exchanged for a tract afterwards 
known as Newtown, or School-land. In 
1663, this tract was ordered to be divided into- 
lots ; and the income arising from the sale or 
lease of them was to constitute a fund for the 
,; schooling and educating of poor children." — 
The first public act in behalf of education in 
Providence was in May, 1663, when the pro- 
prietors voted that 100 acres of upland and 
6 acres of meadow should be laid out as school! 
lands, and " reserved for the maintenance of a 
school in this town." The earliest allusion to a 
school-house is made in 1752 ; and it is probable 
that the town simply allowed the school-master 
the use of the building, at a fixed rent, the pu- 
pils paying him for his services. At a town 
meeting held Dec. 2„ 1767, the citizens voted to 
build "three school-houses for small children 
and one for youth, to provide instructions, and 
pay the expense from the treasury, and these 
schools to be under the supervision of the school 
committee." A plan for the organization of 
the schools was reported by the committee, 
through Governor Jabez Bowen, and may be 
found in the pages of Staples's Annals of Prov- 
idence. It is an admirable report, and is based 
upon this wide provision : " That every inhabi- 
tant of this town, whether they be free of the 
town or not, shall have and enjoy an equal right 
and privilege of sending their own children, and 
the children of others that may be under their 
care, for instruction and bringing up, to any or 
all of said schools." This beneficent plan was, 
however, defeated , on grounds thus stated by 
Moses Brown, another member of the com- 
mittee : 

" 1768. Laid before the town by the committee, 
but a number of the inhabitants (and what is most 
surprising and remarkable the plan of a Free School, 
supported by a tax, was rejected by the Poorer sort 
of the people,) being strangely led away not to see 
their own as well as the public interest therein, (by a 
few objectors at first,) either because they were not 
the projectors, or had not public spirit to execute so- 
laudable a design, and which was first voted by the 
town with great freedom. M. B." 

The town, at last, built a school-house, con- 
jointly with private proprietors, the town owning 
only the lower story, but having the supervision of 



RHODE ISLAND 



735 



both private and public schools, through a school 
committee. 

In Bristol, the original proprietors, in 1680, 
granted land " for the common improvement, for 
the encouragement and use of an able orthodox 
minister, and for the use and encouragement of 
an able schoolmaster in the town." "The first 
recorded act of the citizens of Bristol in regard 
to schools is dated in September, 1682, when 
it was voted : 

"That each person that hath children in town ready 
to go to school, shall pay three pence the week for 
each child's schooling to the schoolmaster, and the 
town by rate according to each ratable estate shall 
make the wages to amount to £24 the year. The 
selectmeut to look out a grammar schoolmaster and 
use their endeavor to obtain £"> of the cape money 
granted for such an eud.'' " September, 1684, voted 
£24 the year for Mr. Cobliitt, he officiating in the 
place of a schoolmaster in this town." 

These seem to have been the main attempts 
at popular education in this state, before 
the Revolution. There were, also, some local 
efforts for the instruction of the Indians, 
beginning with a gift of land made by Judge 
Bewail, of Massachusetts, for that purpose. Li 
regard to the colored population, then quite 
numerous in Rhode Island, the Newport Mer- 
cury, of March 29., 1773, had the followina : 

"Whereas a sehoul was established, several years 
past, in the town of Newport, by a society of benev- 
olent clergymen of the church of England, in Lon- 
don, with a handsome fund for a mistress to instruct 
thirty negro children in reading, sewing, etc. And 
whereas it has hitherto been found difficult to supply 
the said school with the number of children required ; 
notice is hereby given, that the said school is now 
kept by Mrs. Mary Brett, in High Street, nearly op- 
posite to Judge Johnston's, and is open to all societies 
in the town, to send their young blacks, to the num- 
ber of thirty; And, provided, that the number can- 
not be nearly kept up for the future, the gentlemen to 
whose care and direction the said school has been en- 
trusted will be obliged to give it up entirely at the ex- 
piration of six months." 

There were many reasons why popular edu- 
cation met with less general support iu Rhode 
Island than in Massachusetts. The population 
was far more scanty — not exceeding 7,000, in 
1680, and being only 17,035 in 1730. Over 
much of the territory, there was no settled gov- 
ernment, there being boundary disputes in sev- 
eral directions. Rhode Island was a peculiar 
sufferer by the Indian wars, and the continued 
existence of slavery was a fatal obstacle to pub- 
lic schools. Finally, there was no such power- 
fid body of clergymen as existed in Massachu- 
setts, sustaining by potent influence the whole 
system of schools. There was, on the contrary, 
a strong reaction against this clerical influence, 
and against the traditional institutions of Mas- 
sachusetts and Connecticut. It was due to all 
these reasons that public schools, though planted 
so early in Rhode Island, flourished less than in 
these other states. The reminiscences of Samuel 
Thurber, an aged citizen of Providence, record 
the general condition of education, before the 
Revolution : 

"As respects schools, previous to about the year 
1770, they were but little thought of; there were in 
my neighborhood three small schools perhaps about 



a dozen scholars in each. Their books were the Bible. 
spelling-book, and primer. One was kept by John 
Foster, Esq., in his office, one by Dr. Benjamin West. 
Their fees were seven shillings and sixpence per quar- 
ter. One was kept by George Taylor, Esq., for the 
church scholars. He, it was said, received a small 
compensation from England. Besides these, there 
were two or three women schools. When one had 
learned to read, write, and do a sum iu the rule of 
three, he was fit for business. * * * The Rev, .lames 
Manning did great things in the way of enlightening 
and informing the people. Schools revived by means 
of his advice and assistance. Previous to him it was 
not uncommon to meet with those who could not 
write their names." 

This testimony links Brown University with 
the history of common-school education in Rhode 
Island. Dr. Manning was president of what was 
then Rhode Island College, when it was removed 
to Providence, in 1770; and the impetus given 
by him would, doubtless, have borne more im- 
mediate fruit, but for the absorbing excitement 
of the Revolution. A colony which saw one of 
its chief towns long held by the enemy, could 
not give much attention to schools. The con- 
flict left the young state terribly depleted and 
impoverished. It had hardly recovered itself, 
when it was urged on to the adoption of a pub- 
lic-school system, through the far-seeing energy 
of one man. The real founder of public schools 
in Khode Island was John Howland, who was 
born in Newport, in 1753, and was sent to Prov- 
idence at thirteen, to be a barber's apprentice, 
lie was afterwards a soldier of the Revolution, 
and was then for many years a barber in Prov- 
idence. He was also a member of the Me- 
chanics' Association, founded in 1789. Mr. How- 
land luus left fully on record the successive steps 
in the agitation which resulted in the establish- 
ment of public schools; and it is a curious fact 
that, by his showing, it met with no opposition 
from the wealthy, but only from the very class 
it was especially designed to benefit. It was 
warmly approved in Providence, and was en- 
dorsed in Newport, but was regarded with in- 
difference in the country towns. In these, in- 
deed, it had been but little agitated, a fact to 
which the early repeal of the measure was mainly 
due. The bill establishing public schools was 
enacted in the February session, 1800. Its vital 
provisions were as follows : 

" Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assem- 
bly, and the authorities thereof, and it is hereby en- 
acted; — That each and every town in the State shall 
annually cause to be established and kept, at the ex- 
pense of such town, one or more free schools, f r the 
instruction of all the white inhabitants of said town, 
between the ages of six and twenty years, in reading, 
writing, and common arithmetic, who may stand iu 
need of such instruction, and apply therefor." 

"Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That it shall be 
the duty of the Town Council of every town, to divide 
said town into so many school-districts as they shall 
judge necessary and convenient.'' 

It was further provided that each town might 
retain, for school purposes, twenty per cent of 
its state taxes, so long as the sum thus retained 
did not exceed $6,000. In ease any town failed 
to establish the schools required, this allowance 
was to lie forfeited ; but there was no other 
penalty imposed, nor was action made obliga- 



736 



RHODE ISLAND 



tory. As a result, the law was an absolute fail- 
ure, except as regarded the city of Providence. 
No other community carried it into effect, and 
the law itself was rejected in 1803. 

In organizing the schools of Providence, John 
Howland was made one of the committee ; and | 
so thoroughly was his work done in his own 
city, that the school system was there sustained 
after the repeal of the general law, and the 
schools of Providence remained, until within a 
few years, far in advance of all the rest of the 
state.— For twenty-five years after the repeal of 
John Howland's law, there was in Rhode Island 
no state system of schools, even on paper; 
though the local schools of Providence were well 
sustained at the public expense, and there were, 
at Newport and elsewhere, some endowed schools, 
most of them established by lottery. In 1827, there 
were petitions for a school system ; and, in 1828, 
a law was passed, authorizing towns to appoint 
school committees, and to tax themselves for 
schools ; and providing that sums paid into the 
general treasury by lottery dealers and auction- 
eers should be appropriated to the support of 
public schools, to an amount not exceeding 
$10,000. This act was the foundation of the 
present school system of the state ; and though 
its provisions seemed in some respects unsatis- 
factory, it was yet a great step forward. During 
the next fifteen years, the system underwent 
some important modifications, especially as to 
the plan of distribution of the school money, 
which was at first allotted to each town in pro- 
portion to the number of inhabitants below the 
age of sixteen ; but, afterwards, according to 

(1) the number of white persons under sixteen, 

(2) the number of colored persons under ten, 

(3) five fourteenths of the colored persons be- 
tween ten and twenty-four. This complicated 
method remained in force from 1832 to 1845. — 
The first document answering to a general school 
report was prepared by Oliver Angel, a veteran 
teacher, in behalf of a committee appointed at a 
public meeting in Providence. It was printed in 
pamphlet form, and dated May 17., 1832. The 
most important statistical facts, contained in 
this report were the following : 

Whole number of public schools in the state.. . 323 

Whole number of scholars taught in them 17,034 

Number of male teachers employed 31S 

Number of female teachers employed 147 

Number of schools continued through the year 20 

Average time of the others 3 months. 

Whole amount appropriated by the towns for 

the support of schools $11,400 

Amount drawn from school fund $10,000 

Whole amount expended for support of public 

schools $21 ,490 

Number of private schools continued through 

the year, under male teachers 30 

Number of private schools continued through 

the year, under female teachers 88 

(In nearly all the country towns, the private schools 
may be considered as the public schools continued by 
individual subscription, from three to six months.) 
Whole number of scholars taught in them (ex- 
clusive of the Friend's Boarding- School, 

Providence) 3,403 

Total estimated expense of private schools, $81,375 

Expended for support of schools for one year. $102,865 



Some strange facts may be gathered from 
these statistics. It appears that, in 1832, Prov- 
idence had five times as many public schools as 
private; Newport, sixteen times as many; and the 
amount expended on private schools throughout 
the state was four times that spent on public 
schools. Only twenty public schools were con- 
tinued through the year, the average time of the 
others being but three months; and men out- 
numbered women, as teachers, almost two to one. 
In 1843, a bill was introduced into the Rhode 
Island assembly, by William Updike, of South 
Kingston, to authorize the governor of the state 
"to employ some suitable person as agent;" and, 
in advocating its passage, he boldly declared the 
school system, as it then existed, to be "not a 
blessing, except in the city of Providence, and 
possibly, a few other towns." He asserted that 
Rhode Island was behind the other New England 
states, and that the remedy for this was the ap- 
pointment of a commissioner to revise the whole 
system, to codify the laws, and to visit and ex- 
amine the schools throughout the state. The 
bill was passed, and Henry Barnard was ap- 
pointed the school agent, in December, 1843. In 
May, the following year, he made his report of a 
school law, which was passed June 27., 1845. 
This law created the office of commissioner of 
pnlic schools, to be appointed by the governor, 
made provision for the financial support of the 
schools, defined the powers and duties of towns 
in regard to public education, provided for school- 
districts, and trustees of schools therein, and also 
for the examination and legal certification of 
teachers. Mr. Barnard's labors and services were 
very great ; and he must stand second only to 
Horace Maun among the school reformers of New 
England. In his very first report, for 1845, he 
made a searching review of the school buildings 
and school methods prevailing in the state. Like 
Horace Mann, he strongly urged the employment 
of women as teachers, and spoke with satisfaction 
of the fact that he had caused the employment 
of more than fifty additional female teachers 
during the past year. He had also, he reported, 
seen more than fifty new school-houses built, 
mostly on plans furnished by himself. It was 
declared by the teachers of the state, on his retire- 
ment from office in 1849, that he had effected a 
"revolution" in school architecture; and the 
amount of printed matter circulated by him, was 
very great. More than 16,000 educational pam- 
phlets were distributed by him gratuitously, ex- 
clusive of the official documents of the state, and 
the Journal of the Institute of Education. Dur- 
ing one year, not an almanac was published in 
Rhode Island without at least sixteen pages of 
educational matter, added to it. During his five 
years of administration, more than eleven hundred 
educational meetings were held, at which more 
than fifteen hundred addresses were made. These 
facts are stated by Rev. Edwin M, Stone in his 
history of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruc- 
tion, an organization which was formed in Jan- 
uary, 1845, and rendered the most important aid 
to the labors of the commissioner. Mr. Barnard 



RHODE ISLAND 



737 



Tetired in 1849, on account of ill health, and was 
succeeded by Elisha R. Potter, now Judge Potter. 
This gentleman's legal experience was of the 
greatest benefit to the school legislation of the 
state. He secured the gradual abolition of the 
rate-bill system, which in many towns assessed 
part of the school expenses upon the pupils. 
He also established the principle of entire relig- 
ious freedom in the public schools, taking the 
position that, under the Rhode Island constitu- 
tion, the school committees had no right "to pre- 
scribe religious exercises for a school ". The matter 
was to be settled by general consent; but no child 
could be compelled to take part in any religious 
exercise, in opposition to the wishes of his par- 
ents. Accordingly, in the local school laws of 
this state, the school committees usually "recom- 
mend" that the schools be opened with the read- 
ing of the Bible, but do not require it. Other im- 
portant services rendered by Mr. Potter were the 
recommendation (in 1850) of a state board of 
education, and the persistent advocacy of a nor- 
mal school. Through his efforts, a normal depart- 
ment was first established (1850) in Brown Uni- 
versity, and was placed under the charge of Prof. 
S. S. Greene, then superintendent of the Provi- 
dence schools, but whose title in the university 
was Professor of Didactics. To this arrangement, 
succeeded (in 1852) a private normal school, in 
Providence, taught by Messrs. Greene, Russell, 
Colburn.and Guyot; and finally (in 1854), a state 
normal school, under Dana P. Colburn. This 
school was afterward removed to Bristol, and, 
after Mr. Oolburn's death, was placed under 
Joshua Kendall's charge. It was, however, abol- 
ished in 18G5, but was re-established at Provi- 
dence in 1871, under the care of J. 0. Green- 
ough, who still remains its principal. The suc- 
cessors of Mr. Potter in the office of school com- 
missioner have been Robert Allyn (1854 — 7), 
John Kingsbury (1857 — 9), Joshua B. Chapin 
(1859 — Gl, and again 1863 — 9), Henry Rous- 
maniere 1 1861— 3), T. W. Bicknell (1809—75), 
and Thomas B. Stockwell, the present incumbent, 
elected in Is 75. 

A state board of education was created in 
1870; and there have been various improvements 
in organization since that time, including the 
extension of the term of school committees from 
one to three years, and the authorization of a 
school superintendent in every town. Women 
have also been occasionally elected members of 
school committees, and have performed their 
duties with marked success. Evening schools 
have also received particular attention, being 
especially important in a manufacturing state 
like Rhode Island. 

School System. — The constitution of the state 
provides (1) that "it shall be the duty of the 
general assembly to promote public schools, and 
\o adopt all means which they may deem neces- 
sary and proper to secure to the people the 
advantages and opportunities of education "; 
(2) that "the money appropriated by law for 
the establishment of a permanent fund for the 
support of public schools shall be securely in- 



vested and remain a perpetual fund for that 
purpose"; (3) that "all donations for the support 
of public schools or other educational purposes 
shall be applied according to the terms prescribed 
by the donors." The officers of the system con- 
sist of (1) a state board of education, (2) a com- 
missioner of public schools, (3) trustees of the 
state normal school, (4) town school committees, 
(5) town superintendents, (6) district trustees, 
and (7) district clerks, treasurers, and collectors. — 
The slate board of education is composed of eight 
members, the governor and the lieutenant-gov- 
ernor being members, ex officio, and each of the 
five counties of the state being entitled to one 
member, except Providence, which is entitled to 
two. The members are elected by the general 
assembly for three years. This board has the 
general supervision and control of the public 
schools, its particular duties being to hold quar- 
terly meetings, to prescribe and enforce general 
regulations, and to make an annual report to the 
general assembly. r l he governor of the state is 
the president of the board, and the commissioner, 
secretary. — The commissioner of public schools 
is elected annually by the board of education, 
and is the chief executive officer in the admin- 
istration of the system. His duties are to advise 
with school officers and teachers in all matters 
pertaining to education; to visit and inspect the 
schools; to deliver addresses in the several towns 
on subjects pertaining to the progress of the 
schools; to arrange for and conduct teachers' in- 
stitutes; to secure, as far as is desirable, a uni- 
formity of text-books; to assist in the establish- 
ment of school libraries; to draw orders on the 
treasurer for the school moneys to which the 
towns are entitled; and to make an annual report 
to the board of education on the last Monday in 
December of each year. He also decides disputes 
and controversies arising in the administration 
of the school laws; but. if requested, he must lay 
a statement of the facts of the case before one 
of the justices of the supreme court, whose de- 
cision is final. — The trustees of the minimi school 
consist of the members of the board of education 
and the commissioner of the public schools, and 
have the control, management, and genera! super- 
vision of the normal school. They also examine 
candidates for teachers' licenses, and give certifi- 
cates to such asare found qualified. — School com- 
mittees, each composed of not less than three 
members, are elected in the towns for the term 
of three years, one retiring annually. Their duties 
are to meet for consultation at least four times a 
year, to fix the boundaries of school-districts, to 
locate school-houses, to examine and license ap- 
plicants to teach, and to revoke licenses when 
necessary; to visit, by one or more of their num- 
ber, every public school in the town at least 
twice during each term, to make rules for the 
management and instruction of the schools, and 
to draw all orders for the payment of the school 
moneys. They are at all times subject to the 
supervision of the commissioner. In towns under 
the district system, the trustees have the care of 
the district-school property, and make contracts 



738 



RHODE ISLAND 



with teachers; while the school committee exer- 
cises all other authority over the schools. School 
superintendents, elected by the voters of the 
towns, or, upon their failure to do so, by the 
school committees, perform such duties and ex- 
ercise such powers as may be assigned to them 
by the school committees. District trustees, one 
or three for each district, as the latter may de- 
cide, are annually elected by the voters of the 
districts, but receive no compensation unless the 
district vote to levy a special tax for that pur- 
pose. They have the custody of the school prop- 
erty, and employ the teachers; and they are re- 
quired to visit the schools twice each term, and 
to report to the school committee. — District 
clerks, one for each district, are elected by the 
voters of the district to keep the records of all 
meetings in the district, and of the boundaries of 
the school-districts. — District treasurers keep 
the school moneys, pay it out on proper orders, 
etc.; and district collectors are appointed to col- 
lect the taxes levied in the district for the sup- 
port of schools. — The permanent school fund of 
the state, in 1875, amounted to $265,142.51, 
only the income of which may be appropriated 
to public schools. The annual fund for distri- 
bution among the schools, arising from state and 
local taxation, interest on permanent fund, and 
other sources, amounted to $761,790.92. The 
state appropriates annually $90,000 for the sup- 
port of public schools — $63,000 to the several 
towns in proportion to the number of children 
under the age of 15; and $27,000 according to 
the number of school-districts in each town. The 
money thus appropriated — called teachers' money 
— can be used only for the payment of teachers' 
salaries. No town can receive any part of such 
state appropriation, unless it raise by tax, for the 
support of schools, an amount equal to what it is 
entitled to receive from the state. There is also a 
special state appropriation for evening schools. — 
Every district is required to maintain a school; 
and, if it neglect for seven months to open one, 
the town committee may establish a school, and 
employ a teacher. Two or more districts may 
unite to maintain a school for older children. — 
No minor under 15 years of age may be employed, 
under a penalty of $20, in any manufacturing 
establishment, unless he has attended school at 
least three months during the preceding year, 
nor may any such minor be employed for more 
than nine months in any year. Towns may 
enact truant laws. 

Educational Condition. — The number of pub- 
lic day schools in the state, in 1875, was 737 (grad- 
ed, 436; ungraded, 301); of evening schools, 39; 
and the number of school-houses, 426, the esti- 
mated value of which was $2,360,017. The receipts 
for the support of the schools were as follows: 
From state appropriation for 

day schools $90,000.00 

From state appropriation for 

evening schools 2,495.00 

From town appropriations.. . 560,760.14 

" district taxes 47,620.43 

" other sources 54,919.35 

Total $761,796.92 



The expenditures for the same year were as 
follows : 

For teachers'salaries, day schools $3S3, 284. 14 
" " " evening " 15,350.50 

" sites, buildings, and furniture 274,326.41 

" school supervision 11,681.02 

" other purposes 80,001.67 

Total S764,643.74 

The school statistics, for the year ending April 
30., 1875, are the following: 

No. of children of school age (4 — 16) 53,316 

" " different pupils enrolled in day schools. . 38,554 

Average number belonging 30,102 

Average daily attendance 26,163 

Number enrolled in evening schools 4,600 

Average attendance " " 2,256 

Number of teachers employed, males. . . . 195 
" " " " female s.... 861 

Total 1,055 

Average monthly salary of teachers, males $85.18 

" " " " females.. $46.17 
Average length of school term 9.38 mo. 

In the following cities and towns, the town 
system of school management has been adopted 
wholly or in part : Providence, Bristol, East 
Providence, ivewport, Warren, Woonsocket, 
Pawtucket, Barrington, and Korth Providence. 
— The commissioner's annual report for 1875 
gives the following brief summary of what is 
now attempted in the public elementary schools: 
"An examination of our schools shows that read- 
ing, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic (mental and 
written), and geography are taught in all the 
schools of the state of an intermediate and gram- 
mar grade. United States history and English 
grammar are taught in most of our grammar 
schools. Vocal music is practiced in many of our 
schools, and taught in a few, particularly in those 
of all grades in Providence and Newport. Draw- 
ing is taught in the intermediate and grammar 
grades of Providence and Newport. Sewing is 
taught in a few of the schools in Providence." 

Normal Instruction. — The Rhode Island State 
Normal School, at Providence, from its opening, 
September 1871, to January, 1876, gave instruc- 
tion to 524 pupils, of whom 184 graduated from 
the institution. While fitting teachers for schools 
of a higher grade, it especially aims to prepare 
for teaching elementary schools, — primary, inter- 
mediate, and grammar. The whole number of 
pupils taught, during the year 1875, was 159. 
Three teachers' institutes were held under the 
direction of the state commissioner. 

Secondary Instruction. — There are 13 cities 
and towns which have separate high schools, or 
schools of that grade, either public or private, as 
follows : Providence, Newport, Woonsocket, 
Pawtucket, Hopkinton, Bristol, Warren, West- 
erly, Lincoln, East Greenwich, Barrington, Scit- 
uate, and East Providence. In his report for 
1875, the commissioner remarks : "In the high 
schools, we find the pupils pursuing the studies 
of natural philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, 
botany, algebra, trigonometry, book-keeping, 
general history, mental and moral philosophy, 
English literature, and Latin and Greek." Three 
private academies and seminaries reported to the 
IT. S. Bureau of Education, in 1875, a total of 



RHODE ISLAND 

269 students, of whom 130 were pursuing a clas- 
sical course; 46, a course in modern languages; 
and 32 were preparing for college. The whole 
number of teachers employed in these schools 
was 18. The University Grammar .School, at 
Providence, is the oldest institution of learning 
in the state, its foundation dating back to 1704. 
It was the germ of Brown University, under 
whose control it still is, and for which it has 
prepared nearly 300 students. 'I 'he East Green- 
wich Academy is connected with Boston Uni- 
versity. The Friends' Academy, Mowry and 
Goff's English and classical school, and I>r. Stock- 
bridge's school for young ladies, all in Providence, 
are schools of high repute for efficiency. It 
should also be mentioned that the Rogers High 
School, in Newport, partakes, in some respects, 
of the nature of an academy, having been based, 
in its present form, upon the bequest of $100,000 
to the city of Newport, to be used, under certain 
conditions, for the establishment of a high school. 
Four schools in the state for the preparation of 
students for college, in L875, reported 33 teacli- 
era and 465 pupils. Two business colleges reported 
to the U. S. Bureau 10 teachers and 605 pupils 
— 405 day scholars and 200 evening scholars. 

Superior Instruction. — This grade of education 
is represented by Brown University (q. v.), first 
established at Warren, but, in 1770, removed to 
Providence. This institution contains an agricult- 
ural and scientific department. 

Special Instruction. — The only institution of 
this character in the state is the Reform School, 
at Providence, in which both boys and girls are 
well cared for, being provided with the means 
for acquiring a common-school education, and 
trained in habits of neatness, order, and industry. 
In 1875, the whole number of inmates was 197, 
— boys, 162; girls, 35. 

Teachers' Associations. — The Rhode Island 
Institute of Instruction held its thirtieth annual 
session at Providence, in January, 1875. This 
association, during its long career, has numbered 
among its members the most distinguished edu- 
cators of the state, and has exerted a most im- 
portant influence upon the progress of every de- 
partment of education. 

Educational Journals. — The first educational 
journal published in the state was the Journal 
of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 
which was continued about three years, till 1849. 
Under the administration of commissioner Pot- 
ter, the Rhode Island Educational Magazine 
was commenced, and continued for two years. In 
1855, the Rhode Island Schoolmaster was first is- 
sued, and continued to be published for twenty 
years, being merged, in 1875, inthe New England 
Journal of Education, now published in Boston, 
under the editorship of J. W. Bicknell. 

For fuller information in regard to the educa- 
tional history of this stale, see the Centennial 
Volume, A History if Public Education in 
Rhode Island from 1636 to 1876, compiled by 
authority of the Board of Education, and edited 
by Thomas B. Stockwell, Commissioner of Public 
Schools (Providence, 1876). This volume includes 



RICHTER 



739 



1 A History of the Public School System of Rhode 
Island, by Thomas Wentworth Higginson. 

RICHARDSON, Charles, an English lexi- 
cographer, born in duly, 1775 ; died at Feltham, 
Middlesex. Oct. 6., 1865. Little is recorded of 
his early life or education. After some study of 
the literature of the law. he turned his attention 
to philology, which was always afterwards the 
business of his life. His principal works are : 
Illustrations if English Philology (London. 
1815); New Dictionary if the English Language 
(1837); and On the Study of Languages (1854). 
It is on his dictionary that 'his fame 'principally 
rests. Its publication was begun in 1835, and 
finished in 1837; but its preparation was the 
labor of 20 years. Though now superseded in 

j great measure by the larger works of Worces- 
ter and Webster, its reception at the time of 
its publication was remarkably cordial ; and crit- 
ical notices, almost without exception, mentioned 

j it with praise. (See Dictionary.) 

RICHMOND COLLEGE, at Richmond, 
Ya.. under Baptist control, was founded in 
1844. It is supported by tuition fees and the 
income of an endowment of §100.000. The value 
of its buildings and grounds is $150,000. Its 
libraries contain about 6.000 volumes. The col- 
lege is composed of eight independent schools ; 
namely, of Latin. Greek, modern languages, En- 
glish, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and philos- 
ophy. The students are free to choose any of 
these schools, but every one is required to attend 
at least three. The following degrees are con- 
ferred, according to the number and character of 
the schools attended : B. L., B. S., A. B., and 
A. M. The tuition fee varies from $50 per an- 
num upward, according to the number of schools 
attended. In 1875 — 6, there were 7 instructors 
and 150 students. The presidents have been as 
follows: the Rev. R. Ryland. I). !>., 1844—66; 
the Rev. Tiberius G. Jones, D. I)., 1866—9 ; 
and B. Fury ear, A. M. (chairman of the faculty), 
from 1869 to the present time (1876). 

RICHTER, Johann Paul Friedrich, an 
illustrious German author, popularly known as 
Jean Paul, born in W'unsiedel. Bavaria, March 
21., 1763; died in Baireuth, November 14., 1825. 
He was educated at the university of Leipsic, 
and, after leaving it, passed ten years of his 
life as a private tutor, his condition, during 
much of that time, being one of extreme 
poverty. While occupied as a teacher, he 
wrote several works ; but, for a long time, 
was unsuccessful in finding a publisher, and was 
still longer in finding readers, the extravagance 

1 and oddity of his thought and style bahiing 
popular comprehension, and depriving his genius 
of that recognition which it afterwards secured. 

1 The turning-point in his fortunes came at last, 
however; and, from 1793 to 1798, he published 
several of his best works, which rapidly raised 
him to a position among the most celebrated 
authors of his day. His views on education are 

embodied chiefly in his Leraua, oiler Erzieh- 

i lehre, published in Brunswick, in 1807. and in 
Stuttgart, in 1861; an English translation of 



740 



BIDGEVILLE COLLEGE 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



which was issued in Boston, in 1863. It is 
characterized by just and profound views ex- 
pressed in striking language ; and mauy of its 
aphoristic sayings have long since passed un- 
questioned into the literature of education. 

RIDGEVILLE COLLEGE, in Ridgeville, 
Ind., under the patronage of the Freewill Bap- 
tist denomination, was founded in 1867, for the 
education of both sexes. It is supported by the 
income of a small endowment and by tuition 
fees, varying from $18 to $30 a year. It pro- 
vides the following courses : classical, scientific, 
practical (of 3 years, intended to be equivalent to 
an ordinary high-school course) , classical prepar- 
atory, and a general preparatory course. In 
1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors and 112 stu- 
dents: classical, 1; scientific, 14; practical course, 
5; classical preparatory, 1 ; general preparatory, 
85; in instrumental music, 6. The Rev. Samuel 
D. Bates, A. M., is (1876) the president. 

RIPON COLLEGE, at Ripon, Wis., was 
founded in 1851, and organized as a college in 
1863. It is non-sectarian. It has an endowment of 
about $50,000, a library of over 3,800 volumes, a 
cabinet of minerals, and chemical and physical 
apparatus. The regular tuition fees vary from 
$21 to $24 a year. There is a collegiate de- 
partment (with a classical and a scientific course), 
a preparatory, and a musical department. Both 
sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 13 
instructors, and 358 students (165 male and 193 
female), of whom 09 were of collegiate grade, 
244 preparatory, and 45 were studying music 
only. The Rev. William E. Merriman, D. D., was 
president of the college from 1863 to 1876, 
when he was succeeded by the Rev. Edward H. 
Merrell, A. M. 

ROANOKE COLLEGE, at Salem, Va., 
founded in 1852, is under the patronage of the 
Lutheran Church, though not by its charter de- 
nominational. It derives its support from the 
fees of students ($50 a year). The college 
has a library of 14,000 volumes, extensive chem- 
ical and philosophical apparatus, a mineral 
cabinet containing over 11,000 specimens, and a 
museum of curiosities. There is a collegiate, a 
normal, and a preparatory department, besides a 
select course designed to afford a good business 
education. In 1875 — 0, there were 7 instructors 
and 171 students (93 collegiate, 31 select, and 47 
preparatory). The Rev. 1). P. Bittle, D. D., has 
been the president from the opening of the 
college. 

ROCHESTER, University of, at Roches- 
ter, N. T., under Baptist control, was founded 
in 1850. It is supported by tuition fees and 
the income of an endowment of $212,000. Its 
unproductive property (land, buildings, etc.) is 
valued at $378,662. It has extensive collections 
in geology and mineralogy, and a library of 
12,500 volumes. The cost of tuition is $75 a 
year ; but there are fifty scholarships affording 
free tuition. The university has a classical and 
a scientific course, each of four years, leading 
respectively to the degrees of A. B. and B. S. 
Eclectic courses are provided for those not can- 



didates for a degree. In 1876 — 7, there were 8 
professors and 163 students. Martin Brewer 
Anderson, LL. D., elected in 1853, has been the 
only president. 

ROCK HILL COLLEGE, a Roman Catho- 
lic institution at Ellicott City, Mi, under the 
direction of the Christian Brothers, was organ- 
ized in 1857, and chartered in 1865. It has a 
geological and mineralogical cabinet, containing 
about 1,000 specimens; a herbarium, containing 
about 2,500 specimens ; and a library of 6,500 
volumes. The cost of tuition, board, etc., is $260 
a year ; of tuition alone, $80. The college 
comprises a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
ment, the latter having a commercial course 
(2 years), a scientific course (4 years), and a 
classical course (4 years). In 1875 — 6, there were 
29 professors and other instructors and. 165 stu- 
dents (137 preparatory and 28 collegiate). The 
presidents have been as follows: Bro. Aphraates, 
Bro. Tobias, Bro. Lucian, and Bro. Bettefin (for 
the last 12 years). 

ROD. See Corporal Punishment. 

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH is the 
name popularly given to the body of Christians 
who are in communion with the bishop of Rome 
and recognize him as their spiritual head. The 
Roman Catholic Church is by far the most 
numerous division of Christendom. The follow- 
ing table gives an estimate of the proportion, at 
present (1877), of Roman Catholics to the Prot- 
estants and to the total population of the world: 





Total 
population 


Koruan 
Catholics 


Protestants 




85,520,900 
309,180,000 
825,550,000 
199,920,000 

4,750,000 


47,200,000 

147,300,000 

4,700,000 

1,100,000 

600,000 


30,000,000 
71,800,000 




1,800,000 




1,200,000 


Australia and Poly- 


2,000,000 




1,423,920,000 


200,900,000 


106,800,000 



It will be seen, from this table, that the Roman 
Catholic Church embraces a majority of the total 
population of America, and nearly one-half of 
that of Europe ; and that it exceeds the Prot- 
estant population in Asia, but is exceeded by 
it in Africa, and in Australia and Polynesia. 
France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, the 
larger portion of Austria and Ireland, the Polish 
districts of Germany and Russia, a number of 
Swiss cantons, all the states of South and Cen- 
tral America and Mexico, are almost wholly in- 
habited by Roman Catholics.— From the down- 
fall of the Western Roman empire toward the 
close of the 5th century, down to the 16th, the 
progress of education in all the western states 
of Europe was chiefly controlled by the Catholic 
Church. For a long time, the schools of the Bene- 
dictines, the convent, and the cathedral and col- 
legiate schools, all of which were not only found- 
ed, but exclusively conducted, by priests, were 
the only institutions to which the rising genera- 
tion of the new European states were indebted 
for their education. Charlemagne was the first 
monarch who conceived the idea of organizing 
a system of popular education ; but he was so 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



HI 



far from anticipating any conflict of jurisdiction 
between state and church that he spent his ener- 
gies chiefly in urging the ecclesiastical author- 
ities to establish a larger number of schools, all 
of which remained under the exclusive man- 
agement of the church. The establishment of 
town and burgher schools, which assumed large 
dimensions after the 12th century, and, later, 
the rise of the universities, marks the beginning 
of the organization of schools which, though they 

!had to conform their teaching strictly to the 
creeil of the church, were partly or wholly man- 
aged by boards not exclusively consisting of 
church functionaries. The separation of a large 
portion of Europe from the < 'atholic Church, at 
the beginning of the Kith century, led, on the 
one hand, to the establishment of Lutheran ami 
Reformed, and later of Congregational, Baptist, 
and other denominational schools, and, on the 
other hand, caused even the government in Cath- 
olic countries, to take a more direct part in edu- 
cational matters. The Jesuits hoped, by means 
of superior schools, to preserve the Catholic 
Church from further losses and to recover the 
lost ground; and the extraordinary efforts made 
by them in this direction, led to the establish- 
ment of numerous colleges which excited the 
admiration of many patrons of education, even 
among Protestants, and which occupy a con- 
spicuous place in_tlutanna]s of education. The 
laurels won by the Jesuits as educators, proved 
a spur for the other religious orders of this 
Church; anil not only did the Benedictines, Pia- 
rists, and other orders, vie with the Jesuits in 
the establishment of learned institutions, but a 
large number of orders and congregations spe- 
cially devoted to teaching arose, which, from that 
time until the present day, have constituted a 
very large proportion of the instructors of ('ath- 
olic schools of all grades. — In the course of the 
18th century, the government in many countries 
began to look upon the general introduction and 
organization of popular education, as a state 
affair of the highest importance. Special state 
boards were intrusted with the care of schools ; 
seminaries for the training of teachers were estab- 
lished; and, from a thorough conviction of the 
necessity of elementary education, many of the 
European states adopted the policy of making 
the instruction of all the children in the state 
obligatory. As religion formed an essential 
part of the course of instruction in every coun- 
try, the government generally endeavored to 
secure the co-operation of the church author- 
ities in the management of the elementary 
schools. In some cases, severe conflicts arose, 
as in Austria during the reign of the emperor 
Joseph II., against whose educational reforms 
the Catholic Church entered an earnest protest ; 
but, as a general rule, the co-operation of the 
church authorities in the instruction and man- 
agement of the state schools was secured. During 
the l'Jth century, the government of nearly 
every European country has endeavored, more 
and more, to centralize in its own hands the 
direction of schools of every kind ; and though. 



in most states, Protestant as well as Catholic, 
the authorities of the Catholic Church have 
been invited to co-operate in the government 
and inspection of the elementary schools, tho 
state governments have reserved to themselves 
the supreme right of legislation. The prog- 
ress of this legislation has led to numerous con- 
flicts between the governments and the Cath- 
olic Church. The articles in this work on the 
important countries of Europe furnish numerous 
details of these conflicts, as well as of the com- 
promises by which many of them have been 
ended. The general tendency in Europe ap- 
pears, however, at this time (l87(i) to be rather 
toward a widening than a narrowing of the con- 
flict : since the legislatures in most states. Cath- 
olic as well as Protestant, are unwilling to con- 
cede to the Church that extensive control over 
the schools supported by the state, which she 
claims as belonging to her by divine right. No- 
where has the conflict between the state and the 
Catholic Church assumed such proportions as in 
Germany, and especially in Prussia. (See Fai.k, 
and Germany.) In but few states, in recent 
times, has so full an understanding between the 
two powers been arrived at as in Austria, which, 
by its concordat of 1855, conceded the most im- 
portant demands of the Church. The majority 
of the Reichsraih, however, viewed the conces- 
sions thus made as derogatory to the rights of 
the state : and. in 1869, a new school law was 
passed which did not meet with the approval of 
the Catholic bishops. — In the Syllabus of tlw 
Principal Errors of our Time, which Pope 
Pius IX., in his Encyclical letter of Dec. 8., 
18(17, communicated to all the Catholic bishops 
of the world, the following theories are stigma- 
tized as contrary to the teaching of the Catholic 
Church : "(45) The entire direction of public 
schools, in which the youth of the Christian 
states are educated, except (to a certain extent) 
in the case of episcopal seminaries, may and 
must appertain to the civil power, and belong 
to it so far, that no other authority whatever 
shall be recognized as having any light to inter- 
fere in the discipline of the schools, the arrange- 
ments of the studies, the taking of degrees, or 
the choice or approval of the teachers. (4(i) Much 
more, even in clerical seminaries, is the course 
of study to be adopted subject to the civil 
authority. (47) The best theory of civil society 
requires, that public schools, open to the chil- 
dren of all classes, and. generally, all public in- 
stitutions intended for instruction in letters and 
philosophy, and for conducting the education of 
the young, should be freed irom all ecclesias- 
tical authority, government, or interference, and 
should be fully subject to the civil and political 
power, in conformity with the will of the rulers 
and the prevalent opinions of the age. (48) This 
system of instructing youth, which consists in 
separating them from the Catholic faith, and 
from the power of the church, and teaching ex- 
clusively, or at least primarily, the knowledge of 
natural things and the earthly ends of social life, 
alone may be approved by Catholics." 



T42 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



In opposition to the theories stigmatized in the 
papal syllabus as the fundamental errors of our 
time, the Catholic bishops in all countries ad- 
here to the following principles. Catholic youth, 
in schools of all grades, from the primary 
school to the university, should be brought up in 
conformity with the teaching of the Catholic 
Church, The Church should not be hindered 
in establishing free schools of all grades. When 
a state government organizes a system of public 
instruction, separate schools for Catholic youth 
should be established ; and, in the Catholic 
schools, the Catholic Church should concur in 
the management and superintendence, in order 
to exclude or keep off all influences not in full 
accordance with the Catholic religion ; and the 
religious instruction and education of the pupils 
should be placed under her control. As the 
school regulations relate chiefly to the primary 
schools, the negotiations between state govern- 
ments and the Catholic Church aiming to bring 
about an amicable co-operation in the manage- 
ment of the schools, concern chiefly schools of 
that grade. In many countries, a co-operation of 
this kind exists ; although, in but few countries 
has a perfect and lasting understanding, as in 
Belgium, been attained. (For information on 
this subject, the reader is referred to the articles 
on the several large countries.) Where the Church 
has found it impossible to secure the establish- 
ment by the state of separate schools for Catholic 
children, it has endeavored to supply the want 
by opening free parochial schools. (See Denomina- 
tional Schools.) 

As the establishment of colleges, gymnasia, 
academies, and other institutions of this grade 
by the state is far from being so general as that of 
primary schools, the attention of the Church, in 
this field, has been less directed to a co-opera- 
tion with the state authorities than to the estab- 
lishment of free secondary schools. Among the 
Catholic schools of this class, the colleges of 
the Jesuits occupy the first rank. (See Jesuits.) 
Numerous colleges and academies are also con- 
ducted by other religious orders ; and the higher 
education, especially of Catholic girls, is, in many 
countries, to a great extent, carried on in con- 
vent schools, many of which have also a con- 
siderable number of Protestant pupils. The 
Catholic Directory of England for 1877, men- 
tions 22 Roman Catholic colleges in England, 
and 1 in Scotland, which prepare their students 
for the universities and public examinations. 
Some of them are affiliated to the London 
universities. There are (i English or Scotch 
Catholic colleges on the continent of Europe. 
In Ireland, the bishops made a vigorous opposi- 
tion to the establishment by the government of 
undenominational queen's colleges. There were, 
in 1876, free Catholic colleges, affiliated with 
the Catholic university of Dublin, at Clonliffe, 
Tuam, Clane, Armagh, Carlow, Athlone, Tulla- 
more, Thurles, Castleknock, Kilkenny, Permoy, 
Longford, and Ennis. — In the United States, 
there were, in 1875, according to the Report of 
the Commissioner of Education, 52 chartered 



| Catholic colleges or universities, situated in the 
I following states and territories: Alabama, 1; 
California, 5; Illinois, 4; Indiana, 3; Kansas, 1; 
Kentucky, 2; Louisiana, 2; Maryland, 3; Mas- 
sachusetts, 2; Minnesota, 1; Mississippi, 1; Mis- 
souri, 4; New Jersey, 1; New York, 7; Ohio, 2; 
Pennsylvania, 5; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 2; Wis- 
consin, 2; District of Columbia, 2; AVashington 
Territory, 1. 

The Church has now but little influence upon 
the great universities of Europe, which, in the 
middle ages, were almost entirely under her 
control. The faculties of Catholic theology, have, 
however, remained so far under her direction that 
the bishops may forbid the attendance of the 
students at any lectures which appear unsound 
in faith. The total abolition of the theological 
faculties in Italy and Spain, which may ere long 
be imitated in other countries, indicated a tend- 
j ency to disconnect still more the university from 
I the Church. In order to afford to Catholic stu- 
i dents, in high schools purely Catholic, the same 
I facilities for study which are afforded by the 
state universities, the Catholic Church, in several 
| of the countries of Europe, has begun to estab- 
j lish free Catholic universities. The lead in this 
movement was taken by the bishops of Belgium, 
who founded, in 1835, the university of Louvain. 
Following their example, the Irish bishops 
founded, in 1854, the Catholic University of 
Dublin ; and the English bishops, in 1875, the 
Catholic University College, at Kensington. A 
grand movement of this kind has taken place in 
France, where, up to the close of 1876, three 
Catholic universities had been organized. The 
Dominion of Canada possesses a similar institu- 
tion in the University of Laval, at Quebec. 

In addition to the theological faculties of the 
universities, there are schools of theology con- 
nected with most of the episcopal sees. More- 
over, every male religious order supports schools 
of theology for its own members. (For a fuller 
account of these institutions, see Theological 
Schools.) The Council of Trent enjoined upon 
all bishops to establish special preparatory 
schools for such boys as intended to devote 
themselves to the study of theology. In many- 
countries, these seminaria puerorum (boys' 
seminaries) are in successful operation, and 
educate almost the entire clergy ; in others, 
they are almost unknown. In addition to the 
priests' and boys' seminaries, the Catholic 
Church possesses a number of missionary schools, 
for educating Catholic missionaries for pagan 
and non-Catholic countries. The most famous 
of these is the College of the Propaganda (Col- 
legium de propaganda fide), in Rome. During 
the present century, a number of other missionary 
colleges have been founded, as All Hallows, near 
Dublin, and St. Joseph's College, of the Sacred 
Heart, for Foreign Missions, in England. The 
missionaries, in their turn, have established, in 
connection with their missions, a large number 
of colleges and schools, in pagan and uncivilized 
countries, many of which have gained, to a high 
degree, the confidence of the native population 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



ROMANIC LANGUAGES 



743 



and the admiration of tourists. — In England, 
the United States, and Belgium, the Catholic 
Church has established a number of teachers' 

seminaries, independent of all state control; 
while, in other countries, as in Germany, the 
state concedes to the Catholic Church some de- 
gree of co-operation in the control of Catholic 
institutions of this class. In the schools which 
are under the absolute control of the Church, a 
very large proportion of the teachers are mem- 
bers of religious orders. The educational efforts 
of the Benedictines, Hieronyiniaus, Jesuits, and 
Piarists have already been referred to. When 
the organization of elementary schools, in all the 
communitiesof civilized countries, assumed larger 
dimensions, La Salle (1679) founded the first 
organization of school brothers, called the 
Brethren of the Christian Schools. (See La 
Salle.) None of this order are allowed to en- 
ter the priesthood, or to hold any ecclesiastical 
office ; but they bind themselves by a vow to 
devote themselves wholly to instruction, which 
is to be gratuitous, and conducted according to 
the method prescribed by the authorities of the 
congregation. How rapidly this congregation 
has grown, may be inferred from the fact that, 
while, at the death of the founder (1719), the 
congregation had 27 houses, 274 brethren, 122 
classes, and 9.KS5 pupils, in 1869, it had 1,117 
houses, 9.930 brethren, 7,430 classes, and 395,458 
pupils. In the United States, 323 brethren gave 
instruction to about 15,000 pupils. The congre- 
gation of La Salle was followed by a number of 
similar congregations, most of which have houses 
in the United States. The majority of these con- 
gregations arose like the Brethren of the Chris- 
tian Schools in France. As the school regula- 
tions drawn up by La Salle provide that at least 
two brethren must be sent to any locality in 
which there is a desire to intrust to them the 
elementary schools, many small places were un- 
able to obtain their services. For the purpose of 
providing schools for such places, Abbe Jean de 
la Mennais founded, in 1820, in Brittany, a con- 
gregation which, in 1822, was sanctioned by the 
French government under the name of the Con- 
gregation of Christian Instruction. The Supreme 
Council of Instruction authorizes every member 
who holds a certificate from the Superior General 
of the congregation, to give instruction. The 
congregation, in 1875, had 150 houses, with about 
800 members. The chief seat of the congrega- 
tion is at Ploermel, in Brittany. — In Belgium, the 
congregation of Xaverian Brothers was founded 
at Bruges, in 1839, by Theodore Sacques Ryken, 
with the special view to establish and conduct 
schools in the United States. They had, in 1875, 
several houses in Kentucky and Maryland. — In 
Ireland, the Rev. B. Rice, of Waterford, founded 
the order of the School Brothers of Ireland, which 
closely resembles the Brethren of the Christian 
Schools, and which has spread from Ireland to 
England, as well as to several of the English 
colonies. The female congregations which devote 
themselves to instruction are even more numer- 
ous than those of the School Brothers. The 



earliest, and still one of the largest, is that of the 
Ursulines. which was founded, in the 1 6th cent- 
ury, by Angela Merici, of Brescia (died 1540, 
canonized 1807), and the members of which, at 
the beginning of the 17th century, assumed, in 
addition to the three usual monastic vows, a 
fourth vow to instruct young girls gratuitously. 
The Ursulines spread from France into many 
countries of Europe and America, and, in 1875, 
had, in the United States, houses in New York, 
Ohio, Illinois. Georgia, Louisiana. Texas, Ken- 
tucky, and Missouri. The order of the Sisters of 
Notre Dame, or the School Sisters of the Blessed 
Pierre Fourier, was founded in France by Pierre 
Fourier (q. v.), at the close of the 16th century. 
The largest number of their houses is still found 
in France, but they have also spread to many 
other countries, and were, in 1875, represented 
in nine states of the American Union. — The 
Ladies of the Sacred Heart, an order founded in 
France in 1800, are chiefly devoted to the educa- 
tion of young ladies. The growth of this order 
has been very rapid, the number of its establish- 
ments, in France, amounting, in 1875, to 42, and 
in the United States, to 21. — In Canada, the 
Cray Nuns, or Sisters of Charity, of Montreal, 
an order founded in 1745, in 1*75 had 24 houses 
in the Dominion of Canada and the United 
States; and in these countries several other less 
numerous congregations have been founded. 

ROMANIC LANGUAGES, or Romance 
Languages, the collective name of those mod- 
ern languages which, after the downfall of the 
Western Roman Empire, were gradually devel- 
oped from the lingua Romana rustica, or vul- 
gar Latin, by the admixture of German, Celtic, 
and other idioms. The independent Romanic 
languages are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, 
Provencal. French, and Roumanian (also called 
Wallacnian or Dace-Roumanian). In the five 
former, the language of the Germanic conquerors 
of south-western Europe has left marked traces ; 
while the Roumanian language has been con- 
siderably influenced by Slavic tongues. The lan- 
guage, called Romansch, which is spoken in some 
districts of the Swiss canton of Orisons and 
the Tyrol, is not regarded by Diez as an in- 
dependent Romanic language. The most im- 
portant among the Romanic languages are the 
French, the Spanish, and the Italian, the his- 
tory and study of which are treated in special 
articles of this work. The Comparative Gram- 
mar, and the Etymological Dictionary, of the 
Romanic languages, by Friedrich Diez. are not 
only universally recognized as standard works 
on the subject, but are esteemed by all linguists 
as belonging to the classic productions of com- 
parative philology. The derivation of the Ro- 
manic languages from the Latin has been fully 
treated by Fuchs (Die Romanischen Spracken 
in ihrem VerkcStniss zum Lateiniscken, Halle, 
1845), and by Pott, in Hofer's Zeiischrift fur 
Wissenschqft der Sprache, in Aufrecht's and 
Kuhn's Zeit&chrift fur vergleichende Sprachr 
forschung, and in the Zeiischrift Jin- die Alter- 
ih a in s "' isxi'itschaft. 



14A 



ROME 



ROME, the capital of the ancient -world, was 
founded, in 753 B. C, by the Latins, and was in- 
tended as a border fortress of Latium, on the 
Etruscan march. But that border fortress grew, 
step by step, to be the head of Latium, the head 
of Italy, the head of the whole Mediterranean re- 
gion, the mistress of the world. "It is in Rome", 
says Freeman (Comparative Politics), "that all 
the states of the earlier European world lose 
themselves ; it is out of Rome that all the states 
of the later European world take their being.'' 
Rome gathered unto itself the traditions of all 
that had ever been great and illustrious in the 
human race, — Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, He- 
brew, Phoenician, Greek, Etruscan; and extended 
its sway over the multitudinous western tribes 
— Italian, Gallic, Iberian, and Teutonic, the latter 
as yet only known as warriors. The civilization, 
the arts and sciences, the laws and institutions, 
the poetry and philosophy, the accumulated liter- 
ary treasures of all past generations, were grad- 
ually merged in Rome. Its history, then, is that 
of the whole civilized world, down to the modern 
period. And yet, the history of Roman educa- 
tion is neither as interesting nor as valuable as 
that of Greece. In the latter country, a love for 
the esthetic predominated, the Greek taking a 
peculiar delight in the beautiful ; but, with the 
Roman, the practical prevailed, and the beautiful 
was simply an esthetic amusement. He was 
harder, coarser, delighting more in power and 
less in beauty, more in facts and less in specula- 
tion, more in the real and less in the ideal. 
Rome's chief object was conquest, extension of 
power ; and, hence, the education of her youth 
aimed to fit them for citizenship and for war. — 
Among the Latins and the Etruscans, though 
they had teachers, as we learn from Livy, literary 
training cannot have prevailed, as they were too 
' much animated by warlike zeal. The priests culti- 
vated religious science, and the principal subject 
of instruction was probably divination. In the 
early days of the Republic, education was en- 
tirely domestic ; and the amount of intellectual 
culture was very scanty. Plutarch regarded it 
as a deficiency in the Roman laws that they did 
not, like those of the Spartans, prescribe a cer- 
tain system of regulations for the education of 
youth ; but, in fact, the manners and customs 
of the people replaced that want. For, first, edu- 
cation was not regarded, as in Athens and Sparta, 
as a duty of the state ; and, secondly, woman 
had a much higher place than in the Greek 
states. Rome honored her vestal virgins, and the 
wife was not, as in Greece, the servant, but the 
companion of her husband, and was revered by 
him as the mother of his children. Maternal 
duties were considered sacred ; and the care- 
ful nursing of infants, the needful occupations 
in the household, and the imparting of the rudi- 
ments of education, were regarded as the most 
prominent points of womanly merit. The so- 
called patria potest/ ts gave to each head of a fami- 
ly an unlimited authority over all its members. 
But that tremendous power — which was felt 
and acknowledged to be a natural right — was 



never abused. The father was regarded with, 
reverence and respect, though, probably, not al- 
ways with very strong affection ; for the Latin 
word pietas, which expressed the feeling of the 
dutiful child toward his parent, hardly implies, 
much of love. After boys had attained the 
age when their mothers considered another 
instructor desirable, they were placed under the 
care of the pcedagogus. Frequently, these pceda- 
gogi were liberated slaves. Sometimes, however, 
the father would himself assume this task, as, e. 
g., Cicero and Cato Censorinus, who taught their 
children to read and write. Cato also trained 
his sons in gymnastics, the use of weapons, 
boxing, horseback riding, and even swimming, 
but never bathed with them, in order not to 
offend their modesty. The boys were also taught 
songs commemorating the courageous and heroic 
deeds of their ancestry, and were obliged to com- 
mit to memory the laws of the 12 tables. These 
were the usual subjects of instruction. The boys 
of wealthy parents had sometimes several pceda- 
gogi. — The first schools in Rome were private, 
and were located in public booths or shops ; 
hence, the name trivium. They were also char- 
acteristically called htdi, because their work was, 
in distinction from other practice, regarded 
simply as a recreation, or play. The first teach- 
ers were not paid any fees, which were not- 
introduced until 201 B. C. The boys were con- 
ducted to these schools, which existed as early 
as 449 B. C, by capsarii, i. e., slaves who car- 
ried the books, writing materials, etc. Vacations 
occurred only during harvest time. The first 
teacher was called the liter ator. He taught 
reading and writing, proverbs, and arithmetic, 
the latter being, on account of its usefulness, 
more esteemed by the Romans than by the 
Greeks. A second course devolved on the gram- 
matista, who taught language, grammar, and com- 
position. This work was completed by the rhetor 
in a more skillful manner. It was necessary, in 
order to be a well-educated Roman, to be a fin- 
ished orator; and, therefore, very great stress was 
laid on correctness and pureness of expression. 
Mock-trials were of common occurrence, and at- 
tendance at the Forum was regarded as an ob- 
ligation. The most distinguished teachers were 
either natives of the colonies or provinces, 
or freedmen of Greek extraction. Besides re- 
ceiving instruction at home, the youth not un- 
frequently went to Athens, Rhodes, or Alex- 
andria to complete their education. — The first 
favor bestowed by the government upon the 
teachers was under Julius Csesar, who gave them 
the right of citizenship ; and Augustus added 
exemption from all public duties and occupa- 
tions. During his administration, several new 
schools of high repute were established in the 
provinces; among them, those of Mitylene, Mas- 
silia (Marseilles), and Corduba, to all of which 
students flocked in great numbers. To keep the 
young men at Rome, Augustus gave Flaccus 
Catiline's house, and paid him a salary of 
100,000 sesterces ($3,600), and, besides, gave 
prizes to diligent scholars. Vespasian recognized 



ROTE-TK ACHING 



ROUSSEAU 



745 



the entire system of educational institutions as 
an integral element in the organism of the state. 
Existing schools, both elementary and higher, 
were strengthened as far as seemed necessary, 
and new facilities for instruction were added 
to those already in use. The first school re- 
sembling a college, called the Athenaeum, was 
founded, professors of Greek literature were ap- 
pointed, and the course of study was extended, 
after the Alexandrian model, to embrace the 
circle of the coles liberates — grammar, dialectics, 
rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, mu- 
sic — and drawing. Vespasian's successors. Had- 
rian, the two Antonines, Marcus Aurelius. and 
Alexander Severus — in a word, all the most vir- 
tuous, and not a few of the most sanguinary and 
atrocious, among the Caesars, showed great zeal 
in the promotion of learning, in all its various 
forms, throughout the empire. The age of Mar- 
cus Aurelius is especially distinguished for the 
complete endowment of what may well be 
called the University of Athens. This munifi- 
cent liberality of the Roman Caesars was not 
without many happy effects upon literature anil 
learning in the declining ages of the empire. 
Thus Athens, e. g., became again the focus of 
learned activity in an age which, marred as it was 
by an increasing tendency to pedantry and affec- 
tation, still succeeded in reviving some reminis- 
cences of the nobler past, and exhibited what has 
not inappropriately been described as the after 
summer of Greek genius. — Among Roman edu- 
cational theorists are M. Terentius Varro. "the 
most learned man in Rome'' (116 — 27 B. C), 
and author of Capys, out de liberis educandis; 
Cicero, who treats of education incidentally in 
his De Officiis; Tacitus, in De Oraloribus, com- 
monly attributed to him ; and Quintiliau (40 — 
lis A. D.), in the first book of his InsUtutio Ora- 
torio. — See Bebxhakdv, Grundriss der rifmi- 
scJten Literutur; Ciiampaoxv, Les Cesars, and 
Les Antonines (Paris, 1S71) ; Friedl/Ender, 
Sittengeschichte Roms, vol. m. (4th ed., Leips., 
1874), Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature 
(Lond., 1873) ; Pfeiffer. Erziehung hex den. 
Grieclien und Romern (Wien, 1867); History 
or Education (N. Y.,1874). 

ROTE-TEACHING, or Teaching- by 
Rote (Fr. route, road, whence routine), a method 
of giving instruction by means of constant repe- 
tition, particularly of certain forms of speech, 
with little or no attention to their meaning. 
Hence, such teaching is often described as 
mechanical, that is, impressing the memory 
through the ear and the eye, but not exercising 
the understanding. Rote-teaching may be re- 
garded as an abuse of the principle of repetition. 
(See Association, and Concert Teaching.) 

ROTJMANIA, a dependency of Turkey, 
having an area of 46.710 sq. m., and a popula- 
tion of 4,500,000, mostly Roumaus, but com- 
prising also 150,000 Jews and 200,000 gypsies. 
About 911 per cent of the inhabitants belong to 
the Greek Church. Roumania was formed, in 
1859, by the union of the two principalities of 
Moldavia and Wallachia. — Education in Rou- 



mania is in a depressed state. Although the 
selii ml law of L864 makes attendance compulsory, 
the schools have, nevertheless, very few pupils. 
The higher classes of society have their children 
instructed by private teachers ; and. in some cases, 
send them to Paris to finish their education. The 
lower classes, on the other ham I, do not generally 
send their children to school ; and, in many 
places, no schools have beeu established. In 1875, 
Moldavia was reported to have only 15 public 
elementary schools, besides a few well -organized 
private institutions, established by Armenians; 
but. in Wallachia. almost every community has 
its elementary school. The total number of pu- 
pils in Roumania. in 1875, was about 55,000; 
while the number of teachers of all grades was 
about 4.1100. There are 8 seminaries for the 
education of primary teachers. — Secondary in- 
struction is afforded in gymnasia (of four classes), 
of which one must be supported in every district, 
capital, in lyceums (of seven classes), and in real 
schools. In 1872, there were 7 lyceums, II gym- 
nasia, and 1 real school, with an aggregate of 
6,002 pupils. There are 2 universities — in 
Bucharest and Jassy, each having four faculties : 
philosophy and literature, law. medicine, and 
mathematics and natural science. Jassy, in 1*72. 
had 155 students and 51 professors; Bucharest, 
416 students and 46 professors. The institutions 
for scientific and professional instruction are 3 
agricultural schools. 7 industrial schools. 7 com- 
mercial schools. 8 seminaries for Greek theology, 
; a Roman Catholic seminary for priests, in Jassy, 
a school for engineering, a military school, in 
Bucharest, two art schools, in Jassy and Bucha- 
rest; and the central school of agriculture and 
forestry, in Ferestren. Besides these schools. 
there are several French and German private 
colleges. — See Chronik 'les Vottcsschulwesens, 
| (1875); Reporlqf U. 8. Commissioner of Edu- 
cation for 1874. 

ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, a celebrated 
1 French author, born in Geneva. June 2s., 1712; 
died at Ermenonville, near Paris, July 2., 1778. 
1 le calls for notice here chiefly from an educational 
point of view. His father was a watch-maker, and 
was of French origin, though his family had been 
long settled in the city of Geneva. The boy was 
of a visionary, restless disposition; and his sickly 
habit soon led to his separation from other children 
of his age, and developed in him a fondness for 
works of fiction. A fter several years of wander- 
ing and of desultory work, the latter consisting 
of apprenticeships from which he invariably ran 
away, a priest at Confignon. in Savoy, intro- 
duced him to .Mine, de Warens. at Annecy, who 
sent him to a charity-school in Turin. From this 
place, also, lie ran away, anil again became a 
wanderer. After another interval of adventure, he 
returned for shelter, in 1729. to the roof of .Mine, 
de Warens, who sent him to a theological semi- 
nary at Annecy, from which he was dismissed as 
unfitted for the priesthood. Subsequently, he 
accepted a position as tutor in a private family 
in Lyons, where he remained two or three years, 
and, in 1741, went to Paris. Here he became 



746 



ROUSSEAU 



intimate with Diderot, Grimm, D'HoYbach, and 
Mme. d'Epinay, the last of whom, in 1756, pro- 
Tided a retreat for him in the vicinity of Paris, 
called the Hermitage. He maintained now for 
many years, by musical and literary labor, a doubt- 
ful struggle with adversity. In 1760, he published 
Julie, on La Noavelle Helo'ise, which, by its 
idealization of Mme. d'Houdetot, offended his 
patroness Mme. d'Epinay, and led to his retire- 
ment from the Hermitage. The duke and duchess 
of Luxembourg now received him, and induced 
him to take up his residence at Montmorency, in 
one of their chateaux. While there, he wrote 
Smile, and the Gontrat /Social. The former was 
condemned by the parliament, and he was obliged 
to leave the country to escape arrest. He went 
to Geneva, then to Bern, and finally to Neuf- 
chatel, where he was befriended by the governor, 
Lord Keith. In 1767, he returned to France; 
and, after living in several places, settled again in 
Paris, in 1770. The hostility of the philosophers 
and literary men of Paris, which he had incurred, 
the persecution to which he had been subjected, 
and the privations he had endured, had preyed 
upon his health, which was now utterly broken. 
In 1778, he accepted the invitation of M. de Girar- 
din to visit him at his country-seat at Ermenon- 
ville, where he died. His fame, however, suffered 
no diminution by his death, but steadily in- 
creased. In 1794, his remains were removed to the 
Pantheon at Paris, where a statue of him had 
heen erected; and, in 1815, the aUied sovereigns 
exempted Ermenonville from the payment of 
war taxes, in honor of his memory. — The character 
of Rousseau has been a puzzle to moralists. In 
him, the affectionate, sensitive nature of the girl, 
the subversive spirit of the communist, and the 
shamelessness of the libertine, were united. His 
writings have been the fruitful source of contro- 
versy, the bitterness of which has been aggravate:! 
by the errors of his life. The subtle beauty of 
his style, which has always commanded for him 
a place among the most illustrious of French 
prose writers, has served to place in stronger 
relief the radical and dangerous theories which it 
served to introduce. The virulence with which 
his writings were assailed during his life-time has 
not yet ceased, after the lapse of more than a 
hundred years. 

Emile, ou de VEducation was published in 
1762, and was the last product of the twelve 
years of Ins literary activity, nothing of the first 
importance being after wards written by him, with 
the exception of the Confessions. It appeared 
at the time of the suppression of the Jesuits in 
France, when education, therefore, was a general 
theme; and nothing was more natural than that 
Rousseau, from his own point of view, should join 
in the discussion, and show how man, who in the 
state of nature was entirely good, might by educa- 
tion be preserved from the prevailing degenera- 
tion. AVe can give but the barest outline of the 
work. The parent is warned that nothing can 
compensate for the lack of his own time and at- 
tention in his children's education, and is assured 
that, should these be wanting, he will certainly 



repent of this neglect in the bitterness of sorrow, 
and never be comforted. But, in case a wealthy 
parent should not have sufficient time, he is 
directed in the choice of a governor or tutor, to 
one who should be the guide, philosopher, and 
friend of young Emile from his tenderest years 
to the time of his marriage. Why this shadowy, 
unreal personage should be set forth, as Emile 's 
only source of instruction rather than his par- 
ents — why the exceptional case, rather than the 
general one. should be so fully worked out, can 
be explained only by the fact that Rousseau neg- 
lected so notably his own parental responsibil- 
ities. — From his second to his twelfth year, Emile 
is to live a life of healthy objectivity. There 
are to be no books, no moral discussions. He is 
not to be lectured or reasoned into submission, 
but must learn to bow to a law of necessity: his 
tutor must be firm with him. Punishment, also, 
that it may not seem arbitrary, is to be such 
only as naturally springs from his actions them- 
selves. This period, therefore, is to be one of 
physical development mainly, only such moral 
notions being communicated as relate to the 
pupil's actual state. If we wish to see Emile in 
an English dress, we have but to turn to Harry 
Clinton, in Henry Brooke's Fool of Quality 
(1st ed., 1766 ; last edition by Charles Kings- 
ley), or to Harry Sandford, in Sandford and 
Merton (1st ed., 1783). 

From the age of 12 to that of 15, the notion 
of utility plays an important part in Emile's 
education. He is happy who keeps a due pro- 
portion between his desires and his powers. 
Desires may be for things necessary or unneces- 
sary. Emile must, therefore, be accustomed to 
limit his desires to real needs; and his education 
must be such as will fit him, out of his own re- 
sources, to satisfy these needs. He must now learn 
geography, physics, and chemistry, but only so 
far as he can be brought to see their utility, and, 
therefore, to feel an interest in what he is doing. 
He is to read Robinson Crusoe, that he may 
learn to prefer the useful to the ornamental. He 
must even learn a trade, such a one as Crusoe 
found of most service on his desert island (namely, 
that of a carpenter). — In the fourth book, Emile 
learns to know his fellows, from whose contami- 
nating influence he has hitherto been most care- 
fully kept. As a preparative to entering into 
society, he reads Plutarch's Lives, and studies 
history. Now, also, when he is between 15 and 
20 years of age, does he, for the first time, hear of 
God, and receive religious instruction. It is here 
that the well-known profession of faith of the 
Savoyard vicar is inserted. In connection with 
Emile's marriage, in the fifth book, Rousseau deals 
with the education of woman. His view is briefly 
this : that as woman exists only for man, her 
education must be entirely relative to him. — 
The groundwork of Emile is to be found in 
Locke; but Rousseau treated the subject with 
such interest as to provide a powerful stimulus 
for the educational workers of his time. His in- 
fluence is distinctly seen in Basedow, Pestalozzi, 
and Richter, in Germany; and in Richard Edge- 



RUSSIA 



747 



worth and Thomas Day, in England. — Mr. Moriey 
writes forcibly of two great deficiencies in Emile's 
education: Rousseau, who was himself not strong 
on the intellectual side, as compared with the 
emotional, has not in his scheme made any ade- 
quate provision for thorough intellectual disci- 
pline; and, by keeping Emile in seclusion until 
he is on the verge uf manhood, he has made it 
impossible for "a passion for justice" to develop 
itself. The merit of Emile, indeed, does not lie 
in its being a body of incontestable doctrine on 
education, but rather in its method, and in its 
sympathetic observation of children's ways from 
their earliest years. Any one who, like Thomas 
Day. should follow the directions in Emile, could 
not but be involved in ludicrous results (as may be 
seen very notably by referring to the life of 1 Hay's 
friend, Edgeworth) ; whilst William (Jobbett, an- 
other reader of Rousseau, but one who mixed some 
common sense with what he read, has left us, in 
his Advice, a. picture of family life and home edu- 
cation which is truly charming. "Not Kousseau's j 
individual rules", says Richter. in the preface to | 
his Levona, "many of which may be erroneous ; 
without injury to the whole, but the spirit of j 
education which fills and animates the work, has } 
shaken to their foundations and purified all the 
school rooms, and even the nurseries in Europe. 
In no previous work on education, was the ideal 
so richlv and beautifully combined with actual 
observation as in his." — M. Alphonse Esquiros 
in his half-story, half-essay, entitled L' Emile tin 
dix-neuvieme Steele (Paris. 1870), has followed 
in Rousseau's track, and considered from a pres- 
ent-day point of view the various problems in 
education from infancy onwards. — See Rousseau's 
Emile, particularly bks. I., n., hi.; Morley's Life 
of Rousseau, especially ch. xm. ; Jules Paroz, \ 
Histuire Universelle de In Pedngogie (Paris, 
1869); Quick, Educational Reformers; (iirardix, 
Rousseau, sa Vie el ses Ouwages (Paris 187;")). 
RUSSIA, an empire in eastern Europe and 
northern and central Asia, having an area of 
8,563,421 sq. m., and a population of 86,486,000. 
The area of the Russian empire is inferior only 
to that of the British empire ; while its con- 
tinuous territory is larger than that of any other 
nation in the world. More than two-thirds of 
its population belong to the Greek Church ; but, 
in the former kingdom of Poland, the Catholic 
religion prevails ; and, in Finland and the Baltic 
provinces, the Lutheran Church is predominant. 
Mohammedanism is still the ruling religion in 
the new possessions in central Asia, its adher- 
ents numbering, in the entire empire, more than 
7,000,000. Tlie vast majority of the population 
of Russia belong to the Slavic race, the chief 

representatives of which are the Russians, com- 
prising about 52,000,000. of the other Slavic 

tribes, the Poles, numbering about 5,000,000, are 
the most numerous. 

Educational History. — Until the beginning 
of the 1 6th century, no schools appear to have 
existed in Russia, except in a few convents. 
Ivan III. called foreign artists and scientists into 
the country ; but no progress of importance 



could be made in education, because of the con- 
tinual wars both foreign and intestine. Ivan IV. 
established schools in the cities, and. in 1564, 
founded the first Russian printing-office in Mos- 
cow. In 1588, the patriarch .Jeremiah established 
a school in Kief, for instruction in reading and 
in the service of the church, which was gradually 
enlarged into the first theological academy. 
With the accession of Peter the Great, a new 
era began for education, lie forbade any noble- 
man to marry who did not possess a knowledge 
of the elements of reading, writing, and arith- 
metic, and established, in all the cities, arith- 
metic schools, which imparted instruction in 
reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of 
geometry. Their original object was to prepare 
young men for the service of the state ; and 
hence they were almost exclusively attended by 
children of government officers, who, upon leav- 
ing, were required to give the teacher one ruble. 
In 1719, arithmetic schools for children of all 
classes were opened, and also schools for the 
army, the navy, and the priesthood. Peter the 
Great also founded an academy of sciences, in 
connection with a gymnasium and a university. 
Under his successor. Catharine 1., the Academy 
of Sciences was opened in Moscow, in 1755. The 
empress Anna allowed no private soldier or non- 
com missioned officer to be promoted who could 
not read, and the empress Elizabeth imposed fines 
on parents who allowed their children to grow up 
without any education. Catharine 11. proposed 
to organize educational institutions throughout 
the country, according to a uniform plan ; 
but, after experimenting for twenty years, she 
found that nothing of importance had been ac- 
complished. She then determined to establish 
schools like the Austrian model schools ; and. 
at her request, the Austrian government sent 
Von Jankowicz. the director of the Illyrian 
normal schools, to Russia. A commission of 
three was appointed to govern the schools estab- 
lished, which were to be of three kinds : higher 
schools, in the capitals of governments; inter- 
mediate schools, in the capitals of circles : and 
elementary schools, in small towns and villages. 
In every government, a school board was to be 
appointed, while the schools of the circles were 
to be governed by a director. A teachers' semi- 
nary was established in St. Petersburg ; and. in 
the university of Moscow and the three theolog- 
ical academies, a three years' course was pre- 
scribed to prepare pupils for the seminary. The 
emperor Paul took an interest only in the prog- 
ress of the higher schools. Alexander II., in 
1862, established the ministry of •■ popular en- 
lightenment.'.' In 1S74. a new school law was pro- 
mulgated, which is in force at the present time. 
The necessity for a compulsory attendance law 
has. in recent years, been considerably discussed. 
In order to make a beginning, it was resolved, 
in 1875, to establish in St. Petersburg a suffi- 
cient number of schools, at the expense of the 
city, and to carry into effect the compulsory edu- 
cation of all children between the ages of 8 and 
12 years. According to the calculation of the min- 



748 



RUSSIA 



istry, it will be necessary, to this end, to estab- 
lish 157 primary schools, in addition to those 
existing at present. These schools will be gov- 
erned by a school board of six members, besides 
the chief officer of the city government, who is 
to preside. For the absence of children, unless 
excused, parents are to be fined ; and, when the 
offense is repeated, are to be imprisoned. One of 
the principal troubles under which the Russian 
schools are laboring at present, is the absence of 
unity in their government, every ministry having 
a number of special schools under its control. 

Primary Instruction. — According to the new 
school law of 1874, the elementary schools com- 
prise (1) the primary schools, under the direction 
of the clergy ; (2) the primary schools, under 
the ministry of public instruction, both public 
and private ; (3) the elementary schools, under 
other ministries, which are supported by the 
communes ; and (4) Sunday-schools. The course 
of instruction comprises reading, writing, the 
four fundamental rules of arithmetic, the cate- 
chism, Bible history, and, as far as possible, 
singing. The language used in giving instruc- 
tion must be the Russian. Religious instruction 
is confided to the clergy ; while, otherwise, the 
superintendence is given into the hands of the 
nobility. The ecclesiastical schools consist of 
four annual courses, imparting free elementary 
instruction to the children of priests, but are open 
to other children for a small fee. The subjects 
of instruction are religioii, the Russian and old 
Slavic languages, Latin and Greek, geography, 
arithmetic, spelling, and church history. Private 
schools may be established, with the consent of 
the director of the circle, either as day schools or 
boarding schools. This class of schools also com- 
prises the schools of all other denominations. All 
private schools are divided into three kinds, hav- 
ing respectively the rank of a gymnasium, of a 
district-school, and of elementary schools. The 
numerous Jewish population of the western and 
southern governments, for a long time, possessed 
a complete system of private and public institu- 
tions, which were, up to 1864, left strictly to 
themselves. In that year, they were placed un- 
der the general school council, and were divided 
into three classes : elementary schools, intermedi- 
ate schools, and schools for rabbis. In spite, 
however, of the exertions of the government, 
these schools are decidedly unpopular with the 
Jews. Quite recently a desire for the estab- 
lishment of industrial schools has been evinced by 
the middle and lower classes of the people. These 
schools are rapidly increasing, and now comprise 
independent industrial schools, industrial schools 
in connection with district and communal schools, 
and industrial schools in connection with char- 
itable institutions. In the Polish provinces, the 
Sunday-schools are also industrial schools. The 
first Sunday-schools were opened in Kief, in 1859, 
by students who desired to instruct the laborers 
on Sundays and holidays. Shortly after this, 
similar schools were opened in St. Petersburg, 
and spread rapidly; so that, in 18C2, there were 
already 300 schools, with about 20,000 pupils. 



Unfortunately, they did not exist long; for. in con- 
sequence of disturbances in two of these schools 
in St. Petersburg, the government ordered that 
all should be closed, with the exception of those 
in the school-district of Dorpat. — The schools in 
the circles must be regarded as an intermediate 
link between the elementary schools and the 
gymnasia. The law of 1 828 provided that a dis- 
trict school should be established in the capital 
of every circle for the children of the merchants, 
the trades-people, and other inhabitants of the 
cities. The course of study comprises three an- 
nual classes; and the studies taught are religion, 
the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, 
geography, and Russian and general history. In 
some of these schools, Latin, and in others 
French, is taught. These schools have consider- 
ably decreased in number, owing to the fact 
that some have been changed into progymnasia, 
and others into city schools. /Clhe education of 
teachers for primary schools is provided for in 
various ways. Special teachers' seminaries and 
teachers' institutes, have recently been estab- 
lished. The oldest seminary is that of Dorpat, 
founded in 1828. Since then, a number of sem- 
inaries have been established, partly by the gov- 
ernment, partly by provinces and private endow- 
ments. Teachers' institutes have been estab- 
lished in connection with the city schools, the 
students in the highest classes being trained to 
instruct, under the supervision of their teachers. 
The normal number of pupils in each of these 
institutes is 75, of whom 60 are completely sup- 
ported at the expense of the ministry of public 
worship; and the remaining 15, by funds from 
private persons, the government, the city, or other 
sourcesx The students, in return, are obliged 
to serve six years in a city school, wherever 
the government may send them. Besides, special 
courses of instruction for the training of school- 
teachers have been established in connection 
with a number of circle schools, gymnasia, and 
other institutions. For the education of teach- 
ers for the Mohammedan schools in the East, and 
in the Crimea, there are special schools in Kasan 
and Simpheropol. In 1874, there were 4 21 district 
schools, with 30,616 scholars, and 22.653 popular 
schools, with 933,900 scholars (748,866 boys and 
185,034 girls). Included in this number are the 
church schools, the village schools of the Baltic 
provinces, and the industrial schools, i. e., all the 
schools under the minister of public instruction. 
There were, also, in that year, 54 teachers' semi- 
naries and institutes, with 25,552 students. The 
number of private schools, of all three grades, not 
belonging to any church, in 1869, was 886, with 
31.500 children; and the number of denomina- 
tional primary and district schools not belong- 
ing to the Greek Church, was 121, with 24,291 
pupils. The number of ecclesiastical schools for 
the children of the clergy, in 1 868, was 187, with 
25,000 pupils. The "number of ecclesiastical 
elementary schools, in 1868, was 16,287, with 
390,049 pupils, of whom 335,130 were boys, and 
54,919 girls. The statistics of the Jewish schools 
for Jan., 1., 1869, show the following : There are 



RUSSIA 



T49 



2 schools for rabbis and Jewish school-teachers in 
Wilna and Schitomir, 5 schools of the second 
class, similar to the district schools, with 220 
pupils; 96 schools of the first class, in which the 
Jewish religion, Russian and Hebrew, and arith- 
metic and penmanship, are taught; 51 reading and 
writing schools, in the school-districts of Wilna 
and Warsaw, with 1,982 pupils; 2 female schools, 
with 260 pupils, and a number of female read- 
ing and writing schools. Besides these schools, 
under the control of the government, there are 
a number of private schools, with about 26.5110 
pupils. In 1870, there were about 50 industrial 
schools, with about 3.000 pupils, and, in 1874, 
115 Sunday-schools, with 8,565 male pupils and 
22 female pupils. The following table gives the 
ratio of the number of schools, and of the num- 
ber of pupils, to the total population, in each of 
the nine school-districts into which Russia is 
divided : 



School-districts 



Dorpat 

Warsaw 

St. Petersburg 

Odessa 

Wilna 

Kharkof 

BZasan 

Kief I 1 : 3,708 

Moscow 1 : 5,845 



Ratio of 

schools to total 

population 



W0 
2,248 
2,339 
3.814 
3,169 
1 : 4,364 
1 : 4,076 



Ratio of 

pupils to total 

population 



IS 
34 
72 
81 
85 
90 
100 



1 : 144 
1 : 173 



Secondary Instruction. — In the beginning of 
the present century, there were, in the whole 
empire, with the exception of the Baltic and 
Polish provinces, only 3 gymnasia. Catharine II., 
in 1776, established in the capitals of the govern- 
ments people's high schools, and in the other 
cities lower people's schools, the former to con- 
sist of four the latter of two classes. In 1804, 
Alexander I. ordered that every capital of a 
government should have at least one gymnasium. 
The change of the people's high schools into 
gymnasia extended over twenty years; and fi- 
nally, in 1825, 56 gymnasia, with 9,682 pupils, 
were established, making an average of 132 
pupils to each gymnasium. The highest average, 
448, was in the Wilna school-district; and the 
lowest, 69, in Kasan. In 1828, a reform was in- 
troduced. The gymnasia comprised seven an- 
nual classes, which had for their basis the study 
of the ancient languages. Latin was taught in 
all gymnasia, and in all classes; while Greek, 
which was not obligatory, was gradually intro- 
duced. In 1849, a new change was introduced, 
with the object of bringing the instruction in 
closer connection with practical life. Instruction 
was either general, in three lower classes, or 
special, in the other classes. In consequence of 
these changes, the gymnasia were divided into 
three groups: 36 gymnasia, in which natural 
sciences and law were taught: 29, in which law 
only was taught; and 12, in which Creek was re- 
tained. In 1864, an imperial decree classed all 
gymnasia as classical or real gymnasia. In the 
former, the classical languages, in the latter, 



mathematics and the natural sciences, were the 
principal studies. In 1872. the real gymnasia were 
changed into real schools, of from two to six 
classes, in which the ancient languages were 
entirely abolished. The progymnasia, of four 
classes, correspond to the four lower classes of 
the gymnasium. — Very little was done for female 
education in Russia previous to the middle of 
the last century. In 1764, the first institute for 
young ladies of the nobility was opened m St. 
I Vtcrsburg. Since tltct time, the number of these 
institutes, which are open only fur the nobility, 
has considerably increased. The empress Maria 
Feodorowna took particular interest in these 
schools. As th"y pursued a particular object, how- 
; ever, and as they thus became separated from 
. the general school system, they have always been 
under the particular charge of the reigning em- 
press, and are known as the schools of the em- 
press Maria. But not until the beginning of the 
reign of Alexander II., did the ministry of public 
instruction establish female schools for secondary 
instruction. These schools were of two grades, — ■ 
schools of the first grade, corresponding to the 
gymnasia; and those of the second grade, cor- 
responding to the district schools. By a law of 
1870, the schools of the first grade were changed 
into gymnasia, and those of the second grade in- 
to progymnasia. In some of the former, a special 
course, of one year, was instituted for those pupils 
who wished to become governesses or teachers. 
The course of study comprises religion, the Rus- 
sian language and literature, French or German, 
history, geography, natural history, arithmetic, 
geometry, the elements of pedagogy, drawing, and 
penmanship. English is taught for an extra fee 
of 5 rubles per year. This law. however, is only 
for the purely Russian provinces. In the Dorpat 
school-district, there are female schools with a 
higher and lower course, in which instruction is 
given by means of the German language. An ex- 
ception to this rule is the female gymnasium in 
Riga, During the last decade, female gymnasia 
have also been established, in which girls of all 
ranks are admitted. In 1874, the number of 
gymnasia was 123, with 36,268 pupils; of pro- 
gymnasia, 44, with 5,454 pupils; and of real 
schools, 30, with 4,275 pupils. In 1874, there 
were 195 female gymnasia and progymnasia, 
with 23,854 pupils, and 28 female institutes with 
5,453 pupils. The number of gymnasia belong- 
ing to the schools of the empress, in 1870, was 
57, with about 10,000 pupils. There were, also, 
in 1869, six gymnasia, with 1,617 male and 844 
female pupils, belonging to other churches than 
the Greek church. 

Superior Instruction. — The first effort to 
provide superior instruction in Russia was 
made by Peter the Great, who, in 1723, decreed 
the establishment of an academy of sciences and 
a university, at St. Petersburg. The academy 
was not opened until 1726, the year after the 
emperor's death; while the university only ex- 
isted in name, as there were no students for it. 
Indeed, it was not until 1755 that the first Rus- 
sian university was established at Moscow, by 



750 



RUSSIA 



the empress Elizabeth. It consisted of three 
faculties, and was entirely modeled after the 
German universities. Under Catharine II., after 
the division of Poland, the Wilna Academy was 
added to the higher institutions of learning; and, 
in 1803, it was raised to the rank of auniversity. 
In 1802, the Dorpat University, founded by 
Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, was entirely re- 
organized; and, in 1804, the universities of 
Kharkof and Kasan were founded. On account 
of the poor condition of the schools for secondary 
instruction at that time, the number of students 
and of good professors, was at first very small; 
and more than one-half of the latter were for- 
eigners. The native professors were educated in 
the principal pedagogical institute, which was 
founded at St. Petersburg, in 1804. This insti- 
tute did not have a long existence; for, in 1819, 
it was changed into the University of St. Peters- 
burg. In 1832, on account of political disturb- 
ances, the Wilna University was closed, with 
the exception of the medical faculty, which con- 
tinued to exist as the Medico-Surgical Academy. 
In its place, the St. Vladimir University of Kief 
was formed from the lyceum, which shortly be- 
fore had been transferred to that place from 
Kremenets. In 1835, a new university law was 
passed, which withdrew from the universities the 
superintendence of the other schools, and gave to 
a particular inspector the discipline of the stu- 
dents. A decree of the emperor Nicholas, in 1849, 
limited the number of students in each univer- 
sity to 300; but this decree was revoked in 1856. 
In 1863, a new general law for the imperial uni- 
versities was published, intended for all except 
that of Dorpat, which continued to be governed 
by its special chai'ter of 1820. In accordance 
with this law, in 1865, the Russian university of 
Odessa, previously a lyceum, was established ; 
and, in 1869, Warsaw University, previously a 
high school. According to the new law, every 
university must be composed of at least four 
faculties: of history and philology, of natural 
philosophy and mathematics, of law, and of 
medicine. From this order, however, there are 
many deviations. Thus the University of St. 
Petersburg has no medical faculty; but, instead 
thereof, a faculty of oriental languages. In the 
University of Odessa, the medical faculty has not 
yet been opened; in that of Dorpat, there is, in 
addition to the four mentioned above, a faculty 
of Protestant theology. A candidate for admis- 
sion to the university must be, at least, 17 years 
of age, and must possess a certificate of gradu- 
ation from a gymnasium. The entire university 
course comprises 5 years in the medical faculty, 
and 4 in all the others. 

In 1804, Alexander I. ordered that the course 
of instruction of some of the gymnasia should be 
extended, and that gymnasia for the higher sci- 
ences should be established, as stepping-stones 
from the gymnasia to the universities. In a short 
time, four such institutes were founded, chiefly 
at the expense of private persons: (I) that of 
Yaroslav, in 1805, which was changed into a 
lyceum in 1833; (2) the Volhynian gymnasium, 



founded at Kremenets, in 1805, changed into a 
lyceum in 1820, transferred to Kief in 1832, and 
subsequently changed into a university ; (3) the 
Lyceum Richelieu, founded in 1817, and after- 
ward changed into a university ; and (4) the 
Gymnasium for Higher Learning, founded in 
Nezheen, in 1820, which received the name of 
lyceum in 1832. The lyceums under the minister 
of public instruction have three classes, each for 
one year ; a lyceum belonging to the Schools of 
the Empress Maria has four classes, of one and 
one half years each ; while the Lyceum of the 
Grand-duke Nikolai, in Moscow, has an eight 
years' course. 

The following table presents the statistics of 
the universities for 1875 : 



Universities 


Instructors 


Students 




86 
97 
65 
69 
72 
42 
63 
75 


1 196 




1,473 
418 


Kief 


522 
859 




316 




794 




830 







Total. 



6,408 



Of the total number of students, 36 per cent 
study law; 31 per cent, medicine; 14 per cent at- 
tend the course of mathematics and natural phi- 
losophy ; 9 per cent are free hearers, but only 8 
per cent attend the historical and philological 
faculty. The remaining 2 per cent are made up 
of the theological students in Dorpat and the 
students of oriental languages in St. Petersburg. 
The number of lyceums, in 1874, according to 
the Russian Annals, was 5, with about 600 
students. 

Special Instruction. — The special schools be- 
long to different ministries. The following sta- 
tistics are for Jan. 1., 1874. There are 4 higher 
theological schools, with 178 professors and 446 
students ; 51 intermediate theological schools, 
with 789 professors and 13,103 students ; and 
187 lower theological schools, with 1,375 profess- 
ors and 26,671 students ; 7 higher, 25 interme- 
diate, and 31 lower military schools, with 1,416, 
6,330, and 6,863 students, respectively ; 7 naval 
schools, with 1,109 students; 3 higher and 16 
lower agricultural schools, with 293 and 1,025 
students, respectively; 6 higher technical schools, 
with 2,666 students, 12 lower technical schools, 
5 schools of art and drawing, 3 schools of music 
and the drama, 4 business colleges, 1 law school, 
with 320 students, and 3 schools of philology. 

Caucasia. — The schools of Finland (q. v.) and 
of the Caucasus are the only schools in the whole 
empire that are not subject to the Russian govern- 
ment, but to their own school authorities. Cau- 
casia forms one school-district, the inspector of 
which is responsible to the governor only. In 
1862, there were, in Caucasia, 4 gymnasia, 20 
district schools, 1 progynmasium, 18 elementary 
schools, 31 private schools, and 13 schools belong- 
ing to the church, making a total of 87 schools, 



RUTGERS COLLEGE 



SAINT CHARLES'S COLLEGE 751 



with 7,362 pupils. — See Sciimid, Padagogische 
Ehicyclopadie ; Roi.fus and Pfistek, Real-En- 
cyclopddie des ESrsiehungs- mid Unterrichtswe- 
sens; Lbngenfeldt, Mussland im neunzehnten 
Jahrhundert ; Report of the U. S. Commissioner 
of Education, 1874; Ghronik des Vblksschul- 
wesens, 1875. 

RUTGERS COLLEGE, at New Brunswick, 
N.J., under the control of the Reformed Church 
in America, was founded in 1770. It is supported 
by tuition fees and an endowment of about 
$400,01)0; the value of its buildings, grounds, and 
apparatus amounts to about the same sum. Its 
cabinets and apparatus are extensive ; the libra- 
ries contain about 9,500 volumes. There are 
two departments : the classical or college proper, 
and the scientific (state college of agriculture 
and the mechanic arts, endowed with the con- 
gressional laud grant). The latter department has 
three courses : civd engineering and mechanics, 
chemistry and agriculture, and a special course in 
chemistry. There is an extensive model farm. 
The tuition fee iu both departments is $75 per 
annum. There are a number of beneficiary funds 
for the aid of students intended for the ministry; 
and 40 students, resident in the state, are ad- 
mitted to the scientific department without 
charge. In 1875 — (i, there were 13 professors 
and 188 students (131 classical and 57 scientific). 
The Rev. Wm. Henry Campbell, D. D., LL. 1).. 
is (187(1) the president. 

RUTHERFORD COLLEGE, at Happy 
Home, Burke Co., N. C, was commenced by 
its present and only president, the Rev. R. L. 
Abernethy, A. M., in 1854, and was chartered as 
Rutherford Academy in 1858. In 1861, under 
the title of the Rutherford Seminary, it was given 



the right to confer degrees; and, in 1870, it was 
made a college. It is a college for young men. 
with a ladies' department. Each sex has its own 
curriculum ; but the females recite with the males 
in all those classes in which the courses of study 
are the same. The college is composed of six 
regular schools : Latin, Greek, mathematics, En- 
glish literature and rhetoric, natural science, and 
mental and moral philosophy. 'I he libraries con- 
tain about 3.500 volumes. The cost of tuition 
ranges from $1 to $5 a month. The children 
of ministers of all denominations of Christians, 
as well as all indigent orphans, are instructed 
free of tuition charges. In 1874 — 5, there were 
1!) instructors and 319 students (22'.) males and 
'.))) females), mostly of the preparatory grade. 

RYERSON, Adolphus Egerton, a noted 
I 'anadian clergyman and educator, born at 
( IharlotteviUe, uear Victoria, in the province of 
Ontario, March 24., 1803. He at first taught 
school, but in 1825 entered the Wesleyan min- 
istry, and, in 1820, assumed the editorship of the 
Christian Guardian, a Methodist journal, estab- 
lished by himself. In 1842, he was appointed 
principal of Victoria College, Cobourg, C. W., 
and two years afterward, chief superintendent 
of education for Upper Canada, now Ontario, 
which position he still occupies. Mr. Ryerson's 
services as a superintendent have been cpiite dis- 
tinguished. The public-school system which is 
under his supervision was organized upon a plan 
arranged by him. in 1849; and his school reports 
have uniformly presented very valuable, material. 
lie has also published a history of Canada, and 
has written a history of the British [~n UedEmpire 
Loyalists, who emigrated from the United States 
to British America in 1783. 



SAINT AUGUSTINE, Missionary Col- 
lege of, at Benicia, Cal., an Episcopal institu- 
tion, was founded in 1867, and incorporated 
in 1868. The course of study is arranged for 
eight forms or classes, iu three departments ; 
namely, primary, grammar school, and collegiate 
(in which ancient and modern languages are 
optional). The students are under military dis- 
cipline, and instruction is given in infantry, caval- 
ry, and artillery tactics. The regular charge for 
board, tuition, etc., is from $350 to $370 per 
annum. In 1875, there were 12 instructors, and 
89 students. The Rt. Rev. J. H. D. Wingfield, 
D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the rector. 

SAINT BENEDICT'S COLLEGE, at 
Atchison, Kan., a Roman Catholic institution 
under the superintendence of the Benedictine 
Fathers, was founded in 1859, and chartered in 
1868. It has a preparatory, a commercial, and a 
classical department. The regular charge for tui- 
tion, board, etc., is $90 per session of five months; 
for tuition alone, $25. The library contains 2,000 
volumes. In 1874 — 5, there were 6 instructors 
and 79 students. The Very Rev. Oswald Moos- 
mueller, 0. S. B., is (1876) the president. 



SAINT CHARLES COLLEGE, at Grand 
Coteau, La., a Roman Catholic institution, under 
the direction of members of the Society of Jesus, 
was founded in 1836, and incorporated in 1852. 
The course of instruction embraces Latin, Greek, 
English, French, poetry, rhetoric, history, geog- 
raphy, mathematics, natural and mental philos- 
ophy, with the addition of the usual commercial 
branches. It had the highest number of stu- 
dents in 1861, just before the breaking out of 
the civil war. Recently the numbers have de- 
clined, owing to the impoverished state of the 
country. The libraries contain 5,500 volumes. 
The regular charge for board, tuition, etc., is 
$250 a year. In 1876, the number of students 
was 35. The Rev.R. Ollivier, S. J., is (1876) the 
president. 

SAINT CHARLES'S COLLEGE, near 
Ellicott City, Md., under Roman Catholic control, 
was chartered in 1830. and organized in 1848. It 
was founded by Charles Carroll of Carrollton, 
and forms the petit seminaire and classical de- 
partment of St. Mary's University and Theolog- 
ical Seminary of St. Sulpice, Baltimore. The 
course of instruction is a full classical one, re- 



752 ST. FRANCIS XAVIER COLLEGE 



SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE 



quiring a period of 6 years for those who 
complete it, and embracing all the branches 
preparatory to the higher ecclesiastical studies; 
such as Latin, English, Greek, French, German, 
belles-lettres, mathematics, sacred and profane 
history, Christian doctrine, plain chant, and 
church ceremonies. The libraries contain 4,500 
volumes. The charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
$90 per half session of five months. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 12 instructors and 175 students. The 
Eev. S. Ferte, D. D., is (1876) the president. 

SAINT FRANCIS XAVIEK., College of, 
in New York City, a Roman Catholic institution 
conducted by the Fathers of the Society of 
Jesus, was founded in 1847, and chartered in 
1861. It is supported by a tuition fee of $60 
per annum from each student. Its library con- 
tains 16,000 volumes. It has a post-graduate 
course of one year, leading to the degree of A. 
M.; an under-graduate course of four years, lead- 
ing to the degree of A. B.; a grammar course of 
three years, preparatory to the preceding; a com- 
mercial course of three years; and a preparatory 
or elementary course, for beginners. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 26 instructors and 456 students. The 
following have been the presidents of the college : 
the Rev. John Larkin, the Rev. John Ryan, the 
Rev. Michael Driscol, the Rev. Joseph Uurthaller, 
the Rev. Joseph Loyzance, and the Rev. Henry 
Hudon. the present incumbent (1876). 

SAINT IGNATIUS COLLEGE, in San 
Francisco, Cal., was opened in 1855, and char- 
tered in 1859. It is a Roman Catholic institution, 
conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. 
The course of studies embraces the Greek, Latin, 
and English languages, poetry, rhetoric, elocu- 
tion, history, geography, arithmetic, book-keeping, 
penmanship, mathematics, chemistry, and mental, 
moral, and natural philosophy. The study of the 
French and Spanish languages is optional. There 
is also a preparatory department. The regidar 
tuition fee ranges from $3 to $8 a month. In 
1875 — 6, there were 22 instructors and 758 stu- 
dents. The Rev. A. Masnata, S. J., is (187G) the 
president. 

SAINT IGNATIUS COLLEGE, in Chi- 
cago, 111., a Roman Catholic institution conducted 
by members of the Society of Jesus, was founded 
in 1870. It possesses a library of 10,000 volumes; 
and a museum containing a rare and valuable 
collection of minerals. It comprises a classical 
course of six years, corresponding to the prepar- 
atory and collegiate departments of most col- 
leges, a commercial course of four years, embra- 
cing all the branches of a good English education; 
and a preparatory or elementary course. The 
cost of tuition is $60 a year. In 1874 — 5, there 
were 11 instructors and 214 students. The pres- 
idents have been as follows : the Rev. A. Damen, 
S. J., 1870—72 ; the Rev. F. Coosemans, S. J., 
1872—4; and the Rev. J. De Blieck, S. J., since 
1874. 

SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, atFordham, 
New York City, was founded by the Rev. John 
Hughes, first Roman Catholic archbishop of New 
York, and was opened in 1841. It was chartered 



I in 1846, and the same year was transferred to the 
I Jesuits, by whom it has since been conducted. 
It is supported by the students' fees for board 
and tuition, amounting ordinarily to $300 per 
annum ; the charge to day scholars is $60 per 
annum. The college library contains 20,000 vol- 
umes, besides which the students have the use of 
a circulating library of over 5,000 volumes. There 
are valuable chemical and philosophical ap- 
paratus, and a geological and mineralogical cabi- 
net, with about 2,500 specimens. The college 
combines the ordinary features of preparatory, 
grammar, and commercial schools with those of 
a university. There are also several supplenient- 
ary classes. Students are received at' any age. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 21 instructors and 178 
students. The presidents have been as follows: 
the Rev. John McCloskey, now Cardinal Arch- 
bishop of New York; the Rev. Ambrose Manahan, 
D.D.; the Rev. Roosevelt Bayley, now Archbishop 
of Baltimore ; the Rev. James Early, A. M.; the 
Rev. Aug. J. Thebaud, S. J. ; the Rev. John 
Larkin, S. J. ; the Rev. Remigius J. Tellier, S. J.; 
the Rev. Edward Doucet, S. J.; the Rev.William 
Moylan, S.J. ; the Rev. Joseph Shea, S. J.; and 
the Rev. William Gockeln, S. J., the present in- 
cumbent (1876). 

SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE Brooklyn, 
N. Y., a Roman Catholic institution, conducted 
by the Priests of the Congregation of the Mis- 
sion, was founded in 1870. It has a full classical, 
an English, and a commercial course, including 
French and German. The cost of tuition is $1 5 per 
quarter. In 1875 — (i, there were 6 instructors, 
and 145 students. The Rev. P. M. O'Regan, 
C. M., is (1876) the president. 

SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, at Annapolis, 
Md., was chartered in 1784, and opened in 1789. 
From 1861 to 1866, it was closed in consequence 
of the civil war. It is supported chiefly by state 
appropriations, at present amounting to $25,000 
a year, in return for which 150 students (6 from 
each senatorial district) are entitled to room rent 
and tuition free ; and 50 of these (2 from each 
senatorial district) are entitled, in addition, to 
gratuitous board. These latter are required to 
teach school within the state for not less than 
two years after leaving college. For those not 
holders of scholarships, the annual charge for 
tuition, board, etc., is $275; for tuition alone $60 
in the preparatory, and $90 in the collegiate 
department. The library contains 5,000 volumes. 
The collegiate department embraces an under- 
graduate course of four years, leading to the 
degree of A. B.; a post-graduate course of two 
yeai-s, leading to the degree of A. M.; and select 
courses. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors, 
including those in music and gymnastics, and 
121 students (69 collegiate and 52 prepar- 
atory), of whom, including the 50 who receive 
gratuitous board, about two-thirds were in- 
structed free. The number of alumni was 481. 
The principals of the College have been as fol- 
lows: John McDowell, LL. D. (appointed in 
1790); the Rev. Bethel Judd, D. D. (1807); the 
Rev. Henry Lyon Davis, D. D. (1820); the Rev. 



SAINT JOHNS COLLEGE 



ST. LOUIS 



753 



William Rafferty, D. I). (1824); the Rev. Hector 
Humphreys, D.I). (1831); the Rev. Clelaud K. 
Nelson. D. D. (1857); Henry Barnard, LL. I). 
(1866); James C. Welling, LL. I). (1867); and 
James M. Garnett. M. A., LL. I). (1870). 

SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, 4 miles from 
St. Joseph. Stearns ( 'o.. Minn., a Roman < 'atholie 
institution, conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, 
was founded in 1857, and chartered the same 
year, under the name of St. John's Seminary, 
but it is better known as St. John's College. By 
an act of the legislature, approved March 5., 1869, 
it is -authorized to confer such degrees and grant 
such diplomas as arc usual in colleges and uni- 
versities." It is supported by the fees of students, 
the regular charge for tuition, board, etc.. being 
$90 per session of five months. The institution 
comprises an ecclesiastical, a classical, a scientific, 
a commercial, and an elementary course. The 
libraries contain about 2,0(10 volumes. In 1 874 — 5, 
there were 15 instructors and 168 students (30 
ecclesiastical, and 138 classical and commercial). 
The Rt, Rev. Alexius Kdelbrock, O. S. B., D.D., 
is (1876) the president. 

SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE OF AR- 
KANSAS, at Little Rock, was chartered in 
1850, and opened in 1859. It was founded by the 
Masonic Fraternity of Arkansas, and has been 
sustained by the Grand Lodge since its opening. It 
was suspended from May. 1861, to October, 1H67. 
during the greater part of which time the build- 
ing was used as a hospital either by the ( 'onfed- 
erate or by the Federal troops. The value of the 
college property is $72,600. The cost of tuition 
is §5(1 per annum, except to sons of Masons with- 
in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Ar- 
kansas, who are instructed without charge. The 
college has a preparatory course of three years, 
a course for A. B. (4 years), a course for Sc. B. 
(3 years), and a course for Ph. B. (2 years). In 
1*75 — 6. there were 3 instructors and 55 stu- 
dents. R. H. Parham, Jr., A. M., is (1876) the 
president. 

SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, atTeutop- 
olis, 111., was founded in 1861. under the auspices 
of the Rt. Rev. H. I). Yunker, D. 1)., Roman 
Catholic bishop of Alton, and is under the direc- 
tion of the Franciscan Fathers. The course of 
studies embraces the Greek, Latin, English. 
French, and German languages ; rhetoric, poetry, 
composition, history, geography, book-keeping, 
arithmetic, mathematics, natural philosophy, 
natural history, drawing, penmanship, and in- 
strumental and vocal music. The study of Ger- 
man (for English students), French, book-keep- 
ing, drawing, and music, is optional. It is an 
ecclesiastical seminary (designed to prepare can- 
didates for the priesthood for the study of phi- 
losophy and theology), and admits only Catholic- 
pupils ; but the course also furnishes a qualifica- 
tion for secular pursuits. There are two prepar- 
atory and four collegiate classes. The charge for 
tuition, board, etc.. is $75 per session of five 
months to those studying for the priesthood, and 
$90 to others. In 1875 — 6, there were 10 in- 
structors and 112 students. The Very Rev. P. 



Mauritius Klostermann, 0. S. F., is (1876) the 
rector of the ( iollege. 

SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, in Buffalo, 

N. Y., a Roman Catholic institution conducted 
by the Christian Brothers, was founded in 1861. 
It is supported by the fees of students, the reg- 
; ular charge for board and tuition being $200 a 
year; for tuition alone, from $16 to $50 a year. 
The institution comprises three departments: 
primary. 2 years; preparatory collegiate. 1 years; 
and collegiate, 4 yeais. There is a commercial 
course, and facilities are afforded for instruction 
in music and drawing. The library contains 2.5(10 
volumes. In 1875 — 6. there were 11 instructors 
and 318 students. The Rev. Bro. Joachim is 
(1876) the president. 

ST. LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY, The, 
at -Canton, N. Y., chartered and organized in 
1856. is under Cniversalist control. It comprises 
a college of letters and science, and a theological 
school, independent of each other in theirfaculties. 
and in the instruction and government of their 
students. Its productive funds amount to 
$165,000, and its libraries contain 7,366 volumes. 
Both sexes are admitted to each of the depart- 
ments. The college has a classical and a scientific 
course, each of four years. In 1875 — 6, it had 8 
instructors and 54 students (28 males and 16 fe- 
males); the theological school had 3 professors 
and 28 students. The Rev. A. G. Gaines, I). D., 
is (1876) the president of the college, and the 
Rev. E. Fisher, 1). I)., is the president of the 
theological school. 

ST." LOUIS, the chief city of Missouri and 
of the Mississippi valley, having a population, 
in 1870, of 310.864, and an estimated popula- 
tion, in 1875. of 450,000. 

Educational Wstory. — On the 13th of June, 
1812, the Congress of the United States passed 
an act to set apart certain lands in St. Louis 
and other towns in Missouri, "for the support of 
schools in the respective towns or villages afore- 
said." In 1817, an act was approved by which 
a board of trustees for the schools of St. Louis 
was incorporated. The first business of the 
board was to define and take possession of the 
school lands previously given. This was a mat- 
ter of some difficulty, as the original act convey- 
ing the land contained a proviso to the effect 
that the rights of claimants should not be vio- 
lated ; and such claimants, by action iu the 
courts, prevented the using of the land for 
school purposes, till two supplementary acts of 
Congress, in 1824 and 1831. compelled them to 
prove their titles. The tract of land thus con- 
veyed to the city comprised a little less than 50 
acres, and is the laud now reported annually by 
the board of public schools, as "real estate held 
for revenue." A new school board was created 
in 1833 by the legislature, styled the " Board of 
President and Directors of the St. Louis Public 
Schools." An election took place, the same year, 
which resulted in the choice of six school direct- 
ors, Edward Bates being of the number. 
The first money from the rent of the school 
lands was received in 1834 ; and, the following 



754 



ST. LOUIS 



year, the money was loaned, by permission of 
the legislature, the time for establishing schools 
not yet having arrived. In 1837, two school- 
houses were built — the south and the north 
school-house — the former of which is still stand- 
ing on the corner of Fourth and Spruce streets. 
The latter was abandoned in 1842, and was 
afterwards burnt. In April, 1838, the first 
school was opened ; and, shortly after, the sec- 
ond. In 1841, the third school-house was built 
at a cost of $10,925, an expense which the 
board was very much embarrassed to meet 
In 1845, two more school-houses were built, and, 
the following year, occupied. Other schools 
followed. In 1849, two evening schools were 
opened. The first high school was established 
in 1853, with an attendance of over 70 pupils. 
On the first Monday in June, 1849, the question 
of supporting the public schools by taxation was 
voted upon by the people, the legislature having 
so directed, in answer to a petition from a com- 
mittee of the school board. The anxiety felt by 
the friends of popular education in regard to 
this election proved to be unnecessary, as the law 
was endorsed by a large majority'; and the first 
tax under it, amounting to $18,000, was col- 
lected the following year. At the session of 
1853 — 4, the legislature repealed the law by 
which St. Louis was prevented from participation 
in the state school fund. This law had been 
passed on the erroneous supposition that the 
special grant of land made to the city by Con- 
gress, in 1812, would be ample for school pur- 
poses. On the establishment of the high school, 
the same opposition to it was encountered that 
has been observed in other cities during the first 
half of the century. This opposition arose from 
a conception, common at that time, that it was 
unjust to tax the people generally for any thing 
beyond elementary instruction. In the school 
board, fortunately, were several men of sufficient 
foresight and firmness to disregard the clamor 
of the hour, and to provide for the new school 
in the most efficient manner. The wisdom of 
their action is proved by the fact that, in the 
words of the present superintendent, " no other 
measure ever adopted by the Board has had so 
powerful an influence as this in popularizing and 
strengthening the public schools." In 1855, the 
school buildings were found insufficient to ac- 
commodate the children of the city, and primary 
schools were established in leased houses. The 
success of the schools of St. Louis now attracted 
attention throughout the state, and a law was 
passed by the legislature, appropriating 25 per 
cent of the state revenue to the support of free 
schools. By this apportionment, St. Louis re- 
ceived $27,456.51, in 1854. The schools had 
now been in operation about 20 years, and the 
increase in the number of pupils caused the 
want which always attends this increase — that 
of trained teachers — to be severely felt. In 1857, 
accordingly, the first normal school was estab- 
lished, and Ira Divoll became superintendent of 
schools. The city had now gone so far in the 
completion of its school system, that the remain- 



ing steps were easy. The Franklin school-house- 
was begun in 1857, but was not finished till the 
following year. It was built on the Lancasterian 
plan, then extensively used in nearly all of the- 
large cities of the Union, and was the last house 
so built by the city, the era of graded schools, 
which required a different plan, having begun. 
In the summer of 1857, the new superintendent 
went upon a tour of observation through the 
principal eastern cities, and on his return, drew 
up a comprehensive plan for the reorganization 
of the school system, in every thing that related, 
to the construction and size of school-houses, 
the style of furniture and appointments, 
the mode of organization- and classification, 
methods of instruction, etc.; and the principles 
then discussed and agreed upon were made 
the basis upon which an entire reconstruction 
of the system was begun. It was ordered that 
the school-houses should bo built thereafter 
according to the plan for graded schools, that 
they should be, as nearly as possible, of uni- 
form size, and that they should be the property 
of the city ; that pupils should be classified 
according to attainment ; and that there should 
be but one organization and one principal teacher 
for each building. The city, at that time, con- 
tained 135,000 inhabitants, of whom 25,000 
were children of school age ; yet the school 
could accommodate only 5,361. This insuffi- 
ciency of the school accommodations was forci- 
bly presented to the board by Mr. Divoll in his 
report for 1858, and the erection of several new 
buildings was urgently recommended. Eight 
new school-houses were, accordingly, begun, and 
shortly after, four of the old buildings were re- 
constructed, and made to conform to the new 
plan. The changes went steadily on till all 
the old school-houses were adapted to the graded 
system. The German language was introduced 
into five of the public schools of the city, in 
1864, as an optional study for pupils who had 
advanced in English as far as the " Second 
Reader and Primary Geography." A serious 
difficulty immediately presented itself — that of 
finding teachers properly qualified to give such 
instruction. Several were obtained, however, 
from the German-American schools of Cincin- 
nati ; and the first year, 450 German children 
received instruction in their native language. 
The following year, this study was introduced, 
into two more schools, and the office of German 
Assistant Superintendent was created. In 1866, 
the organization of German classes was author- 
ized in any school containing 100 German-speak- 
ing pupils who requested it, and its introduction 
in the study of object lessons only, was directed 
in all schools of the lowest grade. This action 
met with considerable opposition on the ground 
that the homogeneity of feelings and interests be- 
tween German residents and natives required 
that the children of the former should have the 
whole time during the first year in school to be- 
come familiar with English. It was pointed 
oat, on the other hand, that the absence of the 
study of German was having the effect of 



ST. LOUIS 



755 



keeping German children out of the schools. 
"\\ hatever the cogency of these opposite views 
may have been, the study of German spread 
rapidly till, in 1870, the number of pupils re- 
ceiving instruction in it was more than 6,000. 
About this time, also, the study of German and 
geography was made optional with the pupil in 
the highest grade of the district school, and 
American pupils were permitted to com- 
mence the study of German in any grade. This 
led to an increase in the number of Amer- 
ican pupils studying German, the number. 
in 1872, being, 1 .:;;>(;. The German language is 
now taught in every school in the city except 
the colored schools. Difficulties have, from time to 
time, arisen from the introduction of this study, 
the first being in regard to the comparative 
grades of German and English classes ; but this 
was met by a rule of the board which required 
that pupils studying German should belong, in 
this branch of instruction, to the same grade as 
in their English studies. 'I he system of parallel 
grading thus adopted, supplemented by improve- 
ments looking steadily towards a practical rather 
than a theoretical knowledge of the language, has 
produced an increased interest in the study, 
till, in 1875, this department contained over 
17,000 pupils, one-third of whom were Amer- 
icans, taught by 73 teachers. — Another im- 
provement, due to the foresight and energy of 
Mr. Divoll, is the Public School Library, which 
was founded in 1805. Beginning at that time 
with a miscellaneous collection of 4f>3 volumes, 
it numbered 30,507 volumes, in 1874, with an 
annual membership of 5,477. The establish- 
ment of a kindergarten in connection with the 
public schools, was decided upon between the 
years 1872 and 1873. The experiment was 
made at the Des Peres School, and proving suc- 
cessful, was soou repeated in two others. Two 
difficulties were at once encountered : the apathy 
towards the schools of the poorer classes, for 
whose benefit they were established, and the 
comparative costliness of this kind of school. The 
first difficulty was soon overcome ; the second 
remains, as it always will, a stumbling-block to 
those who consider the mere question of expense 
in dollars and cents, and take no account of the 
kind of instruction imparted, as compared with 
that furnished at a cheaper rate. The advantages 
derived from the kindergarten, as stated in the 
published reports, are a readier submission to 
school discipline, an increase of average intel- 
ligence, and a special aptitude for arithmetic, 
drawing, natural science, and language — the last 
shown in a quicker comprehension and greater 
ability to express ideas. — The first superintendent 
of schools was John W. Tice (1854 — 7); the next 
was Ira Divoll (1857—68); his successor was 
William T. Harris, the present incumbent, who 
was appointed in 1868. 

School System. — The entire control and man- 
agement of the public schools is committed to 
The Boon! of President and Directors of the 
St. Louis Public Schools. This board consists 
of 26 members — two from each ward — who are 



elected for 3 years, one-third going out of office 
each year. A superinu ndent of public schools 
is elected annually by the board, whose duty it 
is to exercise a general supervision over the public 
schools of the city, visiting and examining them 
for this purpose, and reporting upon their con- 
dition quarterly, or whenever required by the 
board. He appoints two assistant superintend- 
ents, one of whom must be able to speak Ger- 
man. The school revenue is derived from a 
state school fund, rent of lands given by the 
general government, a four or five mill tax (the 
amount varying from year to year) on each 
dollar of the city property, and fines in criminal 
cases. The two sexes are educated together. 
AH religious or sectarian instruction is prohib- 
ited. The length of the school year is 40 weeks ; 
the school age is from 6 to 1 6 years. The school 
system comprises three grades of schools — the 
district, the normal, and the high school, the 
former composed of a primary, an intermediate, 
and a grammar department', all in the same 
building. Owing to the overcrowding of the 
schools, in 1866 and subsequently, a system of 
half-time sessions was begun in the first year of 
the primary school in some districts, and is still 
on trial. By this arrangement, in crowded dis- 
tricts, a slight addition to the teaching force is 
all that is needed to supply the necessary in- 
struction, one set of pupils coming in the morn- 
ing, and another in the afternoon. As its action 
is to diminish the school hours of the smallest 
children only, it is thought to be beneficial. The 
course of stud;/ in the district school comprises 
reading, spelling, writing, drawing, vocal music, 
descriptive and physical geography, mental and 
written arithmetic, English grammar, history 
and constitution of the United States, composi- 
tion, and outlines of physics and natural history. 
In the high school, the course of study is a gen- 
eral and classical one of 4 years ; in the normal 
school the course covers a period of 2 years, the 
branches pursued beingprincipallyadvanced stages 
of the district-school studies, with the addition of 
Latin, elocution, human anatomy and physiology, 
algebra, general history, geometry, mental philos- 
ophy, English literature, practical instruction in 
the teaching of all of these, and general instruction 
in the theory and art of teaching. In the even- 
ing schools, and the O'Fallon Polytechnic In- 
stitute, which serves as a high school for them, 
the course of study inclines toward elementary 
English branches and technological instruction. 
The session of the evening schools is 4 months. 
The rapid growth of these schools — the increase 
being from 1,14!), in 1861, to 5,751, in 1875 — is 
attributed to their intimate relation to the 
Public School Library, a year's membership in 
which is granted to each student who attends 
an evening school punctually 60 evenings of the 
course, and maintains a satisfactory standing 
therein. The certificate of such membership is 
equivalent to one-third payment of the cost of 
life membership. Certificates of the former kind 
are thus obtained annually by more than 1,000 
students. 



756 SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY 



SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE 



The number of schools in the city is as fol- 
lows : district schools, 44 ; high schools and 
tranches, G ; normal school, 1 ; evening schools, 
24 ; colored schools, 6 ; kindergartens, 12 ; total, 
93. TV principal items of school statistics for 
1815 are as follows : 

Number of children of school age 95,539 

" " " enrolled 41,692 

Average daily attendance 24,438 

Number of teachers, males GO 

females 594 

Total G54 

Eeceipts (1875) $849,513.24 

Expenditures (1875) $815,413.8!) 

Total value of school property $2,380,620.44 

There are about 70 denominational schools in 
St. Louis under the control of the Roman Cath- 
olic and other churches, and a number of private 
schools and academies. In addition to the in- 
stitutions for special and higher instruction men- 
tioned under the head of Missouri (q. v.), there 
is the Concordia College and Theological Semi- 
nary, founded in 1839, and controlled by the 
German Evangelical Lutherans ; the Academy 
of Science, established in 1856, and now pos- 
sessed of a library of 3,000 volumes and a large 
museum; the Missouri Historical Society, found- 
ed in 1865 ; and three public libraries, special 
and general, with an aggregate of nearly 80,000 
volumes. 

SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY, in St. 
Louis, Mo., a Roman Catholic institution, con- 
ducted by members of the Society of Jesus, was 
founded in 1829, and chartered in 1832. It is 
supported by the fees of students, the charge for 
tuition, board, etc., being $280 a year, and for 
tuition alone, from $ 40 to §60. It has a classical 
course of 6 years, corresponding to the prepara- 
tory and collegiate departments of most colleges, 
and a commercial course of 4 years, embracing 
all the branches of a good English education. 
There is also a preparatory or elementary class. 
The library belonging to the institution numbers 
over 16,500 volumes. The select libraries, open 
to the students, form a separate collection of 
over 8,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 22 
instructors and 353 students. The presidents of 
the university have been as follows : the Rev. P. 
J. Verhaegen, S. J., 1829—36 ; the Rev. J. A. 
Met, S. J., 1836—40 ; the Rev. J. Vandevelde, 
S. J., 1840—43 ; the Rev. G. A. Carrell, S. J., 
1843—7 ; the Rev. J. B. Druyts, S. J., 1847— 54 ; 
the Rev. J. S. Verdin, S. J., 1854—9 ; the Rev. 
P. Coosemans, S. J., 1859—62; the Rev. T. 
O'Neil, S. J., 1862—8 ; the Rev. F. H. Stunte- 
beck, S. J., 1868—71; the Rev. J. Zealand, S. J., 
1871 — i ; the Rev. L. Bushart, S. J., since 1874. 

SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, a Roman 
Catholic institution in San Francisco, Cal., con- 
ducted by the Christian Brothers, was founded 
in 1S63. It is supported by the fees of students, 
the regular charge for board, tuition, etc., per 
term of five months being $125. It has a pre- 
paratory, a commercial, and a collegiate depart- 
ment, the last with a classical and a scientific 
course. The library contains 3,000 volumes. The 



number of students, in 1876, was 320. Bro. Justin 
is (1876) the president. 

ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, at St. Mary's, 
Marion Co., Ky., a Roman Catholic institu- 
tion, conducted by ecclesiastics of the Congrega- 
tion of the Resurrection of Our Lord, was 
founded in 1821. It is supported by the fees of 
pupils. The regular charge for board, tuition, 
etc., is $200 a year ; for tuition alone $40. It 
has a preparatory, a commercial, and a collegiate 
course. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors 
and 103 students. The Rev. D. Fennessy, C. R., 
is (1876) the president. 

SAINT MEINRAD'S COLLEGE, at 
St. Meinrad, Spencer Co.. Ind., founded in 1854, 
is connected with St. Meinrad's Abbey, and is 
under the control of the Benedictine Fathers of 
the Roman Catholic Church. It is supported 
by the fees of students, amounting to $90 per 
session of five months for board and tuition. It 
is the seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese 
of Vincennes, in which the priests of that dio- 
cese are educated, and offers a full course of En- 
glish, commercial, classical, and theological stud- 
ies. The library contains 6,000 volumes. The 
number of students, in 1876, was 80. The ab- 
bot, or superior, of the monastery is the principal 
of the college ; he appoints one of the Fathers 
to act as president, or prefect of studies and 
morals. The present prefect (1876) is the Rev. 
G. Isidore Hobi, O. S. B., appointed in 1871. 

SAINT STEPHEN'S COLLEGE, at An- 
andale, Dutchess Co., N.Y., was founded in 1860. 
It is an academic body composed of religious men 
— trustees, professors, and students — who are 
communicants of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church. The religious culture of the students is 
a prominent object. Its special design is the 
classical education of candidates for the ministry 
of the Church. It is chiefly supported by the 
contributions of friends. The only charge to 
students is $225 per year for board, etc. The 
college has valuable philosophical apparatus, and 
a library of 2,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there 
were 8 instructors and 74 students (45 collegiate 
and 29 preparatory). The presidents have been 
as follows : the Rev. Geo. F. Seymour, D. D., 
1860—61; the Rev. Thos. Richey, D.D., 1861—3; 
and (1876) the Rev. Robert B. Fairbairn, D. D., 
LL. D., since 1863. 

SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE, at Cape 
Girardeau, Mo., a Roman Catholic institution 
conducted by the Priests of the Congregation of 
the Mission, was chartered in 1843. It has a 
theological and a collegiate department. The 
curriculum of studies in the collegiate depart- 
ment covers five years, and embraces a complete 
course of English and classical literature. Ger- 
man, French, Italian, Spanish, and instrumental 
music are optional. Christian doctrine is taught 
throughout the course. The library contains 
5,500 volumes. The regular charge for tuition, 
board, etc., is $250 a year; for tuition alone, $40. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors, and 125 
students (10 theological). The Rev. J. W. Hickey, 
C. M., is (1876) the president. 



SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE 



SAN FRANCISCO 



757 



SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE, at Beat- 
ty, Westmoreland Co., Pa., 2 miles from Latrobe, 
is a Roman Catholic institution, founded in 1846 
by the Rt. Rev. Boniface Winuner. 0. S. B„ of 
St. Vincent's Abbey, and incorporated in 1870. 
It is conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, 
under the immediate supervision of its founder. 
There are four distinct courses of study: the 
theological, the philosophical, the classical, and 
the commercial, besides an elementary school for 
beginners. In all these, special attention is paid 
to religious instruction. The German, French, 
Italian, and Spanish languages are optional. 
The regular charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
$90 per session of five months. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 37 instructors and 306 students (ec- 
clesiastical course, 38; philosophical, 30; classical, 
152; commercial, 64; elementary, 22). The Rev. 
Hilary Pfrrengle, 0. S. B., is (1876) the director 
of the college. 

SAINT XAVIEB, COLLEGE, in Cincin- 
nati, Ohio, was established in 1 831 , by the lit. Rev. 
E. D. Fenwick, D. D., the first Roman ( 'ath- 
olic Bishop of Cincinnati, under the name of The 
Athenpeum. In 1840, it was transferred to the 
Fathers of the Society of Jesus, who have con- 
ducted it ever since under its present title. It 
was incorporated in 1842. The college library 
numbers about 12.000 volumes. There are, also, 
select libraries for the use of the students. The 
course of instruction embraces four departments: 
the collegiate, academic, commercial, and prepar- 
atory. The regular tuition fee is 860 a year. 
In 187") — 6, there were 14 instructors and 262 
students (54 collegiate, 101 academic, 90 com- 
mercial, and 17 preparatory). The presidents, 
since 1840, have been as follows: John Elet, 
7 years; Jno. De Blieck, 3; Isidore Boudreaux, 3; 
John Blox, 1; George A. Carrel. 2: Maurice 
Oakley, 5 ; Jno. Schultz, 4 : Walter II. Hill, 3 ; 
Thos. O'Xeil. 2; Leopold Bushart, 3 ; and the 
Rev. Edward A. Iliggins, S. J., the present in- 
cumbent (1876), since 1874. 

SALADO COLLEGE, at Salado, Bell Co., 
Tex., was founded in 1859 by a joint stock 
association. It is not denominational. It is 
supported by tuition fees, which range from $10 
to $25 per session of five months for the regular 
branches. It admits both sexes, and has a pre- 
paratory and a collegiate depart ment. In 1874 — 5, 
there were 5 instructors and 204 students (112 
males and 92 females). The presidents of tin' 
college have been as follows: James L. Smith, to 
1874; Samuel D. Sanders, 1874—6; and U. II. 
Mo »mber, A. M., since June 1876. 

SALZMANN, Christian Gotthilf, one of 
the most distinguished educators of Germany, 
was born June 1., 1744. at Sommerda, and died 
Oct. 31., 1811. Having studied theology, he 
became pastor, in 1768, of a Lutheran church at 
Eohrborn, near Erfurt; and. in 1772, of one of 
the churches in the city of Erfurt. Thewritings 
of Rousseau ami Basedow made a strong impres- 
sion on his mind : and. in 1781, he resigned his 
pastorate, in order to connect himself with the 
l'hilanthropiu (q. v.). In consequence ot the 



dissensions and confusion which arose in the 
l'hilanthropiu, he left it in 1 784, and established, 
at a villa purchased by him at Schnepfenthal, 
near Gotha, a new educational institution, for 
the sons of persons belonging to the higher 
classes of society. The literary reputation which 
Salzmann had already acquired by the publica- 
tion of several pedagogical works, the efficient 
co-operation of an excellent wife and of several 
eminent educators, as Gutsmuths (q. v.), Lenz, 
Weissenborn, and the three brothers Ausfeld, 
soon made this institution one of the most fa- 
mous in all Germany, and attracted pupils from 
all parts of Europe. In course of time, his son, 
Karl Salzmann. and several of his daughters and 
sons-in-law took an active part in the management 
of the institution, which thus, to a degree rarely 
equaled in the history of education, possessed 
the character of an enlarged family circle. After 
Salzmann's death, his son Karl assumed the 
direction of the school ; and, in 1848, he was 
I succeeded by Wilhelm Ausfeld, a grandson of 
' the founder. A collection of the educational and 
juvenile works of Salzmann, which are highly 
esteemed, has been published at Stuttgart, in 12 
vols. (1845 — 6). Salzmann was by far the most 
successful among the I'hilanthropinists, being 
especially distinguished for common sense, mod- 
eration, and perseverance. The school established 
by him, is the only one among the original I'hil- 
anthropinic institutions which has survived to 
the present da}*. His first pupil at Schnepfen- 
thal was Karl Ritter.the founder of comparative 
geography, who always gratefully remembered 
the indelible impressions which he had received 
from Gutsmuths, his teacher in geography. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS. See Hawaiian 
Islands. 

SAN FRANCISCO, the metropolis of the 
Btate of California, and the largest city on the 
Pacific coast, having a population, in 1870, of 
149,473, estimated, in 1875, at 234,11(10. 

Educational History. — The first systematic 
instruction given in San Francisco was that at 
the mission Dolores, which was founded by the 
Franciscan Brothers, in Oct., 1776. This instruc- 
tion, however, was chiefly religions, and was 
given to a favored few. The first English school 
in the city was opened in April, 1847, in a 
small shanty erected on the Plaza. It was a 
private institution, and was supported by tuition 
fees and voluntary contributions. Nearly all 
the children in the city (20 or 30 in number) 
received instruction there. This school was con- 
tinued but a few months, however ; and. in the 
autumn of the same year, the citizens organized 
a public school. This was opened in a small, 
one story building, which >vas used for various 

purposes till 1848, when the discovery of gold in 
the state caused its abandonment as a s< hool house; 

and in 1850, it was demolished. On the 2.'!d 
of April, 1S49, Rev. Albert Williams opened a 
small select school in his church, which he 
taught for a few months. This was followed by 
the school of J. O. Pelton, who conducted ii as 
a. private enterprise from < Ictober, 1849. to April. 



758 



SAN FRANCISCO 



1850, when it was made a public school by an 
act of the common council. This school opened 
with only 3 pupils, but the number increased 
rapidly till 1850, when the disastrous fires of that 
and the following year broke up the school. The 
Happy Valley school, situated near the corner 
of Second and Minna streets, was opened in 
July, 1850. This soon became a flourishing 
school of about 100 pupils, but the great fires of 
1851 caused its suspension. It was supported 
by tuition fees and voluntary contributions ; but, 
as it received a small appropriation from the 
common council, the children of the poor re- 
ceived free instruction there. Another school of 
the same kind, i. e., partly private and partly 
public, was established in Spring Valley, in 1851. 
This is now the Spring Valley Primary School. 
A few other small schools were taught during 
1850 and 1851, and several large Catholic 
parochial schools were also established. — The 
first extended provision for a system of free 
schools was made September 25., 1851, when 
the common council passed an ordinance author- 
izing the organization, support, and regidation 
of common schools. Under this ordinance, 
Thomas J. Nevins was appointed superintend- 
ent, and James Denman the first teacher. The 
first board of education was elected in October 
following ; and, at the end of the school year in 
November, 1852, seven schools had been estab- 
lished, with an attendance of 791 pupils. At 
that time, the number of children in the 
city between the ages of 4 and 18, was 2,050 ; 
and the average number attending the schools 
was 445. In 1853, the amount expended for 
the support of the schools was $35,040, the aver- 
age number of pupils being 1,182. The first 
high school was opened August 16., 1856, with 
80 pupils — 35 boys and 45 girls. The usual op- 
position to this school, on the ground that the 
people's money should be spent for elementary 
instruction only, was at once encountered, but 
rapidly passed away upon an exhibition of the 
substantial benefits conferred by the school. In 
June, 1864, this school was divided into a boys' 
and a girls' school, in separate buildings. During 
the same year, the city was divided into 7 gram- 
mar-school districts; and the classes in each were 
placed under the supervision of a grammar 
master, for the purpose of securing greater uni- 
formity and efficiency in classification and in- 
struction. In 1867, a normal training class for 
teachers was organized ; but, for want of ap- 
preciation by the board of education, it was dis- 
continued. In 1868, graded evening schools 
were established. In 1872 — 3, instruction in 
French and German was introduced into nearly 
all the public schools, the study of one or the 
other language, in some cases, and in others, of 
both, being compulsory; but, in February, 1874, 
the study of any language but English was pro- 
hibited, except in the Girls' and the Boys' High 
School. In July of the latter year, the study of 
French and German was again introduced into 
four primary and four grammar schools. A 
Chinese school was organized in 1859, but was 



never popular with the class it was intended to 
benefit. In 1860, it was converted into an even- 
ing school, and as such was continued till 1871, 
when it was suspended. Two colored schools 
were established — one in 1854, the other in 1871; 
but, in 1875, all colored schools were abolished, 
and their pupils were transferred to the other 
schools of the city. Evening schools, on the 
contrary, have steadily grown in public favor, 
till they are now regarded as " the most useful 
and prosperous schools in the city." The city 
superintendents have been as follows : T. J. 
Nevins, 1852—4; W. H. O'Grady, 1854—6 
E. A. Theller, 1856—7; J. C. Pelton, 1857—8 
H. B. Janes, 1858—60 ; J. Denman, 1860—62 
G. Tait, 1862—6; J. C. Pelton, 1866—8; J. 
Denman, 1868—70 ; J. H. Widber, 1870—73 
J. Denman, 1873 — 5 ; and H. N. Bolander, the 
piresent incumbent, who was elected in 1875. 

School Si/stem. — The city constitutes but one 
school-district, parents being permitted to send 
their children to any school they may choose. 
The management of the schools is intrusted to a 
board of education composed of 12 members, 
elected, at large, biennially, by direct vote of the 
people. This board has all the powers usually 
conferred upon such bodies. The superintendent 
of common schools is, also, elected biennially by 
the people, and may appoint an assistant. The 
support of the schools is derived from state and 
city taxes, the latter being fixed by law at an 
amount equal to $7 for each actual attendant. 
The school age is from 5 to 17 years. There are 
33 primary, 13 grammar, and 2 high schools, and 
one evening school. The system contemplates a 
course of 4 years in the primary schools, 4 in the 
grammar, and 3 in the high schools, pupils con- 
tinuing one year in each grade. The course of 
study in the high schools is such as to prepare 
students for the state university. In the gram- 
mar and the primary schools, it does not differ 
materially from that of other large cities ; and in- 
cludes industrial drawing, vocal music, French, 
and German. To the two latter, where taught, 
li hours a day for each class are given, 30 spe- 
cial teachers being employed for the purpose. 

The principal items of school statistics, for 
1875, are as follows : 

Number of children of school age 37,583 

" " " enrolled in public schools. .31,128 

Average daily attendance 21,014 

Number of teachers, males 63 

females 447 

Total :... 610 

Receipts $757,849.75 

Expenditures $707,445.36 

The number of private schools and colleges, in 
1875, was about 100, about one-fifth of which 
are managed by the Koman Catholics, and a 
considerable part of the remainder, by other 
denominations. In size and character, they range 
from the small family school of a few pupils, to 
the flourishing college which numbers its students 
by hundreds. The number of pupils attend- 
ing such institutions, in 1875, was reported at a 
little over 6000. Among the agencies for 



SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE 

higher education, the city contains an academy 
of sciences. For an enumeration of the institu- 
tions for superior and special instruction, see 
California. 

SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE, at 
Santa Barbara, Cal., was incorporated in 1869. 
It is not denominational. Both sexes are ad- 
mitted. It contains six departments : (1) math- 
ematics. (2) languages, (3) literature and history, 
(4) natural science and physics, (5) art, (6) mu- 
sic. There are three courses of study : juvenile, 
preparatory, and academic ; a collegiate course 
is also to be established. The regular charge for 
tuition, board, etc. ranges from SI 50 to SI 75 
per term of five months ; for tuition alone, from 
■85 to §10 a month. In 1874 — 5, there were 
8 instructors and 120 students. Hllwood Cooper 
is (1876) the principal. 

SANTA CLARA COLLEGE, at Santa 
Clara, Cal., a Roman Catholic institution under 
the superintendence of the Fathers of the Soci- 
ety of Jesus, was founded in 1851, and chartered 
in 1855. It is supported by the fees of students, 
the regular charge for tuition, board, etc., being 
$350 a year ; for tuition alone, from §4 to $5 a 
month. The library contains over 10,000 vol- 
umes. The plan of instruction embraces two 
distinct courses, the classical and the scientific. 
There is. besides, a preparatory department. In 
1 875 — G, there were 26 instructors and 267 
students. The presidents have been as follows : 
Rev. John Nobili, 185] — 6 ; Rev. Nicholas 
Congiato. 1856 — 8; Rev. Felix Cicaterri, 1858 — 
61 ; Rev. Burchard Villiger, 1861 — 5; Rev. Aloy- 
sius Masnata, 1865 — 8 ; Rev. Aloysius Yarsi, 
1868 — 76; Rev. Aloysius Brunengo, since 1876. 

SANTO DOMINGO (sometimes called San 
Domingo, or the Domin icon Republic), a. republic 
in the West Indies, occupying the eastern and 
larger portion of the island of Hayti (q. v.). It 
has au area of 20,600 sq. m.; and a population of 
about 175,000. The greater part of the popula- 
tion are a mixed race of Spaniards, Indians, and 
negroes. They speak the Spanish language, and 
belong to the Roman Catholic Church. — Public 
instruction can scarcely be said to exist. Spain, to j 
which Santo Domingo formerly belonged, never 
cared for the education of the natives; and nearly 
all the priests, physicians, officers, and teachers 
came from the mother country. At present, 
there is freedom of instruction ; but, with the 
exception of a few private schools in the cities, 
which charge exorbitant fees, there are no ele- 
mentary schools, and, consequently, the wealthy 
classes still continue to send their children to 
Europe to be educated. In I860, there was but 
one public primary school in the entire northern 
and eastern part of the republic ; and but little, 
if any. improvement has been made since that 
time. Special branches of study, like law, medi- 
cine, pharmacy, and architecture, are taught ex- 
clusively by private teachers. 

SARMIENTO, Domingo Faustino, a 
South-American statesman, born February 15.. 
1811, in San Juan de la Frontera, now a western 
province of the Argentine Republic, lie be- 



SCHMIDT 



759 



came director of a school in the province of San 
Luis as early as 1826, but removed to Chili in 
1831. In L836, he left Chili, and opened a 
female school in San Juan, but returned to 
Chili a few years after, where he devoted him- 
self to the cause of education, by establishing 
schools and colleges, publishing school books, 
and editing educational journals. The establish- 
ment of the normal school at Santiago was one 
of the resultsof his labors at this time. In Is 15, 
at the request of the < hilian government, he 
visited Europe and the United States for the 
purpose of observing the primary-school systems 
of those countries. Subsequently, he again took 
up his residence in the Argentine Republic, and 
was made, successively, minister of the interior, 
colonel in the Argentine army, governor of San 
Juan, ami minister of public instruction of the 
republic. From 1864 to 1868, he was minister 
plenipotentiary to the United States from that 
country; and, in October of the latter year. Mas 
inaugurated president of the Argentine Repub- 
lic, which office he continued to hold six years. 
In this position, his efforts, always directed to- 
wards the development of the resources of his 
country, and the improvement of her people, 
were remarkably successful. The introduction 
and extension of railroad and telegraph facilities. 
the encouragement of immigration and foreign 
commerce, and the establishment of schools and 
colleges, were the principal events of his adminis- 
tration. 'Che foundation of the national observ- 
atory at Cordoba, under the supervision of 
Prof. B. A. Gould, an institution which has 
already rendered important service, is chiefly 
due to President Sarmiento. His principal edu- 
cational works are the following : De In Educa- 
tion popular, and Las escuelas, the latter pub- 
lished in Xew York. 

SAXONY. See Germany. 

SCHMIDT, Karl, a German educator, was 
bom July 7.. 1819. and died Nov. 8., 1 864. After 
si in lying theology and philosophy at the univer- 
sities of Halle and Berlin, he was appointed, in 
1S46, teacher at the gymnasium of Kothen. In 
1863, he was appointed director of the teachers' 
seminary and school councilor at Cotha. and in 
the latter position was called upon to re-organize 
the school system of the duchy. He wrote a large 
number of educational works, some of which are 
regarded as belonging to the best part of German 
literature. The most important of his works is 
a general history of pedagogics (Geschichie der 
Padagogik, 1862, 4 vols.; 3d ed., revised by 
Wichard Lange, 1872 — 5, 4 vols.). Among his 
other works are : Geschichte der Erziekung und 
des Uhterrichts (1860); Das Buck der Erziehung 
(1854); GymnamalpddagogiJc (1857) ; ,'"i- Re- 
form der Lehrerseminare und der Volksschule 
(1863); Zur Erziehung und Religion (1865); 
Anthropologic (1865). Schmidt regarded the 
whole of anthropology, not psychology alone, as 
the only safe and adequate foundation of peda- 
gogy. He accepted the theories of Gall (q. v.) 
and his successors, and himself made notable con- 
tributions to the development of phrenology. 



760 



SCHOLASTICISM' 



SCHOLASTICISM, a name generally ap- 
plied to the Christian philosophy of the middle 
ages, though there is no agreement among schol- 
ars as to its exact definition. In its first period, 
which extends from the 9th to the 11th century, 
philosophical speculations were limited to theo- 
logical problems. Among the greatest represent- 
atives of scholasticism are Scotus Erigena, Uer- 
bert (Pope Sylvester II.), and Anselm of Can- 
terbury. About the middle of the 12th century, 
the controversy between the Realists and Nomi- 
nalists led to the full development of scholasti- 
cism, which denied to philosophy any right to 
extend its speculations beyond the tenets of the 
Church, but assigned to it the task of systema- 
tizing the doctrines of the Church, and of defend- 
ing them (philosophla theologice ancilla). Thus, 
the scholastics were led to cultivate chiefly logic 
and dialectics. Among the greatest scholastics, 
during the classic period of the system, were 
Alexander de Hales, Albertus Magnus, Thomas 
Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. In the 1 -5th century, 
scholasticism began to decline; and, though sub- 
sequently the Jesuits tried to revive it, and 
have partly retained its method of teaching to 
the present day, it has never been able to recover 
anywhere its mediaeval supremacy. Its impor- 
tance in the history of education depends chiefly 
on the influence which it exerted, during the 
middle ages, upon all schools, but more especially 
upon the cathedral and convent schools. Among 
the best works on the history of scholasticism, 
are Haureau, _De la philosopJtie scolastique 
(2 vols., 1850) ; Kaulich, Qeschichte der scho- 
lastischen Philosophie (1853); Stjeok, Geschichte 
derPhllosophie des Mittelalters (3 vols., 1864 — 6) ; 
Hallam, Introduction to the Literature of 
Europe. 

SCHOOL (Lat. schola, from Gr. cxolJ], lei- 
sure, especially for literary studies, and hence 
applied to the place where such studies were pur- 
sued, — a school), a term now applied to an educa- 
tional establishment, particularly of the primary 
or secondary grade; as a primary school, a gram- 
mar school, a high school, a classical school, etc. 
Schools of the secondary grade are, however, of- 
ten designated academies, seminaries, etc. The 
term school is not applied to an institution of 
learning of the superior grade, but institutions for 
scientific or professional instruction are usually 
called schools; as theological schools, medical 
schools, law schools, polytechnic schools, art 
schools, etc. For information in regard to each 
kind of schools, see under the respective titles. 

SCHOOL AGE, or Scholastic Age, the 
age fixed by law, during which pupils may at- 
tend the public schools. This varies consider- 
ably in different countries, both as to its com- 
mencement and termination. Thus, in Prussia, 
the school age is from 5 to 14 years ; in Prance, 
from 7 to 13 ; in Switzerland, from 6 to 13 ; and 
in England, from 3 to 18. In the latter coun- 
try, the rule is as follows : " Attendances may 
not be reckoned for any scholar above 18, or in 
a day school, under 3, or, in an evening school, 
under 12 years of age." The legislation on this 



SCHOOL BOARD 

subject in the different states of the American 
Union, also presents considerable diversity, as is 
shown by the following table : 



State 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut. . . 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 



5—21 
6—21 
6— 18 
6—21 
6—21 
5-21 
5—21 
6—20 
6-21 
4—21 
5—20 
5—15 
5—20 
5-21 





5—21 




5 21 




5 21 


Nevada 


6—18 


New Hampshire.. . 


5—15 


New Jersey 


5—18 


New York 


6—21 


North Carolina. . . . 


6—21 


Ohio 


6 21 




1 20 


Pennsylvania 


6—21 


Rhode Island 


4-16 


South Carolina . . . 


6—16 


Tennessee 


6—18 




6—18 




5 20 


Virginia 


5—21 


West Virginia 


6—21 




4—20 



School 
age 



It will thus be seen that the school age begins 
at 4 years in five states ; at 5 years, in seventeen 
states ; at 6 years, in fifteen states ; and at 7 
years, in only one state ; also, that the school 
age ends at 21 in twenty-two states ; at 20, in 
six states ; at 18, in five states ; at 17, in one 
state ; at 16, in three states ; and at 15, in only 
one — Massachusetts. 

The statistics showing the age of the children 
who actually attend school, is very meager, but 
few of the state school reports giving any infor- 
mation on the subject. It has been estimated 
that the vast majority of children leave school 
before the age of 15 years. The average age of 
pupils in the evening schools must, however, be 
much higher. In the rural districts, the average 
age of pupils in the public schools must be higher 
than in the large cities, especially in the winter 
term. After a comparison of all available sta- 
tistics, Francis Adams, in Free School System 
of the United Stales, remarks, " There can be no 
doubt, however, that, as a general rule, children 
remain at school much later in America [United 
States] than in England." It is also stated by 
the same writer that, " in England and Wales, 
the percentage of children over 14, in schools re- 
ceiving grants, in 1874, was 0.99." The age 
fixed by most compulsory attendance laws, is 
from 8 to 14 years. 

SCHOOL BOARD, the name generally 
given to the body of school commissioners, di- 
rectors, trustees, etc. constituted by law to have 
the care and regulation of schools in states, cities, 
towns, districts, etc. Such a board is often 
called the Board of Education, or Board of 
Public Instruction. In most of the New Eng- 
land states, the school board is called the School 
Committee. Formerly, in New England, the 
usual term was Prudential Committee, which 
title is still retained in some jjlaees. State boards 
of education usually have a paramount authority 
in all educational matters in the state. In Eng- 
land, School Board is the name given by the 
'■ Elementary Education Act" of 1870, to the 



SCHOOL J5ROTHERS 



SCHOOL CENSUS 



761 



constituted school authority in each district, sub- 
ject to the Education Department of the govern- 
ment. 

SCHOOL BROTHERS. See Roman Cath- 
olic Church. 

SCHOOL CENSUS, in its wider sense, is 
an official census relating to school affairs, and 
embraces the number of schools, teachers and 
pupils, children of school age, school libraries, 
etc. The great progress of statistical science, 
in late years, has led, in different countries, to 
much more minute inquiries into school affairs, 
and is preparing the way for a much fuller and 
more comprehensive school census than has been 
accessible in the past. 1 leretofore, a school census 
has commonly been understood in a narrower 
sense to denote an enumeration of all the chil- 
dren of school age residing in any country, state, 
city, etc. This enumeration has always formed a 
part of the general decennial census of the United 
States, and of the state enumerations. In some 
states, an enumeration of the children of school 
age is taken annually, as the appropriation of 
state aid for public schools is based upon it. Such 
a census is of great importance, as showing the 
number of children to be educated, in comparison 
with the school attendance. The following table 
shows the number of white and colored children 
between the ages of 5 and 19 in each of the states 
of the Union, according to the census of 1870 : 

School Census of the "United States. 

-VVI IETES. 



School Census of the United States. 

[COLORE] >.) 



Alabama 

Arkansas.. 

California .... 
Connecticut . . 
Delaware .... 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana .... 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi.. . . 

Missouri 

Nebraska .... 

Nevada 

N. Hampshire 
New Jersey . . 
New York.. . . 
North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. 
Rhode Island 
Booth Carolina 
Tennessee.. . . 

Te?as 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin .... 

Total 



5 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 17 18 to 19 



B(i,168 

44,915 

60,189 

52,130 

12,756 

12,695 

79,678 

336,435 

226,346 

164,729 

44,642 

152,687 

45,010 

65,185 

74.714 

138,706 

143,849 

63,021 

47,190 

222,593 

15,143 

2,516 

28,171 

102,566 

478,673 

83,531 

328,912 
12,348 

425,529 
19,926 
34,715 

123,409 
74,482 
34,369 
83,701 
58,591 

145,522 



76,36] 
62,51 I 
49,523 
64,133 
12,954 
13,493 
91,489 

318,948 

220,420 

154,436 
39,404 

147,302 
48,276 
69,874 
73,904 

147,149 

138,426 
55,011 
53,646 

210,47!! 

13,049 

1,850 

31,808 

100,344 

178,639 
92,349 

326,746 
11,352 

415,580 
22,114 
39,223 

128,075 
si,. --52 
34,854 
93,060 
57,432 

139,610 



39,26 

28,430 
21,074 
30,350 
6,683 
6,718 
47,102 

155,422 

112,641 
73,010 
18,886 
75,770 
24,032 
39,972 
39,616 
82,810 
70,866 
24,236 
28,439 

102,470 
0,110 

Nl 
18.040 
51,310 

201,0.50 
47,757 

170,870 
5,3.58 

217.070 
12,58] 
20,226 
66,2 If 
40.000 
20,385 
48,826 
28,999 
67,948 



4,105,742 4,095,388 2,114,625 1,303,289 



25,149 
17,203 
12,002 
19,963 

4,203 

4,401 
29,800 
102,536 
72,170 
48,092 
12.M7 
40,306 
15,003 
20,536 
25,435 
S7.S26 
40,030 
15,1.58 
18,0 5 
64,780 

4,210 

704 

12,839 

33,000 

107,502 

30,6 I 

110,012 

2,947 
143,561 

8,727 

' 13,247 

41,151 

21. i3l 

13,202 

30,207 
17,758 

42,214 



Alabama 

Arkansas. . . . 
California .... 
Connecticut . . 
Delaware .... 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky .... 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland . 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota .... 
Mississippi.. . . 

Missouri 

Nebraska. ... 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey. . . 
New York. . . . 
North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island. .. 
South Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia. 
Wisconsin 



67,541 


63,388 


30,221 


15,645 


15,702 


8,193 


383 


385 


180 


766 


946 


675 


2,900 


2,918 


1,536 


13.442 


12,010 


5,538 


79,091 


74,493 


35,562 


3,044 


3,187 


1,722 


3,017 


3,000 


1,040 


626 


014 


353 


2,137 


2,237 


1,120 


31, ISO 


31,97.5 


15,50.5 


44,876 


42,329 


20,493 


115 


100 


129 


22,274 


22,574 


11,371 


1,075 


1,201 


782 


1,579 


1,485 


768 


62 


60 


39 


62,152 


59,099 


2-. 90s 


10,706 


17,133 


8,328 


65 


81 


47 


18 


15 


5 


34 


57 


46 


3,217 


3,468 


1,952 


4,550 


4,984 


2,972 


54,775 


54,489 


26,581 


7,548 


7,03s 


4,222 


33 


34 


12 


6,271 


0,900 


4,o2o 


304 


433 


309 


57,792 


56,324 


26,508 


43,037 


45, Oss 


22,462 


38,345 


34,239 


10,051 


07 


92 


62 


07.90- 


69,352 


33,894 


2,277 


2,389 


1,155 


211 


20- 


142 


655,854 


040,40s 


152,318 



19,4911 

5,205 

112 

474 

1,031 

3,945 

22,700 

1,294 

1,120 

305 

690 

9,738 

13,709 

106 

7,432 

679 

530 

57 

18,203 

5,448 

47 

9 

50 

1,378 

2,300 

17,087 

3,053 

12 

3,092 

217 

17,229 

13,750 

9,830 

74 

20,72s 

B26 

112 



Total 655,854 640,408 152,318 202,728 

The school age. in some of the states, extends 
to 21 years; but, practically, the above table 
includes all the children who attend school. 

In the countries of Europe, the school age (q. 
v.) generally extends only to the 14th, 13th, or 
12th year of age. The following table exhibits 
the number of schools and pupils, and the pro- 
portion of the latter to the entire population, in 
the several countries of Europe : 



Countries 


Year 


Number 

.if 

public 

SChOOla 


Number 

of 
pupils 


Number 

of pupils 
to every 

l.ooo 
inhabit. 


Switzerland Prima 

German Empire [es- 
timated, with ut 
Alsaee and Lor- 


1871-2 

1872 
1S74 
1873 
1875 
1873 
1867 
1872 
1872 
1870-72 

1871-4 

1S73 
1873-4 
1H74 
1st:; 
1870 
1S73 
1S74 
1873 


5,088 

56.000 
044 
6,502 
8,123 
S.790 
3,064 

70.179 
5.078 

31.009 

22,678 

27.70(1 

42,920 

1,227 

1 3 ' 

3, SOI 

2.221 

517 

23.1K3 


412,789 

6,000,000 
'is. 437 
243.969 
606,876 
500,059 
226 679 

J.7-U 000 
618,931 

3,285,485 

1 381,972 

1,827,381 

81,449 

76.477 

1411,001) 

82,146 
23.27! 

1,111111,037 


155 
153 




142 
138 




138 




136 
135 




131 




123 


Austria-Hungary 
Great Britain and 


91 

88 




82 




70 




50 




42 




32 




17 




17 




14 



762 



SCHOOL-DISTBICT 



SCHOOL FESTIVALS 



SCHOOL-DISTRICT, a district formed by 
the division of a town, or township, for the pur- 
pose of establishing, managing, and supervising 
schools. It is usually the smallest territorial sub- 
division of a state. The oldest law, in the United 
States, establishing school-districts and the dis- 
tinct system, was that passed in Massachusetts, in 
1789. In most of the states, at the present time, 
the district system has been wholly or partly 
superseded by the township system, which has 
been found to have many advantages over it. In 
Massachusetts, the district system was, in the 
main, abolished in 1869 ; and the change is 
strongly commended. The system still exists to 
some extent in the western part of the state, elic- 
iting the following comment from one of the 
state agents, in Ms report of December, 1875 : 
"With little or nothing of consideration in its 
favor, with a troop of evils attendant upon it, 
with many peculiarly incident to its existence, 
it would seem that it should be abolished at 
once, and forever, by legislative enactment." In 
some of the other New England states, permis- 
sory laws have been passed, allowing the inhabit- 
ants to accept the township system instead of the 
district system. — Each school-district has a 
trustee, or a board of trustees, or, as styled in New 
England, a school committee, elected by the in- 
habitants, and authorized to have the safe-keep- 
ing of the school-house and other school property, 
to hire and pay the teacher, or teachers, and to 
make all necessary regulations for the manage- 
ment of the school. The mode of forming school- 
districts, and of changing their boundaries, varies 
in the different states. — The objections to the 
district system seem to be based upon the small- 
ness of its area and its consequent inadequate 
resources to support suitable schools. "Little 
money, poor school-houses, short schools," said the 
state superintendent of Maine, in 1872, "are the 
necessary attendants of this system." This cir- 
cumstance has led, in New York, to the establish- 
ment of Union free-school districts, formed by 
uniting two adjoining districts for the purpose 
of establishing and supporting a better school 
than the resources of either by itself would per- 
mit. In the English Education Act, the parish 
is constituted the school-district, in relation to 
which P. Adams remarks, in The Free School 
System of the United States, " it has been sug- 
gested that in selecting the parish as the school- 
district, we have selected too small a division. 
We have, however, happily steered clear of the 
system which, in the United States, has been 
very prejudicial to harmonious and efficient 
action." — For information in regard to school- 
districts in the several states, see under the re- 
spective titles. 

SCHOOL ECONOMY, a general term ap- 
plied to the collective body of principles and 
rules by which the keeping of schools is regu- 
lated. In its widest sense, it embraces all that 
pertains to the construction and furnishing of 
the school-house, the proper apparatus to be em- 
ployed in carrying on the processes of instruc- 
tion, the various modes of school organization 



and administration, including a consideration of 
the length and arrangement of school sessions 
and terms, the proper records to be kept, the 
course of study, programme of daily exercises, 
and the modes of discipline, management, and 
instruction. The treatment of all these various 
matters will be found in this work under the re- 
spective titles. 

SCHOOL FESTIVALS, like the vacation 
and holidays, are an interruption of the regular 
school work ; but while the latter only aim at a 
cessation from work in order to give to teachers 
and pupils time for rest and recreation, school 
festivals are intended to substitute enjoyment 
for mental labor. Ancient Rome had at the be- 
ginning of March, a school festival, called the 
quinqnatria, at which the teachers collected 
presents. In order to give to this festival a 
Christian character, Pope Gregory IV. (827 — 
44) appointed the 12th of March (the day on 
which the Church commemorated the death of 
Pope Gregory I.) as a special festival for the 
schools of Rome. The Gregorian festival spread 
throughout Italy, France, and Germany, and to 
other countries ; and, in some places, has main- 
tained itself to the present day. — Next to the 
day of St. Gregory, the festivals of the Apostle 
Andrew, of the Innocent Children, of St. Nicho- 
las, and others, came early into general use. 
Among these, the virgalimi-gehen may be men- 
tioned. (See Germany.) Processions and masquer- 
ades were a common feature of all these fes- 
tivals. — In Germany, as well as in the Scandina- 
vian countries, there were also May festivals, 
to celebrate the departure of winter and the 
advent of spring. The pupils of the schools, in 
solemn procession, marched around the field, 
and, in the evening, were treated to a common 
banquet. This festival is still in common use in 
Bavaria and Wtirtemberg. The most celebrated 
among the school festivals in Germany, are the 
Kirschenfest, at Naumburg, and the Ruthenfest, 
at Ravensburg. The celebration of these usually 
draws a large concourse of people. Where the 
public schools have a denominational character, 
great church holidays are frequently the occa- 
sion for special school festivals. Thus, in many 
Protestant schools of Europe, it is common 
to celebrate annually the introduction of the 
Reformation. Monarchical governments have 
made the celebration of the birthday of the 
sovereign obligatory in all the schools of the 
country, in order to implant sentiments of loyal- 
ty and submissiveness in the minds of the rising 
generation. Some of the German educators who 
are favorable to school festivals, have, by way 
of experiment, organized them on the grandest 
scale. Thus Froebel spent, in 1850, several 
months in preparing a school children's and 
people's festival, which was held in a castle of 
the duke of Saxe-Meiningen. It is quite com- 
mon for the elementary schools in Germany to 
spend at least one day of the year in an excur- 
sion, during which the children amuse themselves 
with the national games. To close the school 
year with appropriate festivals, is quite common 



SCHOOL FUND 



SCnOOL FURNITURE 



763 



in civilized countries. The best known among 
the school festivals of the United States are those 
connected with the college commencement. (See 
Commencement.) Among schools of all grades, 
school exhibitions and receptions have become 
very popular, and rarely fail to be numerously at- 
tended by the relatives and friends of the pupils. 
School picnics are more frequently held during the 
Slimmer vacation than in the midst of the school 
year ; but, without regard to the season, are sure 
to delight the scholars. — Educators are generally 
.agreed that school festivals, if well arranged and 
superintended, exert a beneficial influence. 

SCHOOL FUND, property or money set 
apart by legislative enactment for the support of 
schools. In the United States, the school fund 
in each state has been chiefly derived from na- 
tional and state appropriations, particularly of 
lands. Of the latter, the 16th section grant is 
an example. The U. S. Deposit Fund, some- 
times called the Surplus Revenue Fund, was 
also a national grant. (See United States.) 
The mode of apportionment varies in the dif- 
ferent states ; it is, however, wholly or partly 
based upon the number of pupils, in each town 
■or district, of the legal school age. For an ac- 
count of the amount of the school fund in each 
state, see under the respective titles. 

SCHOOL FURNITURE. Under this head 
will be considered (1) desks and seats; (2) plat- 
form ; (3) blackboard ; and (4) miscellaneous fur- 
niture and apparatus. 

Desks and Seats. — In the matter of health, 
these are, perhaps, the articles of the greatest 
importance in the school room. Notwithstanding 
their importance, however, as deciding the pu- 
pil's position for several hours of the day, and 
thus determining, in a great measure, his future 
health and bearing, school authorities are not yet 
entirely agreed as to their style, dimensions, or ar- 
rangement ; each civilized country using its own, 
on account of some peculiar advantage, the rela- 
tive value of which is determined by observation 
from its own stand-point. The first consideration , 
in the construction or arrangement of desks and 
seats, should have regard to their influence upon 
the health of the pupils; the second, to the con- 
venience of the teacher and pupils, in the ad- 
justability of the desk and seat for different 
exercises, or for purposes of school government, 
which last would be determined principally by 
the arrangement, and the means afforded for 
facilitating the entrance or exit of the pupils. 
Of the comparative advantages of different 
styles of desks or seats, it is not necessary 
here to speak, the subject being treated exhaust- 
ively in the works referred to at the end of this 
article. The books that have been written on 
this subject in different countries form almost a 
library of themselves. Perhaps the best form 
yet devised is that described in the report of M. 
Buisson, French commissioner to the Exposition 
at Vienna in 1873, which was selected for special 
commendation, after an examination of all the 
styles there presented. It is known as the Bapte- 
rosses desk and seat, from the name of the in- 



ventor, who designed it for use in his factory at 
Briare. It has recently been introduced into the 
normal school at Auteuil. The chair is single, 
the seat being of wood, round or square in shape, 
and supported by an iron leg which slides up or 
down in a sheath, or hollow cylinder, the base of 
which is firmly screwed to the floor. The leg and 
sheath together form the support of the seat, 
which is checked at any height, in its upward or 
downward motion, by a thumb-screw. The back 
of the chair is of the ordinary pattern, and is 
slightly inclined. The desk is stationary, and is 
supported by a cast-iron upright. Its upper sur- 
face is divided into two parts in the usual man- 
ner — a narrow horizontal part at the back, and 
a sloping part, much larger, and nearer the pupil. 
It is provided either with a lid which converts 
the desk into an ordinary box, or, if the top is 
not movable, with compartments which oj^en 
laterally. A small leaden j)ipe, extending the 
whole length of the desk, under the horizontal 
part of the upper surface, serves as an inkstand. 
Jt is provided with a vent at each end, secured 
by a copper cap, and, opposite the pupil, is pierced 
to receive a small copper funnel of sufficient size 
to allow only the point of the pen to enter. By 
this arrangement, the pupil can neither dip his 
pen too deeply, so as to get too much ink, nor 
upset his inkstand. Near the foot of the leg of 
the desk is a foot-rest, which may be raised or 
lowered by the same device of slide and thumb- 
screw that is used for the seat. The thumb- 
screws used on the chair and desk are so arranged 
that they cannot be turned except by a key, 
which is kept by the teacher. The principal ad- 
vantage of this desk is. that it can be adapted 
to pupils of different heights ; its other recom- 
mendations are obvious. An improvement, per- 
haps, might be made by providing the desk with 
two supports instead of one. thus securing a firm- 
ness which desks supported by one central pillar 
do not usually have. The single desk should be 
2 feet long, from 25 in. to 29 in. high, and 18 
in. wide ; the double desk should be 4 feet long, 
the other dimensions being the same as those of 
the single desk. The seats should be from 1 2 in. 
to 16 in. high. Recitation seats as well as desk 
seats should be provided with backs. It should 
not be forgotten, however, that no arrangement 
of desk or seat, however ingeniously adapted to 
the pupil's comfort, can take the place of that 
frequent change of position which is a necessity 
of his being. Of the dimensions of desks and 
seats, Robson says, after a careful comparison of 
the works of Zwey, Falk, Frey, Colin, Kleiber, 
and Virchow, "The weight of opinion is to the 
effect that the height of the seat should corre- 
spond to the length of the scholar's leg, from 
tin' knee to the sole of the foot. There must be 
no stretching of muscles ; therefore, the sole of 
the foot must rest on the floor or upon some flat 
surface. If the seat be too high, the swinging of 
the foot in the air causes a compression of the 
blood-vessels and nerves of the hinder part of 
the leg and knee ; if it be too low, the thighs of 
the scholar are pressed against his stomach to the 



764 



SCHOOL FURNITURE 



disadvantage of health. * * * In order to prevent I 
the scholar's slipping forward, the seat should be | 
slightly declined backward. The height of the 
desks should be so arranged, that the under part 
of the arm may rest comfortably on the desk-top, 
and that the powers of vision may not be strained, j 
or, in other words, that the normal distance of vi- 
sion may be preserved. Desks which are too low 
cause, by the bending of the scholar, a pressing 
on the chest and lower part of the body ; while 
those wliich are too high cause the right shoulder | 
to be so lifted, as to remove the upper part of 
the arm so far from the body, that the lower arm ; 
cannot be laid flat on the table, thereby causing i 
the arm to be unsteady and easily tired." Much 
ingenuity has been exercised in devising seats 
capable of transformation into a variety of forms. | 
The tendency in this respect is frequently to- j 
wards a mechanism so complicated that it de- i 
feats its own object by becoming easily disar- 
ranged; and, even if this were not the case, many 
of the transformations will usually be found to 
be useless. The really desirable changes of form 
are very few. Says an eminent educator : " If 
seats could be so contrived as to remain firm 
when placed horizontally, to allow the pupil to 
lean forward easily to write upon his desk, and 
then could be made to have an inclination back- 
ward when the pupil desires to read or study, 
it would add much to his comfort in sitting, and 
something, perhaps, to the comeliness of his 
figure." Concerning the distance of the seat from 
the desk, a considerable difference of opinion ex- 
ists, some teachers considering only one inch nec- 
essary, others as much as three. On this point 
Dr. Wiese says : "It is, therefore, desirable, that 
the inner edge of the desk should be distant from 
the front of the seat only about one inch." Rob- 
son says : " The scholar who sits too far from the 
desk, either bends too much, and thereby hurts 
his chest and eyes, or he glides too far forward on 
his seat, and so gets an unsteady position. * * * 
It is recommended that the vertical distance from 
the desk to the seat-top should be the length 
of the fore-arm, or one-sixth the size [height] of 
the body of the scholar. Too great a distance 
'encourages crooked growth; for the scholar, while 
writing,lias his body weighing on one arm, in- 
stead of having the arm naturally resting on his 
body. If the difference in height between desk 
and seat be too slight, then the chest sinks, and 
the back is bent out so as to encourage stooping." 
Of the ■ arrangement of desks, many methods 
have been advocated, and different ones prevail 
in different countries; but the weight of author- 
ity seems to be in favor of seating the pupils in 
pairs, this method beiug economical as to space, 
and more advantageous for both teacher and 
pupil in the efficient carrying out of the daily 
exercises. Its superiority, also, in the matter of 
ingress and egress of the pupils is manifest. The 
arrangement of desks in regard to space and light 
has been considered in the article Hygiene, 
School. Many other considerations present 
themselves in this connection, the chief of which 
are the following : the form and height of the 



back of the seat ; its attachment to, or inde- 
pendence of, the desk immediately behind it ; the 
variation in the height of seats and desks as ar- 
ranged on the same level for pupils of different 
sizes ; the slope of the floor, or its construction in 
steps, for the same purpose ; the movable desk or 
seat as compared with the stationary; the mount- 
ing of desks and seats on casters ; the varying 
slope of the desk-top for different purposes ; the 
space between the desks ; the breadth of aisles, 
etc. These are all considered, however, in works 
specially written for the purpose ; and the merits 
of each for different purposes are fully set forth. 

The Platform. — This is now considered high- 
ly desirable, if not indispensable, in the school 
room. On all public occasions, whether of ex- 
amination or exhibition, it is indispensable; while 
there are many occasions in the usual routine 
of the school, when it is exceedingly useful. It 
should be not less than 6 feet wide, and 15 inches 
high, and should be divided into two levels or 
risers. In schools in which all the exercises are 
conducted in one room, closets for the storing of 
school apparatus are often placed at each end of 
the platform. Recitation rooms are usually 
fitted up without platforms, the teachers' desk 
standing on the floor. 

The Blacl-boiirii—M the back of the plat- 
form, against the wall, and facing the school or 
class, is placed the blackboard. It should extend 
the entire length of the platform, should be at 
least 4 feet wide, and extend to within 3 feet of 
the floor. It should be provided with a frame all 
around, and a trough at the lower edge for the 
chalk, and to catch dust, and should have hooks, 
on which pointers may be hung. The material 
of blackboards is of three kinds: wood, slate, 
and a kind of slate-surface made to lay directly 
on the wall. The last, by combining in a medium 
the best qualities of the two others, is the most 
desirable. (See Blackboard.) 

Miscellaneous Furniture and Apparatus.-— 
The principal consideration under this head is 
not so much the comparative values of different 
articles, but what articles are indispensable or, at 
least, highly necessary. Among these, may be 
mentioned a clock, a small bell for the calling 
and dismissing of classes, chairs for visitors, clos- 
ets or wardrobes, provided with wrought-iron 
hooks and pegs, a thermometer, sets of maps and 
charts, a terrestrial globe, an abacus, or numeral 
frame, and a collection of miscellaneous articles 
to be used in giving object lessons. The extent 
to which the articles desirable for the school 
room have been added to, and perfected, both in 
the United States and on the continent of Eu- 
rope, is remarkable ; the list given above, how- 
ever, furnishes a tolerably complete outfit for a 
primary school. One consideration remains to be 
insisted on; namely, the exercise of good taste in 
the selection of furniture and articles intended 
to be in constant sight of the pupils. On this 
subject, the architect of the London School 
Board remarks : "The furniture of the school 
room should be graceful in form, and good in 
quality and finish. Children are particularly sus- 



SCHOOL GROUNDS 



SOHOOL-HOUSK 



7G5 



ceptible of surrounding influences, and their dai- 
ly familiarization with beaut; of form or color, in 
tin- simplest and most ordinary objects, cannot 
fail to assist in fostering the seeds of taste, just 
as daily discipline tends to promote habits of 
order. Furniture finished like good cabinet work 
is more likely to be respected, even by the mis- 
chievous school boy. than that of an unsightly or 
rough character." For further information on 
this subject see Roissox. School Architecture (Lou- 
don. 1874) ; WlCKERSHAM, School Ecoltiuui/ 

(I'hila.. 1868); Currie, Common-School Educa- 
tion (Edinburgh. 1857) j BoissoN, Rapport sur 
Finstruction primaire a ^exposition universelle 
de Vienne en 1873 i Paris, 1875). 

SCHOOL GROUNDS. See Hygiene, School. 

SCHOOL-HOUSE.— Of the first importance 
in any system of public instruction, is school 
architecture, including every thing that relates 
to the building in which the instruction is to be 
imparted. All matters that concern the health 
of the school; namely, the situation of the school- 
house, its furniture, the temperature of the 
rooms, and the means for warming, lighting, and 
ventilating them, are considered either in sepa- 
rate articles in this work, or under the head of 
Hygiene, School. It is designed here specially to 
treat of (I) the construction of the school- 
house, and (II) its internal arrangement. 

I. Construction of the School-House. — What 
material should be used in the construction 
of a school building depends entirely upon its 
location and the means at command. Owing to 
the improved modern methods of building, wood, 
brick, or stone may be used indifferently, as far 
as healthfulness is concerned, economic consider- 
ations alone deciding which is to be employed. It 
may be said, in general, that these considerations 
point to the use of stone or brick in cities and 
towns, and of wood, in the rural districts, except 
in old and thickly-settled countries where wood is 
scarce. The increased attention bestowed upon 
the appearance of the school-house at the present 
time is one of the most encouraging proofs of 
the general and permanent interest aroused in 
the welfare of schools, since purely esthetic con- 
siderations are generally the last to make them- 
selves felt. The rudeness of the district-school 
building is proverbial ; yet, the expression of 
the cherished memories that cluster around it, 
forms a part of the choicest literature of every 
civilized country. If the transfiguring power of 
early association, therefore, renders it an object 
of affection through life, in spite of its uncouth- 
ness, how much stronger would that affection be 
if the matured taste of later years confirmed the 
preference of childhood ! Xot only the testimony 
of eminent writers, but the unwritten experience 
of every observing person, bears abundant wit- 
ness to the subtle and enduring influence of 
early associations ; and now, when the subject of 
education is receiving so large a share of careful 
thought, with a view to discover all available 
ways to perfect its means and methods, it 
would seem that this powerful agent should not 
be neglected. Without squandering money, 



therefore, to make the school-house pretentious, 
or a perfect specimen of one of the conventional 
orders of architecture, pains should betaken that 
it should not be an offense to the eye, or out of 
harmony with the landscape. Since this cau 
generally be done. also, without any, or with 
only slight, additional cost, the educational 
value, moral and esthetic, of the appearance of 
the school-house, may properly be included in 
the plans of the architect. As to the solidity of 
the school building in all its parts, it is not too 
much to say that no financial objections which 
would impair this, should, for a moment, be en- 
tertained. The contingencies which may hap- 
pen at any moment where large numbers of chil- 
dren are gathered together, are so momentous 
in their character, as to render this imperative. 
The size of the school-house should be deter- 
mined, of course, by the number of pupils it is 
intended to accommodate. An eminent author- 
ity says that, a building designed for an ungraded 
school to be taught by a single teacher, should 
contain, at least. 900 sq. ft. of floor-space ; be- 
ing intended to accommodate from 00 to 80 pu- 
pils. In regard to the proper size of class rooms, 
see Hygiene, .School. 

II. Internal Arrangement <f (he School-House. 
— Every district-school house should have a 
vestibule, a main room, and one or more class- 
rooms, unless the school is taught by only one 
teacher. The vestibule should be commodious, 
dry. well-lighed. and properly supplied with 
pegs for hats and outer garments, mats, wash 
basins, and all means for ensuring personal 
cleanliness. In mixed schools, it should be 
divided into two rooms. The best authorities 
are almost unanimous in the opinion that the 
shape of the school room proper should be that 
of an oblong about twice as long as broad, the 
size being determined by the probable attend- 
ance. The ceiling should be from 12 to 15 feet 
in height, the controlling consideration being that 
each pupil should have not less than 1 08 cubic 
feet of air space. The door and the teacher's 
desk should be at opposite ends of the room, the 
former, when practicable, at the southern ex- 
tremity, the northern being without windows, 
and provided with a shallow platform about 15 
inches high. This arrangement enables the 
teacher to survey the school, and is simple and 
convenient for examination or exhibition pur- 
poses. Very large school rooms are not ex- 
pedient, experience having shown that a large 
number of pupils may be supervised and taught 
to better advantage in two rooms of medium 
size, the teacher having an assistant for the pur- 
pose, than in one large room. A separate class 
room is indispensable in all schools, except the 
smallest, the number being increased according 
to the size of the school. In its construction, 
the class room should conform proportionally to 
the school room, and should, if possible, be in 
immediate connection with it, but separable from 
it completely as far as noise is concerned. The 
teacher's room, in small schools, could be utilized 
as the school library, or as a temporary storing 



766 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 



SCHOOL RECORDS 



place for such delicate apparatus as required 
special care. Schools of other grades and sizes 
"will, of course, require a different arrangement 
of rooms. Nearly every civilized country, in 
fact, has its own plans for the construction of 
school-houses, and the arrangement of school 
and class rooms, determined by the peculiarities 
of its school system, or by national character- 
istics. Interesting exhibits of these are made at 
every world's fair ; and the comparison there in- 
stituted will, probably, result in a retention and 
general diffusion of the best. It is possible here 
only to refer to the subject, and to cite a few 
standard works which open the door to a vol- 
uminous literature. (See Buisso'n, Rapport sur 
I' instruction primaire a V exposition universeUe 
de Vienne en 1873 (Paris, 1875) ; Barnard, 
School Architecture (N. T., 1863) ; Joiionnot, 
Country School-Houses, (N. T., 1858); and Our 
SchoohHouses (N. T., 1873) ; Eveleth, School- 
House Architecture (N. Y., 1874). (See also 
the references at the end of the article School 
Furniture.) 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT is a department 
of the teacher's profession which includes (I) the 
organization of the school, and (II) its conduct. 
Under the former, must be considered (1) the 
classification (see Class) ; (2) the distribution, 
as to order and time, of the branches to be taught, 
(course of instruction and programme) ; and 
(3) the proper assignment of the work of instruc- 
tion (in a graded school) to the several teachers, 
either in accordance with the class system or with 
the departmental system (q. v.) . The conduct 
of the school has reference (1) to instruction, 
and (2) to discipline. Great care should betaken, 
by means of a carefully constructed programme, 
or daily order of exercises, to secure to eachsubject 
its proper amount of time, according to its place 
in the course of instruction, as well as to insure 
an equable advancement on the part of the pupils 
in each subject of the grade, as preliminary to 
promotion. The promotion of pupils is a matter 
of great practical importance in the management 
of a school. One of the most serious errors made 
by teachers is the too rapid advancement of their 
pupils. Promotions should always be based upon 
a careful examination ; and, in a graded school, 
care should be taken that every grade is passed 
through in a legitimate manner, that is, without 
hurry or cramming. When the school is un- 
graded, the advancement of individual pupils is 
to be considered ; but there is the same need of 
avoiding haste, so as to secure thorough proficien- 
cy, as the basis of promotion. Government is, 
also, an important department of school manage- 
ment; since, without efficient government, all 
attempts at effective school instruction must be 
fruitless. (See Course of Instruction, Disci- 
pline, and Government.) 

SCHOOL RECORDS are of great impor- 
tance, both in connection with the management 
of the school itself, and for the purpose of af- 
fording a means of obtaining accurate and valu- 
able returns to be embodied in a general system 
of school statistics. These records are, therefore, 



to be arranged from a twofold stand-point : 
(I) What are needed as auxiliary to the keeping- 
and instruction of the school itself ; and. 
(H) What are required for a proper administra- 
tion of the school laws, as well as to show the 
condition of the system to which the school be- 
longs, and the progress of education in the 
town, city, and state in which it is located, as 
compared with other places. 

I. For the carrying out of the first object, 
there should be an accurate registration of each 
pupil's name and age, his parent's name, the 
date of his admission into the school, of his suc- 
cessive promotion from grade to grade, and of 
Ins discharge, with the cause of the same, thus 
presenting a history in outline of the pupil's 
whole career in the school. The register kept 
for these items should be in such a form as to be 
easy of reference, either by a numerical designa- 
tion of the pupils in the order of their admis- 
sion, or by an alphabetical arrangement. Aux- 
iliary to the school register, there may be (in 
large schools, should be) an adm issio}i book, and 
a discharge book, the entries being first made in 
these books, and transferred at stated times 
(weekly or monthly) into the register. The ad- 
mission book should contain a statement of the 
antecedents of the pupil, and the discharge book, 
the cause of his leaving the school, and his desti- 
nation. There should, also, be books showing 
the school history of the pupil more in detail, as 
his daily attendance, conduct, merit and de- 
merit marks for recitations, etc. One book, 
usually called the roll book, may be used for all 
these particulars, there being, in a graded school, 
one such book for each class, and kept by the 
class teacher. In this book may also be entered 
the place of residence of each pupil, in order to 
facilitate communication with the parents. The 
school diary is auxiliary to this, containing 
transcripts from the roll book, with summaries 
of marks and a statement of class standing, the 
pupil being required to take this diary home for 
the inspection and signature of his parents. 
Other records, besides those enumerated, may be 
kept for special purposes ; but, ordinarily, these 
are all that are indispensably requisite to carry 
on the internal operations of the school. 

II. The records made necessary by the pro- 
visions of law under which the school is es- 
tablished and supported, will vary, of course, 
with the nature of those provisions, and with 
the organization of the system to which the 
school belongs. But there are certain common 
and indispensable features, inasmuch as there 
are facts which all school records for this pur- 
pose should aim to show, among which may be 
mentioned the following: (1) The number of 
pupils enrolled during the year ; (2) The average 
enrollment, or " average number belonging "; 
(3) The number in attendance at each session of 
the school ; and (4) the number of pupils of 
each grade, and of certain specified ages. — No 
attempt is made in this article to present the 
forms of these records, as there is a wide diver- 
sity of form in different places, and as the form 



SCHWARZ 



SCIENCE 



767 



is of secondary importance to the presenting of 
the required facts. — See Morrison, Manual of 
School Management, s.v. Registration (Glasgow 
and London, 1874) ; Wickersham, School Econ- 
omy (Phila., 1868) ; Wells, The Graded 
School (New York, 18G2). 

SCHWARZ, Friedrich Heinrich Chris- 
tian, an eminent German educationist, born in 
177(5. at Giessen ; died at Heidelberg, in 1837. 
His chief work is Brziehungslehre (Doctrine of 
Education), of which the first part appeared in 
1802 ; the fourth and last, which was issued in 
1813, contains the Geschichie der Erziehung 
(History of Education), a work of permanent 
value. "Among teachers," says Dittos (Schule 
der Padagogik), " the Lehrbuch der Padagogik 
mid Didaklik (1805) of Curtmann is better 
known than the Erziehungslehre." lie, how- 
ever, asserts that, while Schwarz has not given so 
clear an exposition of the principles of education 
and instruction as Nietneyer, his writings are 
more replete with practical observations and 
suggestions. 

SCIENCE, The Teaching of. In this ar- 
ticle, the treatment will refer to the teaching of 
science (I) as a branch of elementary instruction, 
and (II) as a department of higher education. 

I. This subject is one into which great con- 
fusion has been introduced by the use of the 
words science and scientific in two different 
senses. In the strict sense of the term, the scien- 
tific knowledge of a subject is a knowledge of the 
laws which harmonize and explain its various 
phenomena. Science goes beyond mere appear- 
ances, and finds that, amidst endless variety, 
there is unity; and. amid apparent discord, there 
is harmony. In this sense, it is the highest out- 
come of intellectual effort. The human mind 
deals first with the concrete. For a long time it 
scarcely rises above the information of the senses. 
It then groups the impressions of the senses into 
more comprehensive unities, and in this process 
gains a certain power of abstraction. But science 
supposes that the mind has been long practiced 
in that power of abstraction and generalization. 
It views in succession the principal facts in any 
department of nature as a whole, and it seeks to 
find the invisible order which pervades them all. 
In this sense of the term, also, all subjects admit 
of scientific treatment ; as there can be no doubt 
that law pervades all phenomena, there must be 
a science of mental phenomena as well as of 
physical phenomena: and, therefore, no single 
phenomenon can exist which has not its own 
place in the system of the universe. But, from 
various considerations, the term science has been 
often restricted to the explanation of the laws 
which regulate matter, and this is the sense in 
which it is used in this article. Now it is plain 
that, in the strict sense of the term, children can- 
not be taught science. If the scientific stage is 
the highest in the development of the intellectual 
faculties, we cannot expect to find it in the 
school. It belongs to the university. But we 
may lay the foundation of it at an earlier period. 
Indeed, we cannot help doing something toward 



this work; but we may do it awkwardly and un- 
consciously, or skillfully and consciously. The 
latter is the function of the educated teacher. 
We must, therefore, inquire more minutely into 
the mode in which the foundations of science are 
laid. For this purpose, we shall quote the words 
of the late Professor Payne, to whom the prep- 
aration of this article for the Cyclopaedia of 
Education was first assigned. (See Payne, J.) 
Science, he defined, as "organized knowledge'', 
and, after explaining the meaning of organized 
in this definition, he proceeds: "Returning to the 
other factor of the definition, knowledge, we ob- 
serve that there are two kinds of knowledge — 
what we know through our own experience, and 
what we know through the experience of others. 
Thus, I know by my own knowledge that I have 
an audience before me, and I know through the 
knowledge of others that the earth is 25.000 miles 
in circumference. This latter fact, however, I 
know in a sense different from that in which I 
know the former. The one is a part of my ex- 
perience, of my very being. The other I can only 
be strictly said to know when I have, by an 
effort of the mind, passed through the connected 
chain of facts and reasonings on which the dem- 
onstration is founded. Thus only can it become 
my knowledge in the true sense of the term. 
Strictly speaking, then, organized knowledge, or 
science, is originally based on unorganized know- 
ledge, and is the outcome of the learner's obser- 
vation of facts through the exercise of his senses, 
and his own reflection upon what he has observed. 
This knowledge, ultimately organized into science 
through the operation of his mind, he may with 
just right call his own ; and, as a learner, he can 
properly call no other knowledge his own. AYhat 
is reported to us by another is that other's, if 
gained, at first-hand, by experience: but it stands 
on a different footing from that which we have 
gained by our own experience. He merely hands 
it over to us; but, when we receive it, its condition 
is already changed. It wants the brightness, def- 
initeness, and certainty in our eyes, which it had 
in his; and, moreover, it is merely a loan, and not 
our property. The fact, for instance, about the 
earth's circumference was to him a living fact; 
it sprung into being as the outcome of exper- 
iments and reasonings, with the entire chain of 
which it was seen by him to be intimately — in- 
deed, indissolubly and organically — connected. To 
us it is a dead fact, severed from its connection 
with the body of truth, and, by our hypothesis, 
having no organic relation to the living truths 
we have gained by our own minds. What I in- 
sist on, then, is, that the knowledge from expe- 
rience — that which is gained by bringing our own 
minds into direct contact with matter — is the 
only knowledge that, as novices in science, we 
have to do with. The dogmatic knowledge im- 
posed on us by authority, though originally 
gained by the same means, is really, not ours, but 
another's — is, as far as we are concerned, unor- 
ganizable, and, therefore, though science to its 
proprietor, is not science to us. To us it is merely 
information, or hap-hazard knowledge." — - The 



768 



SCIENCE 



account here given contains the very pith of the 
matter, and cannot be too deeply pondered and 
impressed on the mind; and we shall, therefore, 
put the same thoughts in another shape. The 
child first perceives individual objects. He notices 
the equalities in these objects; and, when he finds 
the same qualities recur in different individual 
objects, he naturally groups them together under 
the same notion or name. This is the child's 
first effort at generalization. (See Intellectual 
Education.) Now, it is plain that if he had not 
known the individuals, he could never have made 
the generalization ; and that, if any one were to 
tell him the generalization without his having 
seen the individuals and noticed the similarity, 
the generalization woidd be of no real use 
to him. Out of this fact flow some of the prin- 
cipal rules in regard to the method of teaching 
science: (1) The pupil must be brought face 
to face with nature ; lie must see the indi- 
vidual ; he must himself make the experiment. 
(2) He must make the generalization, himself; 
he must be a discoverer. It is here, however, that 
the skillful teacher can wisely interfere. The 
child, if left to himself, might be too long 
in making the discovery, for he might not 
stumble upon individuals which contain sim- 
ilarities. The teacher, therefore, takes care to 
bring similar individuals before his pupils in 
sufficient number. He stendy checks his own 
wish to shorten the work by telling the generali- 
zation; but he prepares the way for the pupil's 
making it by adducing instance after instance, 
until the similarities cannot but become visible 
to the pupil's mind. And this rule suggests an- 
other, — that, wherever it is possible, the pupil 
should be led along the road over which mankind 
traveled in making the discovery originally. He 
must, of course, commit many blunders before he 
reaches the truth; yet, under a skillful teacher, 
such a process is eminently educative. But, 
besides the making of generalizations, there is 
also the faculty of observation to be carefully 
cultivated. Indeed the cultivation of the faculty 
of observation is essentially necessary to the for- 
mation of correct generalizations. At first, the 
child makes his generalizations unconsciously. 
He sees a tree, and then another tree, and then 
another, and somehow they impress him as 
being like; but he has no accurate conception in 
regard to the points in which they are like. — 
Even when he becomes conscious of the points 
of resemblance in objects, he may find that the 
resemblances in them are on the surface, and that 
there are greater differences separating the ob- 
jects from each other. He is now coming nearer 
the stage in which he can deal with a" subject 
scientifically. For observation has to furnish, as 
the basis of scientific conceptions, a more accurate 
knowledge than that possessed by the ordinary 
observer. The pupil has to notice qualities which 
ordinarily escape observation. The teacher again 
must take the utmost care that the pupil has 
really observed the peculiarity before he tells him 
the special name given to it. Else the pupil's 
mind will be crammed with a number of tech- 



nical terms of the meaning of which he probably 
will have no clear conception; and even should he 
have a clear conception of their meaning when 
he hears it from his teacher, he will be sure to 
forget it very soon. In one word, the pupil must 
conquer every step in science by personal obser- 
vation and experience. He must find out every 
thing himself. The teacher has simply to arrange 
the order in which the facts of nature are to be 
presented to the pupil, and to lay before him 
only those phenomena which it is important for 
him to observe. From what has been said, it is 
plain that the plan of going tlu'ough all the 
principal phenomena of a science is not to be 
adopted in schools. This is a method appropri- 
ate only to the last stage of scientific instruction. 
The teacher must select the portions of science 
which will be most educative ; and he will treat 
them in such a way as to interest the pupil, and 
make him take an active part in ascertaining the 
facts of nature. At the same time, he will take 
care to make his various lessons bear on each 
other. Though he does not disclose a law, but 
leave it to dawn upon the pupil's mind from the 
presentation of instances, he will see to it that 
each lesson adds to the structure which the pre- 
vious one has helped to raise. He will have a fixed 
plan in his own mind; and he will look forward 
to the intellectual result which he is to produce, 
in process of time, by the examples and experi- 
ments which he makes the pupil observe and 
perform. — In all these considerations, we have 
been looking at science as a subject worthy of 
being studied for its own sake. This is unques- 
tionably true. The intellectual powers of man 
are an essential feature of man's nature, and they 
demand exercise. This exercise is invariably ac- 
companied by an intense pleasure. Now, the 
scientific knowledge of nature is eminently cal- 
culated to call the intellectual powers into activ- 
ity, and therefore it opens up to man a source of 
pure and lasting enjoyment. But the teacher may 
look on the knowledge of science from other 
points of view. Man is corporeal, and his physical 
well-being depends on his coming into proper 
relations with physical nature. It is important 
for him to know these relations, and the teacher 
of youth will endeavor to enlighten the mind of 
his pupil in regard to them. At the same time, 
these relations are most deeply impressed on the 
mind, when the facts of science are taught ac- 
cording to the laws of education. If 1 inform a 
boy that carbonic acid gas is deleterious, the im- 
pression is of the faintest nature, and will not 
lead, in nine cases out of ten, to any action; but 
if I show the boy how to produce carbonic acid 
gas by the union of its component elements, that 
is. if I lead him to make experiments by which 
the truth will be forced upon his mind without 
my telling him that it is injurious to life; and if, 
in addition to this, I make him discover that he 
is continually exhaling this gas, he will be deeply 
impressed with the necessity of ventilation, and 
will make every effort to procure it. Then, 
again, nature presents herself not merely as the 
embodiment of law but also as the embodiment 



SCIENCE 



769 



of beauty ; and the teacher should, therefore, en- 
deavor to bring out this feature occasionally. 
He will point, for example, to the exquisite 
structure of flowers : he will lead the child to 
feel the loveliness of landscapes; lie will interest 
him in the habits of animals ; in fact, he will try 
to make nature reveal herself to him in her con- 
crete loveliness ami variety. 

Among the questions keenly discussed in con- 
nection with science teaching are (1) the order 
in which the sciences should be taught, and 
(2) what sciences are suitable for schools. Opin- 
ions on these subjects will necessarily differ until 
agreement as to the meaning of terms is reached. 
The fact is. as we have seen, that all the sciences 
call for processes of thought which can be reason- 
ably expected only in mature minds ; but it is 
true, at the same time, that separate facts, in all 
these sciences, tending towards a unity, may be 
discovered by a child of eleven or twelve years 
of age. Faraday said that chemistry could be 
taught to a boy of eleven; others denied that it 
could; and in a certain sense, both were right, 
from their respective points of view. At the 
same time there is no doubt that the facts of 
some sciences, in the average, are much more 
complicated than those of other sciences ; and, 
therefore, there is wisdom in teaching them in a 
certain order. Botany, for instance, is among 
the simplest of the sciences. Jt calls into play 
the power of minute observation. The child is 
interested in examining the structure of the 
plant and the growth of the various parts. An 
appeal is also made to his powers of grouping or, 
in other words, of classification. And the pupil 
has a large field in botany for these two activities. 
(See Botany.) The same is true of the other 
scienceof classification, zoology; but the processes 
are a little more complicated. It should, there- 
fore, naturally follow botany. From these, the 
pupil should proceed to some department of 
physics, and from that, advance to chemistry. 
The one should go before the other; because the 
processes of chemical motion are much more dif- 
ficult to observe accurately than those of me- 
chanical motion. And the course of science might 
well end with physiology, in which many of the 
modes of reasoning employed are abstruse, and 
the student is continually liable to be misled by 
appearances and analogies. 

LI. One of the most important aims of the 
educator is to lead man to recognize how to 
live most successfully for himself ; to realize the 
responsibilities of his position, and, by seeking 
to comply with these responsibilities, to attain to 
the greatest possible happiness. In this process 
of education, the student must be led to recognize 
the material and physical conditions of his ex- 
istence ; to know himself, not as an independent 
being, but as one dependent upon the multifa- 
rious conditions of the vast scheme of nature, and 
as one, wdio. alike in what he is and in that of 
which he is capable is strictly under the control 
of natural law. In other words, man can only 
know himself by comparison with other objects 
in nature, — can only know his powers by com- 



I parison with the forces by which other forms of 
i matter are controlled. Again, as a mere question 
; of material prosperity, the study of natural science 
is forced upon our consideration. No thoughtful 
man wandering through the aisles of a great inter- 
national exhibition can fail to see that all prog- 
ress in applied science and the arts must be based, 
in the first place, upon an exact knowledge of 
natural resources, material and physical. It will 
be admitted that knowdedge of all kinds is fun- 
damentally based upon the evidence of our senses, 
but such evidence is apt to mislead, unless checked 
by experiment; experiment, to be of real utility, 
must be exact and systematic. The reasoning that 
draws conclusions from such experiments must 
be logical: and language, at once ample and exact, 
is required as an implement, only of value when 
wielded with precision, to widen the fields of in- 
quiry with the utmost economy of mental labor. 
AVe are compelled to make these remarks because 
the true importance of a scientific study of nature 
has not been recognized by the greater part of 
those who are engaged in education. A knowl- 
edge of the leading truths of natural science is, 
however, essential to education, (1) because of 
their fundamental character, and (2) because of 
the method by which such sciences are pursued, 
which method is the same as that which ought to 
obtain in every action of our every-day lives. 
Comparing the training given by language and 
mathematics with that given by natural science, 
we see that, whilst language cultivates the mem- 
ory, and mathematics trains the reasoning facul- 
ties, neither affords any means for the cultivation 
of observation and experiment. Turning to the 
natural sciences themselves, we find that the 
! physical branches cultivate observation, experi- 
ment, and inductive reasoning; while the material 
branches, including the natural history sciences, 
cultivate especially the facidties of observation 
and systematic classification. But, in addition 
to this, from the multitudinous i/ntu with which 
the latter deal, and the impossibility of obtain- 
ing complete series of such data, these studies in- 
! evitably lead the inquiring mind to a constant 
i consideration of probabilities, or, in other words, 
to a habit, of the utmost importance to us prac- 
tically, of justly weighing circumstantial evidence. 
In view of the vast mass of facts accumulating 
more and more rapidly each day from the various 
fields of scientific investigation, it is impossible 
that any human mind can grasp all the details of 
even a single branch. The following considerations 
are, however, important in this view of education: 
1 1 ) that, by experience in some two sciences, the 
one physical and the other relating to the forms 
assumed by matter, the student should learn the 
principles on which these natural sciences are 
pursued, and therefrom be able to appreciate the 
value of scientific training and knowledge ; 
(2) that he should understand the general scope 
of the various sciences ; (3) that he. should be 
familiar with the broad generalizations of science; 
(4) that he should not be ignorant of such com- 
mon scientific details as occur to us every day, 
and have an immediate and direct connection 



r70 



SCIENCE 



SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 



with our welfare and success in life; and (5) that 
he should be taught how to obtain information 
by reference, and how to weigh the trustworthi- 
ness of authorities. In order that the second 
and third of these requirements may be intelli- 
gently obtained, they must logically be preceded 
by the first, and simultaneously the aquisition 
of the knowledge implied by the fifth may well 
be commenced. In the physical branches of 
scientific inquiry, qualitative analytical chemistry 
theoretically best meets the requirements of the 
case ; in the material sciences, we may select one 
of those which are called natural history sciences. 
Under this head, certain of the natural sciences 
which treat of the living forms of matter were 
formerly included ; but the term is a most indef- 
inite one, and must cease to be used at all, if con- 
fined to its old signification. The sciences espe- 
cially included under it, botany and zoology, have 
been placed upon altogether new and broader 
foundations as branches of biology, so that they 
now cover morphological and physiological 
ground never contemplated in the old use of the 
term. There would seem to be a propriety in 
using the term to express that pursuit of nature 
which is essentially out-of-door in its character, 
— the study of the external relationship of beings 
to each other ; and in this view we should cer- 
tainly need to include geological investigations. 
At the same time, it will be apparent to every 
naturalist that the scope of such a term could 
not be rigorously defined. There can be no 
doubt that an out-of-door study of nature ought 
to be an essential element of education. It may 
be long before it is generally introduced into the 
course of school education, but it should certainly 
be enforced upon the community as a duty at 
least in home culture. It should be used to cul- 
tivate habits of close, exact, and systematic ob- 
servation, commenced in the field and continued 
in the laboratory ; of judiciously collecting, care- 
fully preserving and classifying, some one or 
more series of natural objects ; and of referring 
for information not to be obtained by personal 
inquiry, regarding the objects observed and col- 
lected, to trustworthy sources. By well-judged 
training in either botany or any one of the 
branches of zo51ogy. the ends above indicated 
may be attained ; whilst the general spirit of ob- 
servation an inquiry in the wide field of natural 
science that will be encouraged, will lead to a 
breadth and liberality of mental tone. Nor need 
this general and more desultory observation be 
dreaded, as apt to lead to hasty, unfounded, and 
inexact acquirements, if the mind is duly drained, 
as had been suggested, in rigorous methods of 
thought by the exact pursuit of some special sub- 
ject of scientific study. If there be any truth in 
the suggestions just thrown out, it will be ap- 
parent that such training in the natural history 
sciences cannot be commenced too early in life, 
because the spirit of the training is such that it 
should imbue the entire mental culture of the in- 
dividual; and, furthermore, if this early training 
has been neglected, the study of science in an 
advanced period of education, will not be so suc- 



cessful, because it will lack the vivid conceptions- 
which can only be acquired by the exercise of 
the observing faculties in early life. It only 
remains to add that, as all teaching by the very 
nature of these sciences must be objective, the 
duty of the instructor, at every stage of science 
teaching, is to supplement nature and not to 
take her place, — not to impart information but to 
guide the pupil in the self -acquirement of knowl- 
edge. Books, similarly, are only to be permitted 
as dictionaries to explain such points as the pupil 
cannot elucidate by his own efforts. — See Payne, 
The True Foundation of Science- Teaching 
(London); Wilson, Essay on Teaching Natural 
Science in Schools, in Farrar's Essays on a 
Liberal Education (London) ; Lectures on Edu- 
cation — delivered at the Royal Institution of 
Great Britain (London, 1855) ; Whewell, On 
the Principles of English Education (London, 
1838) ; Youmans, The Culture Demanded by 
Modem Life (New York, 1867); Spencer, What 
Knowledge is of Most Worth in Education: In- 
tellectual, Moral, and Physical (NewYork,1866). 

SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT, the 
name given to a branch of instruction in pri- 
mary or secondary schools, which is designed to 
impart to the pupils a knowledge of the political 
system under which they live, and to make, 
them, as far as requisite, familiar with the dif- 
ferent functions of government, and the mode 
in which they are performed. It, generally, in- 
cludes a consideration of the constitution of the 
country or state, the qualifications and duties of 
the principal officers of government, the legal 
restrictions imposed upon citizens, and an out- 
line of civil and municipal regulations. Many 
excellent treatises have been prepared for this 
purpose for use in elementary schools; and, 
there can be no question of the value of this de- 
partment of instruction for all classes of pupils, 
particularly in public schools, one of the most 
important objects of which is to prepare for in- 
telligent and useful citizenship. 

SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS are higher insti- 
tutions, in which instruction in science, practical 
and theoretical, is the special object. They in- 
clude polytechnic schools (those in which va- 
! rious branches of science are taught) , and special 
schools, such as those of mining, engineering, etc. 
— In Europe, they are generally supported by 
the state. The real schools (q. v.) in Germany 
are essentially scientifie schools of a lower grade. 
In Austria Hungary, there are seven polytech- 
nic institutes (having, in the winter of 1875 — 6,. 
327 instructors and 4,405 pupils); namely, in 
Vienna, Buda-Pesth, Prague (one German and 
one Bohemian), Gratz, Lemberg, and Briinn. 
The oldest are those in Prague, founded in 1806. 
That in Vienna, founded in 1815, has five de- 
partments (one of general science, and schools of 
engineering, architecture, mechanical engineer- 
ing, and chemistry) ; the others lack one or more 
of these departments. — The German Empire 
has 10 scientific institutes (having, in the winter 
of 1875 — 6, 498 instructors and 6,644 pupils); 
namely, the Academy of Architecture [Bau- 



SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 



771 



akademie) in Berlin; the Technological Academy 
(Gewerbe-Akademie) in the same place, with de- 
partments of mechanics and engineering, of chem- 
istry and metallurgy, and of naval construction; 
and the polytechnic schools in Hanover, Aix-la- 
Chapelle, .Munich, Dresden, Stuttgart, Carlsruhe, 
Darmstadt, and Brunswick. The last, founded 
in 174f>, is the oldest. The Berlin academies 
were founded in 1799 and 182(1, respectively. 
The polytechnic schools have several depart- 
ments : that in Munich includes one of agri- 
culture; that in Dresden, one of mathematics 
and physical science for teachers ; that in Carls- 
ruhe, one of forestry ; and that in Brunswick, 
one of pharmacy, and one of forestry. ( 'ommon 
to most of them, as branches of instruction, arc 
mechanics, engineering, architecture, mathemat- 
ics, physics, and chemistry. — In France, the 
Polytechnic School in Paris is organized on a 
military basis, and has for its object the prepa- 
ration of engineers, and candidates for positions 
in the artillery, the navy, the public works, mines, 
the general staff, the powder and saltpeter facto- 
ries, the telegraphic institutions, and the tobacco 
administration. It was founded in 179."), and, 
in 1873, hail 426 pupils. It is, properly, only 
preparatory to higher special institutions, mili- 
tary and civil. The latter include the Central 
School of Arts and Manufactures (Hcole centrale 
ties arts et manufactures), designed for the in- 
struction of civil engineers and directors of fac- 
tories and metallurgical establishments ; the 
School of Bridge and Road Building (tlcole des 
pants et e/taussees); and the Conservatory of 
Arts and Trades ( Conservatoire ties arts et me- 
tiers) . These are all in Paris. The last-named has 
a collection of machines, instruments, products 
of agriculture and industry, and a library. There 
are thirteen scientific courses in technical sub- 
jects, political economy, industrial legislation, 
and statistics, and, also, an inferior school of 
drawing and descriptive geometry. The Museum 
of Natural History in Paris affords instruction 
to students. — In Italy, there are scientific schools 
in Milan, Turin, Naples, Rome, Padua, and 
Palermo, the last three being connected with 
the universities in those places. — In Russia are 
found the Technological Institute, the Engineer- 
ing Institute, and the School of Architecture, 
in St. Petersburg, and polytechnic schools, in 
Riga, Moscow, Lodz, and Helsingfors (Finland). 
The last, in 1872—3, had 118 students; the 
others, in 1874, 2,570. The institution in Riga 
has seven departments: an agricultural, a chem- 
ical, a surveying, an engineering, a mechanical 
engineering, an architectural, and a commercial 
department. — In Belgium, scientific schools are 
connected with the universities. — Switzerland 
has a polytechnic school in Zurich, with eight 
departments : an architectural, an engineering, 
a mechanical, and a chemical department, a 
school of agriculture and forestry, a depart- 
ment for the education of special teachers of 
mathematics and natural sciences, a general 
philosophical and politico-economical depart- 
ment, and a preparatory mathematical course. 



I This institution was founded in 1854 ; and. in 
| 1875 — (i. had 92 instructors and 912 students. 
There is, besides, a scientific department in the 
Academy of Lausanne, and an architectural de- 
i partment in the Lyceum of Lugano. The other 
' continental nations also have scientific schools. 
— In Great Britain, there are no polytechnic 
schools. There are, however, private associations 
that offer instruction in science; and the South 
Kensington Museum in London, which possesses 
rich collections in art, natural history, and sci- 
ence, also maintains schools. Lectures are also 
given on scientific subjects in the universities 
of London. Cdasgow, Edinburgh, and Dublin. 
The Royal College of Science, in 1 lublin, and 
the Royal Mining School, in London, may also 
be mentioned. 

In Europe, there are numerous special schools 
of agriculture and forestry. Austria has a school 
of vine culture and pomology at Klosterneuburg. 
The principal mining institutions of the conti- 
nent are as follows: in Austria-Hungary, the 
mining academies at Leoben, Pribram, and 
Schemnitz, and eight mining schools ; in Ger- 
many, the mining academies in Berlin, Claus- 
thal, and Freiberg (opened in 1 766), and 14 
mining schools ; in France, the National Mining 
School in Paris (of a higher grade), and the 
mining schools at St. Etienne and Alais; in Italy, 
the mining schools at Caltanisetta and Agordo, 
and the special school for quarrying and working 
marble, at Carrara ; in Russia, the Imperial In- 
stitute of Mining and Metallurgy, in St. Peters- 
burg, and seven intermediate and lower mining 
schools ; in Sweden, the mining department of 
the Technological Institute of Stockholm ; in 
Belgium, the special school of mines in the Uni- 
versity of Liege, and the provincial school of 
trades, industry, and mining, at Mons. 

In the United Slates, the Commissioner of 
Education reports, in 1875, 74 schools of science 
(mining, engineering, agricultural, etc.), including 
separate institutions and departments of colleges 
and universities, with 758 instructors and 7,157 
students. Of these, 41 are endowed by the na- 
tional land grant as agricultural colleges; but. 
most or all of them have one or more additional 
courses, as of general science, engineering, etc. 
(For their special features, see Agricultural 
Colleges.) The terms of admission to Amer- 
ican scientific schools vary somewhat in the dif- 
ferent institutions, but include arithmetic, ele- 
mentary algebra and geometry, geography, En- 
glish grammar and composition, and history. 
The course generally covers four, sometimes only 
three years, and leads to the degree of Bachelor 
of Science, or appropriate special degrees (as 
Civil Engineer, etc.). The curriculum commonly 
embraces the higher mathematics, English lan- 
guage and literature, history, French and Ger- 
man, chemistry, drawing, physics, natural his- 
tory, astronomy, mental science, and political 
economy, besides special branches appropriate to 
the particular course pursued. Of separate in- 
stitutions, the oldest is the Rensselaer Polytech- 
nic Institute in Troy, N. Y., founded in 1824, 



772 



SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 



SCOTLAND 



and re-organized in 1849. It has a course in 
civil engineering (understood to include mechan- 
ical or dynamical engineering, road engineering, 
bridge engineering, hydraulic engineering, etc.). 
Other prominent institutions are the Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology (opened in 1861), 
in Boston, with 10 courses (civil engineering, 
mechanical engineering, mining engineering, 
architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, natural his- 
tory, physics, science and literature, philosophy) ; 
the Illinois Industrial University (1867), at Ur- 
bana, 111., with courses in agriculture, horticult- 
ure, mechanical, mining, and civil engineering, 
architecture, chemistry, natural history, English 
and modern languages, ancient languages, mili- 
tary science, commerce, and domestic science 
and art (for women); the Stevens Institute of 
Technology (1871), in Hoboken, N. J., a school 
of mechanical engineering ; Purdue University 
(1874), at Lafayette, Ind., with a course in gen- 
eral science, and courses in agriculture, horti- 
culture, civil engineering, industrial design, 
physics and mechanics, chemistry and metal- 
lurgy, and natural history ; the State.School of 
Mines (1874), at Golden, Col.; and the New 
Market Polytechnic Institute, at New Market, 
Va., with a mechanical-engineering, a civil-en- 
gineering, a chemical, and a classical course. 
Among scientific departments (for mention of 
which see the articles on the institutions to 
which they belong), may be instanced the Law- 
rence Scientific School (Harvard University), 
the Sheffield Scientific School (Yale College), the 
School of Mines of Columbia College, the (.-hand- 
ler Scientific Department and the Thayer School 
of Civil Engineering (Dartmouth College), the 
John C. Green School of Science (College of 
New Jersey), the Scientific School of Rutgers 
College, the Engineering School of Union Uni- 
versity, the Pardee Scientific Department of 
Lafayette College, and the Missouri School of 
Mines and Metallurgy (University of Missouri). 
Cornell University and some other institutions 
have various scientific courses, without a distinct 
organization. The Worcester County Free In- 
stitute of Industrial Science, at Worcester, 
Mass., was opened in 1868. It offers instruction 
in mechanical engineering, civil engineering, 
drawing, physics, chemistry, English, French, 
and German. The course occupies three and a 
half years for those preparing to become mechan- 
ical engineers, and three years for all others. 
Much attention is given in this institution to 
practice, it being designed to impart sufficient 
practical familiarity with some branch of ap- 
plied science, to secure to its graduates a liveli- 
hood. At the middle of the first year, every 
student (except the mechanical section) chooses 
some department, under the advice of the in- 
structors, and devotes ten hours a week and the 
month of July, to practice in that department 
until his graduation, that is, for two and a half 
years. The mechanical section practice in the 
machine shop from the beginning, that is, for 
three and a half years. Students who select 
chemistry, work in the laboratory ; the civil en- 



gineers, at field work or problems in construc- 
tion ; and the designers, at problems in design. 
The shop is managed as a manufacturing estab- 
lishment, in order that the students may always 
work in the wholesome atmosphere of real 
business. 

SCOTLAND, the northern part of the island 
of Great Britain, and an important division of 
the United Kingdom of the same name. Its 
area contains 30,463 sq. m.; and its population, 
according to the census of 1871, was 3,360,018. 

Educational History. — The system of com- 
mon schools, under which Scotland became cel- 
ebrated for the general diffusion of education 
among its people, was founded in 1695, by the 
law which required that a school should be 
established and "a school-master appointed in 
every parish by advice of the presbyteries." (See 
Presbyterians.) The fundamental principle of 
free schools was recognized in this act, thus en- 
titling Scotland to the credit of having first 
established schools for primary instruction to be 
supported at the public expense. Indeed, as early 
as 1617, King James visited Scotland to oblige 
the privy council to establish parish schools. In 
1696, the system was completed by an act of par- 
liament. The minimum of salary to be paid the 
teacher was fixed, and the proprietors were re- 
quired to meet, and vote the requisite funds,which 
if they failed to do,the commissioners of taxes were 
required to levy the school tax. It is the effect of 
this law, and of the parish schools that it created, 
which has been said to be. ''beyond contradiction, 
one of the most memorable examples of the 
action which the diffusion of knowledge exerts 
upon the morality and well-being of nations." 
In 1803, the salary of the school-master was 
fixed at £16 13s. 4d. as a minimum ; and, in 
1828, it was again raised, to £25 13s. In addi- 
tion to the salary fixed by law, the teachers re- 
ceived a small fee from each pupil. Besides the 
parish schools, many others have been estab- 
lished by the Society in Scotland for Propagat- 
ing Christian Knowledge, as well as by the 
Established Church, and other religious denomi- 
nations. But, while the parochial system was 
most beneficent in its operation for many gener- 
ations, it was found inadequate for the wants of 
the great modern towns. There was, however, 
no difficulty in regard to religion ; because, in 
every class of schools, the religious views of 
parents were carefully respected. Hence, Roman 
Catholic children often attended the Presbyte- 
rian schools, which constituted the great major- 
ity of all the schools in the countiy. By the 
act of Aug. 6., 1872, a new system was inau- 
gurated, built on the old parochial system. 

Primary Instruction. — According to the law 
of 1872, "to amend and extend the provisions 
of the law of Scotland on the subject of educa- 
tion," the management of that department of 
state affairs is intrusted to the Committee of 
Council on Education. The provisions of law 
here referred to are those of the several laws of 
1696, 1803, and 1828, already referred to, and 
the laws of 1837, 1838 (to facilitate the founda- 



SCOTLAND 



773 



tion and endowment of additional schools), and 
1861 (the Parochial and Burgh l-ichool-inasters 
Act). A board of education has been temporarily 
established, consisting of five members, appointed 
by the queen, but to be responsible to the Scotch 
Education Department. The national system 
organized under the law of 1872, is, in its main 
features, similar to that established in England 
by the law of 1870. The denominational system, 
however, is more thoroughly interwoven with it ; 
but parliamentary grants cannot be made "for 
or in respect of religious instruction." The "con- 
science clause" provides that every public school 
shall be open to children of all denominations, 
and any child may be withdrawn by his parents 
from any religious observance in the school, 
which must be practiced, if at all, at the be- 
ginning or at the end of the session. A school 
board, consisting of not less than 5 nor more 
than 1 5 members, is elected in each parish and 
burgh ; and the electors consist of all persons 
on the latest ruination roll, as owners or occu- 
piers of " lands or heritages of the annual value 
of not less than £4, situated in the parish or 
burgh. Every voter is entitled to as many votes 
as there are members to be elected, and may 
distribute them among the candidates as he 
thinks fit. These school boards have the charge 
of the schools, and appoint and dismiss the 
teachers ; but they are not required to make any 
restriction as to religious teaching beyond the 
provisions above stated. All the teachers must be 
certificated, after an examination by examiners 
appointed by the school board ; and such exam- 
iners must be "professors in a Scotch university, 
or teachers of distinction in a higher-class public 
school." The revenues of the school consist of 
(1) contributions payable froui the common 
good of the burghs in which they respectively 
exist ; (2) all endowments applicable to the gen- 
eral purposes of the respective schools ; (3) en- 
dowments for the promotion of instruction in 
particular subjects, or for the benefit of teachers of 
particular branches in the respective schools; ami 
(4) fees paid by scholars. The schools are not 
free, except to indigent pupils, the fees for whose 
instruction must be paid out of the poor fund 
of the parish or burgh, on the order of the school 
board. The compulsory clause prohibits any 
person from employing a child under the age of 
13, who has not attended school regularly, for at 
least 3 years, between the ages of 5 and 13, and 
is unable to read and write, unless he makes pro- 
vision for the education of the child. To exempt 
such employer from prosecution under this 
clause, an inspector's certificate of the child's 
ability to read and write must be shown. The 
general provisions of the Scottish Education * 'i « le 
are similar in character to those of the English 
code. (See Exolaxd.) — The chief items of school 
statistics for 1875 are as follows : 

Number of children of school age (5—13) f>29,254 

" " pupilsenrolled iathepablicschools.2:H>,N74 

Average daily attendance 212,206 

h Number of schools under school boards 2,303 

" " certificated teachers 3,854 

" " pupil-teaohers 2,47.'> 



In 1874, the whole number of pupils enrolled 
in the schools was 344,628, of whom 46,276 
were under 6 years of age; 252,521, between 
6 and 12 ; and 45,831, above 12. The aggregate 
average attendance was 263.748 ; and the num- 
ber of certificated teachers, 3,165. Accommoda- 
tion was afforded for 372,000 pupils at 8 square 
feet of superficial area per child. In 1876, the 
annual grants schools showed an average at- 
tendance of 304,000. The average attendance 
all over Scotland is about 75 per cent of the 
enrollment. The number of schools inspected 
in 1874 was 2,609, of which 221 did not fulfill 
the conditions permitting annual grants. There 
were 102 night schools, attended by 5,555 
scholars above 12 years of age. There were 6 
training colleges, attended by 822 students. 
There were 12 reformatory schools, with 791 
boys and 257 girls; and 27 industrial schools, 
with 2,493 boys and 992 girls. The compulsory 
education of system of Scotland is represented 
as being remarkably efficient and satisfactory, 
having increased the attendance, from 1872 to 
1 875, to the extent of 42 per cent. The inspec- 
tion is similar to that of England, the giants 

! being allowed only on results as shown by 
passes under the inspector's examination. To 
this system much objection is made, the teach- 
er's success and pay depending too much on the 
judgment, and, as is said, sometimes on the 
caprice, of the inspector. 

Educational Associations. — There are several 
educational associations in Scotland, especially 
distinguished among which is the Educational 
Institute of Scotland, of comparatively recent 
establishment, which has its branches in various 
parts of the country, its roll of members now 
numbering about 2,000. The Parochial Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Education, recently 
organized at Rogart. under the auspices of the 
Duke of Sutherland, aims at the advancement 
of education in the parishes by means of an an- 

' nual distribution of prizes, and the awarding 
of bursaries to promising pupils of the element- 
ary schools, so as to enable them to obtain a 
higher education. The Edinburgh Ladies' Edu- 
cational Association has rendered valuable ser- 

| vice in improving the opportunities of their sex 
for a higher education. 

Secondary Instruction.— dn many of the large 
country parishes, subsidiary schools have been 
established, which provide for secondary as well 

j as primary instruction. The chief representatives 

I of secondary instruction are, however, the high 
schools and academies. Among them, the High 
School and the Academy of Edinburgh, the High 
School of Glasgow, and the academy of Pei th, are 
speciallv distinguished. The High School of K.lin 
burgh is mentioned, even in 1519, as the Gram- 
mar School of the City. It was re-organized in 
1598, and received from King James \ L the 
name Schola Regia Edmburgensis. It prepares 
its pupils, who'at the time of their admission 
must be 8 years of age, either for the university 
or for business life, and, therefore, corresponds 
partly to the German gymnasium, and partly to 



174 



SCOTLAND 



the real school. The branches of study are 
partly compulsory or imperative, as Latin, the 
English language and literature, history and 
geography, and natural history; and partly op- 
tional, as Greek, French, German, mathematics, 
book-keeping, drawing, and gymnastics. The 
Edinburgh Academy was opened, in 1824, by 
Sir Walter Scott. It consists of 7 classes, and 
likewise comprises a classical and a scientific 
course (Classical Side and Modern Side). It be- 
longs to a stock company, which elects from its 
own midst 15 directors, who appoint the rector 
and the other teachers, regulate, conjointly with 
the rector, all the affairs of the school, attend 
the examination, and distribute the prizes. The 
classical course prepares for the university; the 
scientific course, for the civil and military ser- 
vice, and for commercial life. — The Madras Col- 
lege, at St. Andrews, owes its origin to the 
liberality of Dr. Andrew Bell (q. v.), who be- 
queathed the sum of £45,000, in three per cent 
stock, for the erection of a seminary, on a com- 
prehensive plan, in this, his native, city. The 
seminary affords instruction gratis to the poor, 
and the fees are very low even for others. It is 
one of the best attended schools of this class in 
Scotland, having more than 1 ,000 pupils. — The 
grammar school of Perth, formerly the most 
celebrated in Scotland, is attended by pupils 
from all parts of the kingdom. — The Jesuits 
have a college (St. Aloysius'), at Glasgow. — The 
education of women has long been on a higher 
level in Scotland than in England. Of late, 
some important improvements have bten made. 
(See Women, Higher Education of.) 

The Universities. — Scotland has four univer- 
sities : St. Andrews, founded in 1410, and 
confirmed by papal decree in 1411 ; Glasgow, 
founded in 1450 ; Aberdeen, founded in 1494 ; 
and Edinburgh, founded in 1552. The three 
former were established by papal authority; that 
of Edinburgh, by king James VI. In regard to 
their organization, the Scotch universities have 
always resembled more those of the continent of 
Europe than those of England. The students 
were divided into four nations, as they still are 
in Glasgow and Aberdeen. They do not live in 
the college halls, like the students of the En- 
glish universities, but the jurisdiction of the 
university authorities over them ceases when' 
they are beyond the walls of the university. 
In 1858, a uniform constitution was given them 
by the university act. Each of the universities 
has three governing bodies, — a seiiatus aca- 
demicus, a university court, and a general coun- 
cil. The senate which consists of the principal 
(elected for life by the Crown) and the professors, 
takes charge of instruction, of discipline, and of 
the finances of the university. Its decisions are 
reviewed by the university court, consisting of 
the rector, its president, the principal, and as- 
sessors nominated respectively by the chancellor, 
the rector, the general council, and the senate. 
In Glasgow, the dean of faculties, elected an- 
nually by the senate, is also a member ; and, in 
Edinburgh, there are two additional members, — 



the Lord Provost of the City, and an assessor, 
elected by the city corporation. It is also the 
office of the university court, to fix the fees, to 
superintend the professors, and, if necessary, to 
censure, suspend, or deprive them of office. The 
general council, which is composed of all the 

, registered graduates and alumni, and is a merely 
deliberative body, discusses all questions con- 

' cerning the interests of the university, and sub- 

: mits them to the decision of the university 
court. The general council elects a chancellor 
for life, who becomes its president, and, in turn, 
appoints a vice-chancellor. The general coun- 
cils of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and also 
those of Aberdeen and Glasgow, conjointly re- 
turn a member of Parliament. The matriculated 
students elect, for the period of three years, the 
rector, an office which is of a merely honorary 
character, and usually conferred upon distin- 
guished non-residents. The Scotch universities 
confer the degrees of Master of Arts, Bachelor 
of Divinity, Doctor of Divinity, Bachelor of 
Medicine, Master in Surgery, Doctor of Med- 
icine, and Doctor of Laws. At Glasgow, the 
degree of Bachelor of Science is also conferred; 

I at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, the degrees of 
Bachelor of Science and Doctor of Science; and, 
at Glasgow and Edinburgh, the degrees of Bach- 
elor of Law and Doctor of Law. Besides the uni- 
versity medical degrees, licenses are issued in Scot- 
land by the Royal College of Physicians (incor- 
porated in 1681), Edinburgh, the Boyal College 
of Surgeons (incorporated in 1505), Edinburgh; 
and the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of 
Glasgow (incorporated in 1592). — The university 
of St. Andrews originally consisted of three col- 
leges, — St. Salvador's, St. Leonard's, and St. Ma- 
ry's, the two former of which were united in 
1747, when the buildings of St. Leonard's were 
pulled down. The two colleges are in different 
parts of the town, each having its own principal; 
and their professors and discipline are quite dis- 
tinct. The United College is appropriated to 
the study of languages, philosophy, and science; 
and St. Mary, to that of theology. The United 
College, in 1876, had 9, and St. Mary's, 4, pro- 
fessors. The number of matriculated students 
was 143, of graduates, 20; the proceeds available 
for bursaries, prizes, and scholarships amount an- 
nually to about £2,000. — Aberdeen had formerly 
two universities, in each of which one college had 
been founded. That of Old Aberdeen was founded 
by Bishop William Elphinstone, in 1494, under 
a papal bull of Alexander VI.; and early re- 
ceived the name of King's College, instead of 
that of the Virgin Mary, to whom it was origin- 
ally dedicated. The other was established in 
New Aberdeen, in 1593, and called Marischal 
College, from its founder George Keith, Earl 
Marischal. The two foundations were united 
by Charles I. under the name of King Charles's 
University of Aberdeen, but retained their 
character of distinct colleges till 1860, when 
they were finally incorporated as the University 
of Aberdeen. In 1876, the university had 21 
professors, 3 " Murray lecturers," 1 " Murtle lect- 



SCOTLAND 



SELF-EDUCATION 



775 



urer" (on the evidences of Christianity), and 
1 " Fordyce lecturer." The total number of 
matriculated students was 845; of graduates, '21 1 ; 
of members of general council, 2391. There is 
an annual public competition for bursaries, and, 
in 1 886, the sum of £4468 was held in bursaries 
by 254 students. King's College now com- 
prises the faculties of arts and divinity, and Ma- 
rischal, those of law ami medicine. — The Uni- 
versity of Glasgow was founded, in 1450, by 
Bishop Turnbull. In 1460, dames Lord Ham- 
ilton bequeathed for the use of the college a 
tenement in the High Street, with four acres of 
land adjoining ; and, in buildings on this side, 
the university classes met for 410 years. In 
1577, James VI. made provision for the support 
of a principal and three regents. In 1870, the 
classes of the university were transferred from 
the old buildings in the High Street to a magnif- 
icent edifice erected in Gihnorehill, in the west of 
Glasgow, the estimated cost of which was about 
£350,000. The curriculum is divided into the 
four faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, and 
law. There were, in 1876, 27 professors and 1 
lecturer; the number of matriculated students 
was 1601; of graduates, 178; of registered mem- 
bers of the General Council, 2,835. The total 
university income amounts to £15,756. — The 
University of Edinburgh was chartered by 
James VI. in 1582: and, in 1583, the college 
was opened with 1 professor, or regent, and 48 
students. It has since outgrown the older uni- 
versities ; and, in 1876, counted 36 professors, 
29 assistants, and 2,065 students. The professor- 
ships are divided into the four faculties of phi- 
losophy, law, medicine, and divinity. The 
medical faculty has long been celebrated as one 
of the best medical schools in Europe, and still 
continues to have the largest number of stu- 
dents. Its library contains over 126,000 printed 
volumes, and 700 volumes in manuscript. Re- 
cently, a chair of the Theory of Teaching has 
been established in this university, like that of 
the Theory and Practice of Education in the 
University of St. Andrews, in order to afford 
instruction in practical pedagogy. 

Special and Professional In si ruction. — (1) The 
ministers of the Established Church of Scotland 
are required to study at one of the four Scotch 
universities, all of which have theological profess- 
orships. After devoting four years to a literary 
and philosophical curriculum, they are admitted 
into the divinity hall, and spend four other ses- 
sions in prosecuting the study of theology. The 
Free Church has a large divinity school at Edin- 
burgh, called the New College of the Free 
( 'hurch ; it has also divinity halls at Glasgow 
and Aberdeen. The United Presbyterians have 
a "divinity hall," the Congregationalists a "theo- 
logical hall" (established in 1811), in Edinburgh ; 
the Baptists likewise have a theological institu- 
tion. The Roman Catholic St. Mary's College, 
Blairs, Aberdeen, was established in 1829. — 
(2) Anderson's University, or Andersonian In- 
stitution, in Glasgow, founded by Dr. John An- 
derson, professor of natural philosophy (died 



in 1796) embraces a medical school, mechanics' 
classes (the first established in the empire), and 
a department of general studies for youth. 
Mechanics' institutions, embracing classes in me- 
chanics, chemistry, English literature, etc., have 
been established in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and 
other cities. — Edinburgh has, in addition to the 
medical faculty of the university, a school of 
medicine. — (3) Academies of art have been es- 
tablished at Edinburgh and Glasgow; the former 
city has also a naval and military academy. — See 
Sir J. 1\. Shettlewokth, Oh Public Education 
(3 vols., 1853) ; JI. Mann, Education in limit 
Britain (1854) ; Blackik, On the Advancement 
qf Learning in Scotland (1855) ; Lokimkr, Tlie 
Universities of Scotland, past, present, and pos- 
sible; Voigi, Mitiheilitngen uberdas Untgrrickts- 
wesen Englands undSchotilands (2d edit., 1863). 

SECONDARY INSTRUCTION, that 
grade of instruction which is usually afforded 
in high schools, academies, etc., or in institutions 
above the ordinary grade of a common or pri- 
mary school. '] his grade of instruction is 
intermediate between primary instruction and 
superior instruction, or that afforded in colleges 
and universities. (See Education, and High 
Schools.) 

SELF-EDUCATION, that development of 
the [lowers which is carried on by the individual 
himself, without the aid of others. To a certain 
extent, this education is not only unconscious, 
but inevitable. The constant recurrence of like 
conditions or actions, the knowledge of which is 
conveyed to the individual by the senses, during 
the growth of mind and body, is always attended 
with an increased skill in the use of the powers 
of both, which, of itself, constitutes an education. 
The agents by which this know ledge is converted 
into an unconscious education are chiefly habit 
(q. v.) and experience; the one producing in- 
creased case of action under like circumstances, 
and thus rendering the individual more capable; 
the other enabling him to systematize his knowl- 
edge, and to use it as an instrument for further 
acquisition. To determine, in all cases, just 
where this education ceases, and voluntary self- 
education begins, would probably be very diffi- 
cult; yet, in general, it may be said that the 
active intervention of the will is the most obvious 
feature by which self education may be distin- 
guished. It is usually regarded as that educa- 
tion which is carried on intentionally, outside, or 
beyond the influence, of the school. Even here, 
however, the definition is imperfect ; for it must 
always be difficult to estimate at its true compar- 
ative value the strength of each of two impulses 
which act thus at the same time and invisibly; but, 
probably, a truer conception of the two powers, 
self-education and school education, may be ac- 
quired by supposing the difference between them 
to be one of function rather than of degree — 
school education serving rather as a director or 
systeniatizer of power, while self-education must 
often be looked upon as identical with innate 
power, from our inability to separate the one 
from the other. We know what training the 



116 



SELF-EDUCATION 



SEMINARY 



school gives ; and, though we cannot analyze the 
results it produces with sufficient accuracy to as- 
sign to the school and to the individual the 
proper share due to each, we know from many 
comparisons made between countries with schools 
and those without them, that the advantage lies 
decidedly with the former. That the school is 
rather a director of power than a creator of it, is 
shown by contrasting the large number of men 
who have enjoyed its advantages without mani- 
festing special ability afterward in any walk of 
life, with those who have risen to the highest po- 
sitions without this privilege. In every civilized 
country, the number of eminent self-educated 
men is large enough to justify the paradoxical 
saying of Emerson, that one of the chief values 
of a college education is to teach its worthless- 
ness. Whatever truth there may be in this remark 
is due to the fact that education is of two kinds, — 
practical and theoretical, the first based princi- 
pally upon facts and experience, and dealing 
largely with human nature ; the other, acquired 
from books, and concerning itself in great measure 
with abstractions and theories which, though val- 
uable enough for purposes of general culture, are 
of little use in practical life, and, if exclusively 
pursued, produce a positive disqualification for it. 
Of these two kinds of education, it is hardly too 
much to say that the former is the more avail- 
able, in the ordinary affairs of life, in a vast ma- 
jority of cases. Hence, it should never be forgot- 
ten by the educator, that the facilities for mental 
acquisition which he offers the pupil by system- 
atic instruction, too frequently result in vacilla- 
tion, or feebleness of purpose, and are almost in- 
evitably accompanied with a loss, on the part of 
the latter, of that vividness of apprehension 
which experimental acquaintance gives. The only 
amends, therefore, he can make is to render his 
instruction as practical, and as far removed from 
mere book-learning, as possible. Knowledge and 
rote-learning have often a wonderful resemblance, 
while, essentially, they may have nothing in com- 
mon. The picture of a Lincoln, hastily gathering 
book-knowledge by the light of the cabin fire; or 
of a Franklin, finding in the intervals of his work 
in a chandler's shop and a printing-office, an 
equivalent for the school, should be a sufficient 
admonition to every teacher, that the privileges 
of the school room are not indispensable to the 
most brilliant success. It is not necessary to 
multiply instances of self-taught men ; the ranks 
of greatness have been almost exclusively filled 
from this class. Three most valuable attributes 
are strengthened, if not created, by a course of 
self-education : self-confidence, independence of 
judgment, and perseverance. He only who has 
always depended upon himself, knows accurately 
the limit of his powers, measures beforehand 
every difficulty, and does not look, at the last 
moment, for extraneous aid; while the habit of 
self-reliance thus cultivated, lays the foundation 
for a solidity of character which, in critical 
moments, is not swayed by fitful or transient in- 
fluences. The third attribute, perseverance, is 
the necessary result of such an education. Having 



always been accustomed to encounter obstacles,, 
and having always overcome them, the joy of 
conflict and the joy of conquest, become, to self- 
taught men, synonymous. The atmosphere of 
difficulty is as the breath of life, and the result is 
never doubtful to those who gather strength from 
opposition. These are the most essential elements 
of success, and, in practical matters, weigh more 
than all the advantages of the school. On the 
other hand, the commonest error of the self- 
taught man is a depreciation of all studies or 
pursuits which have no practical bearing. General 
culture — knowledge for itself alone, with all the 
pleasures and consolations which it brings— is- 
underestimated. Accustomed always to see his 
thoughts followed by tangible results, the moral 
aspect of thought is lost sight of ; and his ideal 
standard never rises above this utilitarian level. 
This narrowness of mind leads almost inevitably 
to a want of sympathy with liberal pursuits, and 
sometimes to a kind of hardness or positiveness. 
of character which bears the appearance of ar- 
rogance. Weakness being scarcely understood 
by the successful, self-taught man, want of char- 
ity is a natural fruit of his habits of thought. 
These defects, however, are frequently removed 
by age; and, even at their worst, can hardly be 
said to be so serious as those which have been 
cited as incident to misdirected education in the 
school. Of the two kinds of education — self- 
education and school education it may, there- 
fore, be said in general, that the former is of 
greater value than the latter ; that for all prac- 
tical action in the familiar matters of daily 
life, all great emergencies, whether of peace 
or war, which require independence of judg- 
ment, promptness of decision or action, and 
inflexible perseverance, the self-taught man is 
vastly the superior; while, in purely speculative 
pursuits, in researches or projects undertaken 
without hope of immediate or material result,, 
the man of the schools, whose education has been 
conducted with that broader outlook upon life 
which leads directly to culture solely for its own 
sake, manifests a far greater zeal and activity. 
Neither kind of education is to be commended 
by itself; since the deficiencies of one need to 
be supplied by the advantages of the other. 
Their relation is well expressed by De Gerando, 
in Self-Education: " If all the means of educa- 
tion which are scattered over the world, and if 
all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and 
modern times were to be collected together, and 
made to bring their combined efforts to bear 
upon an individual, all they could do would be to- 
afford the opportunity of improvement" — i. e.,. 
self -education. (See Gerando.) 

SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, a place 
where seed is sown, from semen, seed), a term, 
used in education to denote an institution of 
learning of any grade, though oftener applied to 
one of secondary grade. It is also applied to- 
certain kinds of professional schools; as a theolog- 
ical seminary, a teachers' seminary, etc., the idea, 
intended to be conveyed by the term being that- 
of preparation for subsequent usefulness. 



SENECA 



SENSES 



77T 



SENECA, Lucius Annseus, the last great 
representative of the Stoic philosophy, born in 
Corduba (Cordova), Spain, about 7 B. 0. ; died 
in Rome A. D.65. He was the son of Marcus 
Annseus Seneca, a noted Roman rhetorician, 
and the author of Oratornm et Rhetorum Sen- 
tentice, etc., a work containing the memorable 
sayings which he had heard from the orators and 
rhetoricians of his time. The first studies of the 
younger Seneca were eloquence and the affiliated 
sciences ; but, later, he developed a taste for 
philosophy, in which he enjoyed the instructions 
of Papirius Fabianus, Attains, Demetrius, and 
Sotion. His connection with the imperial court I 
caused him much misery, and gave a tone of I 
sadness and weariness to his whole pliilosophy. I 
He was banished to Corsica by the emperor on 
false charges, and remained in exile eight years ; | 
at the end of which time he was recalled, through 
the intercession of the empress Agrippina, who 
hoped, by this means, to gain favor for her son 
Nero with the citizens, who held Seneca in high ; 
esteem. On the accession of Nero, Seneca, who 
had served him as tutor, became his adviser ; 
but he was unable to restrain the emperor's 
monstrous excesses and crimes. He, therefore, 
endeavored to withdraw entirely from the Ro- 
man court, offering to the emperor to surrender 
to him his property ; but this was refused. He, 
however, succeeded in keeping himself in seclu- 
sion, but could not escape the cruelty of Nero, 
by whom he was condemned, on a false charge 
of complicity in Piso's conspiracy, and ordered 
to commit suicide. His death was painful but 
heroic, and his last words were, To .Tore the Lib- 
erator ! — Surrounded by the dissipations of a 
corrupt age, Seneca, with great earnestness, ad- 
vocated the education of youth in pure morals, 
self-control, and truthfulness. He believed, that 
human nature, from birth, tended to evil, but 
that Cod, who is the sold of the world, inspires 
every man with thoughts upright, just, and pure. 
Seneca recognized, however, the great variety of 
infantile individualities, rendering it necessary 
for the educator to accommodate himself to par- 
ticular cases. He recommended a just medium 
between severity and remissness. He insisted 
that boys should learn what is useful and prac- 
tical in life ; and, from his complaint that the 
youth of his times were studying not for life, but 
for the school, the well-known maxim has been 
deduced, Non sehohe, sed vito? discendum est. 
His remark that the teacher himself advances 
in knowledge by imparting instruction, has 
given rise to another maxim: Docendo discimus. 
— The recent literature in regard to Seneca is 
fully reviewed in an exhaustive article in the 
Methodist Quarterly Review (187C),by Hurst. 
An edition of Seneca, designed for schools and 
colleges, and embracing his principal essays, epi- 
grams, epistles, alleged correspondence with St. 
Paul, and parallels with sacred writers, by Hurst 
and Whiting, appeared in New York, in 1877. 
SENSES, the Education of the. Edu- 
cation, through the senses, has received a great 
amount of attention in recent times, and a spe- 



cial effort to systematize it, is made in the kin- 
dergarten (q. v.) ; but comparatively little thought 
has been given to the training of the senses 
themselves. And, yet, there is ample experience 
to prove that much can be done in this direction. 
In cases where special senses have been called 
into the most vigorous action, they have attained 
capabilities which could scarcely have been 
dreamed of. It may not be advisable to attempt 
to cultivate each sense in every individual to 
the same degree of acuteness that has been 
reached in these extraordinary instances ; but, 
there is no doubt that the neglect to train the 
senses, now almost universal, is not justifiable. 
The special attributes which we may assign to 
the senses, are quickness in receiving impressions, 
strength in taking hold of the impressions, and 
vivacity in noticing not merely the unity which 
is presented to the mind, but in remarking the 
various details which compose or characterize 
this unity. These three qualities are quite dif- 
ferent from each other. If an object is held up 
before a number of children, some will be found 
able to form an impression of it much more 
quickly than others, while some will be very 
slow to catch a notion of it. So, again, they 
will differ in the strength of grasp with which 
they seize hold of the object. On some it will 
produce but a feeble impression, and that im- 
pression will, consequently, soon die away ; but 
by others the object will be grasped firmly, and, 
consequently, held firmly. Many, too, that may 
be able to take strong impressions, may be sur- 
passed by others of less strength in the capacity 
to catch the multiplicity of details which are 
presented to the view. In fact, the strong sense 
is generally absorbed in the unity : but the less 
vigorous notices the details along with the unity. 
Now, these qualities are inborn with the senses; 
and it is likely that the original difference, in 
these respects, which exists in different minds, 
is sufficient to account for the mental differences 
that ultimately appear among human beings. 
Circumstances will explain the rest of the phe- 
nomena ; but these qualities are capable of cul- 
tivation, being intensified in proportion to the 
healthy exercise of the senses. In attempting 
to train the senses, the most essential process is 
isolation. The blind man becomes singularly 
expert in the sense of touch, because he brings 
it into continual play, and trusts much to it. 
He must voluntarily follow the course which 
necessity compels him to follow. Science has 
not thrown much light, as yet, on the lower 
senses; and, therefore, little can be done for 
their training. The vital sense is so closely con- 
nected with processes which take place in un- 
consciousness that little can be made of it. 
Somewhat more can be done with the senses of 
taste and smell. If the child were asked to shut 
his eyes, and determine, by taste, what objects 
were "presented to him, the sense might become 
much more perfect and much more useful. At- 
tention could be called to the general harmony 
that exists between the taste and healthfulness 
of objects, and the child might thus learn, in 



778 



SENSES 



SEEVIA 



many cases, to choose the good and reject the 
evil. The same remarks apply to the sense of 
smell ; but a wider range could be given to its 
activities. The child, for example, might be re- 
quired to determine flowers by their smells. But 
it is when we come to the higher senses that 
much can be done by isolating practice. In re- 
gard to the sense of touch, there are three ex- 
ercises which may be usefully practiced. First, 
the sense of touch over the body may be rendered 
much more acute ; and, in consequence, what 
are called the sensory circles, very much nar- 
rowed. Experiment has proved tins fact most 
conclusively. Then, from touch we derive the 
sense of pressure. Here the child may find in- 
teresting exercise in trying to estimate the 
weight of an object from its pressure on the 
hand, or on other parts of the body. This con- 
stitutes one of the peculiar exercises of object 
teaching (q. v.). Moreover, touch gives the 
notion of temperature ; and here again the child 
might be taught to come very close to the exact 
degree of Fahrenheit by the sense of heat which 
he has in his touch. The training which may 
be given to the sense of hearing, is also various. 
The child might be exercised in ascertaining 
from what direction sounds come. He might 
lie taught to distinguish various sounds, and, es- 
pecially, musical sounds ; and he might learn to 
analyze complex sounds. Some think, that the 
last exercise should always be preliminary to 
learning to read. Thus, the instructor utters a 
word, and draws the child's attention to the 
fact that it consists of several sounds. The 
child is then asked to analyze the sounds ; and 
the child does not commence to learn to read 
until he is able to analyze short words into their 
simplest sounds. Spelling, in the sense of ana- 
lyzing the sounds, according to this method, 
precedes reading. According to the phonic 
method, the analysis of sounds is employed to 
facilitate the pronunciation of words, and, hence, 
as auxiliary to reading. (See Phonic Method.) — 
The sense of sight is the one through which edu- 
cation takes place most of all. It is, therefore, 
brought into continual activity, and thus re- 
ceives greater training. In the object-teaching 
system, this is accomplished in various ways, 
but. particularly, by the use of color (q. v.). Dis- 
tinct colors are first brought before the child's 
eye, and he is gradually practiced in distinguish- 
ing them, so as, ultimately, to be able to note 
the minutest shades of difference. Then, again, 
the child is taught to form from sight an ac- 
curate idea of size and distance. — The space 
here does not admit of more than a mere glance 
at this important subject ; and only in connec- 
tion with the training of children. But, while 
there is no doubt that the greatest good can be 
done in the earliest years, the training may 
profitably be continued throughout the whole 
period of education. The organization of meth- 
ods for such training has still to be discussed by 
educationists. Moreover, physiologists are still 
in great uncertainty as to many points. Great 
discoveries have been recently made by the re- 



searches of Weber, Wundt, Helrnholtz, and 
others ; but we may expect still more important 
discoveries from the investigations now going 
on ; and there is no doubt that such discoveries 
will throw light on the proper method of train- 
ing the senses. — See G. Wilson, The Five Gate- 
ways of Knowledge (4th ed., London, 1863); 
Wyld, Physics and Philosophy of the Senses 
(London, 1856) ; Julius Bernstein, The Five 
Senses of Man (New York, 1876). (See also 
Ear, and Eye.) 

SENTENTIAL ANALYSIS. See Anal- 
ysis, Grammatical. 

SER.VIA, a dependency of Turkey, having 
an area of 16,817 square miles, and a population 
of about 1,338,000. The large majority of the 
inhabitants belong to the Servo- Croatian branch 
of the southern Slaves, and are members of the 
Greek Church. 

Educational Legislation. — Fifty years ago, 
Servia had no public primary schools, but owing 
to the interest taken in the cause of education 
by the riding house of Obrenovitch, and by the 
Skupshtina, the national assembly, elementary 
instruction has, of late', made considerable prog- 
ress. The public-school system is under the con- 
trol of the ministry of education, composed of 
the minister, a chief of section, 4 secretaries and 
3 actuaries. The four secretaries, with the chief of 
the section, form a school board which is presided 
over by the minister, and publishes all school 
laws and regulations. 

Primary Schools. — The primary schools are 
immediately subject to the chief of the district. 
The next highest authority is the prefect of the 
circle, the minister being the highest. Education 
is compulsory, and is free to all, in the highest as 
well as in the lowest schools. Every teacher who 
has served ten years, and has become unfit for 
further service, is entitled to a pension equal to 
40 per cent of his salary, and each additional 
year entitles him to an increase of 2 per cent. 
After 35 years' sendee, he receives his entire sal- 
ary as a pension. The salaries of teachers are the 
same in large and in small communities, being 
about §250 a year. In 1874, there were 517 
public schools, with 650 teachers and 23,278 
pupils. Most of the schools have, thus far, had 
three classes; but a law. passed in 1875, provides 
that in future all schools shall have four classes. 
The number of private schools is small. A nor- 
mal school was established, in 1872, at Kraguye- 
vatz, which, in 1873, had 59 pupils. 

Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruction 
is under the immediate control of the minister 
of education. The secondary schools comprise 
gymnasia, sub-gymnasia, real schools, and sub- 
real schools. The gymnasia and real schools, 
had, in 1875. five classes, the sub-gymnasia, four 
or three ; and the sub-real schools, two. In 1875, 
the Skupshtina passed a law, providing for the 
establishment of a real school in the capital of 
each circle. In 1873, there were 2 gymnasia and 
5 sub-gymnasia, with an aggregate of 72 teach- 
ers and 1,323 pupils, and 1 real school and 8 sub- 
real schools, with an aggregate of 40 teachers and 



SETON 



SHURTLEFF COLLEGE 



779 



436 pupils. There is, also, for the instruction of 
girls, one secondary school, with 238 pupils. 

Superior Instruction. — The high school in 
Belgrade, the only institution for superior in- 
struction, is, like the secondary schools, under the 
direct control of the minister of education. It 
had, in 1873, three faculties, — of law, technology, 
and philosophy, with 19 teachers and 207 stu- 
dents. All the lectures are public, and no fees 
are charged. 

Special and Professional Schools. — Special 
instruction is imparted in a school of forestry 
and agriculture, a theological seminary of the 
Greek Church, au artillery school, and a military 
school. — See Chronik des VoOcsschviwesens, 1873, 
1874, and 1875. 

SETON, Samusl Wadding-ton, eminent as 
a philanthropist and educationist, particularly in 
connection with the public schools of the city 
of New York, was born in that city Jan. 23.. 
1789; and died in the same, Xov. 20.. 1870. His 
father was the first president of the Bank of 
New York, then the second banking-house in 
the country. By the decease of both his parents, 
he was left an orphan at an early age. After re- 
ceiving an academic education, he entered upon 
a commercial life, and, aided by John Jacob 
Astor, he made a trading voyage to ( 'hina. This 
was unsuccessful ; and. on his return to New 
York, in 1807, he obtained au appointment in 
the Bank of New York, where he remained some 
years. In 1823, he was elected by the Public 
School Society a trustee of the schools ; and, in 
1820, at considerable pecuniary sacrifice, he ac- 
cepted the appointment, from the board of trust- 
ees, of agent of the society, virtually, super- 
intendent of the schools, the duties of which 
position he discharged until the dissolution of 
the society, in 1853. In 1 s.">4. he was elected by 
the Board of Education of the city an assistant 
superintendent, in which office he continued un- 
til his death. He also took great interest in 
Sunday-school instruction, having had, at the time 
of his death, the charge of a Baptist Sunday- 
school (though himself an Episcopalian) for 50 
jears uninterruptedly, during which period, it is 
said, he was absent from his self-imposed duty 
only twelve Sundays, and this in consequence of 
sickness or absence from the city. Mr. Seton 
was peculiarly qualified for his duties as a super- 
intendent of schools — particularly primary 
schools, by his gentle, loving spirit, his sympathy 
with children, and his ardent zeal in behalf of 
early education. This subject he had studied 
with the deepest interest ; and his suggestions 
were eminently wise and practical. In this work, 
he was the active associate of Josiah Holbrook 
, (q. v.) and Joseph Curtis (q. v.), as well as many 
others, whose efforts, at that time, were given 
to improving the methods of common-school in- 
struction. His annual reports are replete with 
valuable information for teachers of young chil- 
dren. His philanthropic zeal was not confined 
to the schools, but extended to all the poor and 
helpless within his reach. Few lives have been 
so strongly marked by purity and disinterestedness 



of character and active beneficence ; and, having 
never married, he was able to devote himself 
wholly to his benevolent efforts to improve the 
condition of his race, lie was a fertile and taste- 
ful writer both in prose and verse — the latter 
only for children, many of his poems still sur- 
viving as models of the kind. He was also sin- 
gularly effective in his addresses to the young, 
mingling information, impressed with the quaint- 
est and most humorous of illustrations, with pas- 
sages of the most touching pathos. His dying 
request breathed the spirit which had pervaded 
his life of over fourscore years, — " Bury me 
amongthe children ! " — and, accordingly, his grave 
was made in the center of the children's plot, in 
Greenwood Cemetery, over which a monument 
was erected by the public-school teachers of the 
city, bearing the appropriate epitaph: Peace J 
— See Bourne, History of ffie Public School 
Societi/ (New York, 1870). 

SETON HALL COLLEGE, at South 
Orange, N. J., under Roman Catholic control, 
was founded at Madison, in 1856, removed to its 
present location in I860, and incorporated in 
L861. It is supported by the fees of students, 
the charge for tuition, board, etc., being $400 
a year. The library contains 8,000 volumes. 
There is a commercial, a preparator}*. a col- 
legiate, and a theological department. In 1875 
— (i, there were 15 instructors and 140 students, 
of whom 39 were in the theological department. 
The presidents have been the Rt. Rev. B. J. 
McQuaid, I). D., 1856—68, and the Rt. Rev. M. 
A. Corrigan, D.D., since 18G8. 

SEX IN EDUCATION. See Co-Edicatiox. 

SHAW UNIVERSITY, at Holly Springs, 
Miss., founded in 1870, is under Methodist 
Episcopal control, and is supported by the Freed- 
men's Aid Society of that Church. It was designed 
especially for colored youth.but is open to all with- 
out distinction of race or sex. It has an English, 
a normal, a preparatory, acollegiate. a theological, 
and a law department. Tuition, except in law and 
music, is free. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instruct- 
ors and 113 students (38 of the collegiate grade). 
The presidents have been the Rev. A. ('.McDon- 
ald, 1870 — 74, and Ihc Rev. AY. W. Hooper, 
since 1874. 

SHAW UNIVERSITY, at Raleigh. N. C, 
founded in 1805, and chartered in 1 875, is under 
Baptist control. It is supported by a. small 
charge upon the students, and by contributions 
from friends in the North. It was especially de- 
signed for colored youth; but none are excluded 
on account of race or sex. The university has 
an elementary, a normal, a collegiate, and a the- 
ological department. In 187:") — C, there were 8 
instructors and 236 students. The Rev. II. M. 
Tupper, A. M.. is (1876) the president. 

SHURTLEFF COLLEGE, at Upper Al- 
ton, 111., under Baptist control, was established 
as Alton Seminary, in 1832, and chartered as 
Alton College, in 1835. Soon after its establish- 
ment, the Rock Spring Literary and Theological 
Seminary, organized in 1827, and likewise under 
Baptist control, was removed to this place, and 



780 



SICARD 



SINGING-SCHOOLS 



merged in this college. The Rev. Hubbell Loomis, 
who was the principal of the seminary from 
1832 to 1835, contributed largely to the estab- 
lishment of the college, which, by virtue of its 
origin in 1827, is claimed to be the oldest insti- 
tution of the kind in the Mississippi Valley. 
The' name was changed, in 1836, in honor of 
Benjamin Shurtleff , M. D., of Boston, who had 
donated $10,000 to the institution. It consists 
of an academic and preparatory department, the 
college proper, and a theological department. 
Students of both sexes are admitted to the col- 
lege, as well as to the academic and preparatory 
department. The college has a classical and a 
scientific course of four years each, and a three 
years' Latin course. It has an endowment of 
$125,000, and its libraries contain 10,000 volumes. 
The cost of tuition ranges from $36 to $48 a 
year; but in the theological department it is free. 
Ministerial students are assisted by the Illinois 
Baptist Education Society. In 1875 — 6, there 
were 12 instructors and 189 students (deducting 
repetitions), namely: theological, 6; collegiate, 54; 
preparatory and academic, 131. The presidents 
of the college have been as follows : the Rev. 
Washington Leverett, A. M., 1835 — 11; the Rev. 
Adiel Sherwood, D. D., 1841—5 ; the Rev. 
Washington Leverett, A. M., again, 1846 — 9; the 
Rev. Norman N. Wood, D. D., 1850—55 ; the 
Rev. S. T. McMasters, LL. D. (pro tem.), 1855 
—6 ; the Rev. Daniel Read, LL. D., 1856 — 71 ; 
and the Rev. A. A. Kendrick, D.D., since 1872. 
SICARD, Rocb. Ambroise Cucurron, abbe, 
a French philanthropist and teacher of the deaf 
and dumb, born in Fousseret, September 20., 
1742; died in Paris, May 10., 1822. He was edu- 
cated for the ministry, at the university of Tou- 
louse, and was made vicar-general of Condom and 
canon of Bordeaux.^ Having received instruction 
from the abbe de l'Epee, he opened a school for 
deaf-mutes in Bordeaux, in 1786; and, three years 
after, succeeded his teacher in the management of 
a private school of that kind, which the latter had 
opened in 1760. Two years after, he succeeded 
in causing its adoption by the government. It is 
now known as the Imperial Institution of Paris. 
Owing to his connection with the church, he 
became an object of suspicion to the revolution- 
ists, in 1792, and was thrown into prison, barely 
escaping with his life. He was afterwards ban- 
ished. In 1815, he made a visit to England, 
taking with him his pupils Massieu and Laurent 
Clerc, the latter of whom formed the acquaint- 
ance there of Dr. Gallaudet, whom he accom- 
panied to the United States in 1816. The dis- 
tinctive work of the abbe Sicard was his enlarge- 
ment of the resources of the deaf-mute language 
taught by De l'Epee by the addition of signs for 
metaphysical ideas. He constructed an elaborate 
analytical system of visible signs, for the purpose 
of conveying to deaf-mutes the functions and re- 
lations of words in sentences, and thus succeeded 
in making them acquainted with the principles 
of grammar — an achievement which, from its 
ingenious and imaginative methods, secured for 
him the title of "the painter of syntax and the 



poet of grammar." His principal works are 
Tlieorie des Signes and Cours d' Instruction. 
(See Deaf-Mutes.) 

SIGNS, LANGUAGE OF. See Deaf- 
Mutes, and Peet, H. P. 

SIMPSON CENTENARY COLLEGE, 
at Indianola, Iowa, founded in ] 867, is under 
Methodist Episcopal control. It is supported by 
tuition fees ranging from $24 to $30 a year, and 
by the income of an endowment of about $70,000. 
It comprises a preparatory department and a 
collegiate department, with a four years' classical 
course and a three years' scientific course. Facil- 
ities are afforded for instruction in music, teleg- 
raphy, book-keeping, penmanship, phonography, 
and Hebrew. Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 
— 6, there were 16 instructors and 259 students 
(under-graduates, 60; preparatory students, 169; 
pursuing special studies, 30). There is also, at 
Des Moines, a law department (the Iowa College 
of Law), organized in 1875; and a medical depart- 
ment is about to be organized there. The Bev. 
Alexander Burns, D. D., has been the president 
of the college since its foundation. 

SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION. See 
Concert Teaching. 

SINGING-SCHOOLS. From the days of 
St. Ambrose and Gregory the Great to the pres- 
ent age, singing-schools and classes have existed, 
for purposes of instruction in elementary vocal 
and choral exercises. Chiefly through the efforts 
of ecclesiastics and choirs of an earlier period, 
those substantial and permanent forms of church 
music, — the single chant, the hymn, and the 
choral, have been preserved to warm and enliven 
the sacred services of a later time. There was, 
undoubtedly, a very strong and direct effect pro- 
duced through the instrumentality of men and 
boys, uniting their voices within a limited com- 
pass, associating their music with words of solemn 
and living import, and uttering their hymns of 
praise under the direction of a religious leader. 
Guido Aretino (1020 A.D.) must have perceived 
the necessity of a certain order in conducting the 
jnusical exercises of his classes, since portions of 
his method have lasted eight centuries ; the staff, 
completed to nearly its present state, and the 
syllables Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, improve- 
ments of his and introduced under his immediate 
eye, being still in full and vigorous use. The Ref- 
ormation, with Martin Luther for one of its 
musical as well as one of its ecclesiastical guides,, 
gave the choral and the special hymn to all the 
people. Subsequently, not only Germany, but 
Great Britain, and the United States of America, 
greatly encouraged the cultivation of vocal mu- 
sic, in its higher relations, among all classes of 
people. It is the opinion of some, however, that 
the people of the United States are a century 
behind the more powerful and influential of the 
European nations in a systematic fostering of the 
science and art of music by the.state; but, through 
the more general diffusion of knowledge by 
means of schools, the press, and other agencies, 
the individual efforts of Americans are wide- 
spread, toward imparting a more thorough un- 



SINGING-SCHOOLS 



781 



derstanding of that which is, to the vast ma- 
jority of people, an unknown language ; namely, 
the secret of the independent reading of vocal 
music with facdity. 

The origin of the staff, and the use of the syl- 
lables Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, seem to have 
been nearly contemporary. These, together with 
the clefs, notes, and chromatic signs, constitute 
the written language of music as recognized by 
every civilized country ; and it is not possible 
to change them for the letters only, valuable 
as these are in certain relations, without disas- 
trously revolutionizing the whole written system 
of modern music, and all its magnificent acces- 
sories. Large numbers of most valuable works 
upon harmony, counterpoint, ami orchestral ef- 
fects have been written, besides innumerable 
scores, with all of these well known musical signs, 
and with the employment of the syllables Ut, Re, 
Mi, etc.. as denoting absolute pitch constantly in 
view ; and to reduce them to the dimensions 
of lettered signs simply, and require singers and 
players to translate them into music agreeable 
to the ear, would be an interminable and tedious 
task. The modern Italian method of present- 
ing the scale through the familiar syllables Do, 
Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, has the merit of being 
direct and of appealing to the ear; and it is. also, 
quite unique, since the syllables are at once the 
vehicles of variations of sound required in render- 
ing the scale, and the signs denoting absolute 
pitch, like the letters to the Germans and to the 
English. So that, by this method, the pupil 
has to remember only one particular syllable, 
either in naming a key-note or in singing it. To 
the Italians and to the French, and to very 
many others who have been taught by this 
method, this association of a certain syllable with 
a certain key-note, that particular syllable being 
the very vehicle for the production of the tone 
desired, is deemed, in many respects, an advan- 
tage. The fixed and immovable Do becomes the 
middle of the system. All other tones of that 
octave, diatonic and chromatic, revolve around it, 
as the planets around the sun. The major scale, 
with its intermediate half-tones, becomes the 
nucleus of the entire tonal system. In exact pro- 
portion as the scholar acquires a thorough knowl- 
edge of the scale, by regular degrees, by intervals 
small and large, by chromatic as well as by dia- 
tonic progression, and by all the varieties of me- 
lodic and harmonic effect of which it is suscep- 
tible.will his succeding study be made satisfactory 
and avadable. Multiply this knowledge of the 
resources of one scale within the compass of one 
octave by twelve, the number of independent ! 
key-notes included within the limits of the ehro- 
matic scale, and thereby are obtained the changes 
of progression possible in all the twelve keys, 
in the circle of harmony, through the transposi- 
tion of the key-note. Now this may seem com- 
plicated to the uninitiated ; but it is quite clear 
to all who have mastered the changes obtainable 
within the compass of one octave, aud afterward 
have learned the rule of transposition to the suc- 
ceeding eleven keys. This, indeed, is the first di- 



rect business of the faitlvf ul musical instructor 
aud his pupds. There is no escape from travel- 
ing this well-known and well-beaten road, if 
accuracy and a full comprehension of the 
groundwork of music be really desired. In 
schools where the very tender age of the pupils 
hardly admits of any extended course of vocal 
musical instruction, it is now positively ascer- 
tained that the association of the sounds of the 
major scale with the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 
is of direct and permanent use. Practicing frag- 
ments of the major scale, ascending and descend- 
ing' by regular degrees and in wider intervals, 
with frequent recurrence of the key-note 1 or 8, 
and unisonant passages, has the effect of locating 
the sounds of the scale in their exact order, and 
immediately secures the attention and the active 
participation of the pupils, because the order of 
the numerals is already familiar to them ; aud, 
in this way, each sound of the scale becomes 
gradually associated with its corresponding nu- 
meral. If to the use of the numerals be added 
that of the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, 
which are more musical in themselves than the 
numerals, there are obtained three indicators of 
the different sounds of the scale ; namely, the 
letters, the numerals, and the syllables, all of 
which are useful for special purposes: the letters, 
for denoting absolute pitch and the location of 
the key-notes, changeable only with the clefs ; the 
numerals, for drilling in the plain sounds of the 
scale, and xiltiinately for practical use in the 
study of harmony, one and eight being used as 
key-notes in one or all of the twelve keys ; and 
the syllables, for sol-faing, used according to 
the Italian method, C being always the fixed and 
immovable Do. It is at this point that this 
Italian method, which recognizes the syllables as 
necessary indicators of absolute pitch, and at the 
same time as necessary in sol-faing for the pro- 
duction of an equable and yet varied effect, dif- 
fers from three other methods which are in ex- 
tensive use : (1) from that of the Germans, who, 
with a special name for every plain sound of the 
scale, and for every augmented or depressed in- 
terval thereof, rely chiefly upon vocalizing with 
different vowels to secure accuracy in all chro- 
matic as well as diatonic progressions ; (2) from 
that of the United States, which quite generally, 
but not entirely, employs a movable Do as the 
starting-point or key-note of the major scale, the 
key-note for any relative minor becoming La ; 
and (3) from that of the Rev. J. Curwen, the 
success of whose method in England has been 
quite remarkable, — a method, which is identical 
with that so extensively practiced in the United 
States, in the use of a movable Do, but which 
substitutes the syllable Te for Si ; the names of 
Mr. Curwen's syllables being Doh, Rat/, Me, Fall, 
Soh, La, Te. This method of lettered and nu- 
meral abbreviations, as substitutes for the staff, 
clefs, chromatic signs, bars, measures, and time- 
table of the present musical sign-language will 
be more minutely considered further on. — To re- 
turn to the two methods which are chiefly em- 
ployed in the United States, it is, really, very 



182 



SINGING-SCHOOLS 



important to the beginner that he adhere to 
one method until it is thoroughly acquired. It 
is the united testimony of experienced teachers 
of vocal music that good readers are educated by 
both of these methods, provided the teacher be- 
gins, continues, and ends the work of strict read- 
ing by adopting only one method at a time. The 
pupil may afterward become acquainted with all 
other methods, and with advantage ; since sub- 
sequent experience will enable hirn to test the 
merits of the method which he most thoroughly 
understands, and which he can make most ef- 
fective. To attempt to teach, or to learn, both 
methods at the same time, produces a confusion 
of associations, and a consequent bewilderment, 
which should be avoided. It has been the ex- 
perience of the writer to be required to teach 
contemporaneously according to both of these 
methods; and, while it must be admitted that the 
method which retains the immovable Do has a 
unity and consistency which demand time for 
their thorough appreciation and practical use, it 
is easier, in the first stages of instruction, to 
change the Do with each successive key-note of 
the entire twelve. By the former method, Do 
is invariably associated with a certain letter and 
a certain line or space; by the latter. Do becomes 
the key-note, or numeral one or eight, of every 
one of the major scales. — One or the other of 
these ways of using the syllables being accepted, 
the natural and ordinary divisions of elementary 
vocal teaching into those of time, time, and ex- 
pression present themselves ; tune, or melody, 
addressing itself more directly to the soul than 
time or rhythm, is certainly first in order in the 
musical education of the young. By common 
consent, the major scale, in great variety, is now 
practiced with numerals and with syllables in the 
primary departments of schools, as a preparation 
for the presentation of the staff, clefs, notes, etc., 
at a later period. It is a matter of no conse- 
quence whether the scale be based upon one par- 
ticular line or space in preference to another, if 
the movable Do be used ; but if it be the teach- 
er's design to employ the Italian method, with 
its Do immovably fixed upon middle 0, it is 
conducive to a clearer understanding of the sub- 
ject of the lransj>osition of the key-note to start 
from this point. If another letter be selected as 
the base of the scale in the earlier lessons, it is 
necessary to return to middle when the sub- 
ject of transposition is introduced, and the ordi- 
nary rules for changing the place of the key-note 
by help of the sharps and flats, are fully ex- 
plained. After some familiarity with the sounds 
of the major scale is acquired, a division of the 
class should be made, whereby singing in two 
parts can be attempted. This phase of element- 
ary vocal instruction may be postponed, in teach- 
ing children, until a considerable knowledge 
of the diatonic intervals of the major scale has 
been made familiar to them. With adults, how- 
ever, the natural division of the class of mixed 
voices arising from the selection of the soprano, 
alto, tenor, and base voices, each to sing in a com- 
pact body, and in a separate location, is obvious- 



ly necessary as a measure of interest and advan- 
tage to all four of these parties, after the quality 
of tone and compass of each voice have been as- 
certained. Beating time should be introduced 
and rigidly enforced as soon as the staff and its di- 
vision into measures by bars have been explained, 
especially in the simpler forms of twofold, three- 
fold, and fourfold measure. The department 
of expression, "with its more apparent varieties 

oif, p, mf, legato, staccato, and ■-, 

may accompany the performance of the simplest 
exercises, and grow with the growth and 
strengthen with the strength of the pupil as he 
advances toward the execution of more elaborate 
examples in melody, rhythm, axsAJiarmony. They 
who clog the wheels of musical progress with 
dull and incompetent ears must gradually dis- 
appear. This is a rule without exception. 

Allusion has been made to the success of the 
Bev. J. Ourwen's Tcmic-Sol-Fa system in Eng- 
land, of which Miss Sarah A. Glover, with her 
so-called tetrachordal method, was the forerunner. 
It is claimed that it is better suited for vocal 
practice than the ordinary signs, and many of 
Mr. Ourwen's disciples consider it available for 
the presentation of every possible variety of 
music, instrumental as well as vocal. The syllables 
Doh, Ray, Me, Fall, Soil, Lali, Te, are pro- 
nounced as they are spelt, Te being substituted 
for Si, to avoid confusion with Soli when only 
the initial letter is used, as in the printed music 
the initial only is employed. To indicate the 
higher or lower octaves, figures are placed by the 
sides of the letters which stand for notes, as 
d 1 , d", to 3 , and S„, M 2 , d 2 . The tune America 
is presented thus : | d d r £, d r m m f m r d r 
d t Y , etc. Different key-notes are announced by 
letter at the beginning, as key G, key A, etc. 
The key-note of the relative minor is always Lah. 
Changes of key are effected by what are called 
bridge tones. The note, or rather the letter indi- 
cating a certain sound, is placed side by side with 
the letter indicating the pitch of the letter in the 
key approached, and pupils are taught to think 
and sing the sound of the first note or letter and 
to call it by the name of the second. Thus d r m 
f sd t d would show a modulation to the key of 
G. Tonic-Sol-Faists consider that this affords an 
easier mode of making modulations and transi- 
tions than the older system. The chromatic scale 
is named by adding the vowel e to the initial of 
sharped notes, and a (aw) to flatted notes. Thus 
de, re,fe, se, are respectively d, r, f, s sharp; and 
ma (maw) la, ta, are to, I, I flat. The sharp or aug- 
mented sixth of the minor scale is called bah, to 
distinguish it from fe, the sharp or augmented 
fourth of the major scale. Time and accent are 
indicated by measurement across the page, thus : 

I : I = I , : I 

the space between one sign and the next repre- 
senting the beat ; the line showing the stronger 
accent, and the colon the weaker. Short divisions 
are indicated on halving the measure by one dot 
| . : and commas are used to divide the 
measure into quarters, and other divisions are 
similarly shown. A stroke, through a beat or 



SINGING-SCHOOLS 

pulse, means that a previous sound is to be con- 
tinued. Sol-Foists esteem this mode of measur- 
ing time a great advantage over the older nota- 
tion. The first line of Pleyel's hymn is thus 
written : | m : s | r : . m \ f : r \ m, etc. 

The method cannot easily be understood with- 
out reference to the Tonic-Sol-Fa arrangement, 
i. e., the distinctive plan of teaching the musical 
facts indicated by the lettered notation. It is the 
result of laborious inquiry and experience on 
the part of .Mr. Curwen and his fellow laborers. 
Great importance is attached to the doctrine of 
what is called mental effect, but which has been 
previously named more properly emotional effect, 
by which is meant a certain coloring or impres- 
sion produced by each sound of the scale when 
sung slowly. Thus <loh is considered firm ; fe, 
sharp and piercing ; lah, sorrowful ;/ah, gloomy; 
soh, bright and clear, etc. Teaching by pattern 
is also required : the scale is taught in the follow- 
ing order : (1) the notes of the tonic common 
chord il, m, s, or doh me soh, and their replicates; 
(2) the notes of the dominant common chord 
.«, /. r,or soh, te, ray; (3) the common chord of the 
subdominant /, /. </, or fah. lah, doh, — which 
are simply the fundamental harmonies of the 
scale, embracing all its sounds, and giving birth 
to the name of the system, Tonic-Sol-Fa. The 
backbone of the system, however, is the Modu- 
lator, without a proper use of which the method 
cannot be taught. 

r 1 s d f 1 



SOCIAL ECONOMY 



783 



1 



d 1 



f 



1 



ri — 



d 
t, 
1, 



f 



s -DOII 1 - 

TE — 

f ta la 

n -LAH = 

la se 

r -SOH - 

ba fe 

I —FAH 

t, - ME - 

ma re 

1, RAY — 

S, DOII - 



f t 



a, 

t. 



m 



- 1, = 



di 



t a m, 1 2 

r s 2 d, — f 

t 9 — nij — I r, s„ 
This Modulator is a map of the musical 
sounds to be read in an ascending order, showing 
the scale, its minor, its chromatics, and its more 
closely related keys or scales. By familiarity in 
the use of this chart, the upward and down- 



ward motion of the notes all on one level, is 
gradually learned by the pupil. Syllables are 
used to show the length of the notes according to 
the French Cheve system. So taa is the name 
of one beat, taa-tai of a half-beat, and ta-fa-te-fe 
of quarter beats. ( 'ontinuations of any kind ;ire 
met by dropping the consonant. Sol-Faists con- 
sider that the more intricate and refined of di- 
vided beats can be sooner learned in this way than 
in any other. But this Tonic-Sol-Fa-mv\\\i«\, 
more than any other, requires the living teacher 
to illustrate the meaning of its signs ; and it fol- 
lows, of course, that the teacher of any particular 
method of imparting musical instruction will 
' best succeed with that which he most thoroughly 
understands. 

SMITHSON COLLEGE, at Logansport, 
bid., founded in 1872 for the education of both 
sexes, is under Lniversalist control. It is sup- 
ported by tuition fees and the income of an 
endowment of $20,000. The regular tuition fee 
is $ 30 a year. The institution comprises a pre- 
paratory, a commercial, a philosophical, a col- 
legiate, and a normal department. In 1876 — 7, 
there were 8 instructors and 50 students. The 
presidents have been the Rev. Paul R. Kendall, 
1872 — 4, and the Rev. R. N. John, since 1875. 
SOCIAL ECONOMY. The place actually 
held by the science of social or political economy, 
in modern education, presents a strange contrast 
with that which its importance demands. If the 
object of education is to fit the young to become 
self-supporting citizens in a progressive society, 
conducing at once to the happiness of all, while 
securing their own, then must the science whose 
special function is the elucidation of the condi- 
tions of man's well-being in society, rightfully 
claim a foremost place in every school cur- 
riculum. It is. nevertheless, to be noted that, up 
to the present time, instruction in this science 
has been limited to the few who attend colleges 
and universities, and to the pupils of a small 
number of schools, of which further mention will 
be made in the course of this article. A part of 
the difficulty popularly experienced in appreciat- 
ing the proper position of this subject in the 
course of study appropriate to youth, is probably 
to be ascribed to the name, or rather to the dif- 
ferent names which have, from time to time, 
been given to the science. The most appropriate 
term, of the many which have been suggested, 
will be found, on examination, to be that under 
which the subject is here treated, — that is, the 
science which treats of the manner in wlrich are 
regulated the affaire that relate to man in 
society, a meaning fully suggested by the etymol- 
ogy of the words. Nevertheless, this term, as 
well as the allied name political economy, is apt 
to suggest to the unprepared mind a science deal- 
ing with a very different set of ideas from those 
of which it treats. — The dissatisfaction which has 
thus arisen with the name social economy has 
led to the attempt to adopt various other forms 
of expression to designate the science, of which 
attempts the happiest perhaps has been the pro- 
posal to call it the "science which teaches the 



•784 



SOCIAL ECONOMY 



conditions of human well-being." But this 
title is not without objection. In the first place, 
it is wanting in that terseness which is a main 
requirement in nomenclature; and, secondly, it 
is wanting in precision. This expression would 
logically include many other sciences ; as, for in- 
stance, hygiene, a due regard to the laws of 
which is assuredly a condition of human well- 
being. If the science had to do solely with the 
production and distribution of wealth, the term 
originally employed by Adam Smith, the father 
of the science, namely, the wealth of nations, 
would be specially appropriate ; but, even this is 
inadequate ; for, although the laws of the pro- 
duction and distribution of wealth influence 
in a material degree the conditions of human 
well-being, the science which we have called 
social economy includes also most of' the moral 
elements that enter into the economy of society. 
The diversity of names that, from time to time, 
have been suggested, has, not unnaturally, given 
rise to the idea that there must be something espe- 
cially abstruse in a science the professors of which 
have been unable to agree even upon the name by 
which it should be known. The difficulty prob- 
ably arises from the modern use of the term 
economy, which has, to some extent, lost its 
original and etymological signification. Another 
cause of the misapprehension of the proper place 
of social economy in education, arises from the 
intimate relations into which every person un- 
avoidably enters with the subjects it elucidates, 
at nearly every instant of his industrial life ; so 
that all persons are unavoidably possessed, of 
some notions on the subjects of which it treats. 
Now, as there is an infinite number of modes 
of error and only one of truth, it is only by 
starting rightly, and proceeding, systematically 
or scientifically, from the known to the un- 
known, that error can be avoided; hence, the no- 
tions taken up in the course of practical life 
are, in the absence of systematic study, gen- 
erally erroneous. But it is usually the most 
ignorant who wrangle and dictate with the loud- 
est assumption of knowledge ; and, hence, people 
are led to suppose that there is a difference of 
opinion on economic truths among the students 
of the science, and that, therefore, the subject 
must be too difficult to be understood by children. 
It is, nevertheless, true that, as far as regards the 
elements of the science, there is no more differ- 
ence of opinion among those who have given 
systematic study to it, than there is among the 
students of mathematics upon the elementary 
principles of geometry. Another and more 
serious obstacle to the introduction of social 
economy, as a subject of instruction for the young, 
is the following. Owiug to the extremely com- 
plex nature of human society, it is impossible to 
take all of its factors into account when inves- 
tigating its elementary principles. But it is also 
true that the geometrician disregards the breadth 
of the line, and the mechanician the weight of 
the mechanical powers, when investigating the 
laws of magnitude in space, or the relations of 
forces; but as soon as the geometrician or the 



mathematician begins to apply the principles of 
his particular science to practical engineering, 
these discarded factors form data in his prob- 
lems ; and their effects are estimated by means 
of the very laws which were established while 
disregarding their existence. So with the laws 
of man in society. The laws of the produc- 
tion and distribution of wealth were investigated 
by rigorously excluding the sympathetic side of 
man's nature and looking upon him as purely a 
self-seeking being ; but the principles of social 
economy can only be understood by regarding 
him from both points of view. This was weS 
understood by Adam Smith, whose Tlieory of 
the Moral Sentiments treats of man as a sympa- 
thetic being, and is complementary to his Inquiry 
■into the Wealth of Nations. Most of the followers 
of this great master, have, since his time, lost 
sight of the fact of this artificial exclusion, and 
while pursuing with great zeal and intelligence 
their researches into the one half of the subject, 
have forgotten that, after all, it was but one half, 
and that the other half, which they neglected, 
was of little less moment to man's happiness than 
that which they were investigating. It was, in 
great part, owing to this forgetfulness on the part 
of the votaries of the science, that it acquired, 
among persons of large sympathy but small 
knowledge, the nickname of the dismal science; 
and as the investigation of the self-regarding half 
of the laws of human well-being, divorced from 
the sympathetic, would be apt to chill those 
sentiments of generous sympathy with our kind 
which, in youth, should be encouraged rather 
than suppressed, a not unnatural disinclination 
was felt to fortify the self-regarding side of our 
nature by exhibiting it to the young as the basis 
of a science on which to build up the structure 
of human well-being. This well-grounded ob- 
jection has been removed by the correlation of 
these two aspects of our nature into one body 
of science, — a correlation first illustrated by 
the teachings of William Ellis, which has been 
more or less successfully followed up by his dis- 
ciples ; so that, to-day, the science, when prop- 
erly taught, instead of warping the minds of its 
students into a one-sided egoism, develops a 
largeness of views, a generosity of sentiment, and 
a soundness of judgment perhaps unattainable 
through any other study. — All educators have 
agreed that the earlier years of j'outh must be 
directed to concrete, before proceedingto abstract, 
studies — to observation rather than to causation. 
While, speaking generally, this rule is sound.it is 
not to be understood as requiring the exclusion 
of the reasoning process from even infant minds; 
but, because the reasoning faculties are compar- 
atively dormant in early youth, knowledge should 
be obtained through observation (as for instance 
in natural history) ; and from the facts thus ob- 
tained the child should be trained to reason logic- 
ally. Now, for this purpose, social economy 
presents many advantages, and this hardly less 
as a mental discipline than for the knowledge it 
imparts. But the teaching of science to the very 
young should always be in connection with facts 



SOCIAL ECONOMY 



T85 



■ or subjects presented to the senses. For instance, 
suppose a lesson is to be given upon bread to 
children 8 or 9 years of age. After the children 
have observed those properties which are directly 
cognizable by the senses, the judicious teacher 
will proceed to the more elementary of those facts 
relating to it which physics, chemistry, and 
physiology have made known to us, and will not 
.shrink from gradually introducing the pupils, 
notwithstanding their youth, to the terms used 
by men of science in speaking of those facts. 
Instruction of this kind has. for a long while 
been given by the best teachers, in what are 
termed object lessons; and they have now only to 
add the facts relating to bread which are made 
known to us by the science of social economy to 
complete their course. They will find it far 
easier to adopt this course with the social bear- 
ings of objects than with those which relate to 
physics, chemistry, or physiology, because many 
of the social facts will have been spontaneously 
and unavoidably noticed by the children them- 
selves; and when once they perceive that what goes 
on around them at home, in the workshop, and 
in the store, has a scientific value and importance, 
and that an observation of surrounding facts and 
events can be used in school work, and have a 
fitting place found for it, as a help to further 
knowledge, their observation will be suddenly 
and wonderfully awakened, and fresh facts and 
events will be poured upon the teacher by the 
children themselves. By this method, long before 
children have passed out of the primary grades, 
they may have acquired a knowledge of not only 
the fundamental laws of the production of 
wealth, but morals also, as well as many of the 
consequences of the division of labor, and other 
matters connected with the interchange of com- 
modities. At an age even earlier than that at 
which it is now deemed proper to commence 
the study of geometry, that is to say, 11 or 
12 years, social economy may be taught as a 
special subject; but the opportunities afforded 
by object lessons, of observing the social aspects 
of the objects under consideration should always 
be made available. In teaching social econ- 
omy, as a special branch, to scholars of from 
11 to 12 years of age, the subject should, as far 
as possible, be introduced in a manner analogous 
to that of object teaching. Attention should be 
called to the comforts enjoyed by the children, 
and by people in general, in the country in which 
they live, — things to which they have perhaps 
become so accustomed that they have given no 
thought to the means by which they have been 
provided at the time and place at which they 
are needed to be used and enjoyed. "With chil- 
dren who have not before received any instruction 
in the science, some simple object of their daily 
use should be noticed, and its history examined, 
from the first preparation for the production of 
the raw material of which it is mainly composed, 
down to its distribution in the form in which it is 
required to be ready for their consumption. Such 
an examination will bring vividly before the 
minds of the pupils the fact that nearly all the 



necessaries and comforts of life are produced by 
labor; and then the name wealth, by which 
these products of labor are to be thenceforth de- 
noted, may be given to them. Industry, econ- 
omy, knowledge, and skill will next be evolved as 
necessary to individual as well as general well- 
being ; and the division of labor will be examined, 
with its resulting enormous increase in the pro- 
ductiveness of labor. The opportunity should 
then be taken to exhibit the groundlessness of 
prevailing prejudices in regard to the relative 
honor to be attached to one class of labor over 
another, and to point out that those by whom 
household labors are performed are as much en- 
gaged in the business of production as other 
laborers. The pupils will now be ready to ob- 
serve with understanding the simpler phenomena 
of interchange ; and then the paramount impor- 
tance of honesty, truthfulness, and thorough trust- 
worthiness on the part of all will be evolved and 
made apparent. — While carefully avoiding all 
appearance of dogmatism, the teacher can hardly 
devote too much time to multiplying illustrations, 
and reviewing the investigations of the pupils, 
upon this head. The various forms of untrust- 
worthiness, and the consequences thereof, should 
be made very clear, nor should the subject be 
left until the pupils have arrived at a hearty 
detestation, not only of unsuccessful, but still 
more of successful, dishonesty. The natural laws 
regulatingthe relationsof employer and employed 
will next be studied ; and. either now or at a 
later period, the rules of trades-unions, and the 
effects of strikes and of combinations, should 
be closely examined ; nor should the subject 
of icages be left until the pupils see clearly, 
that the wages which they, as sellers of their 
labor, are destined to earn, will depend almost 
exclusively on the productiveness of their labor, 
and that all those rules of trades -unions etc. 
which tend to diminish the productiveness of 
labor, of necessity, lower also the wages of labor. 
The laws determining the administration of 
capital will next engage their attention; the idea 
of profit will be evolved, and its nature determined 
with precision; the mischievous results of com- 
binations among capitalists, both to themselves 
and to the community, will be investigated, until 
it becomes apparent that the profit of the 
capitalist is the reward paid him by society for 
the services he has rendered, of which services it 
tonus also, in most cases, an accurate measure. — 
Property in land will next claim attention, the 
justification for its adoption, as well as its just 
limitations, being ascertained, and the principle 
of rent, determined. — As the next step in the 
course of study, the idea of exchangeableness, and 
the name jv/Zue, will be evolved. The laws which 
regulate value will then be investigated, and 
the necessity of precision, alike in ideas and in 
the use of words, will be again impressed upon 
the minds of the pupils, and forcibly illustrated 
by as many examples as possible. It will now 
be time to examine into some of the means 
which have been adopted to facilitate inter- 
change, among which money will be seen to hold 



786 



SOCIAL ECONOMY 



SOCRATES 



a prominent place ; the reasons for selecting gold 
or silver for money will be examined ; the im- 
possibility of fixing the relative values of the 
two metals, and, consequently, the want of wis- 
dom shown in enacting laws making both metals 
a standard of value for the same contract, will 
be readily perceived ; nor will it be difficult for 
the pupils to discern the only proper function to 
be fulfilled by a mint. The causes of fluctuations 
in the value of money will be next investigated, 
and the phenomena of price and its fluctuations 
observed. The use and functions of credit will 
now be inquired into, and the unhappy con- 
sequences of its abuse traced to their source. 
Now, or at a later period in the course, the 
causes of the so-called "tightness in the money 
market", of business derangements, commercial 
crises, and of panics, will be rigidly investigated 
and their only remedy discerned, namely, greater 
trustworthiness and honesty, to be secured by the 
improved teaching and training of youth. The 
policy of laws for the recovery of debts may now 
be profitably inquired into, as also the function 
which, at best, governments may hope to perform 
in the economy of society. — Bill* of exchange, 
rates of exchange, the par of exchange between 
distant countries, rates of interest, banks and 
banking, may all now, in turn, be discussed, and 
the want of wisdom shown by legislatures in the 
enactment of usury laws, and of laws which at- 
tempt to control or regulate banking, may be 
made apparent. Paper money, and the promise 
made by the issuers thereof, the dishonesty 
evinced in breaking the promise thus made, and 
the duty incumbent upon those who have either 
dishonestly or ignorantly broken such promises, 
should be dwelt upon, and illustrated by examples 
drawn from history. Foreign commerce may 
next be illustrated, its origin and the cause of 
its existence observed, and the want of wisdom 
shown by those legislatures which have attempted 
improperly to interfere with it. — The proper 
mode of raising revenue, to be deduced in great 
part from the truths discovered when consider- 
ing the phenomena of rent and of its progressive 
increase, will next be investigated ; and the 
wisest methods of expenditure, both public and 
private, may then be discussed. — With the con- 
sideration of all these questions, and mainly in 
the order in which they are here sketched, the 
school course of study in social economy may 
be closed. Not, however, without warning the 
pupil that he has, by no means, mastered all 
the truths of the science, but that, if he has 
thoroughly assimilated the lessons he has re- 
ceived, they will suffice to direct his path in in- 
dustrial life. — The course as sketched in these 
pages should occupy from two to four years of 
the school curriculum, — two years, if the knowl- 
edge to be acquired is to be learned from books; 
but about four years, if the Socratic method be 
adopted by the teacher. Another method of in- 
struction, and one which, like that already in- 
dicated, has been successfully practiced, is the 
division of the science into progressive problems, 
demonstrating these either on the Socratic plan 



or by a deductive process, as in the study of ge- 
ometry. The former of these two plans is that 
chiefly followed in the admirable Birkbeck schools 
of London, schools founded and endowed by 
William Ellis (q. v.), of that city, for the special 
purpose of introducing the science of social econ- 
omy as a branch of school teaching, especially 
for the children of mechanics and laborers. 
Since the year 1848, this instruction has been 
continued in these schools, and their example 
has, at last, been followed by the London school 
board. — See Ellis, Outlines of Asocial Economy 
(a text-book for schools) ; Progressive Lessons 
in Social Science (for teachers) ; Introduction to 
the Study of the Social Sciences (London) ; 
Philo-Socrates (London); Lessons on the Phe- 
nomena of Industrial Life, etc., edited by the Dean 
of Hereford (London) ; J. J. Ghamplin, Lessons 
on Political Economy (N. Y.); R. M. Leveeson, 
Common Sense, or First Steps in Political Econ- 
omy (N. Y. and Denver, 1876). 

SOCRATES, a celebrated Greek philosopher 
and teacher, born in a village near Athens, about 
469 B. C; died in that city 399"B. C. He was 
trained in his father's art, that of sculpture, and 
pursued it for several years. At the same time, 
he devoted himself to study, and attended the 
lectures of Anaxagoras and other eminent phi- 
losophers at Athens, and gained a reputation as 
a man of superior intelligence. Indeed, one of 
his friends asked the oracle at Delphi whether 
Socrates was not the wisest man living, and was 
answered in the affirmative. This answer sur- 
prised and perplexed Socrates, who was deeply 
impressed with his own ignorance ; but he was 
incited by it to continue in his career as a phi- 
losopher. In this, however, he assumed the 
character of an ignorant person asking for in- 
formation. Accordingly, he entered into con- 
versation with the most eminent men in Athens, 
particularly the Sophists ; and soon was con- 
vinced that their claims to superior wisdom were 
without foundation. He adopted a peculiar 
method of questioning (since called the Socratic 
method ) , by which, under the guise of seeking 
information, he convinced the person whom he 
questioned of ignorance, and showed him the 
truth. He passed much of his time wandering 
about the streets of Athens in meditation, or 
mingling, in the school and in the market place, 
with people of all ages and conditions, and of both 
sexes, and sought to engage them in conversation, 
his good humor and brilliant powers as a dis- 
putant charming all classes. Li his walks, he 
was constantly attended by a crowd of persons 
who were commonly looked upon qs his disciples; 
though he never opened a school, or assumed 
the name of teacher. He selected, however, a 
few as his special disciples and companions, 
among whom were Plato and Xenophon ; and 
to these he was particularly endeared. The 
unselfishness of his aims is shown by the fact 
that he never accepted payment for the instruc- 
tion he gave, never sought public influence or 
place, and only once in his life occupied a polit- 
ical office ; while he frequently, in the interest ■ 



SOCRATES 



SOUTH CAROLINA 



787 



of justice, defied popular clamor, when acquies- 
cence iu its demands would have been to his ad- 
vantage, if his designs had been ambitious. He 
acted constantly as if under the sense of a divine 
commission. He professed to hear a super- 
natural voice, proceeding from what he called 
his genius (ticu/ttviov), which exerted over him a 
restraining, but never an inciting, influence. His j 
unsparing irony towards, and contempt for. the 
Athenian rulers, and his demonstration of the 
ignorance of men prominent in all walks of life, 
which he made plain to others by his unrivaled 
skill in questioning, created finally an intense 
opposition to him, particularly on the part of 
the Sophists. A conspiracy against him was 
formed by an orator, a poet, and a demagogue 
(Lycon, Melitus, and Anytus), who made, a pub- 
lic accusation against him that his teaching hail 
brought contempt upon the national gods, that 
he had sought to introduce other gods in their 
stead, and that he had corrupted the Athenian 
youth. He approached his trial in the same 
spirit of independence and defiance that he had 
always exhibited. With no expectation of ac- 
quittal, he yet defended himself to the extent of 
showing the falsity of the charges brought 
against him, and declaring exactly what his 
teaching had been. A court composed of citizen 
judges, variously estimated at 557 to 5G7 mem- 
bers, condemned him to death by a very small 
majority. It is thought that the fearlessness of 
his defense led to his condemnation, as the pros- 
ecution was intended rather to humble than to 
destroy him. After his sentence, he passed 30 
days in prison, and ended his life by drinking 
poison, according to the sentence of the court. 
From a moral stand-point. Socrates has been 
considered the type of the highest virtue at- 
tainable by man when unaided by the spirit of 
Christianity. The immediate and inevitable 
product of his method, as an instrument of in- 
tellectual research, is clearness of conception — 
the most important prerequisite to precision of 
thought. The result of his teaching, therefore, 
was comprehensive and radical, leading to an 
entire reconstruction of fundamental ideas in 
many departments of human inquiry. The 
sophistry which constantly enveloped every sub- 
ject, under the methods pursued by the ancients 
for centuries, was • dissipated by his merciless 
questioning. The practical character of his 
mind, also, in regard to natural science, is re- 
markable, considering the age in which he lived; 
in this respect, forcibly recalling the similar 
characteristic of Franklin. Thus, he would have 
had the men of his time know only so much of 
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, as would 
be of use to them in the daily occupations of 
life, on the ground that the vast realm of human 
nature, with its characteristics and duties, was at 
that time unexplored, and was a more appro- 
priate field for investigation than what he called 
the divine phase of philosophy, by which he 
meant what is now understood by speculative 
science. In his estimate of the proper subjects 
for investigation, this strongly practical bias is 



always apparent, insomuch that Xenophon says, 
" he continued incessantly to discuss human 
affairs," and Cicero impressively declares that 
" he called philosophy down from heaven to 
the earth." The career of Socrates as a teacher 
was a remarkably illustrious one. It was, also, 
eminently successful. Those who listened to his 
instructions always felt their minds enlarged, 
and their virtuous inclinations strengthened. 
Certainly, no teacher has ever presented a more 
complete example of what should be the aim of 
instruction, and none has ever employed a 
method so well calculated to develop in the 
minds of his pupils the ideas and truths which 
he designed to impart. — See Gkote,' History of 
Greece, chap, lxviii. 

SOLON", the author of the Athenian system 
of education, was born at Athens in (i39 B. C; 
and died, in 559, on the island of Cyprus. He 
was one of the noblest men of his age. and was 
reckoned among the seven sages of Greece. A 
modern historian (Duncker. Geschichte des 
AUerlhums) calls him the greatest political 
genius of antiquity. Having been called to 
the archonship, in 594 B. C, by all parties, with 
authority to confirm, repeal, or modify the Dra- 
conian laws, he gave to the Athenians a new 
constitution, which educated the people to a 
higher degree of culture than had been attained 
by auy nation before that time. The eminence 
which Greece occupies in the history of educa- 
tion, is chiefly due to the laws of Solon. (For 
an account of the educational legislation of 
Solon, see Athens.) 

SOUTH, University of the, at Sewanee, 
Tenn., is under the control of the Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church. It was chartered in 
1858, but was not opened until 1868, its organ- 
ization being interrupted by the civil war. It is 
situated on the Sewanee Plateau, a spur of tho 
Cumberland Mountains, 2,000 ft. above the sea, 
and 1 ,000 ft. above the surrounding country. The 
university domain comprises nearly 10,000 acres. 
The value of i ts grounds, buildings, and apparatus 
is $150,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
$50,000. The library contains 6,000 volumes. 
The university consists of 10 schools ; namely, 
civil engineering and physics, mathematics, mod- 
ern languages and literature, theoretical and ex- 
perimental chemistry, metaphysics and English 
literature, geology and mineralogy, ancient lan- 
guages, history and political science, commerce 
and trade, moral science and evidences of Chris- 
tianity and theology. There is also a grammar 
or preparatory school. The charge for tuition, 
board, etc., is $310 a year. In 1875, there were 
12 instructors and 243 students (92 preparatory). 
The vice-chancellor, who is the administrative 
head of the university, is (1876) Gen. J. (lorgas. 

SOUTH CAROLINA, one of the thirteen 
original states of the American Union, having 
an area of about 34,000 sq. m.: and a population, 
in 1870, of 705,606, of whom 289,067 were 
whites, and 415,814 colored persons. 

Educational History. — The first constitution 
of the state was silent on the subject of educa- 



788 



SOUTH CAROLINA 



tion, the custom at that time being to leave 
elementary education in the hands of parents. 
In 1811, the legislature created a free-school fund, 
the use of which was to be confined to the poor 
in case of its inadequacy for all. This proviso, 
imparting a sort of charity phase to the state 
effort to promote education, has always proved 
an obstacle in its way by alienating from it the 
support of the wealthier classes. An effort was 
made in 1843 to revive an interest in the sub- 
ject, but without permanent success. From the 
earliest times, the city of Charleston has been 
the recipient of benefactions for educational 
purposes, but these have been limited in amount, 
and their influence has not extended over the 
state. Good public schools, however, existed in 
that city previous to 1861. In 1868, a new consti- 
tution was adopted, which provided for a uni- 
form system of public schools, to be supported 
by an annual tax on property and polls, for the 
establishment of a state normal school, a state 
reform school, a state university, and educational 
institutions forthedeaf and dumb, and the blind. 
It also provided that all schools, coDeges, and 
universities, supported wholly or in part by 
public funds should be free to the children of 
the state, regardless of color ; but this provision, 
together with one compelling the attendance at 
school of all children in the state between the 
ages of 6 and 16, has been disregarded. Separate 
schools are now generally provided for colored 
children. No state superintendent of public 
intruction was chosen in South Carolina till 
1868, when J. K. Jillson was elected. He was 
re-elected in 1872 ; and was succeeded by John 
K. Tolbert, elected in 1876. 

School System. — The present school system of 
the state was established in 1870, the act which 
established it receiving some slight modifications 
the following year. The general supervision of 
the schools rests with the state superintendent. 
He is elected for four years, is required to secure 
uniformity in the text-books used in the schools, 
and to discharge all other duties usually pertain- 
ing to the office. The state board of education 
consists of the superintendent, and the several 
county school commissioners. It convenes an- 
nually in regular meetings at the capital, or in 
special meetings at such other times and places 
as the superintendent, who is its chairman, may 
direct. County school commissioners are elected 
biennially, one in each county. They direct the 
expenditure of the school funds, appoint teachers, 
and manage the schools, generally 'with entire 
independence of the state superintendent, whose 
powers are chiefly advisory. County school ex- 
aminers, two in number, are appointed by the 
county commissioner, the three constituting a 
board, of which the county commissioner is chair- 
man, for the examination of teachers, and the 
appointment of district trustees. In addition 
to these officers, the governor, the chairmen of 
the committees of education in the two houses 
of the legislature, and two others one appointed 
by each house, constitute a committee of five 
to choose a uniform series of text-books for the 



schools of the state. The school revenue is 
composed of the state school tax, the poll tax, 
and district taxes. The first is derived from a 
levy of two mills on every dollar of taxable 
property. District taxes are subject to the will 
of the people. Owing to the failure of the gen- 
eral assembly to pass specific laws, as intended 
by the constitution of 1868, various matters 
necessary to give definiteness to the school law 
and make it effective, are undetermined. The 
school age is from 6 to 16 years. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts in the state, in 1875, was 428; 
the number of free schools, 2,580. The only 
graded schools in the state are in the city of 
Charleston. The school revenue for the year 
1875 was as follows : 

From state school tax $240,000.00 

" district taxes 130,721.17 

" poll tax 63,443.42 

" other sources 55,378.16 



Total $489,542.75 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' salaries $369,685.21 

Building and repairing 
school-houses, etc 31,459.15 

Expense of enumeration of 
school children 7,245.13 

For all other purposes 18,073.50 



Total $426,462.99 

This statement of expenditures is only ap- 
proximately correct, as complete returns from 
some parts of the state had not been received by 
the superintendent. 

The chief items of school statistics, for the 
year 1875, are the following: 
Population of the state, of school age: 

Whites 85,566 

Colored. 153,698 

Total 239,264 

Number of children attending school: 

Whites 47,001 

Colored 63,415 



Total 110,416 

Teachers employed, males, white 1,090 

" " females " 786 

" " males, colored 683 

" " females, " 296 



Total 2,855 

Monthly average paid to teachers, males $31.64 

'.' " " females.... 29.21 

Average number of months of school session. . 4.5 

Normal Instruction. — The State Normal 
School at Columbia was opened in 1874. It 
provides a two years' course of study in two de- 
partments ; the first, a training class for fitting 
teachers for lower-grade positions ; the second, 
for fitting them for positions in the higher 
schools. The board of regents determines the 
number of students to be admitted annually, and 
these are apportioned among the counties of 
the state according to the number of represent- 
atives of each in the general assembly. The can- 
didates so apportioned, pass through a competi- 
tive examination, conducted by the county school 
commissioners and board of examiners, the com- 



SOUTH CAROLINA 



S. W. BAPTIST UNIVERSITY 789 



missioner recommending the candidates accord- 
ing to their standing in the examination, ex- 
cept in cases of special aptitude for teaching on 
the part of the applicant. They are then re-ex- 
amined by the president of the normal school, 
and if found qualified, are admitted upon a 
pledge of intention to teach in the public schools 
of the state. Certificates and diplomas are 
granted accordiug to the degree of proficiency 
attained. During the first year of the school, 
39 students were registered, 6 males and 33 fe- 
males. The report for 1875 stated that the 
school was in a flourishing condition. — Six 
teachers' institutes were held during the year 
1875 ; but the system has not yet been developed 
sufficiently to affect materially the educational 
interests of the state. 

Secondary Instruction. — The institutions for 
supplying this kind of instruction, are few in 
number. In 1875, only 7 academies and sem- 
inaries made reports to the U. S. Bureau of 
Education, — 1 for boys, 2 for girls, and 4 for 
both sexes. They employed 22 teachers, and 
had an attendance of 663 pupils. The number 
of pupils in the public schools pursuing higher 
studies, was 2,752. There are no high schools 
organized outside of Charleston. There is a 
preparatory school at Orangeburg, having, in 
1875, an attendance of 209 pupils. 

Denominational and Parochial Instruction. 
— The denominational schools in the state are 
not numerous, the instruction usually given in 
such institutions, being furnished, as demanded, 
by schools of other grades. 

Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
versities of the state are as follows : 




Clatlin University .... 
College of Charleston. 

Erskine Oollege 

Furman University.. 
Newberry College. . . . 
University of S. C. . . . 
"Wofford College 



Orangeburg 

Charleston 

Due West 

Greenville 

Walhalla 

Columbia 

Spartanburg 



1*70 M. Epis. 

17811 Non-sect. 

1839 jRf. Presb. 

1851 Baptist 

1858 Luth. 

1805 Non-sect. 

1853 M. Epis.S. 

De- 



Professional ami Scientific Instruction 
partments for furnishing this kind of instruction, 
are in operation in many of the colleges and 
universities of the state, but there are, in addi- 
tion, special institutions, as follows : The South- 
ern Baptist Theological Seminary, at Greenville, 
with 5 instructors and 66 students, in 1874 — 5 ; 
and the Theological Seminary of the General 
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, at Colum- 
bia, with 5 instructors and 57 students. 

Special Instruction. — The South Carolina In- 
stitution for the education of the deaf and 
dumb and the blind, located at Spartanburg, is 
a state institution. It has been closed, since 
October, 1873. 

SOUTH CAROLINA, University of, at 
Columbia, S. C, was chartered as South Caro- 
lina College in 1801, and was organized in 1805. 
It became a university in 1865. It is a state in- 
stitution, supported by legislative appropriations. 
Instruction is free to all, and there are no 



charges for rent of rooms or matriculation. The 
campus and grounds are in the center of the 
city. They cover four squares, including eighteen 
acres, and are adorned with shade trees. Within 
the enclosure are the library building, recitation 
rooms, dormitories, society halls, and residences 
of the professors. The university has a museum 
of mineralogy and geology, and a library of over 
26,000 volumes. It comprises an academic departs 
ment, preparatory school, law school, and medical 
school (suspended). In the academic department 
there are two quadrennial courses, the classical, 
leading to the degree of A. B., and the modern, 
leading to the degree of Ph. B. The preparatory 
school is designed for instruction in the higher 
English branches, as well as to fit boys for the 
college courses. Colored as well as white youth 
are admitted to all the courses. The legislature, 
in the session of 1873 — 4, established 124 bene- 
ficiary scholarships, open forgencral competition, 
each yielding $200 a year to the successful ap- 
plicant. They are apportioned to the counties ac- 
cording to the number of representatives to which 
each is entitled in the lower branch < it the general 
assembly. The scholarships are tenable for four 
years, or until graduation ; and the holder may 
pursue either of the quadrennial courses. In 
January, 1876, there were 12 instructors and 196 
students (11 law, 88 collegiate, 97 preparatory). 
Of the college students, 35 were pursuing the 
classical course, and 53 the modern course. The 
Rev. Anson W. Cummings, A. M.,D. D., is (1877) 
the chairman of the faculty. 

SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY, at Greens- 
boro', Ala., chai-tered in 1858, and organized in 
1859, is under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, South. It has productive funds to 
the amount of $51 ,000 ; the value of its grounds, 
buildings, and apparatus is $90,000. Before the 
war, its endowment was over $200,000. The li- 
brary contains upward of 2,000 volumes, and the 
laboratory is well supplied with apparatus, chem- 
ical and philosophical. It was originally organized 
on the plan of the University of Virginia, and, 
besides the ordinary collegiate schools, has schools 
of law, medicine, and Biblical literature. In 
1 876 — 7, there were 14 instructors and about 
100 students. The Rev. A. S. Andrews, I). B., 
was the chancellor until July, 1875, when he was 
succeeded by the Rev. Luther M. Smith, 1). D., 
the present incumbent (1877). 

SOUTHWESTERN BAPTIST UNI- 
VERSITY, at Jackson, Term., was founded in 
! 1874, by the Baptists of the south-western 
j States. It is supported by tuition fees ran- 
' ging from $1 2J to $30 per term of 20 weeks, 
and by the income of an endowment of $60,000. 
The value of its real estate is $50,000. The 
academic department consists of a primary school 
and a grammar (or preparatory) school. The 
university comprises two departments : (1) liter- 
ature and science ; (2) law. The department of 
literature and science comprehends the seven 
schools, as follows: (1) Latin; (2) Greek; 
(3) mathematics; (4) natural science; (5) moral 
I science ; (6) English; (7) German and French. 



790 S. W. PEESB. UNIVERSITY 



SPAIN 



Two auxiliary preparatory schools are to be es- 
tablished : one for East Tenuessee, at Mossy 
Creek, and one for Middle Tennessee, in Mur- 
freesboro, which will be component parts of the 
university. In 1875 — 6, there were 4 instructors 
and 191 students (52 collegiate, 44 grammar, 95 
primary). The presidents have been : Geo. W. 
Jarman, A. M., 1874—5 ; Wm. Shelton, D. D., 
1875 — 6 ; and Geo. W. Jarman, A. M., again, 
since 1876. 

SOUTHWESTERN PRESBYTERIAN 
UNIVERSITY, at Clarksville, Tenn., char- 
tered in 1875, was established by the Presbyterian 
synods of the South-west. It succeeded to the 
property and funds of Stewart CoDege, which was 
continued on the existing plan, until the formal 
organization of the university proper. The uni- 
versity now has an endowment fund of $100,000, 
24 acres of laud, with commodious college build- 
ings, and a considerable building fund, besides 
large and costly cabinets of minerals, fossils, and 
shells, and a valuable scientific library, presented 
by Prof. Wm. M. Stewart, after whom Stewart 
College was named. The college received its name 
in 1855, when the buildings, grounds, etc., of the 
Masonic University of Tenn. (founded in 1850 
by the Masonic Fraternity of the state) were 
purchased in behalf of the Synod of Nashville. 
It was suspended during the civil war, and re- 
opened some time after its close. It has a sub- 
collegiate and a collegiate department, and con- 
fers the usual degrees. A Biblical course is pre- 
scribed through the four college classes. The 
cost of tuition ranges from $40 to .$70 per an- 
num. Free tuition is provided for all candidates 
for the ministry, and for all sons of Presbyterian 
ministers. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 professors 
and 131 students. The Rev. J. B. Shearer, D.D., 
is (1876) the president. 

SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
Georgetown, Williamson Co., Texas, under the 
control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
South, was opened as Texas University in 1874, 
and chartered under its present title in 1875. In 
it were merged Rutersville College, at Ruters- 
ville, chartered in 1840 ; Wesleyan College, at 
San Augustine, 1844; Soule University, at Chap- 
pel Hill, 1856; and McKenzie College, at Clarks- 
ville, 1860; all controlled by the same church. It 
is supported chiefly by tuition fees, but has an 
endowment of 12,000 acres of land. The tuition 
fee is $30 for one term of five months, or $50 
for one session of ten months. The university 
comprises 12 schools ; namely, mental and moral 
philosophy, Latin, Greek, pure mathematics, ap- 
plied mathematics, German, Spanish, English 
language and literature, history and political 
economy, chemistry and geology, a commercial 
school, and a preparatory school. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 6 instructors and 78 students. The 
Rev. P. A. Mood, D. D., formerly president of 
Soule University, is now (1876) regent of this 
university. 

SPAIN, a country of Europe, having an 
area of 195,774 sq. m., and a population, in 1870, 
of 16,835,500. With the exception of the Basques, 



in four of the northern provinces, almost all 
the inhabitants are Spaniards, and speak the 
Spanish language. Until quite recently, the 
only form of religion allowed by law was the 
Roman Catholic. 

History of Education. — Education, in Spain, 
may be said to have begun with the establish- 
ment of the Roman power, in the 2d century 
before Christ. The progress made by the natives 
was so great that Strabo found no difference be- 
tween a Roman and an Iberian youth. The 
schools of Cordova, especially, were, during the 
first centuries of the Christian era, in a flourish- 
ing condition, and educated some of the best 
representatives of the later Roman literature. 
It is noteworthy that the two Romans, who, un- 
der the reign of the emperors, achieved the 
highest reputation as writers on education — 
Seneca and Quintilian, were both natives of 
Spain. The invasion of the German tribes, for 
a time, checked the progress of education ; but 
the scholarship of the Spanish monasteries was 
soon worthy to be compared with that of other 
Christian countries. Some of the Gothic kings, 
too, began to show an uiterest in education, 
which was well calculated to raise great hopes 
for the future. The conquest of Spain by the 
Arabs raised the country to the foremost rank 
among the nations of the earth in regard to edu- 
cation. The religkras toleration of the Moham- 
medan rulers allowed Christian and Jewish 
scholars to teach in the schools side by side 
with Mohammedans, and produced a literary 
emulation which was followed by the most 
beneficial results. Dozy, in his History of the 
Mohammedans in Spain, shows that primary 
schools were numerous and well conducted, 
and that, while in the Christian countries only 
the priests possessed a moderate knowledge, 'in 
Andalusia the bulk of the people were able to 
read and write. Aristotle became better known 
to Christian Europe from translations made by 
Mohammedan Arabs ; and Cordova and other 
seats of Mohammedan learning attracted the 
most gifted students from all parts of Europe. 
One of the most learned of the Popes of the 
middle ages, Sylvester II., was chiefly indebted 
for his scholarship to Mohammedan teachers. 
When the power of Mohammedanism declined, 
and the Christian kings began to recover the 
lost ground, Spain found a distinguished patron 
of education in king Alfonso X., surnamed the 
Wise (1252 — 84), who, in his remarkable code 
of laws, entitled Las Stete Partidas, devoted 
one chapter to Estadios Generates. Salamanca 
became the most famous university of Christian 
Europe, having, at one time, over 10,000 students. 
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the cause of 
education visibly declined. In the second half of 
the 18th century, Charles III. re-organized the 
universities of Salamanca, Alcala de Henares, and 
Granada, and established elementary and higher 
schools in all the market towns and villages. 
Under Charles IV. (1788—1808), the Pestaloz- 
zian system was introduced ; but it did not lead 
to any lasting improvement. The new consti- 






SPAIN 



791 



tution of 1812 favored the development of edu- 
cation, but no real progress ci >uld be made dur- 
ing the illiberal reign of Ferdinand VII. Sev- 
eral attempts to re-organize the educational sys- 
tem were made during the regency of Chris- 
tina, the reigns of Isabella and Aniadeo, and the. 
short republican administration ; but, in conse- 
quence of the ensuing civil ware, no reform of 
importance has as yet been carried into effect. 

Primary Instruction. — Primary instruction 
is compulsory, and, since 1869, free to all. By 
the law of 18.iT, it was divided into an element- 
ary and a higher grade. The course of studies 
of the elementary schools comprised religion, 
Scriptural history, reading, writing, the elements 
of Spanish grammar, and the rudiments of 
arithmetic, in the higher primary schools, the 
same subjects were taught and, in addition, the 
elements of geometry, of linear drawing and 
surveying, history and geography (particularly 
of Spain), natural philosophy, chemistry, and 
natural history. The law of 1868 abolished the 
abi >ve distinction.and divided the schools into four 
classes: (1) Escuelas de enlrada, for communities 
of from 500 to 1,000 inhabitants ; (2) Escuelas 
de primero ascenso, for communities of from 
2,000 to 10,000 inhabitants ; (3) Escuelas de se- 
fwado ascenso, for cities of from 10,000 to 20,000 
inhabitants ; and (4) Escuelas de termino, for 
the chief towns of provinces and cities of more 
than 20,000 inhabitants. The course of studies 
generally agreed with that of the law of 1857, 
but required for the girls' schools practical in- 
struction in needle work, and recommended the 
introduction of music wherever possible. The 
law of 1857 declared all those schools public 
schools, which were sustained wholly or in part 
by the state, by charitable institutions, or by 
funds specially appropriated for this purpose. 
The law of 1808 added to these all schools 
sustained by religious corporations, but the re- 
publican government deprived the religious 
corporations of all privileges formerly possessed 
by them. An elementary school for boys is re- 
quired to be established in every village of 500 
inhabitants, and also one for girls, though nei- 
ther need comprise, in the course of studies, all 
the subjects enumerated above. Similar schools 
for boys only, are admissible in communities 
with less than 500 inhabitants. Every town 
of 2,000 inhabitants must have two complete 
schools for boys and two for girls ; and, for every 
additional 2,000 inhabitants, there must bean 
additional school for boys, and one for girls. 
Private schools are accepted, but one-third of 
the schools of a town must be public. In the 
chief towns of provinces, and in cities of more 
Hum 10,000 inhabitants, one of the public 
schools must be of a higher grade. Schools for 
children from two to seven years of age must be 
kept in cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants. 
At the same places, are evening schools and 
Sunday-schools for adults. By the law of 1868, 
only the normal school at Madrid was retained ; 
while, in the provinces, it was deemed sufficient 
to permit the candidates for the office of teacher 



to attend the model schools in the chief towns. 
The normal schools, however, were re-opened by 
the revolutionary government. Every capital 
of a province is required to have a normal school, 
with a model school attached, which is generally 
the higher school of the town. The school in 
Madrid is called the Central Normal School. In 
order to become a teacher, a candidate must be 
20 years of age, possess a good moral character, 
and must have passed the prescribed examina- 
tion. Teachers can be removed only by the 
government upon the recommendation of the 
supreme council of study. The salaries of the 
teachers are very small ; but, owing to the com- 
plete exhaustion of the Spanish treasury, even 
these are not regularly paid. The schools of the 
kingdom are under the supervision of a supreme 
council of study, consisting of 24 members who 
are appointed by the king. This council is divided 
into three sections : one for primary, special, and 
art schools, one for secondary schools, and one for 
superior schools. Every province has a provincial 
junta for the schools of that province; and every 
town has its local junta, consisting of the princi- 
pal officers of the province or town, a priest, and 
at least two heads of families. At least one in- 
spector is appointed for every province, by the 
king ; and sometimes two are appointed ; Mad- 
rid is entitled to three. The inspectors visit 
all the schools in their district, with the excep- 
tion of the primary normal schools, which are 
left to three general inspectors. In 1872, there 
were 22,(125 public schools, of which 1(1,294 were 
for males (infants, boys, and adults), and 6,331 
for females. The number of private schools was 
5,135, of which 2,901 were for males, and 2,234 
for females; making a total of 27.700 primary 
schools. The number of male pupils in the 
public schools was 745,086 ; and of female pu- 
pils, 441,773 ; making tht total number of pupils 
in the public schools 1,187,459. The private 
schools had 9G.753 male and 97,760 female pu- 
pils, or 194,513 pupils of both sexes. The total 
number of pupils in the primary schools was 
1,381,972. The number of normal schools was 31. 
Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
tion is imparted in institutes, which are divided 
into three classes according to the population 
of their localities, that in Madrid being of toe 
first class ; those in the provincial capitals and 
at the seats of universities, of the second ; and all 
the rest, of the third. Every province has one 
provincial institute ; and Madrid, two ; while 
local institutions are opened wherever they arc 
needed. Golegios, or boarding-houses, have Keen 
i ablished in connection with most of the in- 
stitutes; while private colegios may be opened 
by any Spaniard of good repute and over 25 
years of age, who holds the degree of licentiate 
from a university. The law of ' 1 B57 prescribed 
that all teachers in secondary schools should be 
24 years of age, and should hold the degree of 
Bachelor of Arts. This provision was abol- 
ished by the revolutionary government, which 
required a competitive examination. The in- 
stitutes are under the control of the rectors of 



792 



SPANISH LANGUAGE 



the university districts, to whom the directors 
of the institutes must furnish a monthly finan. 
cial report. If no university is near, the report 
is made to the minister. The course of instruc- 
tion in the institutes is divided into general and 
applied studies. The former comprise religion 
and Scriptural history, reading, writing, uni- 
versal and Spanish history, modern languages, 
Spanish and Latin grammar and composition, 
the rudiments of Greek, logic, psychology, and 
drawing. The course of general studies com- 
prises two periods, of two and four years re- 
spectively, and prepares the student for the de- 
gree of Bachelor of Arts. The applied studies 
prepare the student to be an expert in mercan- 
tile affairs, mechanics, chemistry, or survey- 
ing, and cover a term of three years. They 
comprise linear and object drawing, mercantile 
arithmetic, and all such branches as can be applied 
in agriculture, in the arts, in trades, and in com- 
merce and navigation. The number of insti- 
tutes, in 1872, was 63, with about 30,000 pupils. 

Superior Instruction. — Superior instruction 
is imparted in the universities. There are five 
faculties ; namely, philosophy and literature ; 
mathematical, physical, and natural sciences ; 
pharmacy ; medicine ; and laws. These faculties, 
however, are not all represented in each uni- 
versity. Three degrees are conferred, — the 
baccalaureate, the licentiate, and the doctorate. 
The universities, in 1873, were as follows: 
Barcelona, with 55 professors and 2,440 students; 
Granada, with 47 professors and 1,404 students; 
Madrid, with 76 professors and 6,490 students ; 
Oviedo, with 15 professors and 223 students ; 
Salamanca, with 41 professors and 419 students; 
Santiago, with 28 professors; Seville, with 35 
professors ; Valencia, with 37 professors and 
1,693 students; and Valladolid, with 31 profess- 
ors and 1,050 students. 

Special Instruction. — Special instruction is 
imparted in schools of agriculture, of architect- 
ure, of fine arts, of commerce, of engineering, 
and of mining. There is also a conservatory of 
music, at Madrid ; a school of forestry, at Villa- 
viciosa de Odon, and four schools of veterinary 
surgery, — at Madrid, Cordova, Leon, and Sara- 
gossa. The total number of students receiving 
special instruction, in 1872, was 1,372. See 
Schmid, PiLdagogisdie Encyclopddie ; Report 
of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1873. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE. The Spanish 
language has but little claim to a place in the 
regular course of instruction, in schools and col- 
leges, in comparison with the French and 
German languages. As Spanish, however, is 
not only the language of one of the nations of 
Europe, but is spoken in all the countries of 
South America, except Brazil ; and also in 
Central America, Mexico, and even in some 
parts of the United States, and is thus the 
vernacular language of at least 60 millions 
of people, practical considerations commend 
its study to thousands of persons, students 
aud others, in preference to either German or 
French. Independently of this consideration, 



the Spanish language, as a school accomplish- 
ment, is not without attractions. It ranks, in- 
deed, among the most euphonious of modern 
languages, being even preferred, by some linguists, 
to the Italian ; and its literature contains many 
works of enduring interest and value. Among 
historians, Mariana, and among poets, Lope de 
Vega and Calderon, deservedly hold a very high 
rank ; while Cervantes, the immortal author of 
Bon Quixote, has scarcely been surpassed for 
humorous description and lively satire. The 
Spanish language, like the French and the Italian, 
is one of the so-called Romanic languages (q. v.); 
but there are some words in it which may be 
traced either to the ancient Iberians, the ruling 
race before the invasion of the Romans, and an 
offshoot of whose language is supposed to sur- 
vive in the Basque, or to the Celts who overran 
Spain as well as other parts of western Europe. 
The remarks made in the articles of this work on 
the derivation of the French and Italian from 
the Latin apply in a large measure also to the 
Spanish. When the Visigoths had established 
their rule in the country, they gradually adopted 
the vulgar Latin, which had already become the 
language of the bulk of the population. They 
retained, however, and introduced into the com- 
mon language, a number of terms designating 
their political institutions and war customs. 
The use of the definite article, also, and the 
employment of auxiliary verbs in the formation of 
the past tenses of the active voice, and in all the 
tenses of the passive, passed from the language 
of the Teutonic conquerors into the new language 
of Spain, as likewise into those of France and 
Italy. The Arabs, with whom the Spanish 
Christians, for nearly 800 years, had to wrestle 
for the control of the country, introduced 
into the language a number of words relating to 
industry, science, and commerce ; and some of 
these words, especially those beginning with the 
Arabic article <d (as almanac, alcohol, etc.). have 
passed, through Spanish, into the modern lan- 
guages of Europe in general. AVhile the Spanish 
language presents a considerably larger number 
of non-Latin elements than either French or 
Italian, it deviates but little from these two sister 
languages in its structure and grammar. In the 
pronunciation of the vowels, it entirely agrees 
with the Italian. The two double consonants //and 
n are peculiar to the Spanish ; and of the English 
consonant sounds, z (as in zone) is entirely want- 
ing. Though substantives have only two genders, 
masculine and feminine, the article has three,. 
el, la, and lo ; the last, which is the neuter form, 
being used to change adjectives into substantives 
(lo bueno, that which is good). The Spanish is 
richer than either French or Italian in augment- 
atives and diminutives ; and the reflexive form 
of the verb is used more extensively, perhaps, 
than in any other language of Europe. The sub- 
junctive has two more tenses than the Italian 
or French (amare, future ; amara, second condi- 
tional). In words derived from Latin, the e and 
o of the accented penultima have frequently been 
developed into ie and ue, a change which, in 



SPARTA 



SPENCER 



793 



this class of words, gives to the Spanish an un- I 
doubted superiority in euphony (Spanish liempo, 
fuerte; French temps,fort; Ital. tempo, forte). — i 
The proper method of teaching Spanish does not j 
differ from that of teaching the French language 
(q. v.) A few lessons in comparative etymology 
will greatly facilitate the study of this as of every ' 
language. If, for instance, the pupil learns that 
such combinations as cl, fl, pi etc. in English 
words of Latin origin are often changed into 11 
[llamar, clamor; llama, flame; llano, plain), a 
'large number of words will, at once, be familiar 
to him. — The first grammar, as well as the first 
dictionary, of the Spanish language, was pub- 
lished in 1492 by Antonio de Lebrija. The gram- 
mar and dictionary of the Spanish Academy 
(first published in 1771) at once became, and 
have since remained, standard authorities. The 
dictionary of the Academy has received many 
valuable additions and corrections from Salva, 
who has also written the best Spanish grammar 
for natives. Etymological dictionaries have been 
published by Covarrabias (1(574) and Cabrera 
(1837). 

SPARTA, one of the principal states of 
ancient Greece, dates its important history from 
the regency of Lycurgus (q. v.), who devised a 
peculiar system of education, designed to foster, 
as the highest virtue, a contempt of life and of 
worldly goods, and, as worthy of the highest 
honor, the habit of prompt obedience to all the 
demands of the state. The central idea of his 
system was, that the interests of the state are 
paramount to every consideration of individual 
rights or feelings. Hence, according to it, the 
child was the property of the state, and its 
officers alone had the right to decide its destiny. 
even from its birth, infants physically incapable 
of the prescribed training not being permitted 
to live. In the early period of its life, the in- 
fant was allowed to remain with its mother, who 
was required to adopt every possible means to 
invigorate its body. With the 7th year of age, 
the state education began. The boys were com- 
mitted to a public educational establishment (a 
sort of military school); and, by living thus 
apart from their friends, were made to realize 
early their membership in the state organism, 
with common interests and aspirations. The 
general direction was entrusted to a superin- 
tendent (waiSoKoinx), who was selected from 
among those who had been previously invested 
with the highest political dignities. Under him, 
were officers whose duty it was to guide the ex- 
ercises of the boys. The Spartan system aspired 
to establish a perfect harmony between the will 
of the individual and the interests and demands 
of the state, as expressed by the laws. It pro- 
vided a gradual transition from obedience to the 
exercise of authority, on the principle that those 
only know how to command who have learned 
to obey. Thus, the elder boys were permitted 
to participate in the training of the younger ; 
and the latter were obliged to wait upon the 
former at table. As the purpose of the Spartans 
was to rear warlike citizens, physical training 



constituted the chief part of a youth's education. 
Every possible means was resorted to in order 
to cultivate fortitude, and the habit of enduring 
hardship and pain. The youths' diet was not 
only plain but scanty. They were permitted to 
steal the provisions necessary to satisfy their 
hunger, but if caught, were severely punished ; 
as the intention was to develop cunning, agility, 
and dexterity — qualities requisite in war. The 
boys wore neither head nor foot covering, up 
to the age of manhood. At the 12th year, every 
kind of under-garment was laid aside, a long 
cloak (xnCn>) being the only article of clothing 
worn, and that at all seasons. Their bed was 
hard, being prepared of the rushes that grew on 
the banks of the Eurotas. Corporal punishment 
was not only used as a means of discipline, but 
was deemed to be indispensably requisite for the 
formation of a manly disposition. The intel- 
lectual cultivation of the Spartans was very 
slight ; but, on account of their political life, 
they were obliged to possess some learning. 
They, therefore, acquired by oral instruction a 
rudimentary knowledge of arithmetic and some 
other branches. They also learned to dance, 
sing, and play on some musical instrument, 
especially the flute and lyre {ni-Oapa), and com- 
mitted to memory the laws of lycurgus. Girls 
studied the same subjects as boys, and also 
practiced gymnastic exercises to promote health 
and beauty. (See Greece.) 

SPENCER, Herbert, an English philos- 
opher and author, born in Derby, April 27., 
1820. At the age of seventeen, he. became a 
civil engineer ; but, at the end of eight years, 
during which he was a contributor to the Civil 
Engineers' and Architects' Journal, he relin- 
quished his profession, and engaged in study. In 
1842, he began the publication, in the Non-Con- 
formist, of a series of papers, entitled, The 
Proper Sphere of Government. From 1848 to 
1 852, he was a regular contributor to the Econ- 
omist, and furnished reviews and criticisms on 
various subjects to other periodicals. In 1854, 
the theory of evolution, a belief in which, as the 
cause of the present diversity in the animal 
kingdom, had gradually become strengthened in 
his mind, suggested itself to him as a universal 
process ; and subsequent study has only served 
to confirm the truth of the suggestion. This 
view of evolution, as the method of nature in 
every department, is reflected in the only dis- 
tinctively educational work he has published— a 
small volume, entitled, Education : Intellectual, 
Moral, ami Physical (London and New York, 
I860). This work, based upon the latest dis- 
coveries and conclusions of science, confirms the 
most important results of Montaigne, Locke, 
Rousseau, Isaac Taylor, and others — results 
reached only by an acute observation of mental 
phenomena, but without a perception of the reason 
or order of their development. It goes beyond 
them, however, in its attempt to lay down a 

nplete scheme of education in accordance 

with the doctrine of evolution. The dominant 
idea of the method of Pestalozzi, discovered by 



794 



STATE AND SCHOOL 



STEPHENS 



him empirically through his strong sympathy 
for children, is in this work shown to be the 
true one ; while his errors in the application of 
the method — errors which he himself acknowl- 
edged — are explained. Two of the distinctive 
features of the system proposed by Mr. Spencer 
are, that the concrete should precede the ab- 
stract in all early instruction, and the corollary 
which follows from this ; namely, the superior 
uses of science as an educator ; and the use of 
pleasure or interest as a test of the efficacy of 
the instruction. The gradual abandonment of 
corporal punishment, the disuse of rote-teaching, 
and the substitution of the direct appeal to nat- 
ure, the increased attention given to physical ed- 
ucation, and the general acceptance of the idea 
of mental growth by inherent power, in place of 
the artificial expansion produced by purely ex- 
terior forces, seem to indicate a practical accept- 
ance of the doctrines of Mr. Spencer, whatever 
theoretical objections may be made to them. 

STATE AND SCHOOL. In all civilized 
countries, the control of public schools is looked 
upon as one of the most important and difficult 
branches of public administration. Many states 
have a special ministry of public instruction ; 
while others have established a bureau of edu- 
cation, connected with one of the ministries. (See 
Ministry op Public Instruction.) As has been 
shown, in the articles on the history of education 
and on the several countries of the world, ancient 
and modern, the relation of state authorities to 
school affairs has widely differed in different 
times and countries. Even at the present time, 
there is not only a vast diversity in the school 
laws of different countries, but fundamental 
questions in regard to the powers of state author- 
ities, in educational affairs, are still warmly dis- 
cussed. Generally, however, it is conceded that 
the state has the right to require that every 
child in the country should receive a certain de- 
gree of elementary education. (See Compulsory 
EnucATioN, and Public Schools.) But one of the 
greatest educational controversies of the present 
time is, whether the state authority has the sole 
right to arrange a course of studies, without re- 
gard to the different religious views existing in 
a community. (See Denominational Schools.) 
Another controverted question is the right of 
the state to support by the public money any 
schools higher than those of an elementary grade. 
(See High Schools.) 

STEPHANI, Heinrich, a German educator 
and Protestant clergyman, born at Gemtind, in 
Bavaria, April 1., 1761; died at Gorkau, in Sile- 
sia. Dec. 24., 1850. After having been for a few 
years at the head of the schools in the little state 
■of Castell, he was, in 1808, after the incorporation 
of Castell with Bavaria, appointed school coun- 
cilor at Augsburg. Subsequently he held the same 
position at Eichstadt and Anspach; and, in 1818, 
he became dean at Gunzenhausen. From the 
latter position, he was removed in 1834. on ac- 
count of his rationalistic views. His Fibel (1802), 
and several works on an improved method of 
teaching to read, contributed more than any 



other work to the progress of the phonic method 
(Lnutirmethode) of reading German. He pub- 
lished several works on national education 
( Grundlinien der Staatserzieliungswissenschaft 
(1797); and System der d'ffenilichen Erziehung 
(1805) , in which he took the ground that the school 
should be separated from the church, and placed 
under the exclusive control of the state author- 
ities, but that parents should have liberty to send 
their children to either state or private schools. 

STEPHENS, Henry (Lat. Stephanus, Fr. 
Esiienne or Etienne), was born in Paris in 1528, 
and died in Lyons in 1598. He was the grand- 
son of Henry Stephens, who was the founder of 
a remarkable family of scholars and printers, 
which, for three generations, maintained its 
peculiar eminence. He was distinguished by 
the scholarly ability, but was wanting in the 
worldly prudence, which characterized his an- 
cestors. He continued the business of his 
father in Paris and Geneva successively, publish- 
ing, among other works, those of ./Eschylus, 
Herodotus, Horace, Plato, Virgil, Pliny, and 
Plutarch. In 1572, he issued his Tliesaurus 
Linguce Greece, an abridgment of which was 
made by Scapula. The costliness of this work, 
by confining its sale to the wealthy, involved 
him in pecuniary difficulties, which ended only 
with his life. His remarkable ability as a clas- 
sical scholar secured him the approval of the 
learned, and would alone entitle him to an en- 
during reputation. See Leon Feugere, Essai 
sur la Vie et les Outrages de H. Esiienne, 
(Paris, 1853) ; A. A. Renouakd, Annates de 
I ' hnprimerie des Esiienne (Paris, 1837 — 43). 

STEPHENS, Robert, the father of the 
preceding, born in Paris in 1503; died, in 1559, 
in Geneva, to which city he had removed on 
account of persecution for his advocacy of the 
doctrines of the Reformation. The occasion for 
his persecution was found by his enemies in his 
edition of the Bible and of the Greek Testament, 
the former published in 1545, the latter, in 1549. 
He was considered one of the most excellent 
scholars of his time. As early as his 20th year, 
he published an edition of the New Testament 
in Latin, with corrections by himself, and, in 
1532, began the publication of the most famous 
of all his works, his Dictionarium seu Tliesaurus 
Linguce Latino?, a work which maintained an 
acknowledged superiority for more than two 
hundred years, new editions appearing, in London 
and Paris, as late as ' the present century. In 
1543, he compiled the first Latin-Freuch dic- 
tionary, a work which was received with great 
favor. He was at once author, printer, and 
publisher ; and from his press were issued many 
editions of the Bible and of the Greek and Latin 
classics, all of which were marked by accuracy of 
scholarship and an artistic excellence which sur- 
passed any thing that had been published, up to 
that time, in France. The division of the New 
Testament into verses, the method now generally 
employed, was first introduced by him. See A. 
F. Didot, in the Nouvelle Biographie Generate; 
and London Quarterly Review for April, 1865. 



STEWART COLLEGE 



STURM 



795 



STEWART COLLEGE, Olarksville, Tenn. 
See Southern Presbyterian University. 

STONE, William Leete, an American 
author, born at New Paltz, N. Y., April 20., 
1792; died at Saratoga Springs, Aug. 15., 1844. 
He began life as a printer, but at 1 8 became an 
■editor — editing successively various journals, but, 
from 1821 until his death, the N. )'. ' 'ommercial 
Advertiser. For some years, he was one of the 
achool commissioners of New York City; and, 
during the years 1843 — 1, was the superin- 
tendent of the common schools. He will long be 
remembered on account of his famous discussion 
with Archbishop Hughes in relation to the use 
of the Bible in the public schools, his last letter 
to whom — occupying three columns of tine type 
in the Commercial Advertiser — was dictated on 
his death-bed but one week previous to his de- 
cease. Although Col. Stone's influence was 
widely extended throughout the country, it 
was felt more particularly in New York < lity. 
For many yeais, he was identified with all her 
interests ; and she has reason ever to hold his 
name in kindly remembrance. The religious 
enterprises and benevolent associations of the 
day commanded his earnest efforts in their be- 
half ; and, at home, the Institution fur the I leaf 
anil Dumb, and the Society for the Reformation 
of Juvenile Delinquents, found in him a steadfast 
supporter. "Col. Stone," writes Harvey I'. Peet, 
the president of the Xew York Deaf and Dumb 
Asylum, "entered with characteristic energy into 
the effort to build up a superior institution for 
the Deaf and Dumb in Xew York ; and J ascribe 
much of the success which crowned my laboi-s 
to his ready sympathy and encouragement and 
his intelligent and zealous co-operation." Indeed, 
it may be truly said that to the cause of edu- 
cation he gave his whole energies and spared 
not his decaying strength. "As Superintend- 
ent of Common Schools," said Mr. Clark in 
announcing the fact of his decease to the Board 
of Education, at a special meeting called for the 
purpose, " his loss is irreparable, and from any 
knowledge I possess of the qualifications of 
others, 1 fear it will be long before his place 
will be fully supplied. His qualifications for that 
office were pre-eminent." His published works 
are quite numerous, but mostly oil subjects per- 
taining to American history. Of these, perhaps 
the most admired are Life of Joseph Brant; 
Tha-yi'it-da-ne-c/ea (1838), new edition edited 
by \V\ L. Stone, Jr. (Albany, 1865); Border 
Wars of the American Revolution (1837); Life 
■of Bed-Jack'-/ — SoHjo-y&wat-ha (1835), new edi- 
tion with life of the author by his son, \V. L. 
Stone (Albany, 1866). 

STOWE, Calvin E., an American clergy- 
man, born at Xatick. Mass.. April 6., 1802. lie 
graduated at Bowdoin College, in 1824. and at 
Andover Theological Seminary, in 1828; and. in 
the latter, he was immediately made assistant 
professor. From 1830 — 33, he was professor of 
Latin and Greek in Dartmouth College; and in 
1833, of languages and Biblical literature in the 
Lane Theological Seminary. He visited Europe in 



1 836, to examine, for the State of Ohio, the pub- 
lic-school system of the German Stales, and pub- 
lished Elementary Public Instruction in Europe 
(1838), which was extensively circulated in Ohio 
by direction of the legislature, lie published 
reports, also, on the Education of Immigrants, 
and the Course of Instruction in the Primary 
(SI hools of Prussia, hi 1850-, he was made pro- 
fessor of natural and revealed religion in Bow- 
doin College, Me., and, in 1852, professor of 
Biblical literature at Andover Theological Semi- 
nary. This position he resigned in 1804. He 
has published, also, a History of the Hebrew 
Commonwealth, a translation from the Cerman 
of Johann Jahn (1828), Lectures on the Sacred 
Poetry of the Hebrews (1829), Introduction 
to the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible 
(1835), Griffin and History of the Boohs of 
the Bible (Part I., New Testament, 18C7). — 
See Barxard, American Teachers and Educa- 
tors (Xew Y'ork, 1801). 

STRAIGHT UNIVERSITY, in New 
Orleans, La., founded in 1809, is under Congre- 
gational control. It was especially designed for 
colored youth, but none are excluded on account 
of race or sex. It has an endowment of $10,000. 
but is mainly supported by the American Mis- 
sionary Association. The library contains nearly 
2,500 volumes. It has now in operation a theo- 
logical, a law, a normal, a classical, a preparatory, 
and an English course, and elementary depart- 
ments. In INT.") — 0, there were 10 instructors 
and 246 students. The presidents have been: the 
Bev. Joseph W. Healy, 18G9— 71 ; the Rev. 
Samuel S. Ashley, 1871 — 4; and James A. 
Adams, A. M., since 1875. 

STTJRM, Johann, one of the foremost edu- 
cators of the 16th centuiy, born at Schleiden 
(now in Prussia), in 1507 ; died in 1589. After 
teaching several years at Louvain and Paris, he 
was, in 1538, appointed rector in the newly- 
established gymnasium of Strasbourg, where his 
success was so great, that the city was called 
the New Athens; and pupils were sent there 
from many parts of Europe, among them the 
sous of noblemen and princes. In 1578, the in- 
stitution contained more than a thousand pu- 
pils. In 1566, the emperor Maximilian II. con- 
fined upon it the dignity and privileges of an 
academy, and Sturm was appointed rector per- 
petuus,^ which position he continued till 1581. 
I lis title to fame rests upon his conception of an 
educational system, the record of his work in the 
gymnasium at Strasbourg, and the impulse 
which he gave to the establishment of classical 
schools. His educational system is clearly set 
Forth in his treatise on the best mode of opening 
institutions of learning (I)c titerarum ludis recte 
aperiendis), written in L539, and published in 
his Epistoloe dassiap. (Strasb., 1505). Sturm 
was generally regarded as the greatest educator 
connected with the Reformed Church, in the 
times of the Reformation; and. like Melanch- 
thon, he received the title Praeceptor Germaniw. 
— See Barnard, German Teachers and Educa- 
tors (N. Y., 1863) ; Schmidt, La vie et les tra- 



796 



SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 



vaux de Jean Sturm (Strasb., 1855) ; Loos, Die 
Pddagogik des Johannes Sturm (Berlin, 1872); 
Koeckelhahn, Strassburg's erster Schulrector 
(Leips., 1872). 

SUNDAY-SCHOOLS, although of com- 
paratively recent origin, and even yet in a condi- 
tion of partial development, are already entitled 
to be ranked among the most important educa- 
tional agencies of modern times, no less than 
among the voluntary activities of the Christian 
Church. In the latter character, they have been 
extensively established throughout Great Brit- 
ain and the United States, and every- where, even 
beyond their primary object of moral and religious 
influence, their incidental results have entitled 
them to a high appreciation. They have given rise 
to new and important improvements in church 
architecture, and they have called into existence 
an extensive literature contemplating their special 
wants and use, while they have enlisted teachers 
by hundreds of thousands, and scholars by mil- 
lions. In the United States, more particularly, 
they have claimed, and in fact assumed, a rela- 
tion to public (week-day) schools corresponding 
to that which the sabbath holds to the secular 
days of the week. In this relation, they seek to 
supplement public and general education with 
the moral and religious influences of Christianity. 
For this object, they secure the attendance of 
scholars from the higher as well as the lower 
classes of the community, and enlist for their in- 
struction a quality of talent and an amount of 
effort which money could never hire. The sub- 
ject of Sunday-schools will be here considered 
under the three following heads: (1) Their origin 
and early history; (2) Their leading agencies; 
(3) Their past progress and present position. 

Origin and Early History. — Since Sunday- 
schools became popular, various efforts have 
been made to fix their origin further back than 
the period to which it is usually assigned. The 
most that such efforts have been able to accom- 
plish has been to point out a few sporadic be- 
ginnings somewhat analogous to that of Robert 
Baikes ; but, in no other instance than his, can 
an actual historic connection be traced down- 
ward to the existing system of Sunday-schools. 
The effort of Baikes began in Gloucester, England, 
in the year 1781. It was purely philanthropic in 
its design, and only contemplated local results. 
Gloucester was a focus of pin manufacturing, at 
which children were gathered together in great 
numbers in order to be employed in the light 
work of the factories. As most of them were 
wholly uneducated, and many without parental 
restraint or supervision, they naturally fell into 
disorder and vice, especially on the Lord's day, 
when they were not employed in work. The 
attention of Mr. Raikes, a worthy printer of that 
town, was arrested by a condition of things so 
distressing to a person of Christian sensibilities. 
His own account of the origin of his efforts to 
establish Sunday instruction for those neglected 
children has a permanent interest. It was 
furnished in a letter to Col. Townley, and pub- 
lished in the Gentleman's Magazine, of London. 



Gloucester, June 5th, 1784, 

"The utility of an establishment of this sort was first 

suggested by a group of little miserable wretches, whom 

I observed one day in the street, where many people 

employed in the pin manufactory reside. 

"I was expressing my concern to one, at their for- 
lorn and neglected state ; and was told, that if I were 
to pass through that street upon Sundays, it would 
shock me, iudeed, to see the crowds of children, who 
were spending that sacred day in noise and riot, to 
the extreme annoyance of all decent people. 

"I immediately determined to make some little effort 
to remedy the evil. Having found four persons, who 
had been accustomed to instruct children in reading, 
I engaged to pay the sum they required, for receiving 
and instructing such children as I should send to them 
every Sunday. The children were to come soon after 
ten in the morning, and stay till twelve : they were 
then to go home and return at one; and after reading 
a lesson, they were to be conducted to church. After 
church, they were to be employed in repeating the 
catechism till half after five, and then to be dismissed, 
with an injunction, to go home without making a noise, 
and by no means to play in the street. This was the 
general outline of the regulations. R. Raikes. 

The terms in which the above letter was 
couched prove conclusively that the writer was 
describing something new, and it may be deemed 
fortunate that so intelligent an account of a, 
project, then in its infancy, was placed upon rec- 
ord. So obvious was the utility of the schools 
thus founded by Mr. Baikes, that they immedi- 
ately began to be imitated in surrounding towns. 
The period was favorable to their diffusion. 
Other philanthropists seized upon the idea. The 
want of such schools was found to be urgent in 
every large town, and in many smaller places. 
A Sunday-school society was formed, and so- 
general an interest was awakened on the subject, 
that, in the course of a few years, Sunday-schools 
were opened in nearly every part of England. 
But they did not become universal till a higher 
idea than that of mere philanthropy took posses- 
sion of their promoters. As in the case of Mr. 
Raikes, most of the early Sunday-schools were 
taught by hired teachers. This arrangement 
made it necessary to raise considerable sums of 
money which would need to be increased in 
proportion to the multiplication of the schools. 
Besides, it was found that persons engaged in 
the task of teaching in them from motives of an 
inferior if not mercenary character; and, hence, 
even the philanthropic design of the instruction 
was marred. — It was, therefore, a grand improve- 
ment upon the project of Mr. Baikes when 
gratuitous instruction from persons who served 
from Christian motives became generally intro- 
duced into the rising Sunday-schools. Berhaps- 
no one individual was more instrumental in 
promoting this great improvement than the Bev. 
John AVesley, who was then in a most influential 
position at the head of a growing religious or- 
ganization, and accustomed frequently to traverse- 
England from end to end. He early conceived 
the idea of making these schools "Nurseries for 
Christians", and encouraged good people to work 
in them as teachers without pecuniary reward. 
— The idea of gratuitous instruction on the 
Lord's day to poor children, when once brought 
to the minds and hearts of the Christian people. 



SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 



797 



•of Great Britain, was seen to be so perfectly in 
accord with the Saviour's command, "Go teach 
all nations", that it was adopted with a zeal 
and a universality that astonished the most san- 
guine of the original supporters of Sunday- 
schools. From that period, the success of the 
Sunday-school enterprise was assured. It crossed 
the Atlantic as early as 1786, during which 
year Bishop Asbury organized Sunday-schools 
in Virginia, in South Carolina, and in other 
parts of the South. In America, the system of 
gratuitous instruction has prevailed, with very 
few exceptions, from the first. It must, however, 
be acknowledged that the circumstances of 
society in the United States were very unfavor- 
able to the general establishment and mainte- 
nance of Sunday-schools at that early period. The 
country was but thinly settled, and was just 
emerging from its colonial condition under the 
heavy burdens of the Kcvolutionary war. More- 
over, in the Southern States, where Sunday- 
schools were first introduced, an active prejudice 
began, almost from the first, to develop itself 
against the instruction of colored children, lest 
they should be unfitted by it for the condition 
of slavery. From these and other causes, some 
twenty-five or thirty years elapsed before Sun- 
day-schools sprung up extensively in America. — 
Sunday-schools in England were for a long 
period burdened with the task of teaching let- 
ters and the lowest rudiments of knowledge to 
the mass of their scholars. This was indispen- 
sable as a 7neans of preparing them to read the 
Scriptures, and to comprehend moral and relig- 
ious truth. The same necessity prevailed in 
some sections, and classes of the population, in 
the United States ; but, throughout the larger 
portions of that country, the great majority of 
children gathered into Sunday-schools were those 
who received elementary, and indeed contin- 
uous, instruction in the public schools. In both 
countries, Sunday-schools have done not a little 
toward elevating general intelligence and stimu- 
lating secular study; but it is only where a good 
system of public instruction has prevailed that 
they have been able to do their best work. — As 
Sunday-schools are for religious instruction on 
the Sabbath, the Bible is the foundation and 
central text-book of all proper Sunday-school 
teaching. But as the word of Uod admits of 
elucidation from all branches of sound learning, 
it follows that the more knowledge persons, 
whether young or old, bring to its study, the 
greater progress they may be expected to make 
in the comprehension of its truths. The recent 
even more than the early history of Sunday- 
schools corroborates this view, in the fact that 
they have flourished most, and with the best 
results, where their scholars were most intelligent. 
Nevertheless, from first to last, they have shown 
the capacity of adaptation to all phases of society 
and all grades of intelligence. They have proved 
of inestimable value among the most degraded 
populations of great cities, and a fitting religious 
counterpart to the highest and most progressive 
eecular schools. 



Leading Agencies.— The whole history of 
Sunday-schools illustrates the voluntary principle 
in education, government aid having never been 
sought in their support. The instruction given 
in them has always turn free ; and, there- 
fore, whatever Sunday-schools have cost has 
been the voluntary gift of the friends of religious 
education. The gratuitous bestowing of "time 
and effort on the part of teachers has remained 
no less a gift of value than the money by which 
rooms, fixtures, books, and apparatus have been 
provided. Associated effort may be designated 
as the generic agency by which the vast sum of 
money has been obtained which has been fur- 
nished in aid of Sunday-school instruction. As- 
sociated efforts in behalf of Sunday-schools have 
assumed two forms : (1) local ; (2) general; each 
correspondent and supplementary to the other. 
! Local associations, whether in neighborhoods or 
in churches, have, from the first, been necessary 
to found and maintain individual schools. Gen- 
eral associations were also, from an early day, 
seen to be important, for the purpose of diffus- 
ing information, and awakening public interest, 
both as to the necessity and the means of in- 
structing the young in religious truth. They 
also did much to enlist and direct individual and 
local effort in the work of organizing schools ; 
while, at the same time, they practically served 
as a bond of union between individual schools 
not locally connected. — A brief enumeration of 
the principal agencies and movements of the 
latter class will illustrate the progress and ex- 
pansion of the Sunday-school idea both in Eng- 
land and America. In 1785, "The Society for 
l'romoting Sunday-schools in the British Domin- 
ions ", was organized in London, under the leader- 
ship of William Fox. who had previously proved 
himself to be a true philanthropist, by his zeal 
and liberality in efforts to educate the poorer 
classes of his countrymen. This society, during 
the first sixteen years of its existence, expended 
£4,0(10 in paying for the services of hired 
teachers. In 1790, the first official church action 
of a general character in behalf of Sunday- 
schools took place at a conference of the Method- 
ist Episcopal Church, held at Charleston, S. C, 
in February of that year, under the presidency 
of Bishop Asbury. That good bishop and the 
ministers associated with him. had evidently seen 
such fruits following the establishment of Sun- 
day-schools in various placesduring the previous 
four years, that they then sought to make them 
universal by the enactment of the following 
church rule : 

"Let us labor, as the heart and soul of one man, to 
establish Sunday-schools in or near the place of 
public worship. Let persons be appointed by the 
bishops, elders, deacons, or preachers to teach gratis 
all that will attend and have a capacity to learn, Irom six 
o'clock in the morning till ten, and from two o'clock iu 
the afternoon tiil six, where it does not interfere with 
public worship. The council shall compile a proper 
school book to teach them learning and piety." 

In 1791, the First-day or Sunday School So- 
ciety was formed in Philadelphia. This society 
embraced persons of various denominations of 



798 



SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 



Christians, and contemplated the payment of 
teachers for their services. In 1797, the Gratis 
Sunday School Society was established in Scot- 
land. In 1802, the Sunday School Committee of 
Wesleyans was organized in London, for the 
purpose of correspondence and other efforts to 
promote the organization and improvement of 
Sunday schools in the Wesleyan societies of 
Great Britain. In 1803, the London Sunday 
School Union was formed, a society still exist- 
ing and in efficient action, though limited by its 
plan to the city and its immediate vicinity. In 
1809, the Hibernian Sunday School Society was 
formed. In 1816, the New York Sunday School 
Union was formed; and, in 1817, the Philadel- 
phia Sunday and Adult School Union. The 
latter was merged in the formation of the Amer- 
ican Sunday School Union, in 1821. In 1826, 
the Sunday School Union of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church was organized in New York; 
and, in 1827, the Sunday School Union of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, in the same city. 
Since that period, several other Sunday-school 
societies and unions have been formed in the in- 
terest of different denominations of Christians, 
both in America and in Europe. Prominent 
among them may be named the Massachusetts 
Sunday School Society, located in Boston, and 
supported by the Congregational churches of 
the United States. The enlistment of the press 
as an agency of help to Sunday-schools, was an 
event of the highest importance. For a con- 
siderable period, all efforts in their behalf were 
made at great disadvantage, for lack of suitable 
books of every kind, not excepting copies of the 
Sacred Scriptures. The formation of the Brit- 
ish and Foreign Bible Society, in 180-1, and, 
subsequently, of numerous other societies of a 
similar design, tended to a gradual supply of the 
Scriptures, in forms and at prices adapted to ex- 
tensive use in Sunday schools. Aside from Tes- 
taments and Bibles, and the elementary instruc- 
tion books preparatory to their use, the first 
publications extensively introduced into Sunday- 
schools were used as rewards. They were small 
tracts and story books, in paper covers, of a very 
inferior quality, only such being then attainable. 
About 1810, the Religious Tract Society of Lon- 
don began issuing children's books of an im- 
proved style as to paper, cuts, and matter, with 
special reference to Sunday-school patronage. 
The demand for such books increased with their 
production, so that the society named has gone 
on to the present day, constantly enlarging the 
list and improving the quality of its publications 
designed for the young, and also for teachers and 
adult persons engaged in Sunday-schools. In 
this respect, it has done a work of inestimable 
value for the Sunday-schools of Great Britain. — ■ 
It is, however, in the United States that the 
greatest work has been done in the preparation 
and publication of Sunday-school literature. 
There, circulating libraries and juvenile religious 
books were first extensively adopted as auxil- 
iaries of Sunday-school work. There, too, not 
only Sunday-school library books, but period- 



icals and requisites of every description have 
been published in the greatest profusion, as well 
as with great elegance and cheapness. Not only 
have the Sunday-school unions made a specialty 
of such publications, but various other religious 
publication societies, e. g. the. American Tract 
Society of the Presbyterian and Baptist Boards 
of Publication; and, indeed, many private pub- 
lishers have issued large lists of books designed 
for youth and children. In fact, the Sunday- 
school libraries of the United States have become 
so numerous and important, as to secure enu- 
meration in the official census of the govern- 
ment, with the following residt, in 1870 : Sun- 
day-school libraries, 33,580 ; volumes, 8,346,153. 
This aggregate, large as it is, does not include 
the State of Connecticut, and, for other reasons, 
is evidently far below the facts in the case at 
the present time. No other libraries are so 
widely diffused as those of Sunday-schools. 
They are not only found in cities, where most 
great libraries are located, but in the remotest 
sections and neighborhoods of the land, and 
every-where circulated without charge to those 
who desire to read them. In so vast an aggre- 
gate of volumes, it would not be strange, if there 
were some of an indifferent and, possibly, even 
of a bad character. But such would prove only 
exceptions to the general rule that Sunday-school 
libraries furnish wholesome as well as attractive 
reading to millions of children and youth, thus 
projecting the influence of the schools into the 
week-day life of the scholars who attend them. 
Most of the American Svmday-school unions 
not only publish books, but maintain depart- 
ments of missionary effort for the purpose of 
founding new and aiding needy schools. In this 
manner, they are constantly enlarging the 
sphere of Sunday-school work and influence. 
The sums of money expended by these societies 
are, in the aggregate, very large, but yet small 
when compared with the larger amounts locally 
contributed for the same objects. — To pass from 
external to internal agencies which have contrib- 
uted largely to the success of Sunday-schools, 
mention may be made of music, infant classes, 
and measures for the training and special quali- 
fication of teachers. The practice of devoting 
a considerable portion of the time allotted to 
Sunday-schools to the singing of hymns, origi- 
nated very early, and has been continued to the 
present day. It has proved at once a means of 
attracting children to the schools, and an easy 
and pleasant method of impressing sacred truth 
upon their memory. — In 1788, the Bev. John 
Mosby recorded in his journal the opinion that 
there were not to be " found together in any 
chapel, cathedral, or music room within the four 
seas, such a set of singers, as the boys and girls 
selected out of our Sunday-schools in Bolton, in 
which they had been accurately taught." — " Be- 
sides," said he, in concluding his record, " the 
spirit with which they all sing, and the beauty 
of many of them so suits the melody, that I defy 
any to exceed it, except the singing of angels in 
our Father's house." The venerable man had 



SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 



799 



evidently caught the enthusiasm which pervaded 
the children, and which, from that day to this, 
has been a great source of power throughout the 
Sunday-school world. In later years, hymns and 
tunes specially designed for the young have been 
composed and published in great numbers, and 
their use has become so common and so popular, 
as to have greatly influenced the singing in the 
churches of all denominations of Christians. — 
Infant-class instruction has had, by far. its widest 
field and largest success as a branch of Sunday- 
school effort. By means of oral instruction, 
simple music, and diversified object lessons, it 
has been found practicable to secure the regular 
attendance of vast numbers of children of in- 
fantile years, and to hold them uuder profitable 
instruction till of sufficient age to be promoted 
to higher classes. — For a long period, the most 
that was thought) possible to be done for the 
trainiug and special instruction of Sunday- 
school teachers, was sought to be accomplished 
through pastors' and superintendents' Bible 
classes. But after the establishment of teachers' 
institutes for the higher instruction of the teach- 
ers of public schools, the query was raised 
whether something analogous might not be de- 
vised for the special improvement of Sunday- 
school teachers. With a joint reference to that 
design, and the kindred one of deepening and 
widening public interest in the Sunday-school 
enterprise, a system of conventions was projected, 
which, from small beginnings, has grown to grand 
proportions. In these conventions, lectures are 
given on important topics, apparatus and new 
publications are exhibited and explained, and 
model and normal classes are taught by skilled 
instructors. Wherever practicable, as in small 
towns or villages. Sunday-school teachers are in- 
vited to attend in mass. Conventions for larger 
districts, counties, and states are composed of 
delegates who are supposed to be representative 
persons from their several localities. So en- 
couraging have been the results following Sun- 
day-school conventions, that they have been ex- 
panded so as to transcend even the bounds of 
large states, and to enlist national and even in- 
ternational representation. A world's convention 
met in Tendon in 1862, and a German national 
convention in Hamburg in 1874. In the United 
States, in 1875, twenty-one state conventions 
were held, besides one national and one inter- 
national convention. One result of these large 
conventions has been the extensive adoption, 
since 1872, of a system of international lessons 
for Bible study. Uniform schemes of simul- 
taneous study had been previously adopted, to 
a considerable extent, both in Great Britain and 
America. The international use of systems 
prepared by joint committees has, undoubtedly, 
given increased interest and impetus to Scriptural 
studies throughout the Protestant world. This 
kind of simultaneous study has been further 
popularized by the publication of notes and 
comments on the uniform lessons in hundreds of 
periodicals throughout various countries and in 
different languages. The one serious defect of 



the convention system is the brevity of time 
during which conventions can be held. Efforts 
have been made, within a few years past, to 
remedy this, by holding Sum lay-school assem- 
blies to continue in session from one to three 
weeks at a time. The Chautauqua Sunday- 
School Assembly has now held three successful 
and largely-attended annual sessions, at which 
hundreds of persons have participated in thor- 
ough and systematic Bible study, with a degree 
of enthusiasm which has so far become con- 
tagious, as to result in permanent arrangements 
for similar annual assemblies, at Slimmer resorts, 
in various parts of the United States. Should 
these assemblies become a permanent feature of 
the American Sunday-school enterprise, as now 
seems probable, they will go far towards form- 
ing a parallel with the normal schools of the 
various states for the training of public-school 
teachers, and thus largely contribute to the con- 
tinued elevation of the character, and increase of 
the efficiency, of Sunday-school instruction. — It 
is, perhaps, difficult to determine whether Sun- 
day-schools are more indebted to modern archi- 
tecture for helps toward their development, or 
modern church architecture to Sunday-schools 
for the material improvements they have de- 
manded in recognition of the wants and welfare 
of children. Certain it is that no church edifice 
is now considered complete, or properly adapted 
to its objects, that does not embrace, within it- 
self, or some contiguous structure, ample rooms 
and fixtures for the accommodation of infant 
classes, youths' classes, and Bible classes, includ- 
ing a general assembly room for the Sunday- 
school, as a whole. These provisions already 
exist in thousands of beautiful churches, which 
thus stand as monuments of the Sunday-school 
idea, and are, also, suggestive of other improve- 
ments likely to be introduced hereafter. 

Past Progress and Present Position of Sun- 
day-Schools. — There are two modes of indicating 
the progressive advance of Sunday-schools and 
the position to which they have now attained. 
The one is by general statements, and the other, 
by the comparative showing of such numerical 
statistics as are available. As neither of these 
modes is fully adequate, both will here be em- 
ployed to a limited extent, in order that they 
may, as far as possible, supplement each other. 
Going back to the beginning of 1781— less than 
100 years — we find no such institution as the 
Sunday-school known in any part of the world. 
At the present time, Sunday-schools are found 
in active operation in all Protestant countries 
and missions throughout the world. They have 
also been adopted' by Roman Catholics and 
Jews, in all Protestant countries. Not to gpeak 
of the influence of Sunday-schools, in the relig- 
ious bodies last named, it is safe to say that the 
great majority both of the members, ministers, 
and missionaries of the Protestant world are, at 
this time, the alumni of Sunday-schools, and are 
found among their grateful and active support- 
ers. In passing from general though significant 
statements like these, to such showings as may 



800 



SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 



SUPERVISION" 



be made in figures, it seems to be necessary to 
explain that Sunday-school statistics as minute 
and comprehensive as are now seen to be desir- 
able, are not in existence. Governments have not 
been interested to collect them, and comparative- 
ly few of the promoters of Sunday-schools have 
recognized their importance. Hence, even up to 
this "time, there has been little uniformity in 
methods, and still less co-operation in making up 
comprehensive exhibits of numbers and results. 
The most, therefore, that has been as yet pos- 
sible in the way of such exhibits, has been to 
form estimates based upon accurate statistics 
taken within certain districts or churches, and 
to extend the pro rata outward. The earliest 
Sunday-school estimate on record is that of the 
Sunday School Society of London, which, in 
1786, five years after the opening of Raikes's first 
school, estimated that 250,000 scholars were al- 
ready enrolled in Sunday-schools. About 40 
years later (1827), the American Sunday School 
Union estimated that the number of Sunday- 
school scholars in different countries reached the 
number of 1,250,000. From about that period, 
the growth of the Sunday-school enterprise was 
more rapid than previously, so that the second 
quarter of the current century witnessed re- 
markable progress in it. About the middle of 
the century, an effort was made in England un- 
der government sanction to ascertain the num- 
ber and attendance of the Sunday-schools in 
that country. On a given Sunday, the 30th of 
March, 1851, the Sunday-schools of England and 
Wales were simultaneously inspected; and there 
were found, in 23,514 schools, 302,000 teachers 
and 2,280,000 scholars. The number of enrolled 
scholars was 2,407,409, or about three-fifths of 
the number of children enumerated by the cen- 
sus of the country, between the ages of five and 
fifteen. A similar proportion of children in 
American Sunday-schools, at the same period, 
would have reached the number of 3,000.000. 
If to those aggregates, the probable n amber of 
Sunday scholars in Scotland, Ireland, and other 
countries, at the same date, be added, it seems 
quite safe to believe that there were in Sunday- 
schools throughout the world, at the end of 
1850, not less than 6,000,000 of scholars. Simi- 
lar estimates made at the end of another quarter 
of a century, indicate that, at the end of 1875, 
there were in operation, in all countries, 110,000 
Sunday-schools, embracing 1,500,000 teachers 
and 10,000,000 scholars. One statistician of 
some prominence has estimated that there are, 
in the United States alone, not less than 81,858 
Sunday-schools and 6,869,696 scholars. On that 
basis, the above aggregate for all countries might 
safely be enlarged. Unquestionably, the propor- 
tion of Sunday-school scholars to the population, 
or to the membership of churches, is greater in 
that country than in any other. Hence, it seems 
appropriate that there should exist in New York 
a Foreign Sunday-school Union, having for its 
design the promotion of Sunday-schools abroad, 
particularly on the continent of Europe. That 
society, though of recent origin, is in vigorous 



operation, and hopeful of increasing results from 
year to year. 

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION, a term used 
to denote instruction of the highest grade, or 
that given in colleges and universities, both in 
the academic course, or in special or post-graduate 
courses. 

SUPERVISION, School, constitutes one 
of the most essential elements of an efficient school 
system. The supervision which is necessarily 
given by the principal of the school to the work 
performed by his assistants is not here referred 
to, but that which is usually assigned to a super- 
intendent of schools, whose special function it is 
to see that every school under his jurisdiction is 
efficient both in discipline and instruction. As 
a general rule, no extensive work employing a 
large number of operatives, each performing cer- 
tain prescribed duties, which contribute toward 
the accomplishment of a general result, can be 
carried on efficiently without constant supervi- 
sion. School supervision is needed for two pur- 
poses : (1) to enforce the general rules and reg- 
ulations prescribed by school authorities ; and 
(2) to see that the proper methods of instruction 
are employed, and that the teaching is made ef- 
fective. To attain these objects, the schools must 
be both inspected and examined. By inspection 
the superintendent keeps himself informed in re- 
gard to the discipline of the school and the 
methods of instruction employed by the teachers; 
by formal examinations at stated periods, he is 
enabled to ascertain, to a certain extent, the 
actual result of the teaching, that is, its effect 
on the pupils' minds, both as to imparting in- 
formation and training. Both of these are con- 
sidered indispensable. "An inspection," says 
Superintendent Philbrick, of Boston, ''is a visita- 
tion for the purpose of observation, of oversight, 
of superintendence. Its aim is to discover, to a 
greater or less extent, the tone and spirit of the 
school, the conduct and application of the pupils, 
the management and methods of the teacher, and 
the fitness and condition of the premises. Good 
inspection commends excellences, gently indicates 
faults, defects, and errors, and suggests improve- 
ments as occasion requires. * * * An examina- 
tion is different from an inspection, both in its 
aims and methods. An examination is a thorough 
scrutiny and investigation in regard to certain 
definitely determined matters for a specific pur- 
pose." The best methods of teaching, if not uni- 
formly and diligently employed, will not impress 
the pupils' minds ; and on the other hand, the 
pupils may gain considerable knowledge of the 
prescribed branches of study, but not in such a 
way as to cultivate proper habits of thought. 
Regular examinations, besides ascertaining the 
merits and qualifications of the teachers, afford 
a wholesome stimulus, when judiciously and 
skillfully conducted, and afford a definite aim 
toward which their efforts may be directed. On 
the other hand, if attempted by incompetent and 
indiscreet persons, supervision of this and every 
other kind may do much harm. The qualities 
necessary for a good examiner are well defined 



SWARTBMORE COLLEGE 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY 801 



by Supt. Philbriok : "In the first place, he should 
be independent, or, to speak more precisely, he 
should not be dependent upon the teaching 
corps. He ought to have had experience in 
teaching; and if he has had experience in grades 
similar to those ill which lie examines, so much 
the better. His mind ought to be liberalized 
by a wide range of educational leading and 
study. He ought to have a good deal of practical 
common sense. He should be more inclined to 
look on the bright side of tilings than on the 
dark side. He should look sharper for merits 
than for demerits. He should fear only two 
things : he should fear to do injustice, and he 
should fear himself. He should be eminent for 
good breeding, as a guaranty of respectful treat- 
ment from teachers and pupils. And to make 
sure of the requisite sympathy, like Burke's law- 
giver, he ought to have a heart full of sensibility. 
In one word, for the successful exercise of this 
delicate and most useful function, the very best 
educators are demanded.'' The objection has 
sometimes been urged against examinations of 
this kind, that they encourage cramming ; but 
this will, of course, depend upon the character 
of the examinations themselves. — See Payne, 
School Supervision (('in. and N.Y.,1875); Thir- 
tieth Semi Annual Report of (he Superintendent 
of the Pvblic Schools of Boston (Boston, 18'i6). 
(See also Examinations.) 

SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, at Swarth- 
more, Delaware Co., Pa., was founded in 1869, 
for the education of both sexes, who here pur- 
sue together the same courses of study, and re- 
ceive the same degrees. It is under the control 
of the Society of Friands. It is supported by 
the fees of students, and the income of an en- 
dowment of about $75,000. For resident stu- 
dents, the price of board and tuition is $350 a 
year. For day scholars tha price is $200 a 
year. The libraries contain about 3,000 vol- 
umes. The institution embraces a preparatory 
and a collegiate department. The latter has a 
classical section, with an ancient course leading 
to the degree of A. B., a modern course, lead- 
ing to the degree of Bachelor of Literature; and 
a scientific section, with a chemical and an en- 
gineering course, each leading to the degree of 
B. S. In 1875 — 6, there were 19 instructors 
and 2.37 students, of whom 90 (56 classical, 26 
scientific, and 8 pursuing an irregular or partial 
course) were of collegiate grade. The presidents 
have been Edward Parrish, 1869 — 71, and 
Edward H. Magill. A.M., since 1871. 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two king 
doms in Europe, united under one sovereign, 
but otherwise independent of each other in their 
constitution. Conjointly with Denmark, they 
constitute the Scandinavian branch of the Ten- 
tonic or Germanic nations. Nearly the entire 
population of both kingdoms belong to the 
Lutheran < 'hurch. The area of Sweden, is 
171,761 square miles, and, in 1876, its popula- 
tion was 4.383.291 ; the area of Norway is 
122,280 square miles, and its population, accord- 
ing to the same census, was 1,802,882. 



I. Sweden. — Educational History. — Daring 
the middle ages, Sweden compared favorably, in 
regard to education, with the countries of Central 

and southern Europe. A larger proportion of 
boys and girls than in most other countries re- 
ceived an education in convent schools, and 
home education was of a superior character. In 
the 16th century, the cause of education began 
to make rapid progress, and many common 
schools, called pcedagoi/iit, were established, 
which were at first of the primary, but soon of 
a higher grade. The church order of 1571 con- 
tained a chapter entitled, " I low schools should 
be taught," which must be regarded as the first 
Swedish school law. Gustavus Adolphus estab- 
lished the first gymnasium. 1 lis daughter, the 
learned < 'hristina. promulgated, in 1643, a school 
order, dividing the schools into children's (ele- 
mentary) and higher schools. In addition to 
these, there were so-called " writing classes,'' 
which may be regarded as the germ of the 
burgher and real schools. The school order of 
1693 provided that no one should be permitted 
to many, without a knowledge of Luther's small 
catechism. This largely increased the demand on ' 
the part of the peasantry for the establishment 
of more schools. Teachers, however, as well as 
schools continued in an unsatisfactory condition 
until the beginning of the present century. In 
1820, the consistories and the clergy were in- 
structed to see that no unfit persons were ap- 
pointed teachers; and. in 1824. a new- school 
order provided for the introduction of the l.an- 
castenan system. In 1842, the present school 
law was introduced. It provides for the estab- 
lishment of a stationary school in every church 
district or parish ; but, in case of the extreme 
poverty of a parish, or when other local circum- 
stances prevent the establishment of a station- 
ary school, instruction may be imparted in a 
migratory school. Attendance at school is obli- 
gatory for all children of school age. A teach- 
ers' seminary is to be established in the chief 
town of every diocese. In 1858, the support of 
a higher elementary school was made obligatory 
in villages and districts having more than 60 pu- 
pils. A system of state supervision was provided 
for in 1851. In 1864, the Peasants' or People's 
High Schools were established on the plan of the 
Danish schools of that name. (See Denmark.) 

Primary Ins/ruction.— According to the law 
of 1842, primary instruction is imparted in 
stationary and migratory schools, besides which 
there are schools for young children, generally 
under a female teacher. Besides the school 
board of the district, there are one or more in- 
spectors for each diocese, who are appointed by 
the minister of instruction. The local manage- 
ment of the rural schools is in the hands of a 
committee, of which the oldest clergyman is the 
chairman, whose vote in the election of a teacher 
counts as much as one half of all the votes cast. 
In tin- cities of Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Norr- 
kdping, the schools are governed by special laws ; 
and, in each of the cities, they are under the man- 
agement of a board of education. The salaries 



802 



SWEDEN AND NOEWAY 



of the teachers are very small. The course of 
studies in the teachers' seminaries extends over 
three years, and comprises religion, the Swedish 
language, arithmetic and geometry, history, geog- 
raphy, natural science, pedagogy, penmanship, 
drawing, music, gymnastics, military drill, gar- 
dening, and fruit culture. In every seminary, 
there is a rector and at least three assistant 
teachers, besides special assistants for music, 
drawing, gymnastics, and military drill. In 1875, 
there were 8,123 primary schools, with 606,876 
children. The number of teachers' seminaries in 
1875, was 10. 

Secondary Instruction. — The secondary schools 
are either higher or complete schools, with 7 
classes, or lower or incomplete schools, with 2, 
3, or 5 classes each. From the first class up, 
counting the lowest class as the first, the schol- 
ars are separated into two departments, — the 
classical and the real, of which the former cor- 
responds to the Latin school and the gymnasium; 
and the latter to the real school. The school 
year comprises 36 weeks, and scholars are ad- 
mitted only at the opening of the schools in the 
autumn. All pupils must be at least nine years 
of age. The immediate direction of the schools 
is in the hands of the rector and the council of 
teachers. The bishop, as ephorus of all the 
schools in his diocese, stands above the council 
of teachers. All matters that cannot be decided 
by these authorities must be submitted to the 
ministry of instruction, and by the ministry to 
the king for a final decision. The king is, there- 
fore, the highest school authority, and possesses, 
in school matters, both legislative and executive 
power. All matters pertaining to secondary 
schools are arranged by the bureau of the min- 
istry of instruction, the chief of the bureau acting 
as inspector-general of all the secondary schools 
in the kingdom, which he must visit from time 
to time. For the two lower classes, there are 
class teachers, for the two highest, teachers of 
special subjects; and, in the intermediate classes, 
a mixed system prevails. The course of studies 
comprises religion, Swedish, Latin, Greek, He- 
brew, French, German, English, mathematics, 
general history, natural philosophy and mechan- 
ics, chemistry and mineralogy, history, geog- 
raphy, mental philosophy, penmanship, and draw- 
ing. Of these, the ancient languages are not 
taught in the real department ; nor are chemis- 
try and mineralogy taught in the classical de- 
partment. English and Hebrew are optional in 
the chemical department, no special time being 
assigned for them. During the last few years 
the study of German has 'made great progress. 
In 1872, there were 98 schools, with 12,356 pu- 
pils and 976 teachers. 

Superior Instruction. — Sweden has two uni- 
versities,— at Upsal and at Lund, with 168 pro- 
fessors and 2,080 students, in 1871. Of these, 
409 studied theology, 207 law, 188 medicine, 
and 1,276 philosophy. 

Special Instruction. — In 1871, Stockholm had 
an industrial school, with 1,765 students, the 
Eoyal Technical Institute, a college of pharmacy, 



a royal college of surgery, an academy of fine? 
arts, and a royal academy of music. There were- 
also 2 academies of agrimilture, at Ultima and. 
Alnarp, 29 lower agricultural schools, an acad- 
emy of forestry, 7 lower schools of forestry, 9 
schools of navigation, 5 technical schools, 4 ele- 
mentary technical schools, 2 elementary schools- 
of mining, the Chalmers Industrial School in 
Gothenburg, 2 schools for nurses, 2 schools of 
veterinary surgery, and various military schools.. 
The military schools are under the direction of 
the ministry of war ; and the other special 
schools, partly under the ministry of the interior, 
and partly under that of finance. 

II. Norway. — Educational History. — Little 
was done for public instruction in Norway prior 
to the 18th century. Li 1736, a royal decree 
provided that no children should be admitted to 
confirmation, who had not been instructed in 
the elements of Christianity. A school law, 
based on this provision, was passed in 1739, but 
modified in 1741. Since the establishment of 
Norwegian independence, in 1814, the Storthing, 
or national legislature, has been actively engaged 
in promoting public instruction. A compre- 
hensive school law was promulgated in 1827 ; a. 
special law on city schools appeared in 1848. In 
1860, the schools were re-organized under a new 
law, which, with a few additions, made in 1869, 
is still in force. Children must attend school 
from their eighth year until they are confirmed. 
Those who receive private instruction, must at- 
tend the examinations of the schools, and, if 
found deficient, must attend school. 

Primary Instruction. — Primary schools are 
divided into loii-er schools and higher schools. 
Norway is divided, for school purposes, into 591 
communities, of which, in 1875, 57 were city, 
and 434, country communities. The communi- 
ties are again subdivided into circles, of which, 
in 1874, there were 6,371. Wherever 30 chil- 
dren can attend school, a separate school-house 
must be procured for them. Whenever the 
houses of a circle are too far apart, or if, for any 
other cause, a permanent school does not seem 
advisable, a migratory school must be supported. 
This is particularly the case in the numerous- 
valleys on the coast, which are virtually shut off 
from each other. The studies pursued in the 
primary schools, are reading, writing, arithmetic, 
religion, music, and gymnastics and military 
drill, wherever the latter is possible. All chil- 
dren must attend school 12 weeks in the year, 
or in some migratory schools, 9 weeks. Children 
who have reached the fourteenth year, and are 
backward in their education, must receive special 
instruction, until they are prepared to enter the 
schools; and the necessary expense must be borne 
by the parents. The school authorities may also 
establish infant schools and industrial schools. — 
Higher schools may be organized either in con- 
nection with lower schools, or in connection with 
teachers' seminaries, or independently. Whenever 
the course of study extends over more than two 
years, the school must be divided into two de- 
partments, the first of which comprises the first 



Sweden and Norway 



SWITZERLAND 



803 



two years, and the other, the remainder. When- 
ever necessary, the two departments may be situ- 
ated in different parts of the district. Besides 
the studies of the lower school, there are taught 
in the higher school the native tongue (Danish), 
geography, history, natural sciences, drawing, 
and surveying. In the higher department, are 
still further added, mathematics, agriculture, 
and a foreign language, where it is desirable. 
No child under 12 years of age is admitted to 
the higher school. The schools in a community 
are under the direction of a school board, of 
which the clergyman is chairman, which board 
has charge of all school matters, while the clergy- 
man, in particular, must superintend the instruc- 
tion given in the schools. The board has also 
power to appoint agents, who must see that 
all children of school age attend schools. The 
provost has charge of the schools in his district; 
and the directory *of the stift, or ecclesiastical 
province, of the schools in the unit. The king 
appoints a number of inspectors. The inspector 
is entitled to a seat in the directory of the stift, 
whenever school matters are under deliberation. 
The direct supervision over the schools of a stift 
is exercised by the inspector in conjunction with 
the bishop. Burgher and real schools are, in ; 
some cases, but little above the higher common 
Bchoola ; in others, they correspond to the Ger- j 
man rea/schnle; one, the Latin and real school 
at Frederiksstad, prepares its pupils for the uni- 
versity. Of teachers' seminaries, there are two 
classes: higher or stift seminaries, and the so- 
called teachers' schools. In the higher seminaries, 
the course of study comprises religion, the native 
tongue, arithmetic, music, geography, history, 
natural sciences, penmanship, drawing, gymnas- 
tics, and pedagogics. A model school exists in 
connection with each seminary. In the Teachers' 
Schools, the course of study requires from 1 to 
1J years. In 1*74, there were in Norway, ex- 
clusive of Christiania, 4.277 permanent common 
schools. 2,094 migratory schools. 131 work schools 
for girls, 4 general work schools, and 13 infant 
schools. The number of children of school age 
was 213,968 ; the number of children in per- 
manent schools, 169,737 ; in migratory schools, 
36,577 ; the number of children instructed out- 
side of the district schools, 3,235 ; and children 
not attending school, 4,419. The expenditures 
for primary schools amounted to $673,052, to- 
ward which the state contributed $91,875. The 
number of burgher and real-schools, in 1867, was 
35, with 159 teachers and 2,531 pupils. The 
number of stift seminaries, in the same year, was 
6, with about 300 pupils ; and the Teachers' 
Schools were 15, with 217 pupils. Besides these, 
a seminary for female teachers has been estab- 
lished in Christiania. Peasants' or People's High 
Schools have been recently established in Norway 
on the same plan as those in Denmark (q. v.). 
Of these, in 1870, there were 11. In 1867, there 
were, also, 20 Sunday-schools, with 1520 pupils, 
and 27 asylums, with 2,876 children. 

Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruction 
is imparted in middle schools and gymnasia. 



The latter are divided into Latin and real gym- 
nasia. The middle schools prepare scholars for 
the gymnasia. The course of study comprises 
religion, the native tongue, German, Latin. En- 
glish, French, history, geography, the natural sci- 
ences, mathematics, drawing, and penmanship. 
In the Latin gymnasia, the studies comprise re- 
ligion, the native tongue, ancient Norwegian, 
Latin, Greek, French and English, history, and 
mathematics. In the real gymnasia, Latin and 
Greek are omitted ; while geography, natural 
sciences, and drawing are added, and more atten- 
tion is paid to mathematics and the modern lan- 
guages. Besides the state schools, there are 
also private schools for secondary instruction. 
There were, in 1875.16 secondary schools, with 
160 teachers and 2.099 pupils. The number of 
private schools, in 1870. was 6, of which 4, with 
1,266 pupils, were in Christiania. 

Superior Instruction. — Norway has one uni- 
versity, at Christiania. which was founded in 
1811. It had, in 1874, 978 students. ( 'onnected 
with the university is a library, also large scientific 
collections, and an astronomical and a magnetic 
observatory. The lectures are entirely gratui- 
tous, and matriculation at the university is made 
dependent upon a previous examination. 

Special Instruction. — Agricultural schools are 
found in almost every province, supported by 
the provincial authorities ; while a higher agri- 
cultural school is supported in Aas, near Chris- 
tiania, by the government. The navigation 
schools, of which there are 6, necessarily occupy 
a prominent place in a country situated like 
Norway. Besides these, there is a military high 
school, a military and naval school, a polytech- 
nic school, in Norten, and a drawing school, in 
Christiania. — See Scumid, Eneyclopadie ; Bar- 
nard, National Education, vol. n.; Report on 
tlieSt/stems of Public Instruction in Sweden and 
Norway, published by the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation (Washington, 1871) ; and Report of the 
U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1873 and 
1874 

SWITZERLAND, a federal republic of 
Europe, having an area of 15,992 square miles, 
and a population, in 1870, of 2,669,147. It is 
composed of 22 cantons, 3 of which are each 
subdivided into 2 sovereign half-cantons. About 
59 per cent of the population are Protestants, 
ami almost 41 per cent, Catholics. The majority 
of the inhabitants (about 69 per cent) are of 
German nationality; nearly 24 per cent speak 
French ; the canton Ticino and a part of the 
canton Orisons are Italian. In the latter canton, 
there are also about 9,000 families that speak 
Romansch. 

Educational History. — At the beginning of 
the middle ages, we find within the present 
boundaries of Switzerland some of the most 
famous monasteries of the Benedictine order. (See 
Benedictines.) Later, the university of Basel 
occupied a high rank among the earliest univer- 
sities of Europe. After the Reformation in the 
Kith century, the canton Zurich took the lead in 
the regulation of school affairs by forbidding any 



804 



SWITZERLAND 



one to keep school ■without permission of the 
city council. Several other cantons could, in 
the 16th century, boast of good schools ; but 
down to 1830, there was a lack of efficiency in 
the organization of the public-school system ; 
and schools, more than in many other countries, 
were left to private enterprise. At the begin- 
ning of the 19th century, the educational 
achievements of Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, AVehrli, 
Girard, and others attracted the attention of the 
civilized world. Not only were hundreds of 
pupils sent to Swiss institutions from various 
countries, even from America, to obtain a good 
education, but young teachers repaired there, in 
large numbers, to study the new educational 
methods. On the shores of the lake of Geneva, 
a large number of private institutions arose to 
supply the universal demand at that time for 
instruction in the French language. The increase 
of these institutions stimulated an eagerness to 
educate boys and girls as private tutors and gov- 
ernesses; and for a long time, French Switzerland 
furnished Europe with a larger supply of this 
class of teachers than any other country. — Great 
progress began to be made, about 1830, in most 
of the Protestant and mixed cantons. In addition 
to the mediaeval university of Basel, new univer- 
sities, after the German model, were established 
at Zurich and Bern; and, in French Switzerland, 
the academies at Geneva, Lausanne, and Neuf- 
chatel endeavored to rival tli3 best institutions 
of the kind in France. — In 1848, the federal con- 
stitution of Switzerland, for the first time, took 
notice of educational affairs, which until then 
had been under the exclusive jurisdiction of the 
cantons, by providing for the foundation of a 
federal university. In 1877, this project had not 
yet been executed. In 1854, the federal assem- 
bly resolved to establish in Zurich a federal poly- 
technic school. Since then, a growing desire has 
been evinced, especially among teachers, that the 
federal government should exercise an authority 
in school matters. Accordingly, the new federal 
constitution, adopted in 1874, contains the fol- 
lowing provision in regard to schools : " The 
Bund (confederation) is authorized to establish, 
besides the existing polytechnic school, a univer- 
sity and other higher institutions of learning, or 
to aid such institutions. The cantons shall pro- 
vide satisfactory primary instruction, which 
shall be under the exclusive control of the govern- 
ment. Primary instruction shall be obligatory 
and free in all the schools. The public schools 
shall be open to children of all creeds. Cantons 
that fail to observe these provisions shall be pro- 
ceeded against by the Bund. No one shall be 
forced to receive any religious education or 
to perform any religious ceremony. The religious 
education of children, up to the age of 16, shall 
be left to their parents or guardians." 

Primary Schools. — The primary schools in 
the Swiss cantons are generally under the con- 
trol of the communities. In 1871, there were, 
in all Switzerland, 5,088 primary schools, with 
411,760 pupils (205,228 boys, 206,532 girls) and 
5,750 male and 1,724 female teachers. Of these 



schools, 3,924 were mixed ; 578, boys' schools ; 
and 586, girls' schools. In 58.1 per ceut of the 
schools, the German language is the medium of 
instruction; in 31 per cent, French ; in 9.6 per 
cent, Italian; and in 1.3 per cent, Romansch. The 
expenditure for primary schools amounted, in 
1871, to 900,000 francs. In most of the can- 
tons, the elementary-school systems have been 
re-organized by school laws enacted since 1870. 
According to the new school law of Zurich, pro- 
mulgated in 1872, which has served as the basis 
of a number of school laws in other countries, 
the communal school comprises nine annual 
classes, instead of six classes as before that 
time. The chief branches of instruction in the 
primary schools of Switzerland are language and 
object lessons, the latter receiving more attention 
than in most other countries of Europe. The 
other studies of a primary school are religion, 
reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, singing, 
and gymnastics. The real schools add to these 
studies geometry, history, natural history, and 
composition. Industrial schools, in which boys 
learn the elements of a trade or of agriculture, 
and girls are instructed in needle-work, are 
numerous in every part of Switzerland. For the 
education of teachers, there were, in 1875, 32 
teachers' seminaries, the course of studies in 
which embraces pedagogy, religion, German, 
French, arithmetic, geometry. history, geography, 
natural history, singing, playing on a musical 
instrument, penmanship, drawing, gymnastics, 
military exercises, and agriculture. The larger 
institutions have four annual classes. In the can- 
tons of Zurich, Vaud, Bern, and Aargau, pen- 
sions for superannuated teachers are obligatory: 
in Schaffhausen, Glarus, and the city of Basel, 
they are only permitted. The following table ex- 
hibits the number of schools, and the number of 
male and female teachers; also the proportion of 
scholars to the total population: 



Cantons 



1. Ziirich 

2. Bern 

3. Lucerne 

4. Uri 

6. Schweitz 

6. Unterwalden, Upper . 

7. Unterwalden, Lower . 

8. Glarus 

9. Zug 

10. Fribourg 

11. Soleure 

12. Basel City 

13. Basel Country 

14. Schaffhausen 

15. Appenzell, Outer Rh 
1G. Appenzell, Inner Eh. 

17. St. Gall 

18. Grisons 

19. Aargau 

20. Thurgau 

21. Ticino 

22. Vaud 

23. Valais 

24. Neufchatel 

25. Geneva 





No 


of 




teachers 


No. 
of 








8 


schools 


"rt 


B 










S 


fc, 


369 


565 


8 


877 


1,098 


604 


163 


249 


15 


29 


37 


9 


74 


57 


44 


26 


9 


26 


24 


IS 


17 


32 


65 


— 


28 


41 


22 


303 


248 


89 


127 


187 


6 


14 


48 


10 


74 


111 


. — 


39 


115 


2 


70 


86 


— 


16 


18 


4 


302 


406 


13 


324 


388 


64 


334 


505 


33 


185 


240 


2 


440 


209 


266 


570 


539 


205 


404 


281 


169 


188 


146 


172 


76 


86 


54 J 



° o j2 



m 

&8" 



166 
175 
128 
138 
150 
134 
126 
152 
140 
164 
154 

66 
195 
192 
188 
133 
156 
166 
168 
185 
142 
142 
172 
145 

72 



SWITZERLAND 



SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 805 



Secondary Instruction. — The gymnasia and 
real schools of a higher grade are very differently 
organized in the several cantons of Switzerland. 
The state institutions in which a complete gym- 
nasium is combined with a real school, under 
one direction, are called cantonal schools. In 
1873, there were, in Switzerland, 07 gymnasia, 
colleges, and pro-gymnasia, with an aggregate of 
4,900 pupils ; and 41 industrial and real schools 
of a higher grade, with 3,800 pupils. 

Superior Instruction. — Switzerland had, in 
1876, four universities, — those of Basel. Zurich. 
Bern, and Geneva. That of Basel was founded 
in 1460; of Zurich, in 1833; of Bern, in 1834. 
Geneva has hail a higher institution of learning 
since 1559 ; but it did not become a complete 
university until 1875. The number of students. 
in 1876, was, in Zurich. 328; in Bern, 385; in 
Basel. 158; and in Geneva. 235. All these uni- 
versities have the four faculties of theology, law, 
medicine, and philosophy. The theological faculty 
of each of the universities In lungs to the 
Reformed < 'hurch ; Bern has also, since 1 s74. an 
Old Catholic faculty of theology. At the uni- 
versitiesof Zurich and (ieneva, the philosophical 
faculty is divided into two sections: one com- 
prising philology, philosophy, and history; and 
the other, mathematics and natural science. In j 
Bern, the medical faculty is divided into a med- 
ical and a veterinary section. — Besides the uni- 
versities, there are 3 academies, or incomplete 
universities, — at Lausanne, Neufchatel, and 
Fribourg. That of Lausanne has faculties of 
Reformed theology, law science, and literature : 
that of Neufchatel, law. science, and literature : 
that of Fribourg, ( 'atholie theology and law. The 
universities of Bern and Zurich were among the 
first in Europe to admit female students ; and 
their example, lias been followed by the university 
of Geneva. In 1875, Bern and Zurich had an 
aggregate of 63, and Geneva, 24 female students. 
Among those in Bern and Zurich, 39 were 
Russians, 8 Americans, 5 Austrians. 4 Germans, 
and 3 Servians. 

Special and Professional Si hools. — The I 'i >l\ '- 
technic School, at Zurich, is the only Swiss 
school under the control of the federal authorities. 
It comprises eight departments : architecture, 
civil engineering, industrial mechanics, industrial 
chemistry, agriculture and forestry, a normal 
school of mathematics and natural sciences, a 
school of literature, moral sciences, and political 
economy, and a preparatory course in mathe- 
matics. The other technical schools are the 
technical department in the academy of I^au- 
sanne, and the department of architecture in the 
lyceum of Lugano. The lyceum of the Bene- 
dictines, at Eiiisiedeln. has a philosophical and a 
theological department. There is. also, a philo- 
sophical department, connected with the lyceum 
of Lugano. There are six Catholic theological 
seminaries; a Reformed theological faculty, at 
Neufchatel ; and theological schools of the Free 
Evangelical Church, at" Lausanne and Gea ra. 
There is a veterinary school at Zurich; an in- 
dustrial school of higher grade, at AVinterthur ; 



a school for watch-makers, at (ieneva ; several 
commercial schools ; seven agricultural schools ; 
and a school of fine arts, in (ieneva. There 
were also, in 1875, 13 institutions for deaf- 
mutes, with 233 boys and 159 girls; two in- 
stitutions for the blind, in Zurich ami Bern, 
with 58 boys and 54 girls ; and one asylum for 
the blind, in Lausanne. — See Schmld, Encyclo- 
pddie, art. Sekiceiz; Barnard, National Edu- 
cation, vol. n. ; Beer, Das Vhterrichtgwesen der 
Schweiz (Vienna, 1868); Kixkei.in, Slatisli/,- 
i/es Uhterrickiswesenj in dene Schweiz an Jahre 
L871 (Basel, 7 vols., 1874, seq.); Wikth, Allge- 
meine Beschreibung und Statislik der Schweiz, 
vol. in.: Das Unterrichlswesen; also the annual 
reports on the educational condition of Switzer- 
land, in the Pddagogischer Jahresbericht. 

SYMPATHY^ an instinctive feeling of in- 
terest in and affection for others, which prompts 
a correspondence of emotions. Persons in sym- 
pathy readily discern the nient^l states of one 
another, and evince by their actions that they 
suffer, mentally, the same distress, and feel the 
same joy. It is difficult to ascertain and define 
the source and basis of this sympathetic relation- 
ship ; but personal influence greatly depends 
upon it. It is natural to some persons to be in 
sympathy with others; they seem to exert a 
kind of positive influence, drawing and binding 
all around them to themselves. Others, on the con- 
trary, seem to be negative in their influence; they 
repel instead of attracting. They are cold and 
indifferent to others; or, if otherwise, uncon- 
sciously show that their apparent interest is 
feigned, not felt, proceeding from a sense of duty, 
i not from natural warmth of feeling. — The 
teacher, above all others, should be sympathetic, 
because SO much of his success depends upon 
personal influence. He should habitually strive 
to cultivate this quality, feeling assured that the 
measure of his professional skill and efficiency 
is the degree of sympathetic regard with which 
he inspires his pupils. (See Antipathy, and 
Love.) 

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, in Syracuse, 
X. V.. chartered in 1870, is under Methodist 
Episcopal control. Genesee College, at Lima, 
chartered in 1849, was merged in it. It is sup- 
ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- 
dowment of $150,000. The value of its buildings 
and grounds is $300,000. It has valuable mu- 
seums, and libraries containing 9.00(1 volumes, 
The university consists of (1) The College 
of the Liberal Arts, opened in 1871 ; (2) The 
Medical College, opened in 1872; (3J The 
College of the Fine Arts, opened in 1873. 
< Hher colleges are contemplated by the charter. 
All the colleges of the university are open for 
the admission of women on the same terms as 
men. The following seminaries, in different parts 
of the state, have entered into the relation of 
gymnasia or preparatory schools to the universi- 
ty : The Hudson River Institute and Female 
College, at Claverack ; The Cazenovia Seminary, 
at ( 'azenovia ; The Ives Seminary, at Antwerp ; 
The Amenia Seminary, at Amenia ; and The 



806 



TABOR COLLEGE 



TEACHERS' INSTITUTE 



Onondaga Academy, at Onondaga Valley. The 
courses in the College of Liberal Arts, with the 
degrees conferred on their completion, are as fol- 
lows: classical, A. B.; Latin-scientific and Greek- 
scientific, Ph. B.; scientific, B. S. The College of 
the Pine Arts is intended ultimately to include in- 
struction in all the fine arts, consisting of (1) the 
formative arts, — architecture, sculpture, paint- 
ing, engraving, and the various forms of indus- 
trial art, and (2) the sounding arts, — music, 
poetry and belles-lettres, and oratory. At present, 
courses of instruction in architecture, painting 
and engraving are all that have been organized. 
For the advanced degrees, in either college, a 



post graduate course of one year may be pursued. 
The cost of tuition in the College of Liberal Arts 
is $60 a year (to children of clergymen, $30); in 
the other colleges tuition is $100 a year. The 
number of instructors and students, in 1876 — 7, 
was as follows : Liberal Arts, 11 instructors and 
155 students ; Fine Arts, 9 instructors and 24 
students; Medical School, 15 instructors and 
58 students ; total, 35 instructors and 237 stu- 
dents. — The number of pupils in the gymnasia 
preparing for college was 165. The chancellors 
of the university have been as follows: Alexander 
Winchell, LL. D., 1872—4, and the Rev. Erastus 
O. Haven, D. D., LL. D., since 1874. 



TABOR COLLEGE, at Tabor, Fremont 
Co., Iowa, chartered in 1854, is controlled by 
Congregationalists. It was opened as an acad- 
emy in 1857, and as a college in 1866. It is 
supported by the income of an endowment of 
$50,000, and by tuition fees, ordinarily from 
$20 to $25 a year. It has a library of 3,500 
volumes, and embraces the following depart- 
ments: (1) College Department, including a 
classical and a scientific course of four years 
each ; (2) Ladies' Department, with a four 
years' course ; (3) Teachers' Department, with a 
two years' course ; (4) Preparatory Department, 
with facilities for fitting for the higher depart- 
ments ; (5) Musical Department. Females are 
also admitted to the college department. In 
1874 — 5, there were 14 instructors and 246 stu- 
dents ; namely, college, 24; preparatory, 104; 
ladies' department, 89 ; teachers' department, 
15 ; music, 15. The Rev. Wm. M. Brooks, A. M., 
is (1877) the president. 

TALLADEGA COLLEGE, at Talladega, 
Ala., chartered in 1869, is under the control of 
the American Missionary Association. It is 
supported chiefly by contributions from the 
Congregational churches in the North. It was 
established, especially, for colored youth of both 
sexes, and comprises a primary, a normal, a pre- 
paratory, a collegiate and a theological depart- 
ment. In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors 
and 247 students : preparatory, 15 ; theological, 
14; normal, 46; grammar, 25; intermediate and 
primary, 147. The Rev. E. P. Lord, A. M., is 
(1877) the principal. 

TASMANIA. See Australian Colonies. 

TAYLOR, Isaac, an English author, born 
in Lavenham, Aug. 17., 1787 ; died in Stanford 
Rivers, June 28., 1865. He was educated as an 
artist, but relinquished that pursuit and devoted 
himself to literature. In 1818, he began his 
literary career by contributions to the Eclectic 
Review ; and, in 1865, he contributed to Good 
Words. The Natural History of Enthusiasm, 
which appeared in 1829, was published anony- 
mously , and was received with extraordinary favor. 
In 1836, appeared Home Education, a work of 
unusual interest to educators by reason of its 
correct analysis of the human mind, and its illus- 



tration of the true order of the development of 
its powers. It is hardly too much to say that 
tliis book is invaluable to the teacher who would 
learn the right method to be pursued in educa- 
tion, or the rationale of that method. Its general 
conclusions are universally accepted by modern 
educators ; while the detailed methods given for 
the cultivation of the mental faculties, and the 
illustrations of their unconscious exercise, are 
exceedingly suggestive and interesting. Mr. 
Taylor was the author of several other works, 
among which may be mentioned Tlie Elements 
of Thought (1822), and Tlte World of Mind 
(1857). 

TEACHER, a person who assists another in 
learning, that is, in acquiring knowledge or prac- 
tical skill. A school-teacher's office is, for the 
most part, confined to aiding the pupil in acquir- 
ing knowledge, with the twofold object of 
(1) mental discipline, and (2) imparting valuable 
information. Which of these is to be considered 
of primary importance depends upon the grade 
of the instruction and the subject taught. Al- 
though teaching is only a part of education, the 
teacher should be an educator, since he is re- 
quired to perform an office which bears an im- 
portant relation to the general development, or 
education, of the child ; and, consequently, he 
should clearly understand the nature of that re- 
lation. In other words, no person can be merely 
a teacher ; he must, to be truly efficient, educate 
while he teaches. Indeed, he cannot but do so. 
His example, and his personal influence of every 
kind, will necessarily educate — will tend to 
form, permanently, the character of his pupil, 
either for good or evil. This consideration should 
determine the qualifications of the teacher, which 
should not consist merely in scholarship, book- 
learning, or intellectual culture, but that assem- 
blage of personal qualities and accomplishments 
(including scholarship) which will render his in- 
fluence in every respect effective and salutary. 
(See Didactics, Education, and Instruction.) 

TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, the name 
given, in the United States, to an assemblage of 
teachers of elementary or district schools, called 
together temporarily for the purpose of receiv- 
ing professional instruction. Such meetings are 



TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 



807 



held under the direction of the school authorities, 
usually the state, county, or town superintend- 
ent ; and quite often there is a provision of law 
requiring the teachers employed in the common 
schools to attend, and permitting a continuance 
of their salaries during such attendance. A teach- 
ers' institute is usually conducted by an experi- 
enced teacher, having special skill for the work. 
This requires a good knowledge of the practice 
and theory of teaching, especially as applied to 
the ordinary branches of common-school educa- 
tion ; it also needs ability as a lecturer. Teach- 
ers' institutes are designed to serve as a substi- 
tute for, or as complementary to, normal in- 
struction ; and as such they constitute a valuable 
agency in connection with a system of common- 
school instruction. — See Bates, Method of 
Teachers Institutes (New York), and Institute 
Lectures (New York) ; Fowls, Tlie Teachers' 
Institute (New York) ; Phelps, The Teachers' 
Hand- Book (New York). 

TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. Schools for 
the education and training of teachers are called 
teachers' seminaries in Germany, Russia, Fin- 
land, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the Ger- 
man cantons of Switzerland; training schools, 
in Austria and the Netherlands; preparatory 
sc/ioolt, in Hungary; and normal schools, in 
France, Great Britain. Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
Greece, Roumania, the French cantons of Switzer- 
land, and the United States. In Great Brit- 
ain, the name Iraininq college is very generally 
used. — The first establishment of the kind of 
■which there is any accurate account, was the 
Institute of the Brothers of the Christian 
Schools, founded, in 1(181, by the abbe de la 
Salle, canon of the cathedral at Reims. — In 
1697, August Hermann Francke, in connection 
with his orphan school at Halle, founded a 
teachers' class, composed of poor students who 
assisted him in the work of instruction in return 
for their board and lodging. From this class he 
selected, in 1704, twelve pupils wdio exhibited 
"the right basis of piety, knowledge, and aptness 
to teach", and constituted them his seminarium 
prcHceptorum. These pupil-teachers were trained 
for two years ; ami such was their aptitude for 
teaching that their fame was spread over the 
greater part of Germany, and hundreds flocked 
to Francke's school to study his improved 
methods and superior organization, Johann Ju- 
lias flecker, a pupil of Francke's, established a 
teachers '"seminary at Stettin, in Pomcrania. in 
1735, and another in Berlin, in 1748. Hecker 
■worked under the patronage of Frederick the 
Great, who issued a royal ordinance that all 
vacancies in the schools on the crown-lands 
should be filled by teachers trained in the Berlin 
seminary. In addition to this, he granted an 
annual stipend to twelve of the graduates, a 
number afterwards increased to sixty. The 
teachers' seminaries at Rekahn, in Brandenburg, 
became the model schools of Germany. From 
Prussia, the system gradually spread over the 
greater part of Europe. It was introduced into 
Hanover in 1757; into Austria in 17(i7; into 



Switzerland in 1805 ; into France in 1808 ; into 
Holland in 1816; into England in 1842; and 
into Belgium in 1843. Since then, it has been 
introduced into the remaining countries of 
Europe; into North and South America ; and 
into British India and Japan. — As Prussia was 
the first nation to adopt and enforce the special 
training of teachers, the following provisions of 
the Prussian law of 1819 will serve to explain 
the aims and purposes of teachers' seminaries, 
not only in Prussia itself but in all the counties 
into which they have been introduced : (1) No 
seminary for teachers in the primary schools 
shall admit more than seventy pupil-teachers. 
(2) In every department in which the number of 
Catholics and Protestants are about equal, there 
shall be, as often as circumstances will permit, a 
teachers' seminary for the members of each de- 
nomination ; but where the inequality is very 
marked, the teachers of the least numerous de- 
nomination shall be obtained from the teachers' 
seminaries belonging to that denomination in a 
neighboring department, or from smaller estab- 
lishments, in the same department, annexed to an 
elementary primary school. Teachers' seminaries 
for the simultaneous education of persons of dif- 
ferent religious belief shall be permitted when 
the pupil-teachers can obtain, close at hand, suit- 
able instruction in the doctrines of their own 
church. (3) 'I be teachers' seminaries shall be 
established, whenever it is possible, in small 
towns, so as to preserve the pupil-teachers 
from the dissipations, temptations, and habits 
of life which are not suitable to their future 
profession, but without subjecting them to a mo- 
nastic seclusion ; but the town must not be 
too small, in order that they may profit by 
the vicinity of several elementary and superior 
primary schools. (6) No young man can be 
received into a teachers' seminary who has not 
passed through a course of instruction in an ele- 
mentary primary school : nor can any young man 
be received, of the excellence of whose moral 
character there is the least ground of suspicion. 
The age of admission into the teachers' semi- 
naries shall be from sixteen to eighteen years. 

(7) As to the methods of instruction, the direct- 
ors of the teachers' seminaries shall rather seek 
to conduct the pupil-teachers by their own ex- 
perience to simple and clear principles, than to 
give them theories for their guidance: and, wdth 
this end in view, primary schools shall be joined 
to all the teachers' seminaries, where the pupil- 
teachers may be practiced in the act of teaching. 

(8) In each teachers' seminary, the course of in- 
struction shall last three years, of which the fiist 
shall lie devoted to the continuation of the 
course of instruction which the pupils com- 
menced in the primary schools ; the second, to 
instruction of a higher order ; and the third, 
to practice in the primary school attached to 
the establishment. From the law of I si!), and 
from the general regulations, the following pro- 
visions have been gathered : No young man is 
allowed to conduct a primary school until he 
has obtained a certificate of his capacity to fulfill 



808 



TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 



the important duties of a school-master. The 
examination of the candidates for these certifi- 
cates is conducted by commissions, composed of 
two laymen and two clergymen, or two priests. 
The provincial consistories nominate the lay 
members, the ecclesiastical authorities of the 
respective provinces nominate the clerical mem- 
bers for the examination of the religious edu- 
cation of the Protestant candidates; and the 
Roman Catholic bishop nominates the two priests 
who examine the Roman Catholic candidates. 
The members of these commissions are nomi- 
nated for three years, but they can afterward be 
continued in office if advisable. These certifi- 
cates are not valid until they have been ratified 
by the superior authorities, that is, by the pro- 
vincial consistories. The provincial authorities 
can re-examine the candidates, if they think that 
there is any reason to doubt what is specified in 
the certificate granted by the committee of ex- 
amination, and can declare them incompetent; 
and they can require the local authorities to pro- 
ceed to another examination, if they are not 
satisfied with the character of any of the can- 
didates. Young women who are candidates for 
the situation of school-mistress are obliged to 
submit to the same kind of examination before 
they can obtain the certificate enabling them to 
take charge of a girls' school. — The provincial 
consistories have the power to send any master 
of a primary school who appears to be in need 
of further instruction, to a teachers' seminary for 
the time that may appear requisite to give him 
the necessary additional instruction. During his 
absence, his place is supplied by a student 
from the teachers' seminary, who receives a 
temporary certificate. The expenses of the mas- 
ters who attend for a second time the teach- 
ers' seminaries are generally defrayed by the 
educational authorities. The school-masters are 
encouraged to continue their education by the 
hope of preferment to better situations, or to 
superior schools ; but before they can attain this 
preferment, they must pass a second examina- 
tion, conducted by the same authorities that con- 
ducted the former. — Teachers who show them- 
selves entitled to promotion to the position of 
directors of teachers' seminaries, are authorized 
to travel, both iu Prussia and in other countries, 
for the purpose of extending their knowledge of 
the organization, instruction, and discipline of 
schools. A valuable ordinance, passed in 1826. 
and renewed in 1846, requires every director of 
a teachers' seminary, once a year, to visit a 
certain portion of the schools within his circuit- 
He thus makes himself acquainted with the 
condition of the schools, listens to the instruc- 
tion, takes part in the same, and gives to the 
teachers such hints for improvement as his ob- 
servation may suggest. The results of his yearly 
visits, he presents, in the form of a report, to 
the school authorities of the province. — To' 
render the efficacy of the teachers' seminaries 
more complete, it is provided that, at the end of 
three years after leaving the seminary, young 
teachers shall return to pass a second examina- 



tion.— Before a young man is eligible for exam- 
ination to enter a teachers' seminary, he must 
forward to the director or principal (1) a certifi- 
cate signed by a priest or minister, certifying 
that his character and past life have been moral 
and blameless, (2) a certificate from a physician 
attesting his freedom from chronic complaints 
and the soundness of his health and constitution, 
(3) a certificate of his having been vaccinated 
within two years, (4) a certificate of his baptism 
(if a Christian), and (5) a certificate, signed by 
two or more teachers, of his previous industrious 
and moral habits and sufficient ability for the 
teacher's profession. The subjects in which the 
candidates are examined are Biblical history, 
the history of Christianity, Luther's catechism, 
writing, reading, arithmetic (mental and written), 
grammar, geography, German history, natural 
history, the first principles of physics, singing, 
and the violin. When the examination is fin- 
ished, a list of the candidates is made out in the 
order of their standing ; and from this, as many 
of the highest are elected students of the semi- 
nary as will fill the vacancies of that year, 
occasioned by the departure of those who have 
left to take charge of village schools. The course 
of instruction is twofold, — intellectual and in- 
dustrial. yThe intellectual course consists in a 
review of, and a continuation in, the subjects 
above mentioned, to which are added botany, 
pedagogy, drawing, Latin and French, and very 
often English also. A knowledge of these lan- 
guages is not required for a teacher's diploma; 
but, without a thorough familiarity with the 
other subjects of study, he cannot be bcensed to 
teach. The industrial training consists of the per- 
formance of all the ordinary household work, — 
preparing the meals, taking care of the sleeping 
apartments, pruning the fruit-trees and culti- 
vating, in the lands always attached to the semi- 
naries, the vegetables necessary for the use of the 
household. At the end of the third year, the 
young men are examined, and marked 1, 2, or 3, 
or are rejected. Those marked 1 are entitled 
to teach as principals ; and those marked 2 or 
3 are only permitted to act in the capacity of 
assistants. 

The increase in the number of teachers' semi- 
naries in Europe, during the past twenty-five 
years, has been very marked. The number report- 
ed, iu 1875, in the different European countries, 
British India, and the British Colonies, was as 
follows : 



Austria proper 64 

Hungary 63 

Prussia _ . 101 

Other German states. . . 73 

France 86 

Italy 115 

Russia 45 

Finland 3 

Sweden 10 

Norway 7 

Eugl.ind 41 

Scotland 6 

Ireland 1 



Denmark 5 

Netherlands 5 

Luxemburg 1 

Belgium 33 

Spain 31 

Portugal 6 

Greece 1 

Roumania 8 

Servia 1 

Switzerland 32 

British Colonies 13 

British India 104 



Total 855 

Normal Schools in the United States. — Massa- 
chusetts was the first state of the American. 
Union to introduce the system of teachers' semi- 



TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 



809 



naries, or normal schools. The people of New 
England became familiar with the Prussian sys- 
tem through the exertions of the Rev. Charles 
Brooks who had obtained his knowledge of it 
from Dr. Julias, whose acquaintance he had ac- 
v^ cidentally formed while crossing the Atlantic 
Ocean. Dr. Julius had been sent to the United 
States by the Prussian government to study pris- 
on discipline ; and it was while on a voyage to 
Europe that he explained to Mr. Brooks the 
method of training teachers for the country 
schools. Mr. Brooks was so impressed anil inter- 
ested that he resolved to investigate for himself 
the Prussian system of teachers' seminaries. This 
he did with great care and attention to all the 
details. After his return to the United States, 
he devoted three years to the diffusion of his 
ideas concerning the necessity and importance 
of institutions fur the education and training of 
teachers. He enlisted in the cause a considerable 
number of able men, among whom were John 
Quincy Adams and Daniel Webster. Finally, 
the legislature of Massachusetts was prevaile 1 
upou to establish a state board of education, 
with Horace Mann as its secretary, and to make 
an appropriation to institute two state normal 
schools. Mr. Mann became the ardent advocate 
of teachers' seminaries, institutes, and all other 
means of educating and training teachers fur their 
work. Early in the present century, De Witt 
Clinton recommen led the establishment of teach- 
ers' seminaries in the state of New York. The 
Public School Society of the city of New York 
founded, in L834, a Saturday Normal School for 
teachers; but this was only a high school in 
which were taught the elementary branches of 
an English education. The first public normal 
school established in the United States was the 
one opened at Lexington (afterwards removed 
to Framingham, Mass.), July 3., L839, under the 
priucipalship of Cyrus Peirce (q. v.); although S. 
R. Hall (q. v.) had opened a teachers' seminary of 
a private character as early as I 823. From that 
time till 1850, only seven schools were founded : 
three in Massachusetts, and one each iu New 
York, Maine, Ohio, and Illinois. During the next 
decade, from 1850 to L860, but twelve normal 
schools were established, three in Ohio, two in 
Massachusetts, two in Illinois, and one each in 
Connecticut, Michigan. Missouri, Xew Jersey, 
and Pennsylvania. Between 1860 and 1870, 
fifty-two schools for teachers were established : 
and, from 1*71) to the close of lJST.'i. sixty-six 
normal schools were founded. Very many of 
these schools hive connected with them model 
schools, or schools of practice, sometimes called 
training schools, in which the students of the 
normal school proper are afforded an oppor- 
tunity, under the Supervision and direction of 
experienced teachers, of putting in practice, 
to some extent, the pedagogic principles and 
rules which they have acquired theoretically, so 
as to be prepared for actual work on emerging 
afl graduates from the normal school. Such schools 
constitute a part of the means of professional 
training, as indispensable to the teacher as the 



hospital and clinique to the young and inexperi- 
enced physician. The following table exhibits 
the statistics of normal schools in the United 
States for 1STG. 



NAME 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Georgia 

IUiuois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

District of Columbia. 

Utah Territory 

Total 



E-Sl 


I's-S 


£ is 


Z i 


z 5 


£°« 


4 


367 


is 


2 


216 


5 


1 


3!)0 


10 


1 


175 


a 


2 


240 


19 


2 


334 


3 


8 


1,379 


.-,11 


5 


1,771 


24 


3 


23(1 


17 


3 


994 


20 


3 


140 


13 


4 


99 


II 


4 


648 


19 


3 


478 


21 


7 


1.265 


70 


1 


411 


13 


3 


7s2 


24 


2 


351 


9 


8 


1,87] 


72 


1 


282 


7 


1 


155 


9 


1 


269 


10 





4,158 


158 


4 


397 


15 


12 


3,248 


83 


1 


4 


. 


12 


4,017 


125 


1 


159 


10 


•j 


47.'. 


14 


i 


1,051 


35 


3 


4--J 


22 


2 


351 


23 


II 


734 


35 


5 


1,(127 


53 


3 


mi 


10 


1 


71 


1 


137 


29,0!i5 


1,046 



Teachers' seminaries have exercised the most 
beneficial influence in the communities in which 
they exist. The moral effect of the instruction 
of trained and educated teachers on the rising 
generation is incalculable. The gain in time, 
the better and simpler methods of teaching, the 
knowledge of the children's physical, mental, and 
moral nature, the g 1 order, thorough organiza- 
tion, and general spirit of harmony and humanity 
which are the results of a thorough study of the 
theory and practice of teaching, combine to con- 
stitute the teachers' seminary one of the most. 
useful and economic institutions of modern civil- 
ization. The teachers' seminaries of Prussia 
have tilled the country schools of that nation 
with school-masters whose education, talents, and 
attainments have caused them, in the words of 
an enlightened English traveler, "to be respected 
by the whole community." Prior to the estab- 
lishment of such seminaries, these country 
schools were taught by "ignorant tailors, shoe- 
makers, common soldiers, and old women." To 
a great extent, the normal schools of the I nited 
States have exercised a similar influence in rill- 
ing teachers' positions with a superior class of 

men and women. Although the normal Bel Is 

of the United States cannot yet furnish one- 
tenth of the number of teachers required for 



810 



TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 



the common schools, they exercise a powerful, 
though indirect, influence in creating a demand for 
"better teachers, and in imparting and diffusing 
a knowledge of better methods of instruction. 
Intelligent statesmen in Europe and America 
have used then 1 best efforts to establish teachers' 
seminaries, wherever the state has undertaken the 
education of the masses at public expense, as a 
measure of wisdom and economy. Experience 
has demonstrated the fact that, owing to the 
material on which the teacher operates — the 
childish mind — the profession of teaching dif- 
fers from other professions, and cannot fall under 
the law of supply and demand; but requires the 
special interposition of private corporations or 
of government itself. 

The following table shows the location etc. of 
the normal schools in the United States. 

Normal Schools in the "United States. 

JN. C, Normal College; N. D., Normal Department; 
N. S., Normal School; T. S., Training School.] 



NAME 



State Normal School 

Rust Normal Institute.. 

Lin coin Normal Univ 

N. B., Talladega College. 
N. D., Arkansas Ind. Univ. 
Pine Bluff Normal Inst 
State Normal School. . . 
State Normal School . . . 
N. D. of Delaware College 
Del. State Normal Univ. . 

N. D. of Atlanta Univ 

Haven Normal School. . . 
EvanXuth. Normal School 
Southern 111. NormalUniv. 
Chicago Normal School 
N. D. of Kock River Univ. 
Cook Co. Normal School 
N.W. German-EnglishN.S. 
State Normal University. . 
Peoria Co. Normal School. 
Normal and Class. School. 

N.W. Normal School 

La Grange Co. Nor. School 
Ind. State Normal School. 
N. Ind. Normal School and 

Business Institute . . . . 
E. Iowa Normal School. . . 
Chair of Didactics, Iowa 

State University 

Nor. Inst. (Whittier Coll.) 
Kan. State Normal School 

State Normal School 

Leavenworth St. N. S 

N. D. of Berea College 

Kentucky Normal School. 
Louisville Training School 
MindenHighPublicSehool 
N. D., New Orleans Univ. . 
N. D., Straight University 

Peabody Normal Sena 

Eastern State N. S 

State Normal School 

N. D., Main Central Inst . . 
N. D., Oak Grove Seminary 
Bait . N.S. for Col.Teachers 
M. State Normal School . . 
St. Catherine's Nor. Inst. 
Boston Normal School... 
Mass. Normal Art School. 

State Normal School 

Framingham State N. S.. . 

State Normal School 

Westfleld State N. S 

State Normal School 

Michigan State N.S 



Location 



Florence, Ala 

Huntsville, Ala 

Marion, Ala 

Talladega, Ala 

Fayetteville, Ark. . . 

Pine Bluff, Ark 

San Josi, Cal 

New Britain, Conn.. 

Newark, Del 

"Wilmington, Del 

\tianta, Ga 

Waynesboro, Ga 

Addison, 111 

Carbondale, 111 

Chicago, 111 

Dixon, 111 

Englewood, 111 

Galena, HI 

Normal, m 

Peoria, 111 

Goshen, Ind 

Kentland, Iud 

La Grange, Ind 

Terre Haute, Ind. . . 
Valparaiso, Ind 



Grandview, Iowa. 
Iowa City, Iowa, . . 



Salem, Iowa 

Concordia, Kan 

Emporia, Kan 

Leavenworth, Kan.. 

Berea, Ky 

Carlisle, Ky 

Louisville, Ky 

Minden, La 

New Orleans, La... 
New Orleans, La. . . . 
New Orleans, La. . . . 

Castine, Me 

Farmington, Me 

Pittsfield, Me 

Vassalboro, Me 

Baltimore, Md 

Baltimore, Md 

Baltimore, Md 

Boston, Mass 

Boston, Mass 

Bridgewater, Mass.. 
Framingham, Mass.. 

Salem, Mass 

Westfield, Mass 

Worcester, Mass 

Ypsilanti, Mich 



1873 
1866 
1870 
1870 
1872 
1870 
1862 
1850 
1873 
1866 
1869 
1868 
1847 
1874 
1856 
1875 
1867 
1868 
1857 
1868 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1870 
1S73 

1874 
1872 

1868' 
1874 
1864 
1870 
1866 
1873 
1871 
1873 



1868 
1867 
1864 
1872 
1846 
1866 
1866 
1875 
1852 
1873 
1840 
1839 
1S54 
1839 
1774 
1852 



NAME 




54 State N. S. at Mankato 

55 State N. S. at St. Cloud. . . 
66 First State Normal School 

57iMississippi State N.S 

5S|Tougaloo Un. & State N. S. 

59:Normal Institute I Bolivar, Mo 

60|s. E. Missouri State N. S. Cape Girardeau, Mo. 



Mankato, Minn 

St. Cloud, Minn 

Winona, Minn 

Holly Springs, Miss.. 
Tougaloo, Miss 



61|N. C, Univ. of Missouri. 
62iFruitland Normal Inst... 
63!N. D., Lincoln Institute.. 

N. Missouri State N. S 

Normal School 

State N. S. District No. 2. 

Nebraska State N.S 

N. H. State Normal School 

State Normal School 

N.Y. State Normal School 

State Normal School 

State Normal School 

State Normal and T. S.. . . 

State Normal and T. S 

State Normal and T. S 

Female Normal College . . . 

Oswego State Nor. and T.S. 

State Normal and T. S. . . . 

Ray's Normal Institute.. 

Ellendale Teachers' Inst. 

Shaw University 

Tilstou Normal School 

Northwestern Ohio N. S.. 

Ohio. N. S.& Business Inst 



Columbia, Mo 

Jackson, Mo 

Jefferson City, Mo 

Kirksville, Mo 

St. Louis, Mo 

Warrensburg, Mo 

Peru, Neb 

Plymouth, N. H 

Trenton, N. J 

Albany, N.Y 

Brockport, N.Y 

Buffalo, N.Y 

Cortland, N. Y 

Fredonia, N.Y 

Geneseo, N. Y 

New York, N.Y 

Oswego, N. Y 

Potsdam, N. Y 

Kernersville, N. C 

Little River, N.C 

Raleigh, N. C 

Wilmington, N. C 

Ada, Ohio 

Bloomiugburgh, Ohio 



Cincinnati Normal SchooICinciunati, Ohio.. 
Hopedale Normal School. 
National Normal School. . 

Western Reserve N. S 

N. D. Mt. Union College. , 
OrweU Normal Institute. 

Southern Ohio N. S 

Republic Normal School. . 
Ohio Central N. S. 



Hopedale, Ohio.. 

Lebanon, Ohio 

Milan, Ohio 

Mt. Union, Ohio.... 

Orwell, Ohio 

Pleasantville, Ohio. 

Republic, Ohio 

Worthington, Ohio. 



N. S. of Wilberforce Univ. Xenia, Ohio. 



95|N. Course in Pacific Univ 



Allegheuy Normal Inst.. 
Bloomsburg State N. S.. 
Northwestern State N. S. 

State Normal School 

Keystone State N. S 

Central N. S. Association 
State Normal School. . . . 

Southwestern N. C 

State Normal School. . . . 
Snyder Co. Normal Inst. 
Climb. Valley State N. S.. 
Westchester State N. S.. 

Rhode Island N.S 

Avery Normal Institute. 

State Normal School 

Nor, or T. S. for Freedmen'Knoxville, Tenn . . 
Freedmen's Normal Inst. Maryville, Tenn... 
New Providence Institute 

(Maryville College) jMaryville, Tenn. . . 

Le Moyne Normal School. {Memphis, Tenn 

N. D. of Fisk University. Nashville, Tenn... 
N. D. Central Tenn. Coll.JNashville, Tenn. .. 



Forest Grove, Oreg. . 
Allegheny City, Pa, . . 

Bloomsburg Pa 

Edenboro', Pa 

Indiana, Pa 

Kutztown, Pa 

Lock Haven, Pa 

Mansfield, Pa 

Sagamore, Pa 

Miilersville, Pa 

Selin's Grove, Pa 

Shippensburgh, Pa.. 

Westchester, Pa 

Providence, R. I 

Charleston, S. C 

Columbia, S. C 



State Normal University. 

State Normal School 

Johnson Normal School.. 

State Normal School 

HamptonNormal and Agri- 
cultural Institute 

Richmond Normal School 
Fairmount State N. S. 



124|Glenville State N. S.. 



Storer Normal School . 



Nashville, Tenn 

Castleton, Vt 

Johnson, Vt 

Randolph, Vt 



Hampton, "Va 

Richmond, Va 

Fairmount, W. Va 

Glenville, W. Va 

Harper's Ferry, W.Va 
Huntington, W. Va. 



Marshall Coll. Stato N. S. 

Shepherd College jShepherdstown.W.Va. 

West Liberty State N. S. . .West Liberty, W. Va 

State Normal School 'Oshkosh, Wis 

Wisconsin State N. S jPlatteviUe, Wis 

River Falls Normal SchooljRiver Falls, Wis 

Holy Family Teach. Sem. St. Francis, Wis 

State Normal School Whitewater, Wis 

Kindergarten N. S (Washington, D. C 

N. D.. Howard UniversityjWashington, D. C — 
Washington Nor. School.. Washington, D. C. 



1868 
1868 
1864 
1870 
1371 
1868 
1873 
1863 
1864 
1866 
1867 
1857 
1871 
1867 
1870 
1855 
1844 
1867 
1871 
1869 
1866 
1871 
1870 
1861 
1869 
1873 
1872 
1865 
1872 
1871 



1868 
1852 
1855 
1852 
1846 
1865 
1875 
1874 
1871 
1872 
1871 
1874 
1869 
1861 
1875 
1866 
1870 
1862 
1865 
1859 
1872 
1873 
1871 
1871 
1865 
187* 



137{St. George's NormalSchoolSt, George, Utah. 



1873 

1868 
1871 
1866 
1866 
1875 
1867 
1867 
1866 

1872 
1867 
1868 
1873 
1868 
1868 
1S73 
1870 
1871 
1866 
1875 
1870 
1868 



1867 
1813 
1875 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



811 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION has for its 
•object the improvement of the various arts and 
trades by imparting the requisite scientific 
knowledge and practical skill for their successful 
prosecution. Two great classes of trades to which 
it may be applied, may be noticed : (1) work- 
ing trades (including chemical trades, as dyeing, 
tanning, etc.; mechanical trades, as watch-making, 
carpentry, etc.; artistic trades, as of the decorator, 
jeweler, engraver, etc.), and (2) commercial trades, 
as of the iron-monger and retailer of glass, ce- 
ramic wares, etc. The higher branches, — those in 
which the value of the product consists rather 
in the labor and skill bestowed than in the ma- 
terial used, and those involving the' exercise of 
taste, have been naturally found to exhibit most 
improvement under a proper system of instruc- 
tion, and, in this aspect, may be said to need 
most a special training. The International Ex- 
hibition in London, in 1851, which revealed the 
superiority of the Continental nations in all 
that relates to the application of art and beauty 
to manufactures, gave a special impulse to tech- 
nical education. This superiority was traced 
directly to the facilities for special instruction 
afforded to manufacturers, artisans, and others, 
especially in France, Germany, and Switzerland, 
(the need of which has been increasingly felt 
with the progress of modern inventions), the ad- 
vance of science, and the decay, in England, of the 
system of apprenticeship. A theoretical knowl- 
edge of principles, in addition to mere manual 
dexterity and empirical insight, has become 
more than ever necessary. Among the branches 
generally requisite, are drawing, geometry, and 
chemistry. Experience has proved that, to be 
in the highest degree efficient, technical educa- 
tion must begin in the primary school, and be 
based on general literary culture. In continental 
Europe, technical schools are generally supported 
by the government, either local or general. The 
means of instruction include lectures, evening 
schools and Sunday-schools, museums, etc. In 
Great Britain, mechanics' institutes are a prom- 
inent feature. These generally have a library, a 
reading-room, and evening classes in various 
branches. In Germany, there are, among inferior 
institutions, handicraft schools, further-improve- 
ment schools, etc., in which, sometimes, the com- 
mon-school branches are taught to apprentices 
and journeymen, and, sometimes, instruction is 
given in geometry, drawing, and other special 
branches, as a qualification for the practice of the 
lower trades. The higher institutions impart tech- 
nical instruction calculated to aid in the pursuit ' 
of the higher trades. They generally presuppose 
such a training as is given, for instance, in the 
higher real schools. Some are connected with the 
real schools as their higher classes ; some are 
separate institutions, with three or four classes or 
courses, either similar to gymnasia, or between 
these and the universities; others are, in form, 
technical universities on the plan of the Poly- 
technic School of Paris. The branches taught 
are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, 
natural history, technology, drawing, modeling, i 



etc. There are many special schools for appren- 
tices on the Continent (giving instruct ion to 
weavers, watch-makers, machinists, etc., according 
to the needs of the locality), in which labor per- 
formed under the direction of experienced work- 
men occupies a large part of the time, while the 
rest is devoted to studies immediately bear- 
ing on the art or industry taught. In West 
Flanders, Belgium, there are communal schools 
for apprentice weavers, in which primary and 
religious instruction is joined with manual labor. 
In the power-loom weaving school of Mulhouse, 
Alsace, instruction is given of a grade to prepare 
superintendents of factories. The most impor- 
tant agency in 'the direction of technical educa- 
tion in Great Britain is found in the numerous 
art schools that have sprung up in various parts 
of the kingdom, at the head of which are those 
of the South Kensington Museum. These have 
been instrumental in diffusing a knowledge of 
industrial drawing, and their effects have been 
widely felt. The establishment of a central 
technical university (with subordinate colleges, 
etc., in regular gradation) has been advocated. 
In the United States, but little has been done to- 
ward technical education. There are mechanics' 
associations in various cities, which afford, to a 
greater or less extent, means for the general or 
technical improvement of the working classes, and 
numerous business colleges, in which a knowl- 
edge of book-keeping and other business opera- 
tions is imparted. Industrial training is given 
in Girard College. Philadelphia. The Worcester 
County Free Institute of Industrial Science (see 
Science, Schools of) may be classed as a tech- 
nical school. Industrial art is taught in the 
schools of the Cooper Union (New York), in 
the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, 
and in various scientific schools. In 1870, the 
state of Massachusetts provided by law that 
■• Any city or town may, and every city and 
town having more than ten thousand inhabitants 
shall, annually make provision for giving free 
instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing 
to persons over fifteen years of age, either in 
day- or evening-schools, under the direction of 
the school-committee." Under this act, consider- 
able progress has been made. A similar law was 
enacted in the state of New York in 1875. 
Among European institutions, the following may 
be mentioned: in Austria-Hungary, the Imperial 
Royal Commercial and Nautical Academy, in 
Triest, the Commercial High School, in Vienna, 
the commercial academies in Prague, Gratz, and 
Buda-Pesth, the Imperial Royal Technical In- 
stitute, in Cracow, the School of Industrial Arts 
and the School for Architects and Machinists, in 
Vienna, the schools for artisans in Gratz, Prague, 
Briinn, Bielitz, Czernowitz, and Kaschau, the 
Higher Weaving School, in Briinn. and numer- 
ous inferior schools, special and general, for arti- 
sans, etc.; in Germany, the higher commercial 
institutions in Berlin. Breslau, Dantzic, Coblentz, 
Frankfort. Hanover, Augsburg, Leipsic, Dres- 
den, Chemnitz, Gera, Rostock, Brunswick, Ham- 
burg, and Liibeck. the technical schools in Fran- 



812 



TEMPEE 



TENNESSEE 



kenberg and Mittweida, the 30 royal and pro- 
vincial schools of trades in Prussia, the superior 
school for artisans in Chemnitz, the commercial 
and industrial art schools in Munich and Nurem- 
berg, the art-industry school in Offenbach, the 
cS art and architectural schools in Prussia, the 
14 architectural schools in the other states, 
the 8 superior weaving schools, the royal school 
of pattern drawing in Berlin, the school of 
modeling and ornamental and pattern drawing 
in Dresden, the 21 navigation schools, and the 
numerous inferior schools of commerce and 
trades; in France, the 12 professional schools 
(ecoles prqfessionnettes) , the schools of arts and 
trades (ecoles des arts et metiers) at Aix, Angers, 
and Chalons-sur-Marne,the courses of instruction 
in the application of the sciences to industry, and 
in drawing, in various cities, the watch-making; 
schools at Cluses and Besangon, the school of 
tobacco-manufacture and the superior commer- 
cial school in Paris, numerous inferior commer- 
cial schools, and the 42 hydrographic schools 
(for the instruction .of seamen for the mercantile 
marine) ; in Italy, the 74 technical or trades in- 
stitutes I [istituti tecnici, istituti industriali e pro- 
fessional!) of the second grade, the royal superior 
commercial school of Venice, the 23 nautical in- 
stitutes and schools, and the inferior schoois of 
special trades ;. in the Netherlands, the 42 inter- 
mediate schools for the working classes, the 30 
drawing and handicraft schools, the school of 
trade and industry in Amsterdam, the school 
for architects at Bois-le-Duc. and the 9 naviga- 
tion schools ; in Belgium, the superior commer- 
cial institute in Antwerp, the 26 industrial 
schools (including the provincial school of trade, 
industry, and mining at Mons), and the naviga- 
tion schools in Antwerp and Ostend ; in Switzer- 
land, the technical institute in Winterthur, the 
watch-making school in Geneva, and the com- 
mercial schools in various places. According to 
the regulation of March 21., 1870, the Prussian 
schools of trades thereafter organized, consist 
of three classes (each with a course of one 
year), two 2ower and one higher ; the last is the 
special class, and embraces four departments 
(one for the instruction of candidates for higher 
technical institutions, one of architecture, one 
for mechanical trades, and one for chemical 
trades). The complete technical institutes in 
Italy have four departments (physico-mathemat- 
ical. agricultural, commercial, and book-keep- 
ing) ; a few have a fifth department, the indus- 
trial. Those at Fabriano and Terni are schools 
of mechanics and construction. The institute at 
Girgenti has a department for the sulphur in- 
dustry. — See Walter Smith, Art Education, 
Scholastic and Industrial (Boston, 1872); Thom- 
as Twining, Technical Training (London, 1874) ; 
and Charles B. Stetson, Technical Education 
(Boston, 1876). 

TEMPER, the disposition or constitution of 
the mind, in relation particularly to the affec- 
tions and the passions. Good temper implies a 
serenity of mind, and a natural or habitual 
cheerfulness, which is not easily disturbed. It 



is opposed to peevishness and sullenness, which 
seem to be characteristic of certain minds. As 
good temper predisposes to docility, so ill-temper 
is directly antagonistic to it ; hence, the educator 
must cultivate the former in the mind of his 
pupil, and strive to eradicate the latter. In 
dealing with this faidt, the utmost patience is 
requisite ; since any exhibition of ill temper on 
the part of the educator will, from the force of 
example, as well as from the additional irritation 
caused by it, aggravate the difficulty, and foster 
the natural failing in the pupil's mind into a 
confirmed vice. Allowance must always be 
made for the natural peculiarities of children ; 
since these cannot be immediately or forcibly re- 
pressed, but must, by caref id training, be brought 
under self-control, which is one of the earliest 
lessons to be taught, but one of the last objects 
attained in education. Discouragement may 
sometimes take the form of ill temper ; and, in 
such a case, the teacher must make concessions, 
and give special attention to remove the feeling 
and restore confidence. A violent, irascible, or 
stubborn temper in the pupil is to be met with 
calmness and firmness on the part of the teacher; 
and very often the marked contrast between his 
manner and that of the pupil will serve to recall 
the latter to himself, and excite in his mind a 
feeling of shame at his haste or violence. Nothing- 
will tend so strongly as this to cure the vice, 
since it really leads the child to punish himself 
for his fault. Ill temper that takes the form of 
obstinacy, is the most difficult to deal with ; and 
it is this that Locke reserves as the special and 
only case for the use of the rod. A resort to 
this should not. however, be hastily made, and 
will scarcely ever be needed, if the circumstances 
admit of persistent discipline of another kind by 
the educator. In school, unfortunately, this is 
not always the case, the teacher being obliged 
promptly to choose between the immediate con- 
quest of his stubborn pupil, or the disorganiza- 
tion of his school. (See Corporal Punishment.) 

TENNESSEE, one of the southern states 
of the American Union, admitted in 1796. Its 
area, according to the federal census, is 45,600 
square miles ; and its population, in 1870, was 
1,258,520, of whom 936.119 were whites, 322,331. 
colored persons, and 70, Indians. 

Educational History. — The first incorporated 
seminary of learning in the valley of the Missis- 
sippi was founded at Nashville, in 1785. In 1806, 
this was raised to the rank and title of Cumber- 
land College, and, in 1826, became the University 
of Nashville. In 1794, Blount College, at Knox- 
ville, was incorporated; and, immediately after- 
ward, Greene College. In 1795, Washington 
College was founded. In 1806, an act of Con- 
gress provided that the state should appropriate 
100,000 acres for the use of two colleges to be 
established, one in east, and one in west Tennes- 
see; 100,000 acres for academies, and 640 acres 
in each tract 6 miles square, when existing claims 
would permit it, for the use of schools. The first 
attempt to create a school fund was made in 1823. 
when the vacant lands north and east of the 



TENNESSEE 



813 



congressional reservation line were sold, and the 
money was paid into the Bank of Tennessee, to 
"remain and constitute a perpetual ami exclusive 
fund for the establishment and promotion of 
common schools in each and every county in the 
state." The taxes on these lands were, also, to 
form a part of this perpetual fund. Considerable 
additions were made to the school fund by the 
act i.f L827. In 1835, the revised constitution 
declared it to be the duty of the state to preserve 
the school fund inviolate, and to "cherish litera- 
ture and science; knowledge, learning, and virtue 
being essential to the preservation of republican 
institutions." By the acts of 1837 and 1838, 
and those of subsequent years, the school fund 
■was made a part of the capital of the Bank of 
Tennessee; and $18,000 of the dividends was 
annually set apart for the use of academies, and 
SHMi.ooit for the support of common schools, 
the faith of the state being pledged for such an- 
nual appropriations. An act. passed in 1*44 ami 
amended in 1846, directed that certain school 
lands in the state should be sold, and the proceeds 
paid into the Bank of Tennessee. The principal 
was to be invested by the bank in the bonds of 
the state, if obtainable at par value or less, 
the interest paid by the bank or realized upon 
the investment, to be annually paid over to the 
districts or townships to which the lands belonged, 
according to the amount of deposits belonging to 
each. In 18.38, the amount of the school fund 
to be made a part of the capital of the Bank of 
Tennessee, was limited to .§1.500.000 ; while the 
fund was increased by the sale of lands for taxes, 
escheated lands, etc. The annual distribution, 
however, of the interest of this fund, which 
amounted to about $90,000. was not productive 
of much good, owing to the want of a proper 
school system, with competent officers to super- 
intend it. In 18(53, according to the last state- 
ment of the Bapk of Tennessee, this fund con- 
sisted of $663,752.65 in gold and silver. This, 
amount, "put up in kegs and boxes, and sealed", 
was removed from the state during that year, 
and nearly all of it was deposited in the different 
banks of Augusta, Ga. ; and the committee ap- 
pointed by the legislature to investigate the re- 
moval of the fund, reported thai 850,000 of it 
must be looked upon as lost. It was further 
shown that, by the failure of the Tennessee 
National Bank", $200,000 of the $612,250 in (J. 
S. 7-30 bonds, deposited as a part of the school 
fond, in lscr>. was also lost. — The first attempt 
toward a well-considered public-school system 
was made in 1867 ; but, owing to the disturbed 
political condition of the state, it did not prove 
acceptable to the people. Under the law of 1*67. 
four kinds of school officers were created, — 
school-fund commissioners, a state superintend- 
ent, county superintendents, and district directors. 
Teachers were examined and paid by the county 
superintendent, on the order of the district clerk. 
Separate free schools were maintained for white 
and colored persons between the ages of 6 and 20 
years, the money for their maintenance (consist- 
ing of a yearly tax and the interest of the per- 



manent fund) being paid by the state treasurer to 
the county superintendents. Whatever additional 
money was needed was to be raised by district 
taxes, or in any way which did not interfere 
with free tuition, prevention of which constituted 
a bar to the state appropriation. .Many obstacles 
existed to the carrying out of the provisions of 
this law. chief among which were the want of a 
school census, the lack of reports of previous 
systems, the poverty of the people, the almost 
utter want of trained teachers, and the great 
destruction of school property caused by the war. 
The legislature, accordingly, in 1869 — 70, re- 
pealed the act of 1867 ; and the state returned 
to the 'county system", by which each county 
was empowered to establish ami maintain schools 
or not, according to its pleasure. The school 
fund, at that time, exclusive of interest, amount- 
ed to $1,887,154.36, of which $387,154.36 was 
derived from the sale of school lauds. By an 
act subsequent to that passed by the legislature 
of 1869 — 70. the state treasurer was made state 
superintendent, ex officio; but asnospecial duties 
were assigned to him, and as he had no authority, 
the office was of little practical value. Aided, 
however, by the trustees of the Peabody fund, 
he engaged au assistant, who, in 1872. endeav- 
ored to awaken public interest on the subject of 
education. I lis report showed that, while in some 
ei unities considerable attention was given to the 
schools, not one-fifth of the educable children of 
the state had any facilities for acquiring even an 
elementary education. In] 873.it was directed that 
the school fund, amounting to $2,512,500, with 
the unpaid interest thereon to January 1., 1873, 
the whole estimated to amount to §3,269,606, 
should be funded into one bond, bearing 6 per 
cent interest payable semi-annually by the state 
treasurer. At the same time, a new school law 
was passed, which has continued in force to the 
present time. — The state superintendents have 
been, "William Morrow, until ls73; John M. 
Fleming, from 1873 to 1875 ; and Leon Trous- 
dale, now in office, appointed in 1875. 

School System. — By an act of the legislature 
approved March 23., 1875, the governor is 
directed "to appoint a, stale board of education 
to consist of six members, two of whom shall be 
appointed for six years, two for four years, and 
two for two years : and after the expiration of 
their first terms of office, their successors shall 
be appointed for six years. The governor of the 
state shall lie. ex officio, a member, and president 
of said board." It shall be the duty of the board 
to make a report to the assembly of the condi- 
tion of the schools. The principal school officer 
is the stole superintendent <f public instruction, 
who is appointed by the governor for two years. 
He is required to discharge all the duties usually 
devolving upon that officer, and to make an- 
nually "a detailed report of his official proceed- 
ings." The county courts elect biennially county 
superintendents, whose duty it is to visit the 
schools in their respective counties, keep tht 
school records, and see that the rules laid down 
by the state superintendent are duly enforced. 



814 



TENNESSEE 



The salary of the county superintendent is fixed 
by the county court, and, therefore, varies con- 
siderably, sometimes to such an extent as to 
amount to a virtual annulment of the office. 
This undue power of the county court, in this 
and in other respects, enables it to thwart the 
general school law. District directors, three in 
number, are elected for three years, in each dis- 
trict. They employ teachers, exercise a detailed 
supervision over the schools, and disburse the 
school moneys apportioned to their districts. The 
total annual income of the permanent school 
fund is about $600,000. To this is added a poll 
tax of $1, and a tax of one mill upon every 
dollar of taxable property in the state. When- 
ever the money derived from the school fund 
and state tax is not sufficient to keep a public 
school for five months in the year, in any school- 
district, the county court is required to levy an 
additional tax for the purpose, or may submit 
the proposition to do so to a vote of the people. 
He may also levy a tax to prolong the schools 
beyond the five months; but this must not exceed 
the entire state tax. The schools are free to all 
persons between the ages of 6 and 18 years, re- 
siding within the school-district, the only distinc- 
tion between the races being that "white and 
colored persons shall not be taught in the same 
school, but in separate schools, under the same 
general regulations as to management, usefulness, 
and efficiency." Colored children are counted 
alike with the white children in the apportion- 
ment of the school money ; and adult colored 
persons are eligible as teachers, school directors, 
and county or state superintendents. The school 
course comprises orthography, reading, writing, 
arithmetic, grammar, geography, elementary 
geology of Tennessee, history of the United 
States, and vocal music, the last being optional. 
A feature peculiar to the school system of this 
state is that of consolidated schools, or schools in 
which the branches prescribed by law for the 
common schools are taught free of expense, in 
connection with other and higher branches, for 
which a tuition fee is charged. This method has 
tended to popularize the common schools by 
keeping them before that class of the people who 
ordinarily would send their children to distant 
localities for more advanced instruction. Of 
such schools, 174 were in operation in 1875. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
schools in the state, in 1875, was 3,942, of which 
3,127 were for white children, 770, for colored 
children, and 45, unclassified. The school revenue 
was as follows: 

From the state 4212,840.57 

" counties 360,369.87 

" other sources 167,106.19 

Total $740,316.63 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' salaries $582,918.11 

Building aud repairing 

school-houses 44,406.44 

Salaries of county super- 
intendents 16,384.64 

Other expenses 59,649.79 

Total $703,358.98 



The principal items of school statistics for the 
same year are the following : 

Number of children between 6 and 18 years 426,612 
Number of pupils enrolled in public schools 199,058 

Average attendance ■ 136,805. 

Number of teachers white, male 2,561 

" " " female 823 

" " colored, male 564 

" " female 217 

" " unclassified 45 



Total 4,210 

Average monthly salary of teachers $30.85 

Normal Instruction. — By the law of March, 
1875, the state board of education is required to 
establish a normal school or schools ; no pupil 
must be admitted therein who is under 16 or 
over 30 years of age, and who has not passed 
such examination as may be prescribed by the 
board of education. City superintendents, or 
county superintendents, on consultation with the 
directors of the school-districts of their respective- 
counties, may recommend certain pupils of the 
public schools for admission to the normal 
schools ; and the pupils so recommended, on 
passing a satisfactory examination, have prece- 
dence over all other applicants. Separate normal 
schools for white and colored students are author- 
i ized by the law. The Normal University, estab- 
lished under this law, was opened Dec, I., 1875, 
at Nashville. The trustees of the University of 
Nashville gave the use of their college buildings, 
grounds, etc. for two years, and also the income- 
of their permanent fund, and that of the Mont- 
gomery Bell Academy, amounting in all to 
$6,000 per annum, on condition that the academy 
should be made a model and training school to 
the proposed university. To this was added an 
annual appropriation of $6,000, for two years, by 
the agent of the Peabody fund. Normal instruc- 
tion for colored students is afforded in the Nash- 
ville Normal and Theological Institute, the 
Freedmen's Normal Institute, at Maryville, Fisk 
University, the Central Tennessee College, at 
Nashville, and the normal and training school, 
at Knoxville. A normal school for the training 
of colored teachers has recently been established 
at Jonesboro, the building previously occupied 
by the Holston Male Institute having been pur- 
chased for its accommodation. There are, be- 
sides, normal classes in many of the higher in- 
stitutions of learning in the state. — Though no- 
provision is made by law for the support of teach- 
ers' institutes, they have been organized in sev- 
eral counties. There is also a slate teachers' as- 
sociation which holds annual meetings, and which 
has already exerted an important influence upon 
the progress of popular education in the state. 

Secondary Instruction. — There are many high 
schools and academies in the state, chiefly in the 
cities and larger towns; Nashville, Memphis, 
Shelbyville, Chattanooga, Gallatin, and Mur- 
freesboro.each containing such schools or depart- 
ments. There are many other secondary schools 
in the state, chiefly private schools or prepara- 
tory departments of colleges. There are, also,, 
several business colleges. 



TENNESSEE 



TEXAS 



815 



Superior Instruction. — The chief colleges and 
universities of the state are enumerated in the 
following table : 



NAME 


Location 


When 
found- 
ed 


Denomi- 
nation 


Beach Grove College. . . 


BeachGrove 


1869 


Non sect. 




McKenzie 
Nashvillo 


1847 
1866 


Cumb. Pres. 


Central Tennessee Coll. 


Meth. Epis. 


Christian Brothers'Coll. 


Memphis 


1872 


R. C. 


Cumberland University 


Lebanon 


1842 


Cumb. Pres. 


East Tennessee Univ — 


Knoxville 


1840 


Non-sect. 


East Tenn. We.4. Univ. . 


Athena 


1867 


Meth. Epis. 




Nashville 


1866 


Non-sect. 


Greeueville and Tuscu- 










Greeneville 


1868 


Indep. 




Sweetwater 


1850 


M.E., South 




Bristol 


1868 


Presb. 


Manchester College 


Manchester 


1856 


Non sect. 




Maryville 


1842 


Presb. 


Mosheira M. and F. Inst. 


Mosheim 


1870 


Luth. 


8. W. Baptist Univ 


■Jackson 


1874 


Baptist 


S. W. Presb. Univ 


Clarksville 


1875 


Presb. 


Stewart College 


L'larksville 


1856 


Presb. 


University of Nashville. 


Nashville 


1785 


Non-sect. 


University of the South 


Sewunee 


1858 


Prot. Epis. 


Vanderbilt University.. 


Nashville 


1873 


M. E South 



There are several institutions for the higher 
education of women in the state ; of which, 17 
reported, in 1875, to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation, 119 instructors, and 1,467 students, 91G 
of whom were pursuing collegiate studies. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
Tennessee Agricultural College was established, 
in 1869, as a part of the East Tennessee Uni- 
versity (q. v.). The average attendance is 300. 
The Nashville Normal and Theological Institute 
was opened by the American Baptist Home 
Mission Society in 1866. It is specially intended 
for colored pupils of both sexes. Theological in- 
struction is also given in Vanderbilt University, 
at the Central Tennessee College, at Cumberland 
University, at Fisk University, and at Nashville 
Institute. A law school is maintained in Vander- 
bilt University, and at the Cumberland Univer- 
sity ; and a medical and surgical school, in con- 
nection with the University of Nashville and 
Vanderbilt University. 

Special Instruction. — The Tennessee School 
for the Blind was established at Nashville in 

1843, by an annual appropriation of $1 ,500 for 
2 years. This was increased by private contri- 
butions; and, in 1846, a law was passed making 
two annual appropriations of $2,500. In 1848, 
the sum of $5,000 was directed to be paid out of 
the state treasury for two years. The civil war 
not only put a stop to further progress, but al- 
most obliterated the school by entirely destroying 
the school building. In 1866, however, it was 
re-established by the general assembly; and, by 
liberal appropriations since then, it has been 
placed among the first institutions of the kind in 
the country. It has a library of 1,000 volumes. 
The Tennessee School for the Deaf and Dumb 
is located at Knoxville. It was established in 

1844, and was maintained, for a long time, chiefly 
by voluntary contributions. It is now chiefly sup- 
ported by an annual state appropriation of $5,000, 
and an additional allowance for each indigent 
pupil admitted. It can accommodate 150 pupils. 



TEXAS, one of the southern states of the 
American Union, originally a part of Mexico, 
but acknowledged as an independent republic in 
1836. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. 
Its area is 274,356 sq. m. ; and its population, 
in 1870, was 818,899, of whom 253,475 were 
colored persons. 

Educational History. — Six years before the 
admission of Texas into the Union, measures 
were taken to establish schools by setting 
apart a portion of the public lands in each 
county for school purposes. The first constitu- 
tion of the state directed the legislature to pro- 
vide for the establishment of schools, and created 
for their maintenance a permanent fund by con- 
firming all previous grants of land and funds. 
In 1858, this fund was further increased by the 
sale of public lands; but the act authorizing 
this sale was subsequently repealed. The con- 
vention of 1866 made provision for the appoint- 
ment or election of a board of education and a 
superintendent of public instruction ; and the 
new constitution of the state, adopted in 1869, 
directed that the legislature should make suitable 
provision for the support of a system of public 
schools, "for the gratuitous instruction of all the 
inhabitants of the state, between the ages of 6 
and 18 years." It also provided that a superin- 
tendent of public instruction should be appointed 
by the governor, with the consent of the senate 
for one term of four years, and afterwards should 
be elected by the people. Under this law, a 
nomination was made by the governor, but was 
not agreed to by the senate. The school bill, 
also, was rejected by the same body. Under 
the school law of August 13.. 1870, each organ- 
ized county became a school-district, and the 5 
justices of the peace composing the county court, 
were constituted, ex officio, a board of school 
directors. They were required to appoint a 
board of school trustees and a board of exam- 
iners, in each county, to divide the county into 
as many sub-districts as might be necessary, 
to locate school-houses, and to levy a tax not ex- 
ceeding one per cent on all taxable property, for 
the purpose of building school-houses. The in- 
action of the county courts, however, led to the 
enactment of a new law, April 24., 1871, by 
which the superintendent of public instruction, 
with the consent of the governor, was charged 
with the appointment of 35 supervisors of edu- 
cation, each of whom was intrusted with the 
control of a district composed of several coun- 
ties. Each supervisor was authorized to appoint 
a board of school directors for each county in 
his district, the duties of such boards being pre- 
scribed by the state board of education. The 
duty of subdividing the counties into school- 
districts was vested in the supervisor. This law- 
remained in force till 1873, when anew law was 
substituted which contained so many uncon- 
stitutional features that it failed to receive the 
governor's approval. In 1874. the law was 
again changed, but the result was still unsatis- 
factory ; and, August 19., 1876, an entirely new 
law was passed, which remains in force at the 



816 



TEXAS 



present time. The first state superintendent 
was J. C. De Gress, appointed in April, 1871 ; 
Ms successor was 0. IV. Hollingsworth, who was 
appointed in January, 1874, for 4 years. 

School St/stem. — The slate board of education 
consists of the governor, comptroller, and secre- 
tary of state. The governor is, ex officio, presi- 
dent of the board, its only other officer being a 
secretary who is appointed by the board, " if, in 
their judgment, the educational interests of the 
state require" it, at an annual salary of $1,500. 
Upon this board devolve all the duties usually 
performed by such bodies, as well as those dis- 
charged in other states by state superintendents. 
In all matters pertaining to the schools, this 
board deals directly with the teachers and local 
school officers, except in the disbursing of the 
school moneys, which is done through the county 
treasurers. "Within the several counties of the 
state, school communities are permitted to be 
organized for the purpose of availing themselves 
of "the beuefits of the public-school fund. These 
communities consist of any number of parents 
and guardians of children to be educated. They 
are required to make out and sign, in person, a 
list containing the names and ages of children to 
be instructed, and to send it with an application 
to the county judge. This officer, on satisfactory 
evidence that the list is correct and the applica- 
tion made in good faith, must sanction " the 
establishing of said school community, and des- 
ignate it by its name and number." Any in- 
corporated city or town, however, may have ex- 
clusive control of the public schools within 
its limits, provided it is so determined by a 
majority vote of the property tax-payers, in 
which case the council or board of aldermen is 
invested with exclusive power to maintain, reg- 
ulate, control, and govern all the public free 
schools established within the limits of said city 
or town. Three trustees are appointed in each 
school community by the county judge, whose 
duties are to employ teachers, and look after 
the general interests and management of the 
schools under their charge. County boards of 
examiners are also appointed by the county 
judge annually. They consist of " three well- 
educated citizens of the county," who are re- 
quired to examine applicants for the position of 
teacher, the certificate resulting from such exam- 
ination being given by the county judge on rec- 
ommendation of the board of examiners. The 
available school fund is declared to consist of 
one-fourth of the "occupation and ad valorem 
taxes" assessed since March 30., 1870 ; one-fourth 
of all the " ad valorem and occupation taxes" 
that may hereafter be collected, each exclusive 
of the cost of collection ; all poll taxes due since 
March 30., 1870, or collectable thereafter ; the 
interest arising on any bonds and funds, and all 
the interest derivable from the sale of lands, pre- 
viously set apart as a permanent school fund, 
and all conveyances, devises, and bequests of 
property, made by any one for the benefit of 
the schools. Separate schools are provided by 
law for white and colored children, the available 



school fund being divided between them pro 
rata. Sectarianism is strictly prohibited. The 
selection of text-books is left with the teachers, 
■' subject to the approval of their community 
trustees, and having due regard to the conveni- 
ence of the parents in respect to books already 
purchased." The daily school session is 7 hours, 
but may be extended by agreement between the 
teacher and trustees. The school year is for the 
same reason indefinite. All children between 
the ages of 8 and 14 years are entitled to the 
benefits of the public schools. 

Educational Condition. — During the year 
1875, public schools were maintained in 139 
counties ; but reports were received from only 
97. In the latter, there were 2,924 schools, and 
the number of school-houses built during the 
year was 158. Owing to the vast extent of ter- 
ritory, the sparseness of the population, the in- 
difference to the public schools in some parts of 
the state, and the want of reports from school 
officers, the items of school revenue for the year 
1875 are not accurately reported. Two items only 
are given by the state superintendent to aid in 
making an approximate estimate of what the 
receipts should bo : 

Amount levied by boards of school directors. $244,879 
Additional amount necessary to be levied to 
meet outstanding liabilities due teachers 

for the year $50,598 

The agent of the Peabody fund has also dis- 
tributed to six public schools the sum of $2,250. 
The expenses incurred were as follows : 

For teachers' salaries ...$G30,334 

, " sites, and building, repairing, and furnish- 
ing school-houses 5d,3 58 

For other expenses ■ ■ 36,544 

Total $726,236 

The other principal items of school statistics 
for 1875, are as follows : 
Estimated enrollment of school children (6 to 

18 years) 1S4,705 

" average attendance 125,224 

" number of schools 3,S98 

" " " teachers 4,030 

Actual enrollment in 97 counties 124,567 

Average attendance " " 84,415 

Number of teachers " " 3.100 

Number of schools " " ^924 

Average teachers' salary per month $53 

Normal Instruction. — No system for the 
training of teachers has yet been devised by the 
state. The only institution which furnishes nor- 
mal instruction is AViley University, at Marshall, 
which has a department for the traiuing of col- 
ored teachers. A -state teachers' institute was 
organized in 1872, at the close of the educational 
convention held that year at Austin. _ This led 
to the organization of 25 county institutes the 
same year. Since that time, institutes have been 
held occasionally. 

Secondary Instruction. — In 1875, twelve acad- 
emies and seminaries were known to exist in the 
state, furnishing employment to 29 instructors, 
and instruction to 1,166 pupils. Preparatory 
schools existing independently of, or in connec- 
tion with, the colleges of the state, reported, during 
the same year, an attendance of 1,350 students. 



TEXT-BOOKS 



THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 



811 



Superior Instruction. — The principal colleges 
and universities of the state are enumerated in 
the following table : 







When 


Religions 


NAME 


Location 


organ- 


denomi- 






ized 


nation 




Huntsville 


1819 


Presh. 




Independence 


1846 


Baptist 


Henderson College. . . 


Henderson 


1871 


Non-sect. 


Marvin College 


Waxabachie 


1873 Mcth. 


St. Joseph's College.. 


Brownsville 


1868 R. C. 


Salado College 


Salado 


1800 Non-sect. 


Southwestern Univ... 


Georgetown 


1840 IM. E. S. 


Trinity University . . . 


Tehuaeana 


into I'umb. Pr. 


Univ. of St. Mary 


Galveston 


1856 R. C. 


Waco University 


Waco 


1861 iBaptist 




Marshall 


1875 


M. Epia. 



In 1875, there were nine institutions in the 
state for the superior instruction of women, 
three of which conferred degrees. Among the 
principal institutions of this kind, are the An- 
drew Female College of Huntsville. the Bryan 
Female Seminary of Bryan, the Chapel Hill 
Female College, the Lamar Female Seminary of 
Paris, the Galveston Female High School, and 
the Austin Collegiate Female Institute, the Bay- 
lor Female College of Independence, the Waco 
Female College, and the Nazareth Convent of 
Victoria. 

Scientific and Professional Instruction. — The 
only institution for instruction of this kind, 
aside from that furnished by special depart- 
ments in the colleges and universities, is the 
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, 
which was established a few years since at Bry- 
an. Some progress was made toward erecting 
buildings for its use; but, a discovery being made 
of defects in the law concerning it. work was en- 
tirely suspended in 1871. The Texas Medical 
College and Hospital at Galveston was incorpo- 
rated in 1871. The American Dental College is 
situated at Austin. It was opened in 1873. In- 
struction in theology is also given in a special 
department of Baylor University. 

Special Instruction. — The Texas Institution 
for the Deaf and Dumb was opened in 1857. at 
Austin. It is open for the education of every 
deaf-mute resident of the state between the ages 
of 10 and 20 years, if of sound mind, good char- 
acter, and general good health. Board and tui- 
tion are furnished gratuitously by the state. The 
term of instruction is seven years, the branches 
taught beinj those which are common to such 
institutions. The Texas Institution for the Edu- 
cation of the Blind is situated at Austin, where 
it was founded in 1856. 

TEXT-BOOKS, for educational purposes, 
are books designed to be used by pupils in 
connection with the instruction given by the 
teacher. Their purpose is threefold : (1) to aid 
the teacher, by affording to the pupil independ- 
ent sources of information and instruments of 
study; (2) to aid the pupil, in acquiring habits 
of self-reliance in study ; and (3) to enable the 
pupil to learn how to use books, as a means of 
self-culture. These objects dictate the mode of 
constructing school text-books ; and should all 
be carefully kept in view by the teacher in the 



selection of books, so that they may be suited to 
the mental status and grade of culture of his 
pupils in regard to the following points: (1) lan- 
guage and style ; (2) arrangement of topics and 
general treatment of the subject, and (3) adapt- 
ability to the time and general opportunities of 
the pupil. — The object of using text- books is 
often entirely defeated by a disregard of the first 
of these points. A text-book written in a style 
beyond the capacity of the pupil is not only use- 
less, but positively injurious ; since the pupil 
either becomes disgusted with the study and 
neglects it altogether, or he commits to memory 
the language of the book, under the impression 
that he is acquiring knowledge ; and thus his 
mental habits are seriously, if not permanently, 
vitiated. — The following cautions should be par- 
ticularly observed by teachers in the use of text- 
books : (1) the book should not be permitted to 
supersede the teacher, its use being always pre- 
ceded, accompanied, and supplemented by oral 
instruction ; (2) it should never be paramount, 
in the pupil's mind, to the subject, the impression 
being constantly inculcated by the teacher that 
it is the subject that is studied, and that the 
book is only an instrument of the study, or an 
auxiliary to it ; (3) it should not be allowed to 
supersede the necessity of acquiring knowledge, 
as far as possible, by personal experience, par- 
ticularly in elementary education. In advanced 
instruction, it will always be found that those 
will use text-books most effectively who have ac- 
quired the most knowledge without them. (See 
Oral Instruction.) 

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.— The earli- 
est schools of this character, of which any au- 
thentic account exists, were the Jewish "schools of 
the prophets." (See Hebrews.) Schools for in- 
struction in Christian theology sprung up accord- 
ing to ecclesiastical tradition, about the close of 
the apostolic period. At the close of the 2d cent- 
ury, the school of Alexandria began to be cele- 
brated throughout the Christian world. (See 
Alexandrian ScnooL.) Other schools of the kind, 
though of less prominence, existed during the 
period of the ancient church at Antioch. Iaodi- 
cea, Nicodemia, Athens, Edessa. Kisibis, Seleu- 
cia, Rome, and Carthage. At the end of the 5th 
century, nearly all of the schools of the Fast had 
greatly declined, or had become extinct. In the 

1 West, the monasterium clericorum, founded by 
Augustine, at Hippo, was the beginning of a 

i diocesan seminary, and as such marks a consider- 
able progress in the history of theological schools. 
A number of similar institutions arose in varii lUB 
countries of southern Europe, and served as the 
chief agency for training candidates for the 
ular priesthood ; while the convent and cloister 
schools supplied whatever education was given to 
persons subjecting themselves to monastic vows. 
The chief study in the theological schools of this 
period was ecclesiastical Latin. Greek and He- 
brew being rarely studied. A considerable 
improvement begins with the establishment 
of universities, after the middle of the 13th 

| century. The appointment of faculties of theol- 



818 



THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 



ogy in the principal universities had the effect 
to improve greatly the general education of the 
clergy ; but, at the same time, it reduced to com- 
parative unimportance the schools of the bishops 
and of the convents. Nevertheless, from that 
period to the present, the Roman Catholic Church 
has continued to recognize the three kinds of 
theological education already named. Faculties 
of catholic theology are at present (1877) con- 
nected with 8 universities of Austria and Hun- 
gary (Vienna, Gratz, Innspruck, Prague, Lemberg, 
Cracow, Pesth, and A gram) ; with 7 of the Ger- 
man Empire (Breslau, Bonn, Munich, Miinster, 
AVurtzburg, Tubingen, and Freiburg); with 1 in 
England (the new Catholic university of London, 
founded in 1875) ; with 1 in Belgium (the free 
Catholic university of Louvain) ; with 4 in France 
(the new free Catholic universities in Paris, An- 
gers, Lyons, and Lille) ; and with 1 in Portugal 
(Coimbra). In France, there are, moreover, 6 iso- 
lated faculties under control of the government. 
At the Italian and Spanish universities the theo- 
logical faculties have been abolished. Beside these 
faculties of theology, there are a number of in- 
dependent theological schools, of which especially 
the CoUegio Romano, in Rome, attracts students 
from all Roman Catholic countries. Episcopal 
seminaries in which theology is taught are con- 
nected with nearly all episcopal sees, and every 
order of monks has one or several theological 
schools for its own novices. In the United States, 
according to the Report of the Commissioner of 
Education for 1875, the Catholic Church had 
18 theological seminaries, or theological depart- 
ments of colleges. A faculty of Old Catholic 
theology has been established in connection with 
the university of Bern; and, in 1876, the ma- 
jority of the Catholic faculty at the university 
of Bonn, were likewise Old Catholics. (See Ro- 
man Catholic Church.) 

In the Greek Church, the standard of theolog- 
ical education is very low, not only among the 
monks, but among the secular clergy. The only 
faculties of theology connected with complete 
universities, are at Athens (founded in 1837) and 
at Czernowitz in Austria (founded in 1875). 
None of the Russian universities has a f acuity of 
Greek theology, which is taught in the five eccle- 
siastical academies of St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
Kasan, Kief, and Wilna, and in the seminaries 
connected with the episcopal sees. Of schools of 
Greek theology, mostly in connection with the 
episcopal sees, there are, moreover, 1 in Austria, 
5 in Hungary, 4 in Greece, 8 in Roumania, 1 in 
Servia, 1 in Montenegro, and a large number in 
Turkey. 

Theological education among the Protestants 
of Europe has been not a little diversified as to 
method. In all the countries in which great uni- 
versities have existed, professorships of various 
branches of theology have been maintained since 
the days of the Reformation. Hence, the clergy 
of the state churches have usually gone to the 
universities to obtain theological instruction. In 
the German Empire, faculties of Protestant theol- 
ogy are attached to the universities of Berlin, 



Bonn, Breslau, Erlangen, Giessen, Greifswald, 
GSttingen, Halle, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel, Konigs- 
berg, Leipsic, Marburg, Rostock, Strasbourg, and 
Tubingen. In Holland, there are three, at Gron- 
ingen, Leyden, and Utrecht; in Denmark 1, at 
Copenhagen ; in Sweden 2, at Upsal and Lund; 
in Norway 1, at Christiania; in Russia 1, at Dor- 
pat ; and in Switzerland 4, at Basel, Zurich, Bern, 
and Geneva. France has a faculty of Protestant 
theology supported by the state, at Montauban, 
and a free theological school at Paris (founded 
in 1874) ; and Austria, 1 at Vienna. Switzer- 
land has 3 theological schools, at Lausanne, Neuf- 
chatel, and Geneva. Germany leads not only in 
the number, but also in the prominence and in- 
fluence of the theological schools, which, to a 
larger extent than the schools of any other 
country, are visited by students from all parts 
of the Protestant world. "While the evangelical 
churches in the United States, England, and 
other countries readily acknowledge the superior 
scholarship of German theological schools, they 
deplore the departure of many of them from the 
creed of the Reformation, and from what they 
regard as the fundamental doctrines of Christian- 
ity. In England, the theological instruction given 
at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has 
teen more uniform and conservative, but far less 
influential, than that of the German universi- 
ties. In fact, owing to the peculiar organization 
of the English universities, each one being an 
aggregation of a number of colleges, there has 
been a lack of concentration and control in refer- 
ence to theological study which has tended to; 
keep the standard very low. In neither of the 
universities named has there been an organized 
theological faculty or a well-planned, obligatory- 
course of instruction. As in literature and 
science, so in theology, the actual teaching has 
been mostly done by tutors. There have been, 
in both universities, professors of divinity and 
Hebrew since the 1 6th century, but the profess- 
ors, as such, have had little to do with instruc- 
tion or discipline. Attendance on their lectures, 
was not obligatory, except in a few merely formal 
instances. For the purpose of being admitted to. 
holy orders, it was necessary for Bachelors of 
Arts, to attend the lectures of the regius pro- 
fessor of divinity for a short time, unless they 
obtained a dispensation. In 1842, professorships 
of ecclesiastical history and of pastoral theology 
were established at Oxford. The university of 
Dublin was organized under a charter from 
Queen Elizabeth, very much after the model of 
the English universities. A regius professorship 
of divinity was founded in 1607, a professorship ' 
of Hebrew, in 1637, and a king's lectureship in 
divinity, in 1718. In 1838, a professorship of 
Biblical Greek was added, and, in 1850, a pro- 
fessorship of ecclesiastical history. 

The fact that the English universities ex- 
clude from their advantages all students not 
members of the Established Church, has made 
it necessary for the various sects of Dissenters 
that desired theological instruction for their 
ministerial candidates, to establish institutions. 



THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 



THERMOMETRY 



819 



of their own. This has been done by the In- 
dependents, the Wesleyans, the Baptists, and, per- 
haps, some other religions bodies. In nearly all, 
if not all, institutions thus established, provision 
is made for preliminary classical instruction. The 
Scottish universities, with the exception of that 
of Edinburgh, were founded before the Reforma- 
tion. After that event, a scheme of theological 
education was proposed, at the university of St. 
Andrews, which was theoretically a great im- 
provement upon the irregular and incomplete 
methods of theological instruction previously pre- 
vailing in the universities every-where. St. .Mary's 
College was appointed solely to the teaching of 
theology and the languages connected with it. 
The course of study was to be completed in four 
years, under the instruction of a principal and 
four professors, each of the professors having 
under his care only the students of one year. 
The students were required to attend the lect- 
ures of three professors every day during the 
continuance of their theological course. Although 
this scheme was not found in all respects practi- 
cable, yet it hail its influence upon the other 
Scottish universities, at Glasgow, Aberdeen, and 
Edinburgh, in each of which, several professor- 
ships of divinity and auxiliary topics have been 
constantly maintained, with some effort towards 
systematic instruction. After the disruption of 
the Established Church of Scotland, the Free 
Church established a divinity school in Edin- 
burgh, called the New College of Free Church. 

A prime object recognized in the foundation 
of the earliest colleges in the United States, 
such as Harvard and Yale, was to provide general 
education for candidates for the university. No 
professors of divinity were appointed, nor were 
theological topics introduced into the courses of 
study ; but the presidents of the colleges were 
usually ministers of distinguished ability, who 
were expected, by their presence and their 
preaching, to exert a wholesome religious influ- 
ence upon their students generally, and to be 
able to give timely and special counsel to any 
young men among them who might contemplate 
devoting themselves to the work of the ministry. 
Dr. Dwight, at Yale College, taught theology in 
his Sunday sermons which were so prepared and 
arranged as to form, when completed, a body of 
divinity. Some candidates for the ministry went 
directly from the college into ministerial service, 
and others, without having attended college at 
all. But the more general custom was for minis- 
terial candidates to pursue a limited course of 
theological reading and study, under the di- 
rection of some influential pastor. 

As society became more settled, and the 
wants of the older churches became better de- 
fined, the necessity of schools specially devoted 
to theological instruction began to be felt almost 
simultaneously in several denominations. The 
first actual experiment in public theological in- 
struction was commenced by the Rev. Dr. John 
M. Mason of New York, in 1804. Dr. Mason 
had, after graduation at an American college, and 
about a year spent in the private study of theol- 



ogy, gone to Scotland to pursue a more complete 
course in one of the universities. As a residt, 
he, subsequently, when a pastor in New York 
city, felt called upon to devote a portion of his 
time to the systematic instruction of ministerial 
candidates, in the original languages of the liible. 
He, also, delivered lectures on the standard 
topics of divinity. For years he carried on this 
course of instruction almost single-handed, in 
fact until disabled by failing health. The first 
regularly organized theological seminary in the 
United States was that formed by the Congre- 
gationalists at Andover, Mass., in 1808. A foun- 
dation had previously existed at New Brunswick, 
X. J., under the auspices of the Reformed Dutch 
Church, but it remained for a long time unoc- 
cupied. In 1812, the Presbyterians commenced 
their theological seminary at Princeton. In 1817. 
the General Theological Seminary of the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church was founded in New York. 
— Since the dates named, most of the larger 
Churches of the United States have founded 
theological schools. The total number of theo- 
logical departments and seminaries in the United 
States, according to the Report of the U. S. 
Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 123, 
having 615 instructors and 5,234 students. 

As to the methods pursued in the theological 
schools of the United States, it may be remarked 
that no uniformity, but a general similarity, pre- 
vails. In nearly all, primary attention is given 
to the study of Hebrew and New Testament 
Greek, as the foundation of an enlightened 
Scriptural exegesis. In the departments of eccle- 
siastical history, and systematic and practical 
theology, instruction is given largely by lectures, 
with references to text-books, and collateral 
reading. In all the fully-organized seminaries, 
the course of study extends through tlu'ee years, 
and is planned in reference to the attainments 
of graduates of colleges, although partial-course 
students are admitted on specified conditions. 

THERMOMETRY, Educational. Human 
thermometry is the art of measuring the heat 
evolved by the body, and the science of calcu- 
lating thereby a person's vitality and workitig 
power. Physicians now use thermometers to 
ascertain mathematically the existence and prog- 
ress of disease, instead of depending upon con- 
jecture, as formerly. The same may also be done 
by teachers, in order to appreciate exactly the 
working capacity of their pupils ; to prevent the 
spread of contagious diseases in the school, and 
to warn ignorant or thoughtless parents of the be- 
ginning of illness in their children ; and, more- 
over, to discover the existence of disease when 
it is purposely concealed. The means of doing 
this is afforded by thermometry and thermog- 
ni/iJ/i/, the instruments employed being a ther- 
meter and a thermograph, to indicate and re- 
cord the degree of heat. There are several kinds 
of thermometers. That is. however, of special value 
in education, the scale of which is based on some 
physical phenomenon, as the melting of snow. 
In the physiological thermometer, the health- 
point is marked zero or norme, as seen in the 



820 



THERMOMETRY 



TRINITY COLLEGE 



following scheme of human temperature (taken ' 
on the physiological scale). 





"7° 


Only two alleged cases. 




6° 


Generally fatal. 


Above 


5° 


Often fatal. 


the 


4° 


High fever. 


Nokme 


3° 


Considerable fever. 




2° 


Moderate fever. 




1° 


Suspicious. 


The Nokme 





Standard of health 




'0.5° 


Subnormal. 


Below 


1° 


Depression. 


the 


2° 


Collapse. 


NORME 


3°-4° 


Algid collapse. 




4° -5° 


Fatal. 



There are different instruments adapted to dif- 
ferent thermometrical researches : (1) the physi- 
ological thermometer, which, when introduced 
into a natural cavity, as the mouth, or into an 
artificial one, as the closed axilla, indicates the 
rate of evolution of the central heat ; (2) the 
surface thermometer, used to differentiate the 
superficial heat of two bodies, or of two parts of 
the surface of the same body ; (3) the tliermo- 
scope, which, in a few seconds, renders evident 
differences of temperature which could not other- 
wise be perceived (unless with the help of some 
very expensive thermo-electric apparatus ; (4) the 
hand, an absolutely inexpensive apparatus, but of 
inestimable value to those who have early ap- 
preciated the importance of educating the senses. 
The trained hand can be used as a central or as 
a surface thermometer. It cannot, of course, 
give its findings in figures ; but it adds, to a 
pretty accurate idea of the heat evolved, an esti- 
mate of the depth or superficiality of the in- 
flammation, of the tension of the tissues, and of 
other signs that are like commentaries to the 
■uslion "(feverish burning). The hand has, morever, 
above every instrument, the advantage of being 
used, at will, for the most informal and unsus- 
pected diagnosis, in greetings, etc. ; and when 
such desultory exploration has revealed an anom- 
alous degree of temperature, the thermometer 
may be used to ascertain the exact condition. — 
Thermography is the method of recording the 
phenomena of uslion, in the order most favorable 
to show their significance. Normal thermography 
is the work of the mother ; pathological thermog- 
raphy, of the physician, aided by the mother or 
nurse ; and school thermography, of the teacher, 
who thus contributes his share to the natural 
history of his pupils. — Human thermometry 
should constitute a part of every system of ped- 
agogy studied in the normal school ; so that every 
teacher may conduct his school, and teach his 
pupils, on this mathematico-physiological basis, 
ascertaining constantly the power of endurance of 
every pupil during the various exercises ; for, 
since mental force is but converted physical force, 
it is measurable by the expenditure of caloric 
found necessary for the various intellectual proc- 
esses. — See Seguin, Temperature- Variations in 
Diseases of Children (1871) ; Prevention of the 
Spread of Contagious Diseases among Children 
by the Indications of Thermometry (London, 
1873) ; Manual of T/iermometry for Mothers, 
Nurses, Teachers, etc. (N. Y., 1873). 



THIEL COLLEGE of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Church, at Greenville, Pa., is under 
the care of the Pittsburgh Synod. It was found- 
ed by Lewis Thiel, as an academy, at Philips- 
burg," in 1866, chartered as a college, in 1870, 
and removed to its present site, in 1871. Its 
permanent endowment is over $60,000, chiefly 
derived from the benefactions of its founder. It 
has a library of nearly 4,000 volumes. The cost of 
tuition is $40 per annum. It has an academic and ' 
a collegiate department. A ladies' course has been 
also established, embracing the studies of the 
collegiate department, except that Greek is op- 
tional, and French may be taken in the place of 
German. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instructor's 
and 70 students (21 collegiate and 49 academic). 
The Rev. Henry W. Roth, A. M., is (1877) the 
president 

TOPICAL METHOD. See Catechetical 
Method. 

TOTJGALOO UNIVERSITY, at Tougaloo, 
Miss., near Jackson, was founded in 1869, and 
chartered in 1871. It was especially designed 
for the education of colored youth of both sexes, 
but is open to all. The expenses, including tui- 
tion, board, etc., are less than $12 a month. A 
farm of five hundred acres attached to the uni- 
versity, is cultivated mainly by the labor of stu- 
dents, who thus pay a portion of their expenses. 
It has in operation a normal, an intermediate, 
and a primary department, its normal depart- 
ment being recognized as one of the state normal 
schools. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
and 217 students (normal and intermediate, 
125 ; primary, 92). Prof. L. A.Darling is (1877) 
the president. 

TRAINING,' a department of education, in 
which the chief element is exercise, or practice; 
the object being to impart practical skill, or 
facility in any bodily or mental operation. No 
teaching can be effectual that is not supplemented 
by training ; that is to say, not only is the under- 
standing of the pupil to be addressed, but the 
principle of habit to be appealed to. (See Habit.) 
TRAINING SCHOOLS. See Teachers' 
Seminaries. 

TRINITY COLLEGE, in Hartford, ' Ct., 
under Protestant Episcopal control, was char- 
tered as Washington College in 1823, and 
opened in 1824. The name was changed in 
1845. It has property to the value of over 
$1,000,000, a library of 18,000 volumes, and a 
valuable cabinet. There is a large number of 
scholarships, nearly all designed to aid students 
in preparing for the ministry of the church. 
Besides the classical course, in which the studies 
are all prescribed, there are special courses, lead- 
ing to the degree of B. S. In 1875—6, there 
were 13 instructors and 83 students. The presi- 
dents have been as follows: the Rt. Rev. Thomas 
C. Brownell, D. D., 1824—31 ; the Rev. N. S. 
Wheaton, D. D., 1831—7 ; the Rev. Silas Tot- 
ten, D. D., 1837—48 ; the 
hams, D. D., 1848—53 ; 
Goodwin, D.D., 1853—60 : 



Rt. Rev. John Wri- 
the Rev. Daniel R. 
Samuel Eliot, 1861 



-Hi ; the Rt. Rev. J. B. Kerfoot, 1864—6 ; the 



TRINITY COLLEGE 



TURKEY 



821 



Rev. Abner Jackson, P. D., who was succeeded 
by the Rev. T. R. Pynehou, D. 1)., the present 
incumbent (187(5). 

TRINITY COLLEGE, at Trinity, Ran- 
dolph Co., N. C.| founded in 1852, is under the 
control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
South. The name of the post-office is the same 
as that of the institution. The college is supported 
by tuition fees ($40 to $60 per annum) and funds 
contributed by the North Carolina Conference. 
It has property to the value of $45,000, and 
libraries containing 10,000 volumes. The chapel 
for public exercises is said to be perfect in acous- 
tics, and the finest auditorium in the Southern 
states. The whole course of instruction is em- 
braced in eleven schools : Latin. Greek, mathe- 
matics, English literature, natural science, mental 
and moral philosophy, modern languages, theol- 
ogy, engineering and architecture, analytical 
chemistry, and law. The studies of any school, 
or any special study, may be pursued exclusively, 
if desired. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
and 140 students. The Rev. B. Craven, I). P., 
LL. U., has been the president from the organi- 
zation of the college. 

TRINITY UNIVERSITY, at Tehuacana, 
Tex., under the control of Cumberland Presby- 
terians, was organized in 1869, and chartered in 
1870, its principal design being to furnish an edu- 
cated ministry. It has an endowment of $15,000, 
and libraries containing about 3,000 volumes. It 
comprises a collegiate, a preparatory, and a com- 
mercial course, open to both sexes. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 13 instructors and 372 students (197 
preparatory and 175 collegiate). The Rev. W. 
E. Beeson, I). P., is (1876) the president. 

TRIVrUM. See Arts. 

TROTZENDORF, Valentine Friedland, 
a distinguished German educator, born at Trotz- 
endorf in Silesia, in 1490 ; died in 1556. His 
father's name was Friedland, which he changed 
into the name of his birthplace. After studying 
the classical languages at Leipsic, and spending 
five years with Luther, he entered, in 1523, 
the school at Goldberg as a teacher, and ulti- 
mately became its rector, in which position he 
continued till within two years of his death. 
Under his direction, the school of Goldberg be- 
came one of the most famous educational insti- 
tutions of the age, being attended by scholars 
from many countries of Europe. It was emi- 
nently a classical school, German, the real stud- 
ies, and mathematics occupying a subordinate 
place in the curriculum. Assistant teachers 
were seldom employed, teachers for the lower 
classes being generally selected from among the 
students in the upper classes. Biographies of 
Trotzendorf have been written by Pinzger (Hei- 
delberg, 1825), and Loschke (Breslau, 1856).— 
See Barnard, German Teachers and Educators. 

TRUANT LAWS, legislative enactments 
having for their object to prevent truancy from 
school. Such laws, particularly in large cities, 
have been of great service, especially in connec- 
tion with compulsory attendance legislation. 
(See Compulsory Education.) 



TUFTS COLLEGE, in Medford, Mass., 
chartered in 1852, and opened in 1854, is under 
Universalist control. It is supported by tuition 
fees ($70 a year), and the income of an endow- 
ment of over $1,000,000. The library contains 
over 16,000 volumes and 5,000 pamphlets. 
There are also good collections of minerals, 
shells, birds, and botanical specimens. There 
are twenty-seven scholarships in the gift of the 
college, fifteen of $60, and twelve of $100 each. 
It has a classical course of four years, a course 
for the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, also of 
four years, and an engineering course of three 
years. A divinity school was organized in 1867. 
The theological students receive tuition and the 
use of rooms free. In 1875 — 6, the collegiate de- 
partment had 10 professors, 1 instructor, and 73 
students; namely, classical course, 56 ; engineer- 
ing, 12 ; philosophical, 2 ; resident graduates, 3. 
The divinity school had 3 professors, 1 instruct- 
or, 3 lecturers, and 23 students. The whole num- 
ber of alumni of the college was 225; of the 
divinity school, 21. The presidents have been as 
follows; the Rev. Hosea Ballou, 2d, P. D., 
1853 — 61; the Rev. Alonzo A. Miner, P.P., 
LLP., 1862—76; and the Rev. Elmer II. 
• lapen, since 1876. 

TURKEY, an empire, embracing extensive 
territories in Europe, Asia, and Africa, with an 
aggregate area of about 2,230,000 square miles, 
and a population of about 46,000,000. The 
greater part of the population of the whole em- 
pire are Mohammedans; but. in European Turkey 
< 'hristianity predominates. The chief dependen- 
cies of the empire, — Servia, Roumania, and 
Egypt, are treated of in special articles of this 
work. 

Educational History. — Up to 1846, public in- 
struction was wholly left to the several religious 
denominations ; but since then, the government 
has made some efforts to promote the cause of 
education, and especially to organize a school 
system for the Mohammedan population. A 
radical reform was attempted by means of a 
comprehensive school law, issued in 1869; but 
most of the provisions have, thus far, remained a 
dead letter. The Mohammedan schools, in par- 
ticular, have hardly been improved in any way. 
The schools connected with the Greek churches 
have received some good teachers, educated at 
the university of Athens, or in the academies of 
Greece. The Armenian schools have been greatly 
benefited by the educational efforts of the Prot- 
estant American missionaries. The religious 
order of the Mekhitarists, which belongs to the 
United Armenian Church, and has its chief 
seats at Venice and Vienna, has done much for 
the education of the numerous Armenian pop- 
ulation; and has. in particular, educated some of 
the best Turkish scholars in the government 
employ. French and Italian missionaries have 
established a number of Catholic institutions of 
different grades. The Jews of Turkey, with the 
aid of wealthy co-religionists in other countries, 
have also increased the number and improved 
the condition of their schools ; and the progress 



822 UNION CHRISTIAN COLLEGE 



UNION UNIVERSITY 



of the Christian and Jewish schools has given a 
great impulse to educational progress among the 
native Turks. The provisions of the educational 
law of 1869 are as follows : Primary instruc- 
tion is made obligatory for boys from 6 to 11, 
and for girls from 6 to 10 years of age. Every 
village and every ward of a town is required 
to have at least one primary school. Primary 
schools are of two kinds, — common primary and 
superior primary. Whenever the number of 
pupils is sufficient to warrant it, separate schools 
are to be established for Mohammedans and for 
Christians, for boys and for girls. Religious in- 
struction in the Koran, or in the Christian re- 
ligion, constitutes a part of the regular course. 
The school system is under the control of the 
Lnperial Council of Education. The school 
authorities in the provinces and departments 
are composed of Mohammedans and of persons 
of other religious belief, the number of each be- 
ing equal. 

Primary Schools. — Primary schools, of some 
kind, are quite generally met with in towns, and 
even in villages ; but reliable statistics in regard 
to them are wanting. The city of Constantinople 
had, according to the latest accounts, 454 primary 
schools, of all denominations, with 33,000 pupils. 
The total number of superior primary schools 
in Turkey was 95, with about 7,600 pupils. The 
establishment of normal schools was also pro- 
vided for in the law of 1869, previous to which 
time teachers generally received their education 
in the superior primary, or in secondary schools. 



Secondary, Superior, and Special Schools. — 
The law of 1869 also provides for a complete 
system of secondary schools. Of these there 
are two kinds, — preparatory schools, and lyce- 
ums. Every town with more than 1,000 houses 
is required to have a preparatory school ; and 
the chief town of every province, a lyceum. The 
course of instruction in the former lasts 3 years; 
in the latter, 6 years. The lyceum has a gram- 
mar division for 2 years, and a superior (4 years') 
division ; the latter is again divided into a liter- 
ary and a scientific section. The lyceum at 
Galata-Serai is under the direction of French 
scholars, and the medium of instruction is 
French. Various secondary schools have also 
been established by several Christian denomina- 
tions. A university, organized after the model 
of the universities of continental Europe, and 
embracing, for the present, three faculties 
(literature, law, and natural science and mathe- 
matics), was opened, in 1870, in Constantinople. 
The medium of instruction is the Turkish lan- 
guage ; but the use of French is permitted. 
Constantinople has a school of surveying and 
architecture, a school of engineering and artillery, 
a medical school, a law school, a military school, 
and a school of military surgery. On the island 
of Chalki, there is a naval academy. There are 
numerous schools of theology in connection with 
the mosques, for Mohammedans, and, in connec- 
tion with Episcopal sees and monasteries, for the 
education of priests of the Greek, Catholic, and 
Armenian churches. 



UNION CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at 
Merom, Ind., founded in 1858, is under the 
control of the Christian denomination. It has 
an endowment of $100,000; of which $20,000 
is at present non-productive. The cost of tui- 
tion is from $18 to $24 a year. Both sexes are 
admitted. The curriculum embraces an academic 
course, requiring 2 years, a scientific course, 4 
years, and a classical course, 6 years. A prepara- 
tory school is also connected with the college. 
There is a course in normal instruction, also in 
music and book-keeping. In 1875 — 6, there were 
9 instructors and 130 students. The presidents 
have been: Rev. N. Summerbell, D. D., 1860 
—65 ; Rev. Thomas Holmes, D. I)., 1865—75; 
and Rev. T. C. Smith, M. A., since 1875. 

UNION UNIVERSITY, in the state of 
New York, incorporated in 1873, comprises 
Union College, with its preparatory classical in- 
stitute and school of civil engineering, in Sche- 
nectady, and the Medical College, the Law School, 
and the Dudley Observatory, in Albany. Union 
college was incorporated in 1795, and was so 
called because several religious denominations 
co-operated in its establishment. It is supported 
by tuition fees (from $75 to $100 a year) and 
the income of endowments, amounting to about 
$428,000. It has a library of 18.000 volumes, 
and valuable chemical and philosophical ap- 



paratus and collections in natural history. 
Numerous scholarships have been founded for 
the benefit of indigent students. There is a 
classical, a scientific, and an eclectic course. The 
engineering school was founded in 1845. The 
extensive garden and farm of the college afford 
facilities for instruction in agriculture. Military 
drill and gymnastic training were early intro-' 
duced. The Medical College was established in 
1838, and the Law School in 1851. The Dudley 
Observatory, incorporated in 1852 and inaugu- 
rated in 1856, is furnished with the best astro- 
nomical instruments, and has a meteorological de- 
partment. The number of instructors and stu- 
dents, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : Collegiate, 
18 instructors and 175 students; engineering 
school, 4 instructors and 35 students; medical 
college, 16 instructors and 123 students; law 
school, 6 instructors and 93 students ; total, 
44 instructors and 426 students. The following 
have been the presidents of the College and Uni- 
versity : the Rev. John Blair Smith, D. D., 
1795 — 9 ; the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, D. D., 
1799 — 1801 ; the Rev. Jonathan Maxcy, D. D., 
1802—4 ; the Rev. Eliphalet Nott, D. D., 1804 
—66 ; the Rev. Lawrence P. Hickok, D. D., 
1866 — 8 ; the Rev. Charles A. Aiken, D. D., 
1869—71 ; and the Rev. Eliphalet Nott Potter, 
D. D., since 1871. 



UNITARIANS 



UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST 823 



"UNITARIANS are a body of Christians 
-who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and assert 
the absolute unity of God. They deny the deity 
of Christ and his equality with God the Father, 
but do not reject his divinity, or any exalted 
rank consistent with his subordination to God, 
They reject the doctrine of total depravity and 
moral inability , and of the necessity of a vicarious 
atonement. They have no written creed, and in- 
dividual Unitarians differ greatly on many 
points. Arianism, originating in the 4th cent- 
ury, was the parent of Soeinianism. in the 16th ; 
and from the latter. Unitarianism has descended. 
Persecution confined Soeinianism, at the close of 
the 17th century, to Transylvania, where there 
are now over 100 congregations of I nitarians, 
with nearly 60,000 members. They have a col- 
lege at Klausenburg. They are governed by an 
ecclesiastical council and a bishop. In England, 
the growth of the denomination warranted the 
foundation, in 182."), of the British and Foreign 
Unitarian Association. In the United King- 
dom, there are now not far from 400 congrega- 
tions. The Unitarians have a college in Lon- 
don, and another in Manchester. The American 
Unitarian Association was also organized in 
1825. It was incorporated in 1847. and has its 
headquarters in Boston. The National Confer- 
ence of Unitarian and other Christian Churches 
was organized in 1865. In the United .States, 
the Unitarians separated from the Congregation- 
alists. They have about 350 or 360 congrega- 
tions throughout the country, the denomination 
being most uumerous in Massachusetts, especially 
in Boston and its vicinity, where it took its rise. 
Except in Transylvania, the Unitarians have a 
congregational form of church government. In 
the United States, the denomination has always 
been largely constituted from the most highly 
educated portion of the community; and its 
members have been noted for their public 
spirit, and their interest in educational and 
benevolent affairs. The Society for Promoting 
Theological Education (headquarters in Boston) 
was organized in 1816, and incorporated in 1831. 
It aims to enlarge the apparatus of theological 
instruction, and to afford assistance to merito- 
rious theological students. The American Uni- 
tarian Association has a committee on theolog- 
ical education, and aids young men in preparing 
for the ministry. The Unitarian Sunday-Selu >< '1 
Society (Boston) was instituted in 1827. Since 
the early years of the century, the authorities erf 
Harvard University have been lai'gely Unita- 
rians, but the institution has never been under 
denominational control. The Harvard Divinity 
School was systematically established in 1816. 
In 1876 — 7. it had 4 professors. 5 cither instruct- 
ors, 23 students, and a library of L7.000 vol- 
umes. The Meadville Theological School, at 
Meadville, Pa., was chartered in 1846, and 
organized in 1847. In 1876—7, it had 4 res- 
ident and 3 non-resident professors, 12 students. 
and a library of 12,000 volumes. Unitarians 
have a share likewise in the control of Antioeh 
■College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. 



UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST. 

This church was founded by Philipp Wilhelm 
Otterbein, a minister of the German Reformed 
Church, who was born June 4., 1726. at Dillen- 
burg, Germany, and, in 1752, came to the United 
States, being one of the six young men who ac- 
companied the Rev. Michael Schlatter, the 
pioneer missionary of the German Reformed 
Church. (See Reformed Chtrcii.) The church 
which owes its foundation to him. originated in 
no doctrinal disputes, but was the result of the 
growth of vital piety in individual members. 
The name arose from the circumstance that, at 
a great revival meeting, when both Otterbein 
and Martin Boehm, a minister of the Mennonites, 
were preaching, Otterbein clasped Boehm in his 
arms, with the words, " We are brethren." In 
1800, the words "in Christ" were added to 
" United Brethren," in order to distinguish the 
church from the Moravians, who were also 
called United Brethren. The church, in 1876, 
had, in 43 annual conferences, 1 ,952 ministers 
and 143,881 members. — When Otterbein, in 
1774, organized, in Baltimore, an independent 
church, whose doctrines and discipline, with 
some slight modifications, became the doctrines 
ami discipline of the United Brethren in Christ, 
one of the articles of the church provided for 
the establishment of a German school. The 
fathers of the church had. for a long time, 
serious doubts about the expediency of establish- 
ing denominational institutions for higher edu- 
cation ; but, in 1845. the General Conference 
almost unanimously resolved " that proper meas- 
ures be adopted to establish an institution of 
learning." In 1846, the Scioto Annual Con- 
ference appointed a committee to purchase from 
the Methodist Episcopal Church the Blendon 
Young Men's Seminary, at Westerville, O., and 
thus, Otterbein University (q. v.), the first col- 
lege of the church, was established. In 1847, 
the Allegheny Conference resolved to establish 
an institution at Mount rieasant. Pa., or Johns- 
town. It was finally located at Mount Pleas- 
ant ; but, in 1858, the buildings were sold, and 
the interests transferred to Otterbein University. 
The seed thus planted rapidly took root. In ad- 
dition to the institution already mentioned, the 
following have since been established : Harts- 
ville University, Hartsville, Ind. (1851) ; West- 
ern College. Western, Iowa (1856); Westfield 
College, Westfield, 111. (1865); Green Hill Sem- 
inary, Poolsville, Ind. (1869); Avalon Academy, 
Ava'lon. Mo. (1869); Smithville High School, 
Smith-ville, O. ; Roanoke Classical Seminary, 
Roanoke, Ind. (1869); Lebanon Valley College, 
Lebanon, Pa. (1866); Lane University. Lecomp- 
tun.Kan.; Philomath College. Philomath. Oregon; 
and EIroy Seminary. Elroy, Wis. (1874). The ag- 
gregate number of students in these institutions, 
during the year 1875— 6, was over 1.000 males, 
of whom about 125 were preparing for the 
ministry, and about 600 females; the whole 
number, since their foundation, is about 15,000; 
and the total number of graduates, 300. The 
aggregate number of volumes in their libraries 



824 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH 



was 6,000 ; the endowment funds, collected and 
promised, amounted to $300,000. Co-education 
of the sexes has been the uniform rule in all the 
institutions of the church. As the fathers of 
the church bad an impression that college edu- 
cation had a tendency to make men indolent, 
they connected a manual labor department with 
two or more of the institutions ; but the project 
was soon found to be impracticable, and was, 
consequently, abandoned. — A still greater op- 
position than to the establishment of denomina- 
tional colleges and high schools, was, for a long 
time, made to the establishment of theological 
schools. The opponents of these schools took 
the ground that men cannot and should not be 
"trained for the ministry," and the special 
schools of theology were represented by them as 
"priest factories." This feeling, however, has 
gradually lost ground, and has now almost died 
away. In 1847, the Allegheny Conference re- 
solved that thereafter " a good theoretical and 
practical knowledge of English grammar, a gen- 
eral knowledge of geography, history (profane 
and ecclesiastical, ancient and modern), and 
theology should be a test for admission into the 
itinerancy." Soon after, a " course of reading for 
applicants to the ministry" was provided ; and 
they were annually examined upon this, and pro- 
moted and ordained, provided their progress 
woidd permit. This course was enlarged and im- 
proved from year to year, and is still the policy 
of the church. In 1865, the bishops, in their report 
to the General Conference, suggested that some 
plan superior, if possible, to the present " course 
of reading" and imperfect method of examina- 
tion, should be adopted, and enjoined upon the 
conferences. The committee of the General Con- 
ference on education reported in favor of recom- 
mending to the trustees of Otterbein University 
the propriety of connecting with that institution 
a theological department as soou as practicable ; 
but, as this plan appeared to many too radical 
an innovation, the General Conference com- 
promised on a recommendation to the trustees 
of the several colleges to connect with these 
schools biblical classes, embracing the course 
of reading recommended in the discipline of the 
church. In 1869, the General Conference ar- 
ranged for a board of education, and instructed 
this board to establish a Biblical Institute. In 
1871, this school was opened at Dayton, O., un- 
der the name of the Union Biblical Seminary. 
The sentiment in favor of a theological school 
increased so rapidly, that by the meeting of the 
General Conference, in 1873, every one of the 
annual conferences had endorsed it. — A board 
of educatiou was appointed in 1873. It ?s to 
make annual reports of the condition of the 
educational work of the church, with such rec- 
ommendations as may seem best for all its in- 
terests. The United Brethren have a well- 
organized Sabbath-school department. The num- 
ber of Sabbath schools, in 1876, was 2,854, 
with 163,439 pupils, officers, and teachers. The 
denominational book concern in Dayton, O., 
publishes several periodicals, speciaUy adapted 



to Sabbath schools. Nearly every conference- 
is connected with some one of the colleges, 
and aids in its maintenance. A collection is 
annually taken up in each church for gen- 
eral educational purposes; while the colleges, 
through instrumentalities of their own appoint- 
ment, are annually adding to their resources. 
The number of students in attendance is in- 
creasing ; the ministers are making better prep- 
arations for their work ; and the college gradu- 
ates occupy influential positions in the church. 
Much of the credit of the educational progress 
of the church is due to the Bev. Lewis Davis,. 
D. D., for eighteen years president of Otterbein 
University, and now (1877) senior professor in 
the Union Biblical Seminary. 

UNITED EVANGELICAL. CHURCH, 
the name of a Protestant state church in Prus- 
sia and most of the German states. It was 
formed, in 1817, by the union of the Lutheran 
and Reformed churches; and, in 1871, the en- 
tire population formerly connected with those 
churches, except about 60,000 Lutherans, be- 
longed to it. Although the church has now 
been in existence for more than half a century, 
there is still a very great diversity in the views 
entertained in regard to the nature and extent 
of the Union. A large portion of the Luther- 
ans, in particular, look upon it not as a new 
church, but merely as an administrative con- 
federation of the existing Lutheran and Re- 
formed churches. The church in Prussia was 
wholly under the administration of consistories 
appointed by the state until 1874, when the 
government began to carry into effect the prin- 
ciple of ecclesiastical self-government, by circle, 
provincial, and national synods. — As the recog- 
nized state church in Prussia and other German 
states, the United Evangelical Church co-oper- 
ates with the government, to a very large 
extent, in the control of primary, and, to some 
extent, also, in that of secondary schools. (See 
Germany.) The faculties of Protestant theol- 
ogy (see Theological Schools) in all the Ger- 
man universities, except Rostock, Leipsic, and 
Erlangen, are in official connection with this, 
church ; and it is universally admitted that, 
through them, the church has theological learn- 
ing at its command not surpassed by that of 
any other church. — Besides the theological facul- 
ties, through which candidates for the ministry 
receive their scientific education, the church has 
established a number of preachers' seminaries, 
some of which are connected with the theo- 
logical faculties, while others are independent of 
them. — The church, during the short period of its. 
existence, has displayed a remarkable zeal in the es- 
tablishment of reformatory schools, among which 
iheRauhes Hans, founded by J. H. Wichern, now 
a member of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council 
of Berlin, has gained a world-wide reputation, 
and served as a model for numerous other insti- 
tutions in and out of Germany. Another of the in-, 
institutions which owe their origin to this church, 
is that of the Protestant deaconesses, founded by 
Dr. Fliedner, in Kaiserswerth, who, though chiefly; 



UNITED STATES 



825 



devoted to the nursing of the siek, are also con- 
ducting a number of reformatory, industrial, 
and missionary schools. — In Europe, the United 
Evangelical Church is confined to Germany ; 
but, in 1840. a branch was established in the 
United States, which, in 1874, had 300 ministers 
and 40,000 communicants. The German lan- 
guage is still exclusively used in all the congre- 
gations. The church has a theological seminary 
in Warren Co.. Mo., and another educational 
institution at Elmhurst. 111. 

UNITED STATES of America, the most 
powerful nation of the Western Hemisphere, and 
the largest republic in the world, having an area 
of more than 3.600,000 sq. m..and a population, 
according to the last decennial census, in 1 s7<>. 
of 38.92S.598, consisting of 33,592,245 whites, 
4,886,38" colored persons, 63,254 Chinese, and 
383,712 Indians. 

Educational History. — The character of the 
early colonists of North America, courageous, 
independent, and intolerant of oppression, would 
of itself furnish presumptive evidence that the 
cause of education in the New World was not 
neglected. Positive evidence on this point, how- 
ever, is not wanting. The earliest records of the 
colonies attest the solicitude of the settlers for 
the proper instruction of their children. This 
is particularly true of the New England colonies ; 
and a forcible illustration of it is afforded in the 
early school legislation of Massachusetts, partic- 
ularly in its famous school law of 1647. (See 
Massachusetts.) A comparison of this law, 
which enunciates, as an important principle, the 
joint obligation of the family and the state to 
provide an education for the young, with the 
school legislation of the foremost European 
countries in the 18th century, entitles Massa- 
chusetts to a place in the front rank among the 
enlightened communities of that period. The 
history of some of the other colonies presents 
facts equally interesting and creditable. The 
most striking feature of the colonial school sys- 
tems was the connection of the school with the 
church, the clergyman, in many cases, being the 
school-master. The Puritans, the Huguenots, 
the Cavaliers, the Dutch settlers, and others 
brought this principle with them to their new 
homes; and the strength of their religious con- 
victions tended to perpetuate it. (For a fuller ac- 
count of the educational history of the colonies, 
see the articles on the thirteen original states.) — 
When the independence of the United States 
was established, education was not among the 
subjects which were committed to the control of 
the national government ; but each individual 
state engaged, in its own way, in the work of 
establishing and developing an educational sys- 
tem. Massachusetts, in the new constitution of 
1780, and Connecticut, by its establishment of 
a school fund, in 1795, re-asserted the principles 
which had been proclaimed in the 17th century. 
and made it the duty of legislatures and magis- 
trates to cherish the interests of public schools, 
grammar schools, colleges, and universities. New 
Hampshire, when amending its constitution in 



1784. expressed its entire concurrence in the 
constitution of Massachusetts ; and Vermont, in 
1793, declared that asuffieient number of schools 
should be maintained in every town. Rhode Is- 
land, which remained under the colonial charter 
until 1840, and Maine, which was admitted into 
the Union in 1820, have since indorsed the same 
principles ; so that the people of New England 
may be said to have been unanimous in their 
views and in their legislation on the subject of 
public education. In New York, the progress of 
the common-school system was not so rapid as 
in New England. The constitution of 1777 
made an allusion to schools; but, in 1785. the 
legislature created the Board of Regents of the 
University of the State, designed to promote the 
establishment of academies and colleges ; and. in 
1795, Governor George Clinton laid the founda- 
tion of the common-school system, of which 
Horace Mann, in 1845, could say, "the great 
state of New York, by means of her county 
superintendents, state normal school, and other- 
wise, is carrying forward the work of education 
more rapidly than any other state in the Union, 
or any other country in the world." Pennsyl- 
vania, in 1790, required the legislature to pro- 
vide for the establishment of schools throughout 
the state, in such a manner, that the poor might 
be taught gratis. New Jersey, in 1816, created 
a school fund, but a general system of state, 
county, and town supervision was not adopted 
until 1846. The new states of the North-West 
and on the Pacific have each built up a common- 
school system on the New England basis ; and 
the plan includes, in every state except Ohio, a 
university or high seminary of learning. In the 
southern states of the Union, the progress of 
educational institutions has been less satisfactory. 
Thomas Jefferson, in 1779, drafted a bill pro- 
viding a public-school system for Virginia, but 
it was not adopted til 1796, and then with a pro- 
viso which "completely defeated it." The con- 
stitution of 1851 applied one equal moiety of 
the capitation tax upon white persons to the 
purposes of education in primary and free 
schools ; but, neither in Virginia, nor in any other 
Southern state, were there schools, of any grade, 
which could compete, in number or efficiency, 
with the best schools of the North. When the 
civil war broke out. in 1861, several of the 
Southern states were still entirely without any 
system of common schools. The rapid growth of 
the slave population for which no education was 
provided, placed the Southern states among the 
; most illiterate countries of Christendom. After 
'• the close of the civil war, school systems rapidly 
developed in that section, most of them fully rec- 
I ognizing the essential principles of^ free popular 
I education. Virginia, Tennessee. Kentucky, and 
Missouri have "especially made progress in the 
' organization of effective systems of public in- 
struction ; while, in most of the others, consider- 
able progress has been made. — At the time of 
the Declaration of Independence, the schools of 
New England generally, and the great majority 
of the schools in the other original states, were 



826 



UNITED STATES 



of an exclusively Protestant character ; and the 
reading of the authorized version of the Bible, the 
singing of hymns, the saying of the Lord's Prayer, 
or other religious services, at the teacher's dis- 
cretion, constituted a part of the scholastic ex- 
ercises. When the vast influx of Irish and German 
immigrants had given to many of the states a 
numerous Eoman Catholic population, two ob- 
jections were raised to the prevailing school sys- 
tem. Protesting against Catholic pupils' being 
obliged to listen to the reading of a sectarian ver- 
sion of the Bible, and to the use of hymns and 
forms of prayer not sanctioned by their Church, 
and arguing that, according to the principles of 
the Catholic Church, religious and secular instruc- 
tion should go hand in hand, the Catholics asked 
for a division of the school fund, and thus com- 
menced a heated controversy which is not yet 
ended. (See Denominational Schools.) This agi- 
tation has, on the one hand, led to the abandon- 
ment of all religious exercises in the public 
schools, except the reading of the Bible without 
note or comment; and even this now meets with 
considerable opposition, and, in some places, has 
been abolished. (See Bible.) On the other hand, 
the expression of public opinion has been very 
decided against the support of denominational 
schools by public moneys, and in favor of the 
continued support and encouragement of the 
common-school system on a free secular basis. 
The president of the United States, in his mes- 
sage to Congress, Dec. 7., 1875, advised, " that a 
Constitutional amendment be submitted to the 
legislatures of the several states for ratification, 
making it the duty of each of the several states, 
to establish and forever maintain full public 
schools, adequate to the education of all the 
children in rudimentary branches, within their 
respective limits, irrespective of sex, color, birth- 
place, or religion ; forbidding the teaching, in 
said schools, of religious, atheistic, or pagan ten- 
ets, and prohibiting the granting of any school 
fund or school taxes, or any part thereof, either 
by legislative, municipal, or other authority, for 
the benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of 
any religious sect or denomination" ; but this 
recommendation was not acted on. Properly 
speaking, the United States has no public-school 
system, the function performed by the general 
government having always been that of fostering 
public education without assuming any control 
of it. (See Bureau of Education.) 

Congressional Land Grants. — The earliest 
action of this nature, was that of the ordinance 
for the government of the North- West Ter- 
ritory, passed in 1785. By this the sixteenth 
section (one square mile) in every township 
was set apart for the maintenance of common 
schools, this action being accompanied with the 
declaration that " religion, morality, and knowl- 
edge being necessary to good government and 
the happiness of mankind, schools and the means 
of education shall be forever encouraged." The 
states which have received the 1 6th section under 
this law, are Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Missis- 
sippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, Missouri, Ar- 



kansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Texas, and 
AVisconsin. In 1787, this ordinance was re- 
newed, and the grant was increased by two town- 
ships of land to be given to each state "for the 
purpose of a university." Li 1789, after the 
adoption of the federal constitution, this or- 
dinance was confirmed ; and, accordingly, every 
state that has been organized since the begin- 
ning of the present century, has received at least 
two townships for the encouragement of higher 
education, while Ohio received three — one while 
in its territorial condition, and two as a state ; 
and Florida and Wisconsin each received four. 
In 1806, the first appropriation was made for 
the education of the Indians ; and, from that 
time to 1870, the sum expended for this purpose 
has been $8,000,000. In 1836, the surplus fund 
in the United States Treasury, amounting to 
about $15,000,000 was loaned indefinitely to the 
older states for educational purposes ; and, in 
many, this now constitutes a permanent school 
fund (United States Deposit Fund). By the 
act of 1841, sixteen states have received each 
500,000 acres of land, as follows : Alabama, Ar- 
kansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
sas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon, and Wis- 
consin. A large portion of the proceeds of the sale 
of these lands was devoted to common-school pur- 
poses. From the beginning of the present century 
down to 1848, each state admitted into the 
Union has received the 16th section for the sup- 
port of common schools. In that year, the 36th 
section was added to the 16th for the same pur- 
pose, the territory of Oregon beiDg the first to 
receive it. Since that time, each new territory 
and state has received two sections. Under the 
acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860, apart of the public 
domain, amounting to 62,428,413 acres known 
as "swamp lands", was given to the states of 
Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, 
Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. A 
portion of the proceeds of this land, also, was 
devoted to the cause of education. The land 
granted by the general government, from 1785 
to 1862, amounts to nearly 140,000,000 acres ; 
the proceeds of nearly all of which have been 
devoted to school purposes. In 1862, a further 
grant was made, each state receiving 30,000 
acres for each senator and representative in 
Congress, the amount derived from the sale of 
such lands to be converted into a perpetual 
fund for the maintenance of at least one college 
in each state, in which the distinctive object 
should be. "without excluding other scientific 
and classical studies, and including military 
tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are 
related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in 
such manner as the legislatures of the states may 
respectively prescribe, in order to promote the 
liberal and practical education of the industrial 
classes in the several pursuits and professions of 
life." The amount of land subject to the dis- 
posal of the states by this law, is 9,510,000 acres. 
Thirty-seven states have thus far (1877) taken 



UNITED STATES 



827 



advantage of the liberal provisions of this law ; 
and many institutions have been opened, in most 
cases, independently, but in some, as departments 
of colleges or universities existing at the time. 
These are the institutions usually known as 
agricultural colleges ; though erroneously, since 
the law for their foundation does not exclude 
classical studies, but expressly declares that the 
intention of the Government is to promote the 
"liberal" as well as practical education of the in- 
dustrial classes. (See Agricultural Colleges.) 

Bureau of Education, etc. — In 1867, the na- 
tional bureau was established "for the purpose of 
collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the 
condition and progress of education in the several 
states and territories, and of diffusing such in- 
formation respecting the organization and man- 
agement of school systems and methods of teach- 
ing as shall aid the people of the United States 
in the establishment and maintenance of efficient 
school systems, and otherwise promote the cause 
of education throughout the country." (See 
Bureau of Education.) — In 1865, the Freed- 
men's Bureau was established by the government, 
for the purpose of watching over the interests of 
4,000,000 slaves freed by the proclamation of 
emancipation, and preparing them for citizen- 
ship. In 1869, the Bureau was abolished, ex- 
cept the educational department, which was con- 
tinued till 1870. The result of its five years' 
work has been the establishment of many in- 
stitutions for the superior instruction of the 
freedmen in the Southern States, mention of 
which is made under their respective titles. The 
field abandoned by it has since been occupied 
by several societies and associations, chiefly re- 
ligious. (See Freedmen's Schools.) 

Free-School Systems. — The idea of providing 
public instruction for all children at the expense 
of the community is by no means novel, for we 
find it in the celebrated school law of Massachu- 
setts, already referred to ; but the complete pre- 
dominance of the principle is a fact of recent 
date. In 1865, rate-bills were in use in 
New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Rhode 
Island, and Michigan ; but a vigorous agitation 
against this system ensued; and, in 1871, 
the rate-bill had entirely disappeard. But 
while free common schools are now found 
throughout the American Union, and the citizens 
may be said to be practically unanimous in their 
support, a radical difference of opinion continues 
to prevail in regard to the extension which 
should be given to the application of the system. 
While in many states secondary and even su- 
perior schools are included within the plan, the 
restriction of state support to elementary schools 
has many supporters. — In the New England 
states, in Illinois. Indiana, Iowa, Missouri. Ohio, 
and some other states, the township has always 
been the political unit upon which has devolved 
the obligation to make provision for education ; 
but, in most of the states, the township, for a 
time, almost disappeared as an element in the 
organization of the school system, the only di- 
visions being (1) the county, and (2) the 



! school-districts into which the county was divid- 
ed. After an extruded trial of the district 
system, most of the states have re-organized their 

' school systems on the township plan. The town- 
ship schools are under the control of local boards 
which are variously styled school committees, 
school visitors, school directors, school trustees, 
school commissioners, school boards, and pru- 
dential committees. These boards are generally 
elected by the people, but in some cases, they are 
appointed by the governor of the state. Of 
late, compulsory education laws have been passed 
in a number of the states ; but while the principle 
appears to gain favor, it is found to be difficult 

1 to enforce the laws. Twenty-three states, in 
1875, had each a state board of education for 
the general regulation of their public school 
systems; and all the states and territories (Dela- 
ware, since 1875) have state superintendents of 
public schools. — The expenses for the support of 
the public schools are defrayed (1) from state 
school funds (in 1875, $81,486,158 in the states, 
and $323,236 in the (territories), accumulated, 
for the most part, from national grants of lands 
and from appropriations made, from time to 
time, by the state legislatures ; (2) from state 
school taxes, which are raised in a majority of 
the states, and apportioned among the school 
districts; and (3) chiefly from local taxes. To 
these regular sources of income, must be added 
another which occupies an important position in 
the school finances ; that is (4) donations. The 
total income of the states, according to the report 
of the Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 
$87,527,278, and of the territories, $1,121,672. 
There is an immense difference in the amount 
of expenditure for the schools of different states, 
ranging from $22 per capita of the school popu- 
lation, in some states, to $1 in Florida. Virginia, 
South Carolina. Tennessee, and Georgia. In the 
number and amount of gifts for the promotion of 
learning, this country is unequaled by any other 
on the globe. In 1875, the sum total of donations 
reported to the Bureau of Education in Wash- 
ington was $4,126,562 ; in 1874, $6,053,304 ; in 
1872, $11,226,977. — The total school population 
of the states and territories amounted, in 1875, 
to 14.007,522. The number enrolled, which in 
the public schools naturally comprises chiefly the 
population between the ages of 5 or 6 and 15. was 
8,756,659;theaverage daily attendance, 4,251,808. 
The private schools in the states, as far as they 
were heard from, reported 180.635 pupils. In 
the northern and western states, there are but 
few native American children who do not attend 
school during any part of their lives; and, in most 
of these states, tlie enrollment of children (includ- 
ing those of private schools) exceeds the whole 
number between the ages of 5 and 1 5. (For detailed 
statistics, see School Census.) — The total num- 
ber of teachers reported in 1875, was 249,262, a 
large majority of whom were females. The 
necessity of schools for training teachers is 
of comparatively recent recognition, but now 
the number of normal schools is rapidly increas- 
ing. (See Teachers' Seminaries.) They are sup- 



828 



UNITED STATES 



plemented especially by Teachers' Institutes, 
which have become a prominent and universal 
feature of the American school system. The 
highest average monthly compensation of male 
teachers is $113 (in Massachusetts), the lowest 
$27 (in Alabama); the highest compensation of 
female teachers $100 (in Arizona); the lowest in 
Maine, $18. Alabama, Delaware, Kentucky, 
Nevada, and Texas report the same payment 
of salaries for male and female teachers. 

Grades of Instruction. — The division of 
schools into the three grades of primary, sec- 
ondary, and superior schools does not fully cor- 
respond, in the United States, to that usual in 
most of the European states. American colleges 
and universities, which are designated as superior 
schools, correspond, on the whole, to the higher 
classes of the gymnasium rather than to the 
university of continental Europe. (See Col- 
lege, and University.) The boundary line 
between secondary and primary schools is not 
sharply drawn; and the difference in the names 
applied in different states and cities to the sub- 
divisions of elementary schools renders an 
account of primary and secondary instruction of 
the United States exceedingly difficult. In New 
York City, the elementary schools are divided in- 
to primary and grammar departments. In Phila- 
delphia, the schools are divided into four grades 
or departments, — primary, secondary, grammar, 
and high. In Boston, Cleveland, and Chicago, 
the departments of the schools are high, grammar, 
and primary ; in Cincinnati, they are known as 
high, intermediate, and district; and in St. Louis 
as high, normal, and district. In nearly all the 
cities, the several departments of elementary in- 
struction are divided into grades; and, even 
in the smaller towns, grading is quite commonly 
adopted, though some states report that the prog- 
ress of the grading system is but slow. The 
kindergarten is rapidly gaining favor as an insti- 
tution for preparing young children for the pri- 
mary school; and, at the close of 1875, the num- 
ber was reported as 95, against 42 in 1873, with 
2,809 pupils, against 1,272 in 1873.— Within the 
last twenty years, the public high school, both for 
boys and girls, has become the favorite method 
of securing secondary instruction ; and, in the 
western states, it is now almost the exclusive 
method. (See High Schools.) In Michigan and 
Indiana, the public high schools already have 
a recognized position as proper feeders of the 
freshman classes in the universities of these two 
states; and several others of the western states 
are taking measures to adopt the same system ; 
while, throughout the eastern states, the public 
high school is supplying a demand which 
it is beyond the power of the endowed or tuition 
schools, usually known as academies, to meet. 
In New York and Maine, an alliance has been 
effected between a number of academies and the 
state and city systems, and the same is now at- 
tempted in Texas. The total number of sec- 
ondary (endowed or tuition) schools reported to 
the Bureau of Education, at Washington, in 1871 , 
was 638, with 80,227 pupils ; in 1873, 944, with 



118,570 pupils ; in 1875, 1,143 with 108,235 pu- 
pils. Of the 1,143 institutions, in 1875, there 
were 215 for boys, 311 for girls, and 617 for 
boys and girls together. The number of prepara- 
tory schools reported in 1875 was 102,with 12,954 
pupils. The schools for the superior instruction 
of women have increased with a rapidity which 
is one of the most marked features of the edu- 
cational progress of the United States. The 
number of institutions rose from 33 in 1870 to 
222 in 1875 ; the number of teachers, from 378 
to 2,405 ; the number of pupils, from 5,337 to 
23,795. The aggregate number of graduates in 
1875 was 17,379 ; and the number of degrees 
conferred, 490. — The number of universities and 
colleges is also rapidly increasing, being, in 
1875, 355, against 266 in 1870. The number of 
instructors, in the same time, rose from 2,823 to 
3,999; and of pupils, from 49,163 to 58,894. An 
elevation of the standard for admission was 
proposed, in 1873, by some of the leading col- 
leges, and has since made considerable progress. 
There is, at the same time, a strong disposition 
to relinquish the rigid uniformity of the old 
college curriculum, and to allow the pupils a 
greater liberty in the selection of their studies. 
An organization for holding annual intercol- 
legiate contests in oratory was formed, in 1874, 
in Illinois ; and, in 1875, a kindred association 
was organized among the students of some of 
the eastern colleges. (See College.) 

Professional and Special Schools. — All classes 
of professional schools are now increasing in the 
United States with great rapidity. In 1870, 
there were 17 schools of science, with 1,413 stu- 
dents ; while, in 1875, there were 74, with 7,157 
students. The schools of theology, in the same 
period, increased, from 80, with 3,254 students, to 
123, with 5.234 students ; the law schools, from 
28 to 43; the schools of medicine, from 63 tol06. 
There were, in 1875, also 41 institutions for the 
deaf and dumb, with 5,087 pupils; 29 institu- 
tions for the blind, with 2,054 pupils; 154 or- 
phan asylums, with 14,118 inmates; 17 soldiers' 
orphans' homes, with 2,382 inmates; 12 infant 
asylums, with 2,816 infants; 24 industrial 
schools, with 5,268 inmates; 47 reform schools, 
with 8,111 male and 2,559 female inmates. 
(For a fuller account of these institutions, see 
the articles Agricultural Colleges, Blind, 
Education of the, Deaf-Mutes, Industrial 
Schools, Law Schools, Medical Schools, Or- 
phan Asylums, Pharmaceutical Schools, Re- 
form Schools, Scientific Schools, and Theo- 
logical Schools.) 

Educational Periodicals. — A list of all the 
educational periodicals which appeared after 
1811 and prior to 1865, is given in Barnard's 
Journal of Education, 1865. In 1876, 116 edu- 
cational periodicals were issued in different parts 
of the Union. 

Literature. — One of the most valuable sources 
of information for the history of education in 
America is Barnard's American Journal of 
Education (begun in 1856 ; 24thvol.,1876). Since. 
1867, the official reports published by the U. S. 



UNIVERSALISTS 



829 



Bureau of Education present the material for 
a knowledge of the educational condition of the 
country with a completeness which leaves little to 
be desired, and are worthy of a comparison with 
the official publications of any country of Eu- 
rope. See also Gilman, Education in America, 
1776 — 1876, in North American Review, 1876; 
Lawrence, Educational Progress, in Harper's 
Monthly, Nov., 1875. — Among foreign works 
on education in the United States may be men- 
tioned the report made to the English government 
by the Rev. James Eraser, who, in 1865, spent six 
months in studying the educational institutions of 
the country ; Lavaleye, L' Instruction dupeuple; 
Hippeau, JJ Instruction publique aux Elats 
Unis; Wimmer, Die Kirche uml die Schlde in 
Nbrd-Amerika (Leips., 1853) ; Schaff, . 1 meriJc i, 
die politischen, social, n tend hirchlich-religiSsen 
Zustdn.de (Berlin, 1854) ; Dulojt, Ueber Schlde, 
deutsche . Schlde, amerikanische Schlde und 
deutsch-amerikanische Schule (Leips., 1866) ; 
Tr,oschel, Volhscharakter und Bildungsanslalr 
ten der Nbrdamerikaner (Berlin, 1867); Fran- 
cm Adams, The Free School System of the 
United States (London, 1875) ; Riqg, National 
Education (London, 1873). — On the peculiar 
features of the American school system, see A 
Statement of the Theory of Education in the 
United States of America (Washington, 1874). 

UNIVERSALISTS are distinguished from 
other < 'hristians by their belief in the final sal- 
vation of all human souls. Rev. John Murray, 
who came from England in 17711. is regarded as 
the founder of the denomination in this coun- 
try ; but no general denominational organization 
was made until 1785. The organization and 
government of the body are essentially congre- 
gational. Societies and churches are in many 
respects independent. The present organized 
strength of the denomination is exhibited in the 
following summary for the United States and 
Canada : 1 general convention ; 22 state con- 
ventions ; 69 associations ; 880 parishes, em- 
bracing 41.029 families; 656 church organiza- 
tions, having 32,947 members ; 640 Sunday- 
schools, having 59,463 teachers and pupils ; 756 
church edifices, with a property ,'above indebted- 
ness, of $7,465,495 ; and 706 ministers, includ- 
ing licentiates and the superannuated. The 
early preachers of the denomination were not 
generally men of liberal education. They even 
looked with distrust upon colleges and divinity 
schools, because of the support which these in- 
stitutions gave, directly or indirectly, to religious 
doctrines, which Universalists deemed false and 
pernicious in their influence. The free-school 
system of instruction received, however, the 
hearty approval of the growing denomination, as 
being in perfect harmony with its cherished be- 
lief in the common nature and common destiny 
of man. Universalists have ever, therefore, been 
steadfast and zealous in their defense and sup- 
port of common schools. Many faithful and 
laborious school superintendents and teachers 
are found among the clergy and educated lay- 
men. They would retain the Bible in the schools, 



but would be unwilling that it should be used and 
interpreted in the special interest of any denomina- 
tion. They would have education Christian, but 
not narrowly sectarian. In the first efforts of 
Universalists to establish schools under their 
control and patronage, they were mainly desirous 
of founding institutions which, while they should 
be Christian, should be kept free from obnoxious 
religious teachings and hurtful superstitions. 
They detested illiberality and bigotry, and were 
tardy, perhaps, in comprehending the full duty 
which, in the matter of education, a Christian 
denomination owes alike to itself, to the church, 
and to the world. In later years, they have 
manifested much interest and zeal in founding 
and endowing denominational schools. In not a 
few cases, schools have been commenced and 
continued for a time, and then closed from lack 
of patronage or endowments. Sometimes, enter- 
prises begun have been merged in others that 
promised a higher and better success. As the 
result of many efforts, — some abortive, and 
others partially successful, — Universalists have 
now under their control, seven academies, five 
colleges, and two divinity schools. — The first 
successful movement to found an institution of 
learning, was made in the state of Maine in 1830, 
under the guidance of the Rev.Wm. A. Drew, and 
the Rev. S. Brimblecom. men of high culture, and 
experienced teachers. It resulted in the incor- 
poration of Westbrook Seminary, in 1831, and 
in the opening of a school for both sexes, under 
the instruction of the Rev. S. Brimblecom. in 
1834. After many struggles, the seminary was 
permanently established, and its accommodations 
were made ample. It has earned and enjoys a wide 
reputation. 'J he female department is collegiate 
in character, and degrees are conferred upon 
female graduates by state authority. In the same 
year. 1831, through the exertions of the Rev. 
Stephen R. Smith. Clinton Liberal Institute was 
incorporated, in the state of New York, and 
funds were raised to erect a suitable building. It 
was opened for both sexes in 1832, two years be- 
fore the Westbrook Seminary was put in. opera- 
tion, ft offers superior opportunities to students. 
The female department occupies a separate 
building. Both departments have been effective 
in educational work. Funds have recently been 
raised to erect a large edifice for the accommoda- 
tion of both sexes. The other academies of the 
denomination are: in Vermont, the Green Mount- 
ain Perkins Institute, incorporated in 1848, anil 
Goddard Seminary, chartered in 1863 ; in Mas- 
sachusetts, Dean Academy, chartered in 1865; 
in Wisconsin. Jefferson Liberal Institute, incor- 
porated in 1866 ; and, in Iowa, Mitchell Semi- 
nary, chartered in 1871. Males and females are 
admitted to all. The denomination has no acad- 
emy for one sex only. Goddard Seminary 
has a very pleasant location. The school build- 
ing is large, of commanding architecture, and 
affords excellent accommodations for students. 
Dean Academy is. in its buildings and ap- 
pointments, unsurpassed by any institution of 
its grade in New England. Dr. Oliver Dean, 



830 



UNIVERSALISTS 



whose name it bears, left a large bequest for its 
endowment. — Tufts College, in Massachusetts, 
chartered in 1852, and organized under the Rev. 
Hosea Ballou, 2d, D. D., its first president, in 
1854, was the first college founded by Univers- 
alists. Its appointments and courses of study 
are those of an American university. Lombard 
University, in Illinois, was chartered as an acad- 
emy, by the name of The Illinois Liberal Insti- 
tute, in 1851. It was opened for students in 
1852, received college powers by legislative en- 
actment in 1853, and the name of Lombard 
University, with university powers, in 1857. 
St. Lawrence University, in Canton, N. Y., was 
chartered in 1856. Its collegiate department 
was opened and placed under the charge of the 
Rev. J. S. Lee, D. D., in 1 859. The preparatory de- 
partment was given up in 1864. Buchtel College, 
in Akron, Ohio (assets $300,000) the Rev. S. H. 
McCollester, D. I)., president, and Smithson Col- 
lege, in Indiana (assets $100,000) were chartered 
in 1871. They have elegant and commodious 
buildings, with superior school accommodations. 
— Before theological schools were instituted by 
Universalists, young men desirous of entering 
the ministry, were accustomed to avail them- 
selves of the instruction and libraries of influen- 
tial clergymen. The first theological school 
known in the denomination, was the enterprise 
of a single individual, and was temporary in its 
duration. It was opened, in 1845, by the Rev. 
Thomas J. Sawyer, D. D., at that time principal 
of Clinton Liberal Institute. It was continued 
by him till 1854, during which time about 25 
students were carried through systematic courses 
of theological study, and inducted into the 
Christian ministry. Among them, are some of 
the most highly esteemed clergymen of the order. 
St. Lawrence Theological School, a department 
of St. Lawrence University, was the first per- 
manently established divinity school. It was 
chartered in 1856, and opened in 1858, under the 
charge of the Rev. Ebenezer Fisher, D. D., who 
still continues in the position. It has a good 
endowment, a large library, 3 professors, and, at 
the present time, has in attendance 25 students. 
Tufts Divinity School, connected with Tufts Col- 
lege, was chartered in 1857, and organized in 1868, 
— the Rev. Thomas J. Sawyer, D. D., principal. 
It has 4 regular professors, and 3 non-resident 
professors or lecturers ; the present attendance 
of students, is 33. — The amount of property de- 
voted to denominational schools, — including acad- 
emies, colleges, and divinity schools, is estimated 
at $2,385,000. The number of teachers con- 
nected with them, is 99 ; and the number of 
students, 1,036. — Sunday-schools — reported as 
numbering 640 — are, as a rule, maintained in 
connection with all the churches, and a deep in- 
terest is felt and manifested in them. The at- 
tendance of pupils is generally large, and the 
classification complete. Instruction is made 
easy and effective by the use of catechisms 
adapted to pupils of different ages, uniform les- 
son and other papers, and well-selected libraries. 
State and other Sunday-school organizations, the 



normal training of teachers, public meetings, 
I celebrations, exhibitions, and concerts manifest 
and intensify the interest felt by young and old 
in this class of schools, which are regarded as an 
effective means of imparting religious instruc- 
' tion. There is, at the present time, no organiza- 
tion called an education society, connected with 
the Universalist body of Christians ; but each 
state convention is, by constitutional provision, 
required to devote special attention to the edu- 
cational interests of the denomination, within its 
territorial limits, including Sunday-schools and 
the best methods for their management; and the 
trustees of the General Convention are directed 
to present in their annual report "a general 
statement as to the condition and wants of the 
church, with respect to education and whatever 
else concerns its interests, with such suggestions 
as they may deem proper." It is also provided 
that " every school, academy, or college, main- 
tained at its expense, or conducted under the 
management of Universalists, shall send a copy 
of its annual report to the secretary of the state 
wherein it is situated, and to the secretary of its 
convention. The General Convention controls, 
also, the expenditure of the income from the so- 
called Murray Centenary Fund, of $120,000, 
which is appropriated to aid in the education of 
the clergy, and for other purposes connected 
with the extension and upbuilding of the Church. 
The amount of convention aid rendered to stu- 
dents in 1876, was $7,200. The denomination 
has been honored by the services of teachers 
of distinguished ability, great experience, and 
wide reputation. The Rev. T. Clowes, LL. D., 
one of the early principals of Clinton Liberal 
Institute, was a superior scholar, and noted for 
critical and learned research ; the Rev. D. M. 
Knapen is the author of a work on mathematics, 
and Prof. George Robert Perkins, LL. D., the 
author of valuable mathematical text-books. The 
Rev. H. B. Maglathlin is known as the editor of 
the Greenleaf series and of other mathematical 
works. The Rev. Otis A. Skinner, D. D., second 
president of Lombard University, as a teacher, 
and as a superintendent of schools, and for emi- 
nent services in raising funds for the establish- 
ment of Tufts College, is held in grateful re- 
membrance. Prof. J. V. N. Standish, of Lom- 
bard University, is widely known as a teacher 
of mathematics, and as a conductor of teachers' 
institutes. The Rev. J. S. Lee, D. D.. a graduate 
of Amherst College, in 1845, has, in various ca- 
pacities, given 28 years to educational work in 
the Universalist denomination. The Rev. James 
P.Weston, D.D., has, also, been 28 years a teacher 
in denominational schools. The Rev. Alonzo A. 
Miner, D. D., LL.D., is distinguished as a divine 
and a reformer, as well as a veteran educator. 
He opened, and successfully taught for several 
years, the Unity Scientific MilitaryAcademy, and 
was the second president of Tufts College, retain- 
ing the position for 12 years. As a member of 
the Massachusetts Board of Education, and as a 
lecturer, he has also rendered valuable service to 
the cause of education. 



UNIVERSITY 



831 



UNIVERSITY, a name first given, in the 
middle ages, to institutions for superior instruc- 
tion. In the second half of the 12th century, a 
free union of students of medicine was formed 
in Salerno (1150), and another of students of 
law in Bologna (1158). The students had equal 
rights with the professors in these unions ; 
which soon attracted such crowds that, in 
Bologna, the studies of medicine and theology 
were added; and, in Salerno, those of law and 
philosophy. This was the origin of the modern 
European university. At the university of 
Bologna, as well as at the universities of Padua 
and Naples, which were early established, the 
study of law remained predominant, ecclesias- 
tical and secular law [decreta and leges) being 
eagerly studied in order to obtain high offices in 
church and state. — In Paris, a university arose 
from the cathedral school, and, as the chief seat 
of scholasticism, soon attained the rank of the 
foremost university of western Europe. The 
formation of nations and of facidties exerted 
a decisive influence upon the further develop- 
ment of the university. As scholars from all 
parts of the Christian world flocked to Paris 
in large numbers, and the government of the 
state took no notice of them, they found it 
necessary to form national groups for the pur- 
pose of self government. Thus, the four nations 
of the Galileans (including Spaniards, Italians, 
Greeks, and Orientals), the Picards, the Nor- 
mans, and the English (including Germans and 
Northmen) were formed. The formation of 
special faculties was caused by the Mendicants' 
orders, which early recognized the importance of 
the rising university, and. as teachers of theology 
and ecclesiastical law, assumed, in regard to the 
nations, an independent position. In conse- 
quence of the complications which were pro- 
duced by their teaching, the professors of theol- 
ogy (about 1270), and, somewhat later, those of 
medicine and of ecclesiastical law, formed a 
union, and in this way organized three distinct 
faculties. The faculties represented, therefore, 
special sciences ; while the four nations, as a 
continuation and enlargement of the former 
cathedral school, represented the triviwm and the 
guadrivium, or the preparatory sciences. Fol- 
lowing, at length, the example of the other facul- 
ties, the nations gradually transformed them- 
selves into the faculty of the liberal arts, which, 
for a time, occupied a position inferior to that 
of the older faculties. These developments 
made the university of Paris the great literary 
center of Europe ; and, at times, it was attended 
by more than 20,000 students. — In (Germany, 
the first university was founded by the emperor 
Charles IV. at Prague, in 1348. It was fol- 
lowed, in the course of the 14th and 15th cent- 
uries, by many others, as follows: that of Vien- 
na (1365), Heidelberg (originally founded in 
1346, but not opened until 1386), Cologne (1388), 
Erfurt (1392), Wurtzburg, Leipsic, Rostock, 
Greifswalde. Freiburg, Treves, Tubingen, and 
Mayence. The Herman universities, which owed 
their establishment to the liberality of princes, 



became the chief nurseries of the humanistic stud- 
ies, and thus prepared the way for the Reforma- 
tion in the Kith century. The new high schools 
were called universitates (universities) not orig- 
■ inally as universitates literarwm, embracing the 
universality of sciences, but as universitates ma- 
gislrorum ft scholarium (the universal union of 
teachers and scholars). They were not regarded 
as strictly national institutions, but rather as 
high schools belonging to the entire < 'hristian 
world. Their privileges, therefore, had to be 
sanctioned by the Pope; and the chancellor, with- 
out whose consent no academic degree was valid, 
exercised his functions in the name of the Pope. 
In regard to their constitution, the universities 
were entirely independent corporations. The 
nations, as well as the faculties, had their own 
statutes, seals, and treasuries. At the head of a 
nation, was a procurator ; at the head of the en- 
tire university, a rector. The students lived in 
special halls, called colleges (in Germany, bursa*), 
in which they were provided with the necessaries 
of life, supported in their studies, and superin- 
tended in their daily life. Instruction was im- 
parted by means of lectures and disputations. 
The independence of the universities led to the 
organization of a system of academic degrees, in- 
tended to mark the various steps from the ma- 
turity of the student to the qualification of the 
academic teacher. At the Italian universities, 
the students, for a long time, chose their own 
professors ; but, gradually, the authorization to 
teach was limited to those who had been duly 
licensed, or acquired the degree of licentiate. 
After the Reformation in the lfith century, the 
number of universities in Germany rapidly in- 
creased, as every prince was anxious to have his 
own, and as there was, moreover, a rivalry be- 
tween the Catholic. Lutheran, and Reformed 
churches. The Protestant universities, having 
no connection with the Pope, became altogether 
national institutions; and, gradually, the Cath- 
olic universities were likewise regarded by the 
state authorities as being exclusively subject to 
state jurisdiction. In the case of the faculties 
of Catholic theology alone, some rights of super- 
intendence were conceded to the bishops of the 
country. Though stripped of their former in- 
dependence, the universities retained, however, 
until the time of the French Revolution, a con- 
siderable number of privileges; and a remnant of 
academic jurisdiction has, in some countries, 
maintained itself to the present day. — The 
Latin language continued for a long time to be 
exclusively used in the lectures of the university, 
but, from the beginning of the 1 Tth century, it 
gradually gave way to the native tongues. By 
this change, the universities became more in- 
timately associated with the entire literary and 
educational progress of the European countries, 
and began to exert a more direct influence upon 
primary as well as secondary instruction. — While 
the European universities may be said to have 
been the leaders in the wonderful progress which 
the world's literature, in all its departments, has 
made during the 18th and 19th centuries, their 



832 



UNIVERSITY 



UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 



course of studies has been steadily expanded. 
Though the mediaeval division into four facul- 
ties has been generally retained, the number of 
subjects taught in each faculty has been greatly 
enlarged. In some universities, the faculty of 
arts or of philosophy has been subdivided into 
two sections ; in some, new faculties (of political 
economy, or of natural sciences) have been added 
to these four traditional ones ; in some, there 
are two distinct theological faculties (one Prot- 
estant and one Catholic) ; in others, the theolog- 
ical faculty has been abolished. — It is generally 
agreed that, in the present century, the univer- 
sities of Germany have attained the highest stage 
of development. Recently, however, the Catholic 
Church has availed herself of the new educational 
law to establish a number of free Catholic univer- 
sities which, as schools of superior instruction, 
have the same organization as those in other 
countries of Europe. All of them are under the 
sole and absolute control of the state government, 
and they represent the highest or superior stage 
of the system of instruction which the state 
organizes for the rising generation. The uni- 
versity, as a school of superior instruction, is 
sharply distinguished from the secondary school, 
or gymnasium. The state requires that many 
classes of its officers should have spent three or 
four years at a university ; and admission to the 
university is made contingent upon passing a 
successful examination at one of the state gym- 
nasia. (See Germany.) The universities of Switz- 
erland, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, the 
Scandinavian kingdoms, Russia, and Greece, 
also those of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, agree 
substantially 'with the German institutions, 
having four or more faculties, and being schools 
of superior instruction. Those of recent origin, 
like the universities of Athens and Christiania, 
have been wholly fashioned after German mod- 
els. The universities in the British isles, and in 
the British possessions, materially differ from 
those of continental Europe, and some of them 
confine themselves to examinations and the con- 
ferring of degrees. (See England, Scotland, 
Ireland, Cambridge, London, and Oxford.) — 
The universities of France were abolished in 
1793; and, in the school legislation of Napoleon I., 
the name University of France was used in a 
different sense, being applied to the entire sys- 
tem of public instruction. (See France.) The 
states of Central and South America have a 
number of institutions called universities, but 
most of them have nothing in common with the 
universities of Europe except the name. In 
Turkey, China, Japan, and a number of other 
countries, efforts have recently been made to 
organize, or re-organize, schools of superior in- 
struction after the model of the European univer- 
sities ; but all these institutions are still in their 
infancy, or, at least, are not yet worthy of a com- 
parison with universities. In the United States, 
the term university is generally used in the same 
sense as that of college. (See Colleges.) Infor- 
mation in regard to the universities of the United 
States is given in the special articles in this -work 



on important institutions of that class. The 
Johns Hopkins University, at Baltimore, which 
was opened in 1876, is to be conducted after the 
German plan. The establishment of a National 
University, at Washington, to be, in the fullest 
sense of the word, an institution for superior in- 
struction, has been for several years agitated. 
An account of the universities of each impor- 
tant country of the world, embracing the latest 
statistics, is given in the articles in this work 
upon the several countries. The articles on the 
different classes of professional schools (Theo- 
logical, Law, Medical, Pharmaceutical, etc.) 
refer to the development of the different facul- 
ties.— See Malden, Origin of Universities and 
Academic Degrees (London, 1 835) ; H. von Sybel, 
Die deutschen unci die ausicartigenUniversitaten 
(Bonn, 1868); De Viriville, Hisloire des uni- 
versites en France (Paris, 1847); Barnard, His- 
tory of German Universities, translated from 
Karl von Raumer (N. Y., 1859) ; Schaff, Ger- 
many, Us Universities etc. (Phila., 1857); Hart, 
German Universities (N. Y., 1874). 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (London) was 
opened in Oct., 1828, under the title of The 
University of London. The object of its pro- 
moters was to found, in the metropolis, a seat of 
learning where all, without distinction of creed, 
might obtain a liberal education, whilst remain- 
ing under the care of their parents or friends 
at home. No religious instruction is given with- 
in the college walls, that being regarded as a 
home matter, for which parents and guardians 
must hold themselves responsible ; and thus it 
has been found possible to admit on terms of 
perfect equality all races and creeds. 

If the original intention had been adhered to, 
the college would have resembled a Scotch uni- 
versity, in which the teaching body and the body 
that grants degrees are the same ; but, when, 
year after year, the application to the govern- 
ment for a charter giving the right to confer de- 
grees, was resisted by the older universities, and 
by various medical bodies in the metropolis, a 
compromise was at length agreed to, in 1836. By 
tins compromise, the institution which is now 
known as University College, resigned its first 
title of University of London in favor of a new 
body to be created by the Crown, which should 
confer degrees upon students coming up to be 
examined from such colleges, in town and coun- 
try, as might, from time to time, be affiliated to 
the university. The close connection originally 
existing between University College and the 
University proper, has been maintained, about 
thirty-two per cent of the 2,665 degrees held by 
graduates at the end of 1873, having been con- 
ferred on students from the college. 

In University College, there are faculties of 
arts, of laws, of science, and of medicine, with 
an engineering department, and a fine arts de- 
partment. These are served by about 44 profess- 
ors. In the session ending midsummer, 1875, 
there were 565 students in the faculties of arts, 
of laws, and of science, including the fine arts 
and the engineering departments, and 335 .stu- 



UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 



UPPER IOWA UNIVERSITY 833 



dents in the faculty of medicine. In 1832, a 
school for boys was established in connection 
with the college, and placed under the head- 
mastership of the late professors Key and Mai- 
den. In this school, there were, in 1874 — 5, 
70fi pupils, the greatest number in any one term 
that session being 589. Among the professors 
in the college, there have been many men of 
high eminence. Of these may be mentioned 
Augustus De Morgan, who, for 34 years, was 
professor of mathematics. Many of his pupils 
afterwards, at Cambridge, achieved the highest 
honors, four, at least, becoming senior wrang- 
lers, among them. Todhunter and Routh. — 
The entire government of the college is vested 
in the council, a body of 24 gentlemen who are 

appointed by the members of the college fr 

themselves, and of whom fi retire every year; 
but the senate, which consists of the professors 
presided over by a member of council, often 
exerts, by its advice, great influence upon the 
decisions of the council. The presidents of council 
have been successively Lord Brougham, (Jeorge 
Grote, and Lord Belper. 

The college, as yet, has received no help from 
the public funds. It originated entirely in the 
efforts of private individuals. Its capital was 
subscribed in £100 shares, of which, in 1843, 
there were 1,710, the number of subscribers be- 
ing 1,072. The original deed of settlement pro- 
vided that the share-holders might receive a 
dividend not exceeding 4 per cent ; but, as a 
matter of fact, no dividend was ever paid, and. 
in L869, an act of parliament was obtained which 
divested the college of its proprietary character, 
and enlarged its powers by enabling it to give 
instruction in the fine arts, and to teach women 
as well as men. The subscribers, or those to 
whom the)' have transferred or bequeathed their 
shares, constitute, with the fellows and life- 
governors, the members of the college, and, at 
their annual meeting, fill the vacancies in the 
council. In the course of years, many of the 
shares had been ceded or forfeited, and lapsed 
shares were bestowed upon distinguished grad- 
uates of the college, styled fellows, or upon per- 
sons of eminence who might advantageously be 
associated in the government of the college, and 
who were styled life-governors. The first fellows 
were chosen in 1843; the life-governors are of 
much more recent origin, having been appointed 
subsequently to the act of parliament. 

The fine art or Slade schools (called into exist- 
ence by the munificent bequest of Mr. Felix 
Slade) have been very successful, so that already 
the accommodation provided is not sufficient. 
The number of students, male and female, in 
1874 — 5, was 220. Ladies are, for the present, 
admitted equally with gentlemen to the classes 
of political economy, jurisprudence, Roman law, 
and geology. A ladies' association, with the 
concurrence of the council, arranges separate 
classes also for ladies (taught, for the most part, 
by the professors) in the following subjects : 
French, German, Greek, mathematics, Latin, 
Italian, history, hygiene, English literature, phys- 



ics, and chemistry. In 1875 — 6, these classes 
numbered 17, and were attended by 394 ladies. 
Very few of the professorships are endowed ; 
hence, many of the professors, having to rely 
solely on fees, are inadequately paid. A royal 
commission, two years ago, recommended that 

1 the college should be helped by government 
grants, both to extend its appliances for the 
teaching of science, and to augment the stipends 
of the science professors. 

To the original share capital of the college, 
many donations and bequests have been added. 
Down to 1870, the expenditure on capital ac- 
count amounted to £202,287. The income 
arising, in the same year, from endowments 
amounted to £2,978, appropriated, for the most 
part, to special purposes (as to scholarships and 
prof essorsliips) . The amount received in fees, 

. in 1874 — 5, was over £27,000. nearly one-half 
from the school for boys. These figures refer to 

I every part of the college except the hospital. 
The eastern portion of the buildings, about 
400 feet in length, was erected first. In the center 
of this, is a handsome Corinthian portico, with 
a dome. During the last eight years, the south 
wing, which is occupied by the school, has been 
commenced, and nearly completed. By means 
of the Slade bequest, a portion of the north 
wing has also been built. The hospital, on the 
opposite side of Gower street, completes the quad- 
rangle ; it was opened in 1834. At University 
Hall, near the College, are rooms for 30 students; 

1 this is connected with the college, but under dif- 
ferent management. — See Pemnt < yclopcedia, 
art. University College; yearly Reports and Cal- 
endars of the College; Fifth Report of the Royal 
Commission on Scientific Instruction (1K74). 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE of San Fran- 
cisco, Cal., founded in 1859, is under Presby- 
terian control. It embraces a primary, a higher 
English, a classical preparatory, and a collegiate 
department. Females are admitted to the lower 
departments. The cost of tuition ranges from $G 
to $1 5 a month; but there is an extra charge for 
modern languages, book-keeping, drawing, and 
music. In 1874—5, there were 7 instructors and 
90 students. The principals have been as fol- 
lows : the Rev. Geo. Burrows, D. I).; the Rev. 
Peter V. Veeder, D. D-; the Rev. Wm. Alexan- 
der, I). D.; and the Rev. James Matthews, D. D., 
the present incumbent (1877). 

UPPER IOWA UNIVERSITY, at Fay- 
ette, Iowa, under Methodist Episcopal control, 
was opened as a seminary Jan. L, 1857, and 
chartered as a college in 18G0. It is supported 
by tuition fees and the income of au endowment 
of $15,000. It has libraries containing about 
2.000 volumes. Both sexes are admitted. There 
are six departments : collegiate (with a classical 
and a scientific course), preparatory. English, 
commercial, of music, and of fine arts. In L875 
— G, there were 9 instructors and 243 students 
(deducting repetitions), as follows : collegiate, 
30; preparatory, 5 6 ; English, 1 1 5 ; commercial, 
48; music, 50; painting, 16. The presidents 
have been as follows : the Rev. William H. 



834 



URBANA UNIVERSITY 



UTAH 



Poor, A. M., 1856 — 7 ; the Rev. Lucius H. Bug- 
bee, D. D., 1857—60 ; the Rev. William Brush, 
D. P>., 1860—9 ; the Rev. Charles N. Stowers, 
A. M., 1869—70 ; Byron W. McLain, Ph. D., 
1870—2 ; the Rev. Rhoderic Norton, A. M., 
1872—3; the Rev. J. W. Bissell, A. M. (vice- 
president) 1873—4; and the Rev. J. W. Bis- 
sell, A. M., president, since 1874. 

URBANA UNIVERSITY, at Urbana, 
Ohio, founded in 1850, is under Swedenborgian 
control. It had a large attendance of pupils of 
both sexes during the first ten years. At the 
outbreak of the war the attendance fell off, and 
the collegiate department was discontinued. The 
college was re-established, and the faculty re- 
organized in 1871. " The Union of Revelation 
and Science upon the basis of the theology given 
in the writings of Emmanuel Swedenborg is the 
distinctive principle of the New Church Uni- 
versity." It is supported chiefly by tuition fees 
and annual contributions. It has an invested 
fund of $10,000, and about $20,000 subscribed 
toward an endowment of $50,000. There are 
extensive botanical collections, a cabinet of min- 
erals and fossils, apparatus, and libraries contain- 
ing 5,000 volumes. The university embraces 
three departments : the grammar school, the 
college, and the school of theology. The school for 
girls is to be re-organized as soon as the means 
can be provided. The college has a classical 
course of four years, and a scientific course of 
three years. The cost of tuition is from $36 to 
$60 a year. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instruct- 
ors and 34 students (17 collegiate and 17 belong- 
ing to the grammar school). The presidents have 
been: Milo Q. William, A. M., 1853—7; the Rev. 
Chauncey Giles, A. M., 1858— C9 ; the Rev. 
Frank Sewall, A. M., since 1870. 

URSINUS COLLEGE, at Preeland, Mont- 
gomery Co., Pa., chartered in 1869 and opened in 
1870, is under the patronage of the Reformed 
(German) Church. The post office is College- 
ville. The college is chiefly supported by tuition 
fees (from $40 to $48 a year) and contributions. 
The institution has an academic or preparatory 
department, a collegiate department (classical 
course of four years and scientific course of 3 
years), and a theological department. The libraries 
contain 6,500 volumes, In 1876 — 7, there were 
10 instructors and 122 students (15 theological, 
41 collegiate, and 66 academic). The Rev. J. 
H. A. Bamberger, D. D., is (1877) the president. 

URUGUAY, a republic of South America, 
having an area of 69,800 square miles, and a 
population of about 300,000. The state religion 
is the Roman Catholic, to which almost the 
whole population belongs, but other creeds are 
tolerated. Uruguay has been an independent 
state since 1828. 

The instruction given in the government 
schools, which are few, is of a very inferior kind. 
The foreigners, — Germans, French, English, and 
others, have their own schools, which are of a 
much higher order. A female school exists in 
connection with the convent of the order of 
Saint Francis of Sales, in Montevideo. 



Secondary instruction is in a similarly de- 
pressed state. The Colegio of Montevideo forms 
a part of the Universidad mayor de la Sejmblica. 
This institution has from 5 to 7 professors, who 
teach Latin, mathematics, chemistry, law. French, 
English, navigation, and drawing. Although 
the majority of the students are only youth, 
numerous degrees of LL. D. are granted every 
year. The university is free, and is well attended. 
There is also, in connection with the university, 
a free primary school for poor children. Another 
colegio has been recently established in La Union, 
a short distance from Montevideo.— See Schmid, 
Evcyclopadie, art. Sudamerika; Woysch, Mil- 
theihmgen iiber das soziale unci kirchlic/w Leben 
in Uruguay (1864) ; Vaillant, La Republica 
Oriental del Uruguay (Montevideo, 1873). 

UTAH, one of the territories of the United 
States, forming a part of the land acquired, in 
1848. from Mexico. Its area is 84,476 sq. m.; 
and its population, in 1870, was 86,786, of whom 
118 were colored persons, 445, Chinese, and 179, 
civilized Indians. 

Educational History. — The first step taken 
by the people of the territory for the promotion 
of education, was an act passed by the provi- 
sional government in 1851, incorporating the 
University of Deseret, with an annual appropria- 
tion of $5,000. This contemplated not only the 
founding of a university, but the establishment 
of primary schools in connection with it. In 
1851, the chancellor and board of regents of the 
university were authorized to appoint a superin- 
tendent of primary schools, to be under their 
supervision, and to be paid by them a salary of 
not more than $1 ,000. Owing to limited pat- 
ronage and want of funds, the university had 
only a nominal existence till 1867, when it was 
re-organized, and conducted as a commercial 
college. At the time of the organization of the 
territory, in 1850, the 16th and 36th sections of 
land in each township were set apart by Con- 
gress for educational purposes ; and $5,000 was 
appropriated for the purchase of a library for 
the use of the inhabitants. In 1852, the assem- 
bly petitioned the general government for an 
appropriation of $24,000, for the use of schools ; 
but it was not granted. The same year, Con- 
gress was petitioned to make for this territory the 
same donations of land, to settlers, and for edu- 
cational purposes, as were made to the territory 
of Oregon in 1850. This also was refused. The 
rejection of a similar petition for aid in establish- 
ing schools, in 1854, led to the approval, by the 
territorial governor and legislature, of an act, 
which made it the duty of the chancellor and 
board of regents of the university to appoint & 
territorial superintendent of common schools, 
who should make an annual report to the re- 
gents of the number and condition of the 
schools. It was further provided that county 
courts should divide their respective counties 
into school-districts, each of which should elect 
3 trustees, who were to collect a tax on all tax- 
able property in the district, at such rate as the- 
voters at the district meeting should determine. 



UTAH 



835 



With the funds thus collected, the trustees were 
to establish and maintain the necessary number 
of schools, and make an animal report of their 
official proceedings to the boards of examination 
of their respective counties. The duties of these 
boards, which were appointed by the count}' 
courts, were to examine teachers, and make an 
annual report of the condition and statistics of the 
schools, to the superintendent of common schools. 
In 1855, the sum of $2,500 was directed by the 
governor ami assembly to lie appropriated for 
the building of an academy, at Salt Lake City ; 
but the low condition of the finances prevented 
its accomplishment, -in act of Congress, grant- 
ing lands for schools and for university purposes, 
was passed iu 1855; and, to make it effective, the 
assembly, in 1859, passed an act for the selection 
of land equal to two townships, for the establish- 
ment of a university. In 1804, the collection of 
certain moneys for the maintenance of the 
schools was authorized by the assembly ; and 
this was followed, in 1865, by an act " consol- 
idating and amending the school laws." These 
two acts were superseded, iu 1866, when a new 
school law was passed. Congress was again in- 
effectually petitioned, in 1867, for a donation, to 
the territory, of the lands included in the recorded 
plots of the several cities, towns, and villages of 
the territory, to aid in laying the foundation of 
a common-school fund. In 1868, the assembly 
passed an act giving greater definiteness to the 
meaning of the school law. The same year, and 
again in 18T0, attempts were made to obtain aid 
from Congress for educational purposes, but 
without success. In 1874, the assembly passed 
an act appropriating annually $15,000, for two 
years, for school purposes ; and this, with the 
various enactments extending back to 1866, con- ' 
stituted the school law of the territory till Feb- i 
ruary 18., 1876, when the present school law 
was approved. The first superintendent of 
common schools in the territory was Elias Smith, 
who was appointed under the act of October, 
1851. His successor was William Willes, ap- 
pointed iu 1856. In 1862, R. L. Campbell was 
appointed to the office by the chancellor and 
regents of the university, and held the office till 
1866, when he was elected territorial superin- 
tendent, which office he held till his death in 
1874. His successor was O. H. Kiggs, the pres- 
ent incumbent (1*77). 

School System. — The new school law. enacted 
in 1876, provides for the election of a territorial 
superintendent of district schools for 2 years, 
whose duty it is to exercise a general super- 
vision similar to that usually devolving on this 
officer. He is required to call a convention, to 
be composed of himself, the county superintend- 
ents, and the president of the university, for the 
purpose of determining what text-books shall be 
used in the schools, such books to remain un- 
changed, unless for sufficient cause, for 5 years 
from the time of their adoption. County supt Tin- 
tendents are elected at the same time, and for 
the same term, as the territorial superintendent. 
They are required to visit the schools at least 



twice every year, examine and audit accounts, 
apportion the school money, and make annual 
reports to the territorial superintendent. District 
trustees, three in number, are elected biennially. 
Their duties are, to provide school houses, to 
employ teachers, to visit the schools at least once 
during each term, and to assess and collect an- 
nually a tax of one-fourth of one per cent on all 
taxable property, which tax may be Increased, 
upon a two-thirds vote of the residents of the 
district, to a sum not exceeding .'! per cent per 
annum. There is a board of examination, con- 
sisting of 3 persons, apjjointed annually in each 
county, by the county court, for the purpose of 
examining teachers and granting certificates. 
The legislature is required to make an annual 
appropriation of $25,000, of which $20,000 is for 
the district schools, and 85,000 for the University 
of Deseret, provided the said university instruct, 
in its normal department, free of charge, 40 pu- 
pils, apportioned equally among the counties of 
the territory, such pupils pledging themselves to 
teach in the district schools of their respective 
counties, if required by the county superintend- 
ents, as many years as they may have received 
free tuition. The legal school age is from 6 to 
16 years. The school year varies according to 
the district, the county superintendents and 
trustees in each prescribing its length. The 
studies pursued are spelling, reading, writing, 
arithmetic, geography, grammar, book-keeping, 
history, music, and drawing. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts, in 1875, was 236 ; the number 
of schools, 296. 

The receipts for the support of schools, for the 
year 1875, were as follows : 

From territorial tax $15,000.00 

" rate biUa and other sources 95,532.70 

" local tax 20,267.28 

" district tax 49,568.87 

Total $180,3G8.85 

The expenditures were as follows : 
For general school purposes. .$130, 700. 98 
" buildings, repairs, etc.... 53,018.87 

Total $183,818.85 

The school statistics for the same year are : 
Number of children of school age (4 to 111 years) 35,096 
*' " " enrolled in public schools. . 19,278 
" " " " " private schools. 3,542 

Average attendance in public schools 13,40'J 

" " " private schools 2,437 

Number of teachers, males and females 458 

Average monthly salary of teachers $17.38 

Normal Instruction. — The normal department 
of the University of Deseret was established 
August 23., 1875, to continue one year, the fund 
for its maintenance being derived from appro- 
priations made bythe county courts. Applicants 
for admission must be over 16 years of age. 
must have a fair knowdedge of reading, writing, 
spelling, grammar, geography, and arithmetic, 
and some natural tact for imparting instruction. 
The course of study gives a prominent place 
throughout to the theory and practice of teach- 
ing. Ten counties are, thus far, represented 



836 VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY 



VASSAR COLLEGE 



among the students, the average daily attend- 
ance being 30. The first teachers' association, 
was organized in Salt Lake City in 1860. Since 
that time, teachers' institutes have been organ- 
ized in several counties, but they have not yet 
been permanently established by law. The Terri- 
torial Teachers' Association, of which the terri- 
torial superintendent is president, ex officio, was 
organized in 1870,and holds semi-aunual sessions 
in Salt Lake City. A territorial normal in- 
stitute was convened by the superintendent in 
the University of Deseret, in August, 1875, at 
which special attention was directed to the best 
methods of imparting instruction. 

Secondary Instruction. — The number of in- 
stitutions which afford anything beyond element- 
ary instruction is very limited. A number of 
select and mission schools and academies exist 
in the territory. Of these, the mission and 
denominational schools give instruction annually 
to about 1,250 pupils. The Methodists have 
six, — one each in Salt Lake City, Ogden, 
Tooele City, Provo, Nephi, and Beaver. The 
Episcopalians have one in Salt Lake City, one i 
at Ogden, and one at Logan. The Presbyterians 
have one each at Salt Lake City, Mt. Pleasant, 
and Bingham. The Catholics have one at Salt | 
Lake City. A commercial college was opened 1 



in the winter of 1875, in Salt Lake City. The 
total number of Latter Day Saint Sunday- 
schools, in 1876, was 162, with 2,588 teachers and 
20,411 pupils. 

Superior Instruction. — The University of Des- 
eret is the only institution in the territory 
established for the purpose of affording oppor- 
tunity for higher education. It is non-sectarian, 
and provides 3 courses, — a preliminary, a scien- 
tific, and a classical preparatory. It has a well 
supplied laboratory, a cabinet of several hundred 
specimens, valuable mathematical, philosophical, 
and chemical apparatus, and a library of 3,000 
volumes. Youth of both sexes, who are unable 
to bear the cost of tuition, are admitted free of 
charge, on application to the president. In 
1875, the number of instructors was 4, and 
the number of students 294, — 171 male, and 
123 female. The Timpanogos branch of the 
university was established at Provo City, in 
1870. It was suspended in 1875 ; but was re- 
organized the same year under the name of the 
Brigham Young Academy, the building and 
grounds, valued at $15,000, having been donated 
to the county by Brigham Young. It was opened 
in January, 1876. with 70 students, since in- 
creased to 125. This is the only school in the terri- 
tory in which instruction in theology is afforded. 



VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, at Nash- 
ville, Tenn., is under the control of the Metho- 
dist Episcopal Church, South. It was chartered 
in 1872 as The Central University of the Meth- 
odist Episcopal Church, South ; the name was 
changed, in 1873, in honor of Cornelius Vander- 
bilt, of New York, who gave the institution 
$500,000, to which he afterward added $200,000. 
The university was opened in October, 1875. 
The grounds and buildings cost $400,000. The 
site is at the west end of the city, half a mile 
from the corporation line. The library contains 
6,000 volumes. There are cabinets of fossils, 
minerals, and rocks, an astronomical observatory, 
and valuable philosophical and chemical appara- 
tus. The university is organized with four dis- 
tinct departments, as follows: (1) the depart- 
ment of philosophy, science, and literature ; 
(2) the Biblical department; (3) the law depart- 
ment ; (4) the medical department. The first 
department comprises 10 schools ; namely, Latin, 
Greek, modern languages and English, moral 
philosophy, philosophy and criticism, mathemat- 
ics, physics and astronomy, chemistry, natural 
history and geology, and engineering. The usual 
degrees are conferred. The annual tuition fees 
are as follows : Academic courses, $70 ; Biblical 
department, free ; law, $120 ; medical, $65. 
There are several scholarships entitling the hold- 
ers to free tuition, and fellowships are to he 
established. In 1875 — 6, there were 26 instruct- 
ors (academic department, 10 ; Biblical, 3 ; 
law, 3; medical, 10), and 307 students, including 
52 in theology, 25 in law, and 115 in medicine. 



Landon C. Garland, LL. D., has been the chan- 
cellor of the university since its organization. 
VASSAR COLLEGE (for women), at 

I Poughkeepsie, N. Y., was chartered in 1861, 
and opened in 1865. It was named after Mat- 
thew Vassar, of Poughkeepsie, its founder, 
whose gifts to it amount to about $778,000. It 
is not denominational. The name was Vassar 
Female College till 1867. The buildings are 
situated on a farm of about 200 acres, two miles 
east of the city. The unproductive property is 

\ valued (July 1., 1876) at $681,286 (real estate, 
$515,311 ; personal property, $165, 975) ; the 
amount of productive funds (for library, cab- 
inets, lectures, aid of students, and repairs), at 
7 per cent, is $281,000. The salaries and other 
current expenses are paid from students' fees. 
The charge for board is $300 per annum ; for 
tuition, $100. Liberal aid is afforded, either in 
gifts or loans, to students of high character and 
superior scholarship in the regular course. The 
college has valuable apparatus and cabinets, an 
art gallery, an astronomical observatory, and 
a library of over 10,000 volumes. The regular 
course is for four years. All applicants for ad- 
mission must be at least 16 years of age. The 
curriculum embraces Latin, Greek, French, Ger- 
man, mathematics, botany, zoology, mineralogy, 
geology, astronomy, physics, chemistry, physiol- 
ogy, English literature, rhetoric, history, mental 
philosophy, moral philosophy, etc. The arts taught 
in the college are vocal and instrumental music, 
drawing, painting, and modeling in clay or wax. 
Students sufficiently mature and advanced may 



VENEZUELA 



VENTILATION 



837 



take eclectic courses. Those who complete the 
regular course receive the first or baccalaureate 
degree in arts. A candidate for the second de- 
gree in arts must pass an examination in studies 
which have been approved by the faculty as 
equivalent to a post-graduate course of two full 
years. There is also a preparatory department. In 
1875 — 6, there were 29 instructors (7 males) and 
370 students, of whom '205 were of the collegiate 
grade (2 resident graduates, 183 pursuing the 
regular course, and 20, special courses). The 
presidents have been Milo P. Jewett, LL. P., 
1861 — 4 ; and John LI. Raymond, LL. D., since 
1864. 

VENEZUELA, a republic of South Amer- 
ica, having an area of 368,000 square miles, and 
a population of about 1,500,000. The religion 
of the people is the Roman Catholic, but others 
are tolerated. 

The education of the lower classes is very 
much neglected. Primary instruction is left to 
the care of the provincial deputations ; but, 
owing to their indifference, the law requiring 
every voter to be able to read and write, is in- 
operative. The number of primary schools was 
reported, in 1875, as 541, of which only 141 were 
government schools. The attendance at the for- 
mer was 7,064; at the latter, 11,017. The new 
constitution of 1876 provides that all moneys 
formerly appropriated for ecclesiastical purposes, 
shall henceforth be devoted to education. It also 
provides that no minister or priest, of any de- 
nomination whatever, shall be employed as a 
teacher in the public schools. The education of 
girls was for a long time entirely neglected by 
the government. Recently, however, the govern- 
ment has paid considerable attention to this 
subject. A higher female school has been estab- 
lished; and, in 1870, a junta inspectora was ap- 
pointed in Caracas, preparatory to the establish- 
ment of a national female college. 

Secondary as well as superior instruction is 
in a much more satisfactory condition, owing to 
the labors of the Jesuits, who. upon their expul- 
sion, left a prosperous college in Maracaybo, in 
which the Spanish language, the ancient lan- 
guages, poetry, rhetoric, and philosophy were 
taught. The university of ( 'aracas was founded, in 
1696, as a colegio, and raised to the rank of a uni- 
versity in 1722. For a long time, the colegio 
of Merida, which served as a university during 
the 18th century, competed successfully with 
the university of Caracas. At present, both of 
these institutions, as well as the medical school 
of * 'aracas. are under the control of the state. 
The university of Caracas had, in 1874, 19 pro- 
fessors and 165 students; and that of Merida, 12 
professors and about 1 50 students. The revenue 
of the endowment fund of the university of 
Caracas amounts to about $30,000. — Secondary 
instruction is imparted in 13 colegios nacionales, 
the total endowment funds of which amount to 
about $260,000. Law is taught at Barcelona; 
and, at Maracaybo. law, anatomy, physiology, 
and navigation. Besides the government schools, 
there are also the following private institutions : 



A colegio for poor students, in ( 'aracas ; the 
Colegio </<• la Jndependencia, in the same city; 
the Colegio de la FraUmidad, in La Cuayra; 
an elementary school for art and science, and a 
school for drawing and painting, in Caracas. — 
Bee Sohmid, Ehicyclopadie, art. &u.damerica. 

VENTILATION. Probably no subject con- 
nected with the improvement of schools has, of 
late years, been more fully and earnestly dis- 
cussed than that of ventilation. Unfortunately, 
however, the results reached have by no means 
corresponded in importance to the length or 
vigor of the discussion. Notwithstanding the mi- 
nute and elaborate experiments made by modern 
science on this subject, it is hardly too much to 
say that the only point of agreement is, that 
am] ile ventilation is of paramount importance 
in the economy of the school room. Any recom- 
mendation of particular methods of effecting 
this, or any appeal to statistics or experimental 
details, becomes at once the occasion for fresh 
dispute. The subject will be considered here under 
the following heads : (I) The conditions favor- 
able to proper ventilation; (II) The methods 
employed to utilize those conditions; (III) Some 
of the ways in which ventilation is prevented. 

I. Under this head, will be considered (1) the 
sources from which a proper supply of fresh air 
for the school room is to lie obtained, and the 
quality of the air so obtained ; and (2) the de- 
termination of the quantity needed by each pu- 
pil for purposes of respiration. That the great 
reservoir of the outer air which surrounds the 
school room is the only proper source of supply 
for the lungs of its inmates, requires no demon- 
stration ; the only question being that which 
concerns its purity. The direct and intimate con- 
nection which has been ascertained to exist be- 
tween the air which we breathe and the blood, 
has been found to extend to the brain, and 
healthful intellectual activity and pure air are 
now almost convertible terms. Whatever causes, 
therefore, tend to vitiate the air surrounding 
the school building should be carefully eliminated. 
(Concerning the proper site of the school build- 
ing, as regarded from a sanitary stand-point, see 
Hygiene, School.) Another cause which, in 
certain sites, and, at certain seasons of the year, 
in any site, may affect the quality of the air in- 
troduced into the school room, is the height 
above the ground from which it te drawn. The 
danger to be" apprehended from malarial fever, 
one of the most insidious foes of the human 
race detected by modern sanitary science, has 
led recent writers on the subject of ventilation 
to recommend that the inlet for fresh air be 
placed as high as possible, so that the lower 
stratum of air — that near the ground or from the 
cellar— be not admitted.— Much of the difficulty 
which attaches to the subject of ventilation, 
arises from the fact that medical men who have 
given special attention to the matter, are by no 
means agreed as to the amount of pure air 
needed by each person for purposes of respira- 
tion ; their estimates of the number of cubic 
i feet of space required by each pupil in the 



838 



VENTILATION 



school room where the ventilation is ample, vary- 
ing from 300 to 1,200 From a comparative 
examination of various estimates, it appears that 
the average amount of fresh air required by each 
individual hourly is at least 1,000 cubic feet. In 
school rooms provided with adequate means of 
ventilation, this requires, according to most sani- 
tarians, at least 300 cubic feet of space for each 
pupil. This, though hardly above the minimum, 
exceeds, probably, in a majority of cases, the 
most liberal allowance made by those school 
officers who pride themselves on their generosity 
in this respect. Usually, the allowance is less 
than 110 cubic feet. The quantity of air, also, 
admitted by the ventilating apparatus, bears a 
constant relation to the size of the room. Says 
Dr. A. N. Bell on this point, "The smaller 
the space, the greater the necessity for, and the 
larger the opening required for, the admission 
of fresh air. * * * It has been calculated that, 
with ordinary exposure, an open space equal to 
5 inches in the square, will admit the passage of 
2,000 cubic feet hourly ; this, of course, implies 
that there should be an equal amount of open 
space for the escape of the air displaced.". 

II. In considering the different methods of 
ventilation, attention should, at the same time, 
be given to the method of warming the school- 
room ; since the two subjects are almost in- 
separably connected. The entrance of warm air 
into a room for breathing purposes, is inevitably 
attended by, and naturally suggests, a corre- 
sponding exit of vitiated air, and points unmis- 
takably to the resulting current as the most effi- 
cient means for ventilation. If the question 
were merely that of determining the easiest way 
of replacing a certain amount of impure, by a 
corresponding amount of pure, air, the problem 
would be one of easy solution ; since the differ- 
ence of temperature which generally exists be- 
tween the outer air and that of the school room 
furnishes the condition most favorable to venti- 
lation, the only agent needed being a connec- 
tion between the two, which is readily supplied 
by an open door or window. In summer, this 
method, which may be called the natural one, is 
in almost universal use, and is accompanied gen- 
erally with satisfactory results. In winter, how- 
ever, the violent displacement of one atmosphere 
by the other, which results from the greater dif- 
ference in their temperature, and which immedi- 
ately begins when a connection is made between 
them, makes itself felt in the shape of dangerous 
drafts. The problem for the inventor, therefore, 
is how to produce this change of air without any 
perceptible draft ; and to this additional con- 
dition, is to be attributed the practical failure of 
so many ingenious devices which, in theory, are 
admirable. One of the simplest and most effective 
methods of ventilation is used in connection 
with the method of warming described under 
the head of school hygiene. (See Hygiene, 
School.) It consists of a chimney with two 
flues, one for the fire, the other for ventilation 
The latter is separated from the former by a par- 
tition of metal which becomes heated by the air 



from the fire, and, by warming the column of 
air in the ventilating flue, causes it to ascend, 
tending thus to produce a vacuum, which the 
vitiated air of the room flows in to fill. The 
ventilating flue has two registers, one near 
the floor, the other near the ceiling, both of 
which can be controlled at pleasure. A more 
economical method consists in making a ven- 
tilating flue only, but making it sufficiently 
large to permit the passage of the stove pipe 
along its middle line, while leaving considerable 
air space around the latter. By extending the 
stove pipe to the top of the house, the heat of 
the stove is used, as in the previous case. If the 
room is warmed by an open fire, the increase in 
the ainount of fuel used should be charged to 
the account of ventilation, and the additional 
expense incurred should not be regarded as a 
violation of the laws of economy, but rather as 
an observance of the provisions of that true 
economy which does not look for immediate and 
petty results, but is fundamental in its action, 
and conducive to the permanent benefit of teacher 
and pupil. For combined ventilating and warm- 
ing purposes, in small school rooms, the open 
grate fire has many advantages ; but, of course, 
it should be carefully screened. For more elab- 
orate methods of ventilation, with modifications 
to suit circumstances, see the works quoted at 
the end of this article, in which the subject is 
exhaustively treated. 

III. The great importance of effective ventila- 
tion, to which it is exceedingly probable that 
the public mind is not yet sufficiently aroused, 
and the practical difficulty which attends it 
when any but the simplest means and appliances 
are used, render it necessary to make some 
mention of the ways in which proper ventilation 
is thwarted, even when it is apparently provided 
for. These are principally two: (1) a ventilating 
apparatus, originally inadequate in size, or, if 
adequate, the ineffective working of it, through 
frequent derangement ; (2) the overcrowding 
of the school room after the originally liberal 
estimates for air supply, based on a smaller 
number of pupils, have been made. Insufficient 
apparatus, from either the first or second cause 
mentioned above, is one of the commonest diffi- 
culties with which intelligent school officers 
have to contend; so easy is it for any one, in the 
absence of decidedly bad results, to lose sight of 
the essential conditions of a healthy school room, 
and so clamorous is the tax-payer usually for 
smaller demands upon his purse. In the com- 
promises which generally follow these contests 
between the pocket and the lungs, it is too often 
found that the greater concessions have been 
made by the latter. In the second case — that of 
overcrowding — the same deleterious effects fol- 
low, insufficient air sjsace being the evil in both. 
Even intelligent teachers are, in this way, fre- 
quently deceived. The number of pupils is in- 
creased so gradually that the evil is for a long 
time unsuspected, and not till its effects have 
declared themselves in some unmistakable, and 
perhaps fatal, manner, is attention called to the 



VERMONT 



839 



probable cause. — As has been said, the air pro- I 
vided for breathing purposes should be drawn 
from out-of-doors, at a height above the ground 
sufficient to preclude all danger from exhalatii ms. 
and should be introduced into the room at the 
opposite end from that at which the impure air 
passes out, and at the top of the room, but in 
such a way as to prevent drafts. This is best 
done by providing a number of small apertures, 
the air from which passes through the vitiated 
air of the room in numerous small currents 
which are imperceptible, and which cause the 
fresh air to be evenly diffused. If warmed by a 
cellar furnace, it should not be introduced into 
the room by floor registers, since these are always, 
more or less, traps for dust, which thus, in some 
shape, is liable to be taken into the lungs. The 
ventilating apparatus should not only be suf- 
ficiently large at the outset, but should be thor- 
oughly tested before it is introduced, so as to as- 
certain whether its working sustains the theory 
of its construction, and should be carefully exam- 
ined, from time to time, with the view to secure 
its constant efficiency. — See G. Wilson, A Hand- 
book t>f Hygiene and Sanitary Science (London, 
1873); Parker, A. Manual of Practical Hygiene 
(4th ed., London, 1873); Morin, On Warming 
and Ventilation of Occupied Buildings, in re- 
ports of Smithsonian Institution (1873 — 4); 
Proceedings of the Department of Superintend- 
ence of the National Educational Association, 
at Washington, January '27. and 28., 1875; 
Buisso.v, Rapport sur I'iuslriictiim primaire a 
Ve.cposition universelle de Vienne (Paris, 1875); 
The School Board Chronicle (London, March 
and May, 1875); Robson, School Architecture 
(London, 1874). 

VERMONT, one of the New England states 
of the American Union, into which it was ad- 
mitted in 1791. Its area is 10,212 sq.m.; audits 
population, in 1870, was 330,551. 

Educational History. — In 1761, after the ex- 
pulsion of the French from the valley of Lake 
Ohamplain and from Canada had given a feeling 
of security to the settlers, Vermont began to be 
rapidly filled with immigrants. In 1777, it was 
declared to be an independent state ; a constitu- 
tion was adopted, in 1778, and a government or- 
ganized. Some of the towns had already estab- 
lished schools. Previous to 1763, the people of 
Bennington had raised a school tax ; and. < October 
5., in that year, the town granted money to each 
of the three school-districts to aid in building 
school-houses. The first constitution of Vermont 
declared that a school or schools should be estab- 
lished in each town, by the legislature, for the 
instruction of youth. The first law of the state 
relating to schools was enacted October 22.. 1782, 
by which towns were empowered to form sehool- 
districts, and to elect trustees. The districts were 
authorized to choose officers, to hold property, 
to establish schools, build school-houses, etc. 
From this beginning, the school system lias been 
gradually developed, without radical change at 
any time. By the first school law, the anion 
of the towns in regard to the school was, in great 



measure, optional; but. as the government became 
settled in its methods, and the number of the 
towns was increased, the legislature adopted a 
different tone, and, in 1797, commanded the 
towns to support, schools, and later, in 1821 , pro- 
vided that the grand jury of each county should 
inquire annually, whether the several towns in 
the county had raised and properly expended 
the state school tax; and every delinquent town 
was made liable to'fine, — a provision which now 
applies to all the public money. The early legis- 
lation on the subject of schools gave to the town 
power to divide its territory into school-districts 
and to alter the same; but otherwise the district 
was independent of the town, and it has since 
come under the supervision and control of the 
town only by a slow process. The first step in this 
direction was a requirement that the town, in 
the annual division of the public money, should 
withhold the share otherwise due. from a district 
that had not supported a school during the pre- 
vious year. Next, came the provision, introduced 
in 1827, that persons employed as teachers must 
be licensed by town officers. The provisions re- 
quiring the selectmen of the town, in certain 
cases, to set up a school, and even to build a 
school-house, in and for a district, and to assess 
and cause to be collected a tax on the inhabitants 
contained in the grand list of the district, in or- 
der to pay for the same, left but a single step 
further in that direction. This was taken in the 
law of 1870, which permitted the towns to 
abolish the districts, and to intrust the manage- 
ment of the schools to a committee chosen by 
the town. Under the first school law, the dis- 
tricts had power to raise money by a tax on the 
grand fist or on the scholar ; consequently, the 
question, shall the school, after expending the 
public money, be supported wholly by a tax 
based on the grand list, and thus be wholly free, 
annually arose for decision in every school- 
district in the state. This question, probably, 
has been more widely and fully discussed, through 
a long period, than any other before the people 
of Vermont; and the history of the legislation on 
the subject is proportionally important. The law 
of 1782 gave to the prudential committee of the 
district power to assess a tax, according to the 
grand list of the district, sufficient to pay one- 
half of all the school expenses, and to the district 
the power to vote the other half on the basis of 
the grand list, or on the scholar. The revised 

-,l 1 law of 1797 provided that the district 

might vote the entire sum on either basis. In 
1>27. however, the power of the district to raise 

money on the scholar to build and repair sel I 

houses, and. in 1850, the power to raise money 
in a similar way to pay the wages of teachers, 
were revoked ; "and. in 1864, it was enacted that 
"All expenses incurred by school-districts tor the 
support of schools shall be defrayed bj a tax 
upon the grand list of the district." The deter- 
mination of the people, after eighty-two years of 
discussion, was. that the public schools should be 
wholly free. In the law of 1782, no enumeration 
of, studies to be pursued in the common schools 



840 



VERMONT 



was made. In 1797, English reading, writing, 
and arithmetic were specified as subjects to be 
taught; in 1827, orthography, English grammar, 
geography, history of the United States, and 
good behavior were added. Until 1841, no legal 
provision existed for the maintenance of more, 
or other, than one common school in each school- 
district. Instruction of the grade between that 
furnished by the common school and that fur- 
nished by the college, was provided for only in 
private schools, which existed at that time in all 
parts of the state. Contiguous districts, retain- 
ing their separate organization, privileges, and 
duties in reference to supporting each a school 
for the smaller children, were allowed to unite, 
and constitute one school-district, for the purpose 
of maintaining a school for the larger children. 
Three years later, districts having more children 
than could be well provided for in one school, were 
authorized to establish any required number and 
grade of schools. Later still, towns were empow- 
ered to establish districts for the support of high 
schools, and towns adopting the town system were 
permitted to establish schools of any needed grade. 
The growth of high and graded schools, during 
the last thirty-four years, is the most important 
feature in the recent educational history of 
Vermont. Within that period, public schools, 
free to the inhabitants of the town or district 
supporting them, in which instruction in the 
higher branches of learning is regularly provided 
for and given, have been established in at least 
twenty-seven towns ; while, in more than a score 
of others, schools of two or three departments 
are regularly supported. While, before that time, 
no student could be prepared for college in 
a public school, to-day as many students -are 
preparing for college in the public schools as in 
the private schools. — The supervision of schools 
by the town is involved in the requirement that 
public money be distributed to such districts 
only as support schools ; and supervision by the 
state is very clearly implied in the requirement 
that the grand jury in each county shall ascer- 
tain whether the several towns of the county 
have raised and properly expended the state 
school tax. In 1827, it was enacted, " that each 
town in this state shall choose a superintending 
committee who shall have the general charge of 
all the public schools in said town." The law 
further made it the duty of said committee to 
require full and satisfactory evidence of the good 
moral character of all instructors employed in 
said town, and to satisfy themselves, by personal 
examination, of their qualifications for teaching, 
and their capacity for the government of schools; 
and declared that no instructor should be entitled 
to any compensation for teaching in the public 
schools, unless he had obtained from the superin- 
tending committee, or a majority of them, a cer- 
tificate of qualification. The superintending com- 
mittee were required to visit the schools and to 
make careful examination thereof, to determine 
the class books to be used in the several schools, 
and to make returns to the secretary of state. 
The law requiring the election of a superintend- 



ing committee was repealed in 1833, but was 
revived in 1845 by an act which provided for the 
election of town superintendents, with powers 
and duties very similar to those already described. 
— The school law of 1827 required the secre- 
tary of state to collect school statistics from the 
towns ; and the same law provided that there 
should be annually chosen by the legislature a 
board of commissioners, consisting of five per- 
sons, to be denominated the Board of Commis- 
sioners for Common Schools. The board of com- 
missioners were to meet at least once a year. They 
were to prepare a list of text-books, and to ad- 
vise the superintending committees to select 
from the same for the use of the schools; to ex- 
amine the effect of the school laws of the state, 
and if, in their opinion, alterations in said laws 
were necessary, to specify the same, in their an- 
nual report to the legislature. The board of 
commissioners made a report in 1828 ; and, in 
1833, all laws concerning the supervision of 
schools were repealed. — With the restoration of 
town supervision, in 1845, came the restoration 
of state supervision by a state superintendent of 
common schools, annually elected by the general 
assembly, whose duties were essentially the same 
as those of the secretary of state and board of 
commissioners under the law of 182 7, except that 
he was not required to recommend text-books. 
Six annual elections of state superindendent, and 
six annual reports by that officer, followed the 
enactment of this law ; but, in 1851, the general 
assembly refused to choose a superintendent, and 
thus, through legislative neglect, state super- 
vision of the schools ceased. It was revived, how- 
ever, under a new law, in 1856, which provided 
for a board of education. To this board were in- 
trusted substantially the same powers as those 
granted to the earlier board of commissioners, 
with the added power of appointing a secretary. 
This officer was to keep a record of the official 
proceedings of the board, to hold teachers' in- 
stitutes, to visit all parts of the state and deliver 
lectures on subjects pertaining to education, to 
confer with town superintendents and visit 
schools with them, to collect statistics, and to re- 
port annually. Afterwai'd, the supervision of the 
normal schools, provided for in 1866, was com- 
mitted to the • board of education and their 
secretary. — The control and supervision of the 
schools by a board of education continued till 
1874, when it was replaced by the present 
system. — The state superintendents have been as 
follows : (under the title of Superintendent of 
Common Schools) Horace Eaton, 1845 — 50 ; 
Charles G. Burnham, 1850 — 51; (as Secretary of 
the Board of Education) J. S. Adams, 1856 — 67; 
A. E. Rankin, 1867—70; John H. French, 
1870 — 74; (as Superintendent of Education) 
Edward Conant, elected in 1874. 

School System. — The supervision and control 
of the public schools of the state are committed to 
a superintendent of education, who is elected 
biennially by the legislature. His duties are 
those discharged by the secretary of the board of 
education previous to 1874. Town superintend- 



VERMONT 



841 



ents are chosen annually by the people. They 
are required to visit the schools at least once a 
year, to hold two examinations of teachers each 
year, to grant certificates, and to report to the 
state superintendent once a year. Each district 
has a moderator, a clerk, a collector of taxes, a 
treasurer, one or three auditors, and a prudential 
committee, consisting of one or three voters re- 
siding in the district. These are all elected an- 
nually. The public money belongs to the 
towns, and is by them distributed to the dis- 
tricts, where these exist. It is derived from 
lands reserved for the use of schools in the orig- 
inal grants of the townships, from gifts to the 
towns, from the income derived from the United 
States deposit fund, which is apportioned to the 
several towns according to their population, and 
from taxation. Each town using the district sys^ 
tern, is required to appropriate annually as public 
money for the use of schools, such a sum as 
would be raised by a tax of nine cents on each 
dollar of the grand list of the town, increased by 
one half the income from the United States de- 
posit fund. Towns using the town system, are 
required to appropriate as public money all in- 
come for school purposes, derived from any of 
the sources mentioned above, except taxation ; 
and, in these towns, the selectmen may appropriate 
for the support of schools sums not exceed- 
ing the amount that would be raised by a tax of 
fifty cents on a dollar of the grand list of the 
town. All other moneys raised for school pur- 
poses must be voted by the towns or by the dis- 
tricts. Vermont has no state school fund. Kadi 
town is required to support a school or schools, 
the organization of which according to the town 
or district system, is optional. The school-dis- 
trict being the creation of the town, is subject, 
in every respect, to town control. The public 
schools are fret to the inhabitants of the towns 
or districts supporting them, and ample facilities 
are furnished for the establishment and support 
of graded and high schools. The studies pursued 
by law in the common schools, are reading, spell- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, geog- 
raphy, the history and constitution of the United 
States and of Vermont, and good behavior. The 
legal school age is from 5 to 20 years; the 
school year, 5 months or more. For children 
between the ages of 8 and 14 years, and for a 
period of 3 months, education is compulsory : 
and no child of this age, who has resided a year 
in the state can, without violation of the law. be 
employed in any mill or factory, unless he has 
attended a public, school for 3 months during 
the preceding year. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
organized school-districts, in 1874. was 2,224 : 
the number of fractional districts, 530 ; the 
number of common schools, 2.7*2. The amount 
of money received during the school year ending 
March 31., 1876, was as follows: 

From local tax $425,958.69 

" permanent fund 14,193.33 

" other sources 40,006.05 

Total $480,158.07 



The expenditures were as follows : 

For salaries of teachers $437,471.27 

" sites, buildings, ami tar- 

nitnre 67,010.83 

•■ fuel and incidentals 60,562.47 



Total $505,044.57 

The other chief items of school statistics are : 

Number of children of school age ■ > _! ..",77 

" " " enrolled in common Boho ols 71, 325 

Average daily attendance 3'.i,474 

Number of teachers, males 665 

females 3.1 is 

Total 4,113 

Normal Instruction. — There are three normal 
schools in the state— at Castleton, Randolph, 
and Johnson. Their financial management, and 
the employing of teachers for them, is committed 
to local boards of trustees. The arrangement of 
courses of study is intrusted to the respective 
boards of trustees and the superintendent of edu- 
cation. The graduation of students is controlled 
by a board of examiners, and the teachers em- 
ployed must be nominated and approved by 
the state superintendent. The graduates from 
these schools are licensed to teach in thestate for a 
term of years. An annual appropriation of 
$1,500 is made by the state to each school. — The 
< 'hittenden County Teachers' Association, organ- 
ized in 1847, and the Vermont State Teachers' 
Association, organized in 1848, hold annual 
meetings. 

Secondary ami Denominational Instruction. 
— In a few of the large towns, the Roman Cath- 
olics have established schools for the separate edu- 
cation of their children, and movements tending 
to the same end, are said to be in progress in other 
towns. Private schools, incorporated as academies, 
grammar schools, seminaries, etc.. exist in all 
parts of the state. The number of incorporated 
academies, county grammar schools, and academic 
departments of graded schools is about 100. 
The number of pupils pursuing higher studies 
was reported, in 1875, as 7,334. 

Superior Instruction. — Three institutions of 
this grade exist in the state as follows : 



NAME 



Middlebury College. 
Norwich University. 
University of Vermont. 



When 
found- 
ed 



Middlebury 1800 Cong. 
Northfield 1834 I'r. Epis. 

Burlington I 1791 Non-sect. 



Denomi- 
nation 



The Vermont Methodist Seminary and Fe- 
male College, at Montpelier. is the only institu- 
tion in the state exclusively devoted to the su- 
perior instruction of women. The value of its 
property is estimated at $80,000. In 1875, it 
had 8 instructors and 16b' students. The Uni- 
versity of Vermont also furnishes instruction to 
women on the same, conditions as to men. 

Professional ami Scientific Instruction.— The 
agricultural and scientific department of the 
University of Vermont constitutes the State 
Agricultural College, established in 1865. It has 
three regular courses. — one in theoretical and ap 
plied chemistry, one in civil engineering, and one 
in metallurgy and mining engineering. There is. 



842 VERMONT UNIVERSITY 



VIRGINIA 



also, a literary and scientific course, and a labo- 1 
ratory course, the latter for students in the med- 
ical department, and for teachers in academies 
who are required to give instruction in chemistry. 
In 1875, the number of instructors was 7, and 
the number of students, 20. Instruction in sci- 
ence is also given in the scientific department of 
Norwich University, and instruction in medi- 
cine, in the department for that purpose in the 
University of Vermont. 

Special Instruction. — The Home for Destitute 
Children, at Burlington, was founded in 1865, 
its origin being a small private asylum, opened 
at that time for seven indigent children. In 
1867, a permanent fund of nearly §50,000, was 
raised by subscription, and, in 1875, a new 
building was dedicated and opened. 

VERMONT, University of, at Burling- 
ton, Vt., was chartered in 1791, and opened in 
1800. In 1865, the congressional land grant to 
the state, for the support of an agricultural and 
mechanical college, was transferred to it, and it 
was incorporated as the University of Vermont 
and State Agricultural College. A medical de- 
partment was organized in 1809. It is supported 
partly by endowments and partly by tuition fees 
(5570 per annum in the medical and $45 in the 
other departments). The university has a library 
of 17,000 volumes and a valuable cabinet of 
natural history. In the academic department, 
there is, besides the classical course, a literary- 
scientific course, embracing Latin, the modern 
languages, and various branches of science, phys- 
ical, political, mental, and moral. In the agricult- 
ural and scientific department, there are courses 
in agriculture, in chemistry, in civil engineering, 
and in metallurgy and mining engineering. In 
each department, special courses may be pur- 
sued by those not candidates for a degree. Both 
sexes are admitted to the academic and scien- 
tific departments. In 1875 — 6, there were 21 in- 
structors (12 in the medical department) and 1 68 
students (76 medical). The presidents of the 
university have been as follows : the Rev. Daniel 
Clarke Sanders, 1). D., 1800—14; the Rev. Sam- 
uel Austin, D. D., 1815—21 ; the Rev. Daniel 
Haskel, A. M., 1821—4; the Rev. Willard Pres- 
ton, D. D., 1825—6 ; the Rev. James Marsh, 
D.D., 1826—33 ; the Rev. John Wheeler, D. D., 
1833—49 ; the Rev. Worthington Smith, D. D., 
1849—55 ; the Rev. Calvin Pease, D. D., 1855 
— 61 ; the Rev. Joseph Torrey, D. D., 1862—6; 
James Burrill Angell, LL.D., 1866 — 71; and 
Matthew Henry Buckham, A. M., since 1871. 

VILLANOVA, AugTistinian College of 
St. Thomas of, commonly called ViUanova 
College, at Villanova, Delaware Co., Pa., was 
founded in 1842, and chartered in 1848. It is a 
Roman Catholic institution, conducted by Her- 
mits of the Order of St. Augustine. It is supported 
by the fees of students, the regular charge for 
tuition, board, etc. being $150 per session of 
five months. The libraries contain 8,000 vol- 
umes. In the classical department, the studies 
necessary for graduation embrace a period of 
seven years, three of which are devoted to the 



preparatory classes, and four, to the collegiate. 
The scientific course requires six years. There 
is a commercial course of two years. The the- 
ological department has a four years' course. In 
1875 — 6, there were 17 instructors (2 theological) 
and 79 students (13 theological). The presidents 
have been as follows : (1) Patricius Eugene 
Moriarty, O.S.A.; (2) Jno. P. O'Dwyer, O.S.A.; 
(3) Wm, Harnett, O.S.A.; (4) Ambrose A. Mul- 
len, O. S. A. ; (5) Patrick A. Stanton, 0. S. A.; 
(6) Thomas Galberry, O.S.A.; (7) the Very Rev. 
Thomas C. Middleton, D. D., O.S.A., the present 
incuhibent (1877). 

VIRGINIA, the oldest of the thirteen orig- 
inal states of the American Union, having an 
area of about 45,000 sq. m., and a population, 
according to the federal census of 1870, of 
1,225,163, of whom 712,0S9 were whites, and 
512,841 colored persons. 

Educational History, — The history of educa- 
tion in Virginia may be divided into periods 
marked by the great political epochs of the state: 
(I) From '1607 to 1776; (II) From 1776 to 1865; 
(III) From 1865 to the present time. 

I. From 1607 to 1776. — Among the first cares 
of the Virginia colony was the provision for 
education. As early as 1619, some provision was 
made for a college, and for a free preparatory 
school ; but the massacre of 1622 destroyed 
these nascent institutions, and left education 
without any organized form until the creation 
of the College of William and Mary, in 1693. 
During the first three quarters of the 18th 
century, this college served well its objects, 
whilst the lower branches were taught by clergy- 
men, parents, and chance teachers. The germs 
of Washington College and Hampden Sidney 
College were planted near the close of this pe- 
riod. Some abortive efforts were made to edu- 
cate Indians and negroes. 

II. From 1776 to 1865.— The education of 
the people was an object of solicitude with the 
Virginia legislature, even during the Revolution- 
ary war, as was evinced by the report of an able 
committee, with Mr. Jefferson at its head, in 
favor of a scheme of public instruction. The 
plan reported was finally adopted in 1796, with, 
however, an important modification, which, by 
changing it from a mandatory state system to an 
optional county system, occasioned its failure. 
'J he next public movement was the creation of a 
literary fund in 1810, the interest of which was 
at first devoted exclusively to the education of 
the poor. This fund grew by the addition of 
fines, forfeitures, and escheats, until, by the end 
of the period, it amounted to two millions of 
dollars, and yielded an annual revenue of about 
$100,000, of which $80,000 was apportioned 
among the counties for paying the tuition of 
the poor children, chiefly in private schools, 
and the remainder was ultimately given to 
the State University and the Military Institute. 
— School commissioners were appointed in every 
county, to determine what children were entitled 
to the benefit of the public money, and to pay 
their tuition fees at a certain fixed rate, which 



VIRGINIA 



843 



varied at different times from 4 to 8 cents a day. 
Multitudes of children — sometimes more than 
30.000 in one year — were thus sent to school, 
who otherwise would have had no opportunity 
of receiving the simplest elements of education. 
But badly qualified teachers were often em- 
ployed, the poor experienced a feeling of humil- 
iation, ignorance was but slightly diminished, 
and the working of the system was so unsatis- 
factory that, every few years, efforts were made 
to provide something better. In 1829, an act 
was passed by the legislature, looking to a com- 
bination of private and public means for the 
maintenance of schools free to all. To this end, 
the school commissioners in any county were 
authorized to district the county, and to offer to 
contribute; two-fifths toward the cost of the 
building of a school-house in each district, and 
one hundred dollars towards maintaining a 
teacher, if the people woidd do the rest by vol- 
untary contribution. In a few counties, the ex- 
periment was tried vigorously, but not with 
much success anywhere. — Soon after the census 
of 1840 had revealed, for the first time, the large 
proportion of illiteracy existing among the 
whites, a strong and well-nigh successful move- 
ment was made to establish a state system of 
public free schools; but, in passing through the 
legislature, the scheme was marred, as Jefferson's 
had been before it, by giving it the shape of sim- 
ply authorizing any county to adopt a free 
school system for itself. This act was passed in 
1841), and nine counties by popular vote adopted 
the system; but. owing to defects, it was not 
satisfactory anywhere. The "Pauper System" 
still prevailed until the revenues of the Literary 
Fund were applied to the military defense of the 
state. — Unsatisfactory as was the condition of 
primary education during this period, the higher 
branches, on the other hand, were studied by an 
unusually large proportion of the Virginian 
youth. Many young men sought a liberal edu- 
cation at Harvard and Yale, and especially at 
Princeton college, while some crossed the ocean. 
William and Mary, Hampden Sidney, and 
Washington colleges supplied the means of ad- j 
vanced education in the state previous to the 
opening of the State University, in 1825. Sub- 
sequently were added Randolph Macon, Emory 
and Henry, Richmond, and Roanoke colleges — 
of which a more particular account is given else- j 
where. A constantly increasing number of sec- 
ondary schools existed in the state, ami some 
of them were conducted by highly educated 
men. — In 1838, an institution was founded by 
the state for the instruction and maintenance oi 
the deaf and dumb and the blind, and was en- 
dowed with an annuity of $35,000. The only 
special provision for female education consisted 
of private and denominational academies. 

III. From 1805 to 1875.— At the close of 
the civil war, in 1865, schools of all grades were 
prostrate within the territory remaining to Vir- 
ginia; but immediate efforts were made to revive 
them, and the census showed that the general 
school attendance in 1870 was not greatly below 



thatofl8G0. By this time, however, about one- 
sixth of the pupils were colored, owing to the 
establishment of colored schools by northern so- 
cieties and by the 1'reednien's Bureau. Increased 
poverty and the failure of revenue from the 
Literary Fund occasioned the falling off of at- 
tendance among the whites. — In 1869, the new 
state constitution prepared by the convention of 
1867 — 8, assembled under the Congressional 
Reconstruction Acts, became the organic law of 
the state. This constitution provided for a 
system of public free schools to be supported by 
taxation, state and local, and by the interest 
derived from the Literary Fund. The system 
was to be administered impartially as between 
the races, and to be in full operation by 1876. 
The first legislature which met after the adop- 
tion of the constitution promptly took up the 
subject, chose a state superintendent of public 
instruction, and. on the 11th of July. 1870, 
passed a complete school law, embodying a 
thorough and effective public free-school system, 
which was immediately put into successful oper- 
ation, and has grown steadily in strength and 
usefulness. — Before the establishment of the 
public-school system in Virginia, we ascertain, 
from the census of 1860 and other sources, that 
there were about 67,000 children at tending school 
in the present limits of Virginia, of whom 31 ,500 
were pauper children, whose instruction was paid 
for out of a portion of the interest of the Liter- 
ary Fund. The entire amount expended on 
these pauper children was $80,000, so that the 
instruction received was very rudimentary. There 
has been no great change in the aggregate of 
population of the counties now constituting Vir- 
ginia since 1 850. It may, therefore, be instructive 
to observe the school attendance in all schools. 
public and private, at different periods: 

In 1859 51,808 (U. S. Census) 

" 18G0 67,024 

" 1870 5S,:i74 

" 1875 207,771 (Va. School Returns) 

Of these, the colored pupils were about 10,000 
in 1870, and 58,760 in 1875.— 

Almost immediately on the establishment of 
the public-school system, in 1870, the number 
of pupils attending the public schools alone was 
more than twice as great as the total number 
which had, at any time previous, been found in 
schools of all sorts; and, besides this, then' were 
■ iver 20,000 children attending the private schools. 
While, in 1870, according to the U. S. census, 
taken for 1869 — 70, the number of pupils enrolled 
in schools of all sorts was 58,974 ; in 1870 — 71, 
the total number was 157,841, or an increase of 
Dearly 100,000 in one year. The enrollment of 
whites was more than doubled, while the colored 
pupils increased fourfold. Excepting one year. 
there was a gain in the public schools every year, 
for the first five years, in the attendance of both 
white and colored pupils. The number of whites 
increased from 89,734, in 1871, to 129,545, in 
1875; that of the colored pupils, from 38,554, 
in 1871, to 54,941, in 1875.— About $25,000, 
more or less has been annually distributed in the 



844 



VIRGINIA 



state from the Peabody fund. The object and 
conditions of distribution are the same in Vir- 
ginia as in the other Southern States- The money 
has been exceedingly useful, far more than would 
have been the same amount forming part of the 
ordinary local funds. There has been but one 
state superintendent in Virginia, — William 
H. Ruffner, LL. D., elected in 1870, and still in 
office (1877). 

School System. — The system is administered 
by a state board of education, a superintend- 
ent of public instruction, county and city 
superintendents of schools, and district trustees. 
The board of education, consists of the gov- 
ernor, the superintendent of public instruction, 
and the attorney-general. It controls the state 
school fund, appoints and removes county and 
city superintendents, and also district trustees, 
the latter absolutely, and the former subject 
to confirmation by the senate. The city school 
trustees are appointed by the city councils, but 
are removable by the state board. There are no 
popular votes in reference to either school offi- 
cers or taxation. The state board is the final 
tribunal for the decision of all appeals from the 
action of the state superintendent. It is also 
charged with regulating uniformity of text- 
books, and all other matters of detail not ex- 
pressly provided for by the law. The super- 
intendent of public instruction is elected by the 
legislature for four years, and receives a salary 
of $2,000, and $500 additional for traveling ex- 
penses. He is provided with an office in the 
state capitol, and has two clerks. He is the chief 
executive officer of the school system. His duties 
are to see to the enforcement of the school laws 
and regulations, and to promote an educational 
spirit among the people, to interpret the school 
laws, to decide appeals from the action of the 
county superintendents, to instruct and super- 
vise the school officers, to provide blanks, to ap- 
portion state school funds, to make tours of in- 
spection, to require reports of local officers, and 
to make an annual report, which goes to the 
legislature through the board of education, and 
is printed at state expense. County and city 
superintendents are appointed for four years ; 
their pay is graduated according to population 
and number of schools, but outside of the cities 
no superintendent can receive more than $700 
a year, to be drawn equally from state and coun- 
ty funds. They are charged with the usual 
duties of such officers in the most approved 
school systems. There are three district school 
trustees iu each magisterial district (which cor- 
responds to the township in other states). 
Besides the district boards, there is a county 
school board, composed of all the district trustees, 
with the county superintendent as president. 
The county board annually examines the records 
and vouchers of the district boards, and furnishes 
to the supervisors of the county estimates for 
the amounts wanted for school purposes. Teach- 
ers are examined and licensed by the county 
superintendent, and appointed by the district 
boards under written contracts. The six primary 



branches, reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, 
grammar, and geography, are required to be 
taught in all the public schools, and other branches 
are allowed in the rural districts under restric- 
tions. The law imposes no restriction on studies 
or the general management in the larger cities, 
the subject being regulated by the city school 
boards. The schools are free to all children be- 
tween 5 and 21 years of age, residing in the dis- 
trict, without charge for tuition, except that a 
monthly charge of $2.50 may be made for the 
higher branches, which are taught, under pre- 
scribed regulations, in some of the schools. Equal 
educational privileges are secured by law to white 
and colored children, but they must be taught 
in separate schools. The minimum school term 
is 5 months, and 15 is the minimum number of 
pupils prescribed to constitute a school. School- 
houses are provided and furnished at the expense 
of the district. School funds are derived from the 
state, the county, and the district. The state funds 
embrace the interest on the Literary Fund, a 
capitation tax of one dollar on every male citizen, 
and a tax of one mill on every dollar's worth 
of property in the state. Out of the state funds 
i are paid the expenses of the central office, and a 
! portion of the salaries of the county and city 
! superintendents ; the rest is apportioned among 
I the counties and cities to be used exclusively for 
the payment of teachers, except that the county 
superintendent's salary may be supplemented 
from this source in an amount not exceeding 
that received from the state. District funds 
(where they do not exceed a property levy of 5 
cents on the $100) are used exclusively for school- 
houses, furniture, incidental expenses, and for 
buying books for indigent children. Local funds 
are raised by the supervisors on the presentation 
of estimates from the school boards, but the 
estimates may be cut down by the supervisors. 
Cities having more than 10,000 inhabitants are 
allowed to manage their own school affairs in 
most respects. 

Educational Condition. — The whole number 
of school-districts in the state is 458 ; of public 
schools, 4,185. The graded system has been 
adopted in all the cities and towns, and in many 
thickly-settled country places ; so that, in 1875, 
there were 155 of such organizations, each hav- 
ing from 2 to 13 teachers. Some of the higher 
branches are usually taught in the upper grades. 
The schools are, with some exceptions, for both 
sexes. 

The most important school statistics (for 1875) 
are the following : 

Whole uumber of pupils enrolled 184,486 

" " " " in average attendance. 103,927 

Percentage of school population enrolled 38.2 

No. of teachers in public schools 4,262 

Average number of months schools were taught 5.59 

Value of public-school property $757,181 

Entire expenditure for public education. . . .$1,021,396 

Average monthly salary of teachers $30.48 

Whole no. of pupils in public and private schools 207,771 
" " teachers " " " " 5,581 

Normal Instruction. — Legal provision has not 
yet been made for normal instruction . There 



VIRGINIA 



84;". 



are three colored normal schools supported by 
foreign means ; and normal courses are supplied 
by some of the colleges. This is the case in 
Roanoke College, at Salem, and (for females) in 
Hollin's Institute, and Marion Female College. 
The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- 
tute is accomplishing an important work in the 
education of colored teachers. In 1875. it had 
18 instructors and 24,'f students. — Teachers' in- 
stitutes are held in most of the counties of the 
state ; and the larger of these receive assistance 
from the Peabody fund. 

Secondary Instruction. — Three cities have 
public high schools, separated from the lower 
grades, and organized somewhat differently. But. 
commonly the higher branches form a mere con- 
tinuation of the lower, and are somewhat inter- 
woven with them; and, as a means of supple- 
menting the public funds, a law, passed in 1874, 
allows a tuition fee to be charged of $2.50 per 
month, which is the only fee allowed in con- 
nection with the public-school system. Efforts 
are making to define the limits of secondary 
education, both public and private. 

Private and Corporate Schools. — Taking all 
grades of education, about 25,000, or less than 
one-eighth of the school-going population, are 
now educated outside of the state schools. The 
number of private schools (exclusively primary) 
is about (ioO. They are chiefly alphabet schools, 
or those intended for children of from five to 
ten years of age. There are also from 1G0 to 175 
private schools, called academies or classical 
schools, nearly every one of which has a primary 
department in which a majority of the pupils are 
found. A few schools (including some orphan 
asylums) are supported by church contributions, 
the most of which are Catholic or Episcopal. A 
large proportion of the academies, particularly 
those for girls, are under some special denomi- 
national influence. Superior teachers are often 
found in these schools, both for females and for 
males. Female incorporated academies are 
more numerous, and generally better provided 
for than those for males, and some of them are 
called colleges. Hut as respects college education 
proper, there has been no provision made for 
girls from either private or public means, to be 
compared with that made for boys. The higher 
branches are taught, to a greater or less extent. 
in about seventy female schools, twenty of 
which are incorporated. There are about sixty 
private male schools for secondary instruction, 
only six of which are incorporated. Some of the 
corporate academies have small endowments, but 
the great majority of the schools are wholly de- 
pendent on tuition fees and board bills. Besides 
the academies for one or the other sex, there are 
about 40 in which girls and boys are taught to- 
gether. There is a very small number of elee- 
mosynary boarding-schools, supported by the an- 
nual interest of funds given by benevolent indi- 
viduals. The number of pupils in private 
schools, both primary and secondary, in 1875, 
was 23,285, of whom 19,400 were white, and 
3,819, colored children. 



Superior Instruction. — The important insti- 
tutions of this grade are enumerated in the fol- 
lowing table : 




Emory & Henry Coll. . 
Hampden Sidney C< ill. 
Randolph Maeou Coll. 
Richmond College... 

Roanoke College 

University of Virginia 
Washington & Lee Uu. 
William & Marv Coll.. 



1s;ik 
1775 
1k:« 



M. E. S. 

Presb. 

M. E. s. 
1841 ;Baptist 
1853 jLuth. 
1819 Nou sect. 
1749 Non-sect. 
1693 Non-sect. 



Emory 

Hamp. Sidney 
Ashland 
Richmond 
Salem 

Charlottesville 
Lexington 
.Williamsburg 
For further information in regard to these institu- 
tions, see under their respective titles.) 

There were 9 institutions for the superior in- 
struction of women that reported to the United 
States Bureau of Education in 1*75, as follows: 
Albemarle Female Institute (non-sectarian), at 
Charlottesville; Farmville College (Meth. Epis. 
S.),at Farmville; Hollins Institute (Baptist), at 
Botetourt Springs ; Marion Female Institute 
(Evangelical Lutheran), at Marion; Martha. 
Washington College (Meth. Epis.), at Abingdon; 
Petersburg Female College (Methodist), at Pe- 
tersburg ; Southern Female College (non-sec- 
tarian), at Petersburg; Virginia Female Institute 
(non-sectarian), at Staunton; and YVesleyan 
Female Institute (Meth. Epis. S.). at Staunton. 
.Most of these institutions are authorized to 
confer degrees. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
institutions which afford instruction in science, 
theology, law, and medicine, are enumerated 
below : 

Schools of Science. 




Blacksburg 



222 
221 



Hampton Normal and Agri 
cultural Institute 

New Market Polytechnic In- 
stitute 

Virginia Agricultural and 
Bfechanical I lollege 

Virginia Military Institute. I Lexington 

The Hampton Normal and Agricultural In- 
stitute is a manual labor school, and a reproduc- 
tion of the Lahainaluna School in the Sand- 
wich Islands. It is intended for colored stu- 
dents of both sexes. The boys are taught 
(besides the ordinary elementary and academic 
branches) farm work and carpenter work, and 
the girls, sewing and domestic work. It was 
established by northern people, in conjunction 
witlt the Freedmen's Bureau, and has received 
probably $500,000 from sources beyond the 
state. The Virginia Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College was opened in 1872, and is sup- 
ported almost exclusively by the proceeds 
of two-thirds of the land scrip donated by 
Congress, the other third having been as- 
signed to the colored school at Hampton — the 
entire proceeds of the scrip amounting to 
about 830,000. The state legislature has given 
$45,000 for buildings, and $20,000 was paid by 



846 



VIRGINIA 



VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 



the county where it is located (Montgomery). 
The scheme of the college fixes it at about the 
grade of a high school, with special scientific 
and practical developments. It has a three 
years' curriculum, bifurcating after the first year 
into a special agricultural and a special mechan- 
ical course, each of two years. The Virginia 
Military Institute was opened at Lexington, in 
1839, on a plan similar to that of West Poiut, 
and at once became popular. The annuity, 
originally $6,000, was subsequently increased to 
$15,000 ; and the number of cadets, before the 
war was about 2f>0 (50 of them being state 
cadets). The buildings were burned in 1864; 
but since the war they have been restored, and 
the institution has been more flourishing than 
ever. The academic staff consists of 1 1 profess- 
ors and 9 assistants, the course of study, which 
is chiefly of a military and scientific character, 
being arranged for four years. Instruction in 
industrial chemistry, civil and mining engineer- 
ing, and agriculture, is also given in special de- 
partments of the University of Virginia, and in 
civil and mining engineering in Washington and 
Lee University. 

Schools of Theology. 



Name 



Richmond Institute. . 
St. John's Theol. Sem. 
Theol. Sem. of the Ev. 

Luth. Church 

Theol. Sem. of the 

Prot. Epis. Church. 
Union Theol. Sem. of 

the Gen. Assembly 



Location 



Richmond 
Norfolk 



When 

found- 
ed 



1831 
1823 



Religions 
denomi- 
nation 



Baptist 
E.C. 

Luth. 



Pr. Epis. 
Presb. 



Fairfax po. 

Hampden Sidney 1824 

The Richmond Institute was established for 
the purpose of preparing colored young men for 
the ministry, or for teaching. The qualifications 
for admission are a good moral character and fair 
intellectual ability. The number of instructors, 
in 1875, was 3 ; the number of students, 45. 
The Theological Seminary of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Church, in 1875, had 3 instructors 
and 11 students; the Theological Seminary of 
the Protestant Episcopal Church, during the 
same year, had 5 instructors and 51 students; and 
the Union Theological Seminary of the Pres- 
byterian General Assembly, 4 instructors and 74 
students. — Law is taught in the Law School of 
the University of Virginia, and the School of 
Law and Equity of Washington and Lee Uni- 
versity. In the former, the number of instruct- 
ors, in 1875, was 2 ; the number of students, 93; 
in the latter, 2 instructors and 17 students. — 
The Medical College of Virginia, at Richmond, 
is the only medical school in the state not con- 
nected with a college or university. It was 
founded in 1851, and, in 1875, had 18 profess- 
ors and instructors and 37 students. The 
course of study covers 2 years. Instruction in 
medicine is also given in the medical depart- 
ment of the University of Virginia, which pro- 
vides a course of a year, and, in 1875, numbered 
50 students and 5 professors. The equipment 
of the latter department for medical instruction 



is very complete, and, in some respects, its facil- 
ities for this purpose are unequalled. 

Special Instruction. — The Institution for the 
Education of the Deaf and Dumb, and the 
Blind, was opened in 1838, at Staunton. In- 
struction is given in the elementary branches of 
an English education, and in several trades and 
mechanical pursuits. There were 7 instructors 
and 100 pupils in the deaf-mute department, in 
1875 ; and in the department for the blind, 8 
instructors and employes, and 42 pupils. The 
Miller Manual Labor School had not been 
opened up to the summer of 1876 ; but it has 
an endowment of $1,000,000 left for its founda- 
tion by the will of Samuel Miller, of Lynch- 
burg, who died in 1869, leaving also the sum of 
$300,000 for founding and maintaining an 
orphan asylum at Lynchburg, and $100,000 to 
the University of Virginia for an agricultural 
department. The Manual Labor School, in the 
county of Albemarle, is for the benefit of the 
poor orphan white children of that county. 

Educational Literature. — The Educational 
Journal (monthly) is published jointly by the 
state association of teachers and the superin- 
tendent of public instruction, 12 pages of which 
are official, and paid for out of the school funds. 
A copy of the journal is sent to each county 
superintendent, and also to the clerk of each 
district school board. 

VIRGINIA, University of, in Albemarle 
Co., Va., a mile and a half west of Charlottes- 
ville, was chartered in 1819 and opened in 1824. 
It owes its organization, plan of government, and 
system of instruction to Thomas Jefferson. It is 
partly supported by an annual state appropri- 
ation of $30,000, and partly by tuition fees. In 
consideration of the appropriation, the university 
receives, free of tuition in the academic schools, 
students from the state over 18 years of age who 
have a suitable preparation. The tuition fees are 
ordinarily from $75 to $110 per year. The uni- 
versity library contains 36,000 volumes. Appli- 
cants for admission must be at least 1 6 years of 
age. In establishing the university of Virginia 
Mr. Jefferson, for the first time in America, 
threw open the doors of a University, in the true 
sense of the name, providing, as amply as the 
available means would permit, for thorough in- 
struction in independent schools, in all the chief 
branches of learning. Every student may select 
the schools he will attend, but in the academic 
department he is required, as a rule, to attend at 
least three. The professors are paid in part by 
salaries, and in part by tuition fees from pu- 
pils who attend their several schools. The 
schools in operation are as follows: 1, Latin; 
2, Greek; 3, modern languages ; 4, moral philos- 
ophy; 5, history, general literature, and rhetoric; 
6, mathematics; 7, natural philosophy (including 
mineralogy and geology) ; 8, general and applied 
chemistry ; 9, applied mathematics, engineering, 
and architecture ; 10, analytical and agricultural 
chemistry ; 11, natural history, experimental and 
practical agriculture ; 12, comparative anatomy, 
physiology, and surgery; 13, anatomy and materia 



VOICE 



847 



niedica; 14, medical jurisprudence, obstetrics, 
and the practice of medicine ; 15, chemistry and 
pharmacy: 16, common and statute law: 17. 
equity, mercantile, international, constitutional 
and civil law, and government. The academic 
degrees conferred by the university are those 
of (1) Proficient, for satisfactory attainments 
in certain subjects of study; (2) Graduate iu a 
school: (3) Bachelor of Letters; (4) Bachelor of 
Science : (5) Bachelor of Arts; and (6) Master of 
Arts. The professional degrees are Bachelor of 
Law, Doctor of Medicine, ( 'ivil Engineer, Mining 
Engineer, and Civil and Mining Engineer. No 
fixed time is required for the attainment of a 
degree; but, in some of the principal schools, the 
course commonly occupies three years. In 187o 
— 6, there were 17 instructors and ;Srfn students. 
James F. Harrison, M. 1)., is (1S77J the chair- 
man of the faculty. 

VOICE, Culture of the. The human voice 
may be considered as the audible expression of 
the mental and physical characteristics of its pos- 
sessor; and, therefore, no means employed in the 
varied processes of education are of more impor- 
tance than those that have regard to its culture. 
Its powers an; often widely misunderstood and 
misapplied, sometimes abused and destroyed. 
In the very beginning of education, large num- 
bers of boys, in addition to marked inherited 
peculiarities, such as defective ears, weak lungs, 
asthmatic and husky bronchial tubes, contracted 
chests, elongated palates, and inflamed, swollen 
tonsils, are permitted to indulge in the perni- 
cious habit of loud shouting and hurrahing, and 
in the baleful and distressing use of the chest 
tones, so frequently heard in the singing of male 
pupils. Every boy should be made to under- 
stand that if he thus abuses his voice, he must not 
expect to overcome his constitutional defects, or 
retain a tone which, even by assiduous practice, 
will become agreeable to his audience, in read- 
ing, declamation, or vocal music. Girls, while in 
many instances they have all the inherited dis- 
advantages above referred to, present, through 
their more delicate organization and guarded 
habits, far more promising material for the pro- 
duction of purely musical effects. Parents and 
teachers may well take warning, also, in the 
education of either boys or girls, against a long- 
continued strain upon their vocal chords. Many 
a young voice has been completely ruined 
by this untimely forcing of the powers of the 
youthful candidate for declamatory or musical 
honors. A child five years of age, for example, 
is placed on a chair, to amuse a large audience, 
by speaking or singing in a forced utterance, 
and with an unnaturally loud chest tone, entirely 
beyond its years, or powers of endurance. Such 
a tax upon its vocal chords, if long continued, 
is exceedingly injurious. The medium or fal- 
setto tone, that most mellow, most musical, most 
sweet and expressive part of the female voice, or 
of the unchanged voice of the boy, gradually de- 
teriorates, and is finally lost by this injurious 
process. The remedy for this destruction lies 
in the early protection of the health, and in the 



careful use of the young voice, at home, in 
school, in the church, and wherever there is any 
danger of this overstraining of its powers. The 
vocal exercises should be within a limited com- 
pass, — neither too high nor too low. All for- 
cing of the voice should be positively forbidden 

and avoided : and each lesson should come to a 
close without fatigue. An easy ami systematic 
mode of breathing should be an early acquisi- 
tion, since it lies at the foundation of all success 
in singing, as well as in speaking. Tone, of itself, 
being nothing more nor less than breath, or air 
in motion through contact with a sonorous body, 
it is important to know, to some degree at least, 
the character of the organs which enter into 
the production of vocal tone. All cultivated 
speakers and singers are conscious of a thorough 
employment of the abdominal muscles, and of 
those of the diaphragm, in order to secure com- 
plete control of the breath. Inhaling, however, 
may be carried to excess, a result well known to 
professional dramatic vocalists, who often pro- 
tect themselves against rupture by wearing 
shoulder braces, trusses, and abdominal sup- 
porters. Exhaling involves that careful use of 
the diaphragm, which keeps the intercostal 
nerves and muscles in a state of tension, in or- 
der that the lungs may have their fullest play. 
To know when and where to inhale and to 
exhale, is as necessary to the speaker, in his 
written or extemporaneously delivered sen- 
tences, as it is to the singer, in the enuncia- 
tion of his musical phrases ; and, in such case, 
it assumes the dignity of consummate art, — 
an indispensable and prime necessity to the con- 
scientious interpreter of either classic language 
or classic music. "Without ease, sustained repose, 
and a method made effective through long habit, 
in the management, of the breath, all subsequent 
attention to details in the art of speaking or 
singing is measurably lost. Demosthenes, with 
pebbles in his mouth, declaiming to the winds 
and waves on the sea-shore, and Praham, lifting 
up his voice amid the hills and forests of North- 
umberland, may profitably be remembered and 
imitated by all students who desire to remedy 
defects, and to acquire new breathing power. — 
A graceful attitude, ami thorough skill in the 
proper use of the breath being gained, the close 
sympathy always existing between the bronchial 
tubes and the stomach next demands attention. 
A rapid and complete digestion is esteemed by 
all intelligent persons the greatest of physical 
blessings ; and to no one is it a more necessary 
condition of success than to the public speaker 
or singer. So important is this to the pro- 
fessional vocalist, that those times, in the daily 
routine of duty, which find the lungs and 
bronchial tubes freest from the oppression aris- 
ing from sympathy with the stomach, in its 
process of digestion, should be selected for prac- 
tice. Proceeding upward toward the organs of 
articulation, we arrive at the trachea, or wind- 
pipe, the larynx, and the pharynx. It is a pro- 
lific subject of discussion among speakers and 
singers, whether the character of the tone de- 



848 



VOICE 



pends as much upon the size of the lungs, the 
bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, and 
the pharynx, as it does upon the condition of 
the muscles and nerves, and more remotely still 
upon the general organization, temperament, 
will, and endurance of the speaker or singer. It 
is surprising to notice the compass and the 
variety of tone which the larynx can produce, 
by using the vowels alone. Beginning with the 
lowest sounds of the base voice, and ascending 
in regular order through its limits, of one and a 
half or two octaves ; through the compass of 
the baritone, with a similar register, though 
somewhat higher in pitch ; and, successively, 
through the registers assigned to the tenor, 
contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices, 
there is embraced a compass of four octaves of 
available tones, susceptible of cultivation to an 
almost infinite degree of excellence. Base voices 
confine themselves mainly to the use of the 
chest tones throughout their entire register ; but 
the baritones, by a prudent use of the somber 
tone, and of the medium register, greatly increase 
the pure quality and flexibility of the higher 
portions of their voices. For the orator or 
declaimer, there is no quality of tone compar- 
able to that of the orotund base or barytone 
voice ; and, in the oratorio and opera, it is as- 
signed to characters of inherent dignity and 
force. The tenor voice, undoubtedly, demands 
a combination of native and acquired qualities, 
which, in some countries, are exceedingly rare. 
In its uncultivated state it is thin, reedy, and 
somewhat nasal ; but steady, persevering prac- 
tice upon the open vowels ah, oh, and oo, soon 
corrects this defect, and renders the tenor, of all 
male voices, the most tender and expressive. 
Great care should be exercised by tenor voices, lest 
the clear timbre of the chest tone be carried too 
high, thereby crushing out the delicacy of the 
real medium register, which is the most flexible 
and available part of the tenor voice. The 
contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices en- 
counter a similar difficulty, at the very outset of 
their practice, in combining the chest with the 
falsetto or medium voice. While this difficulty 
occurs in the higher register of the male voice, 
it is found in the lower register of the female 
voice, and presents obstacles in the way of 
cultivation, which nothing but long and per- 
sistent practice can overcome, though the strain 
upon the nervous system is far less than 
that experienced by the male voice. The 
contralto yields to no other female voice in 
depth and richness of tone, as is clearly evident 
after listening to singers like DAngri and Al- 
boni. Naturally not so flexible as the soprano 
or mezzo-soprano, it is yet endowed with a won- 
derful power in causing effects replete with the 
most ardent passion, and with the most noble 
womanly feeling. There is a great temptation 
to abuse the lower register of the contralto 
voice by indulging in the disagreeable habit of 
forcing the chest tones to a point bordering 
upon masculineness, if not positive coarseness. 
The practice of descending runs, diatonic and 



chromatic, using the medium, veiled, or somber 
tone, will gradually change this objectionable 
habit. There are not wanting cases, also, of 
contralto voices which have been destroyed by 
attempts to cultivate the tone and compass of 
the soprano, — a process absurd and unnatural 
to the last degree. Notwithstanding the efforts 
of some late authors to ignore the division of 
the female voice into at least three different 
registers, namely, the chest, the medium or fal- 
setto, and the head ; these registers are now gen- 
erally recognized by the highest and most 
competent authorities. Elaborate methods and 
studies for the development of the contralto, 
mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices have been 
devised with these three divisions constantly 
in view. Some even assert that there are five 
distinct registers, requiring as many different 
modes of producing the tone, — a condition of 
the larynx and pharynx suggesting an expert- 
ness in the management of the voice which may 
well be deemed bewildering. It is, however, too 
certain to admit of a doubt, that the voices of 
the most accomplished female vocalists living 
have been trained by recognizing this division 
into the chest, medium or falsetto, and head 
registers, and are, moreover, preserved in their 
wonted availability by adhering to the same 
method. Allusion has been made to the phar- 
ynx, or arched chamber immediately back of the 
palate, a most important modifier of the voice 
in its passage from the larynx, and the expan- 
sion and contraction of which gives greater or 
less volume of tone, especially if the root of the 
tongue be not artificially enlarged, so as to 
produce an impure throaiiness of tone, frequent- 
ly heard in voices imperfectly cultivated and 
badly managed. To know the important in- 
fluence of a healthy pharynx under complete 
control, it is only necessary to compare the voice 
of one possessing it, to that of a vocalist suffer- 
ing with a cold in the head, or with a catarrhal 
affection and swollen tonsils. The difference in 
the clearness of the vibrations, and in the dif- 
fusive character of the tone, is very perceptible 
and marked. — A clear knowledge of the organs 
which are employed in producing a vocal tone, 
and of the proper combination of the registers 
to secure power, purity, and equality throughout 
the entire vocal compass being gained, the organs 
of articulation present themselves for particular 
consideration; and this leads directly to the sub- 
ject of musical elocution. System and facility 
in breathing, the employment of all the proper 
organs, in their healthy condition, for the pro- 
duction of a pure tone, expertness in reading 
music, and the minutest attention to attitude 
and gesture, will all fail to produce an impression 
worth remembering, unless a true conception of 
the meaning of the words and music, a bold 
enunciation, a distinct articulation, a well- 
rounded phrasing, and an accurate intonation 
be added to the acquirements of the finished 
vocalist. Conception relates to both words and 
music. If it be necessary for the speaker to 
study well the signification of words, in order to 



VOICE 



849 



get at the true meaning of the poet, it is even 
more necessary for the singer to do so, since the 
effect of melody and harmony upon all per- 
sons, is such as to deprive them, measurably, 
of the power, for the time being, of judging of 
the signification of words. The singer who rests 
upon the simple effect of his melody, is certainly 
as weak as the speaker who relies upon his man- 
ner of uttering fine language, rather than upon 
the strength of the ideas involved. A true con- 
ception, it is hardly necessary to add, is the 
rarest of possessions among modern vocalists. 
Pronunciation.) in its musical connection, not 
only implies that enunciation, or careful throw- 
ing out of each syllable and word which good 
speech and declamation require, but also that 
which, not particularly recognizing the inflec- 
tions of reading or declamation, is entirely ab- 
sorbs 1 in the far more permeating channel of 
sound, a melody or recitative song according to 
a given key or scale. Dr. Rush alludes to this as 
the special advantage which the singer has over 
the speaker. Slowness and quickness of utter- 
ance are also controlled, to so great a degree, in 
music, by the relations of the notes, the bar, the 
fractional measure-marks, and words indicating 
varieties of movement, that there is left less lib- 
erty to the singer than to the speaker, in many 
respects. But such curtailment of liberty (which 
liberty, by the way, is often a clog to inex- 
perienced speakers), and. by consequence, greater 
concentration upon the characteristics of the 
melody, only tie the singer to a more vivid con- 
ception of the subject, and to a more distinct 
pronunciation of the words. For the correction 
of marked inelegancies of pronunciation, whether 
of foreign or native growth, no means are so 
effective as the careful study of the classic lan- 
guages, together with the study of the principal 
modern languages taught by native professors. 
( (£ these latter, the Italian is most musical in it- 
self, ami, therefore, is most useful to the musical 
student, whose pronunciation of his native lan- 
guage, particularly if he be English or German, 
will be vastly improved by often reading and 
singing in the most euphonious of modern lan- 
guages. Of distinct iirticiil.iliiin, it may in gen- 
eral lie said, that the vowels only are sung, while 
the consonants are articulated ; in other words, 
that the vowels are sung, and the consonants are 
n. In vocalizing alone, the larynx, obedient 
to the mind ami will, performs unassisted, save 
by the lungs, trachea, pharynx, and diaphragm, 
all those changes which promote power, purity, 
sweetness, and flexibility of tone. Some slight 
changes in the position of the jaws, tongue, and 
lips are necessary in vocalizing with ah, ee, oh, 
and oo ; but only the consonants, as initial, in- 
termediate, or final letters, require a constant 
and vigorous use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, 
which are the chief agents in acquiring an effect- 
ive articulation. Full respirations should be 
the rule, and partial respirations the exception. 
In plain music, where one or two notes are ap- 
propriated to a syllable, the article should not 
he separated from the noun or qualifying adjec- 



tive, nor the adjective from the noun, by a sepa- 
rate breathing; nor should the syllables of a word 
be separated. Long diatonic or chromatic runs, 
urjiei/i/iiis, trills, and nulnizus, must, however, be 
executed with an unbroken continuity of the 
musical phrase. The orotund basso or barytone, 
as well as the rich and deep contralto, require to 
be particular in their articulation, in order to be 
heard, since the very fullness of their voices pro- 
duces a resonance not easily overcome in large 
assembly rooms, tiood phrnsiiii/ implies good 
singing: such a knowledge of the composer's idea 
on the part of the singer, as shall not mar. to say 
the least, either the poetic or musical symmetry 
of what is sung. The singer should be able to 
analyze the phrases he sings, in order that, in 
melodic and harmonic construction, he may dis- 
cover where they begin, how they progress, aud 
where they end. But. if he cannot do this, he 
should be able, intuitively to giasp a musical 
passage to the fullest extent of its melodic 
proportions, and spontaneously to present it 
with such accessories as shall make it appear his 
own. All the bright coloring which may be im- 
parted by a vivid conception, a good pronuncia- 
tion and articulation, will be seriously dimmed 
by defective phrasing. Last, but by no means 
least, there must be the accurate intonation 
which is the result of a correct ear. Some per- 
sons do not hear correctly, concords becoming to 
them discords. Whether it be a local difficulty 
of the tympanum, or, as is more probable, a 
rigidity of the entire organization and sluggish- 
ness of temperament, the fact is obvious that 
defective ears are by no means uncommon : and, 
of course, to imitate musical sounds with the 
voice, in such cases, is an impossibility. The 
commonness of the defect increases, as we pro- 
ceed low in the scale of social being, particularly 
where, in addition to poverty and moral degra- 
dation, there is superadded the prolific cause, ab- 
sence of youthful opportunities of hearing music 
well sung or played. Could all classes, without 
exception, be gladdened, when young, by hear- 
ing music correctly sung and played, the num- 
ber of those who pass through life unmoved " by 
the concord of sweet sounds," would be much 
diminished. It is important, also, that the sounds 
heard by children, be correct both as to melody 
and rhythm, if it be expected that such children, 
when grown, shall have a so-called good ear for 
music." In remarking upon articulation, the 
value of the vowel sounds ah, ee, oh, and oo was 
noticed ; and it is known that a thorough scale, 
and rhythmical use of these, combined with all 
the consonants as initial and final letters, will 
not only develop a more distinct articulation, 
1 .nt also a purer, more effective, and manageable 
tone. Lor standard authorities, on this subject, 
Bee Bush, Philosophy of tin' Human I 
(Phila..l833); Edocabd Fodrniebe, Physiologie 
delaVoue etde la Parole (Paris. ls(;r,i ; Kmaxiki. 
G iei i \. /><./,' </» Chant (London); Bassini, Art 
of Singing (Boston, 1856) : New Method (Bos 
ton. 1869); Emma Seiler, The Voice in Singing 
(Phila., 1868).. . • ■ 



850 



"WABASH COLLEGE 



"WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY 



"WABASH COLLEGE, at Crawfordsville, 
Ind., chartered in 1833, is under Presbyterian 
control. It has productive funds to the amount 
of $240,000, and libraries containing 17,000 
volumes. It has an English and commercial, a 
preparatory, and a collegiate department, the 
latter with a classical and a scientific course. 
The cost of tuition is from $24 to $30 a year. 
There are several scholarships. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 12 instructors and 220 students (104 
collegiate, 64 preparatory, and 52 English and 
commercial). The Rev. Joseph F. Tuttle, D.D., 
is (1877) the president. 

"WACO UNIVERSITY, at Waco, Tex., 
founded in 1861, is under Baptist control, li 
has a small endowment, but is supported chiefly 
by tuition fees, the regular charge ranging from 
$15 to $25 per term of five months. The libra- 
ries contain about 2.500 volumes. It has a pre- 
paratory department, a collegiate department 
for females, and a classical and a scientific col- 
legiate course for males. In 1875 — 6, there 
were 11 instructors and 279 students (157 males 
and 122 females). The Rev. Rufus C. Burle- 
son, D. D., is (1877) the president. 

WAKE FOREST COLLEGE, in "Wake 
Co., N. C, founded in 1834, is under Baptist 
control. It is supported by tuition fees ($35 
per term of five months) and the income of an 
endowment of $25,000. The libraries contain 
about 8,000 volumes. The course of study com- 
prises six schools — Latin, Greek, modern lan- 
guages, mathematics, natural science, and moral 
philosophy. There is also a preparatory and a 
commercial course. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 pro- 
fessors and 91 students. The presidents have 
been: the Rev. Saml. Wait, D.D.; the Rev. Wm. 
Hooper, LL. D.; the Rev. John B. White ; and 
the Rev. W. M. Wingate, I>. D., the present in- 
cumbent (1877). 

WASHINGTON. See District of Columbia. 

WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Wash- 
ington, Alameda Co., Cal., founded in 1872, for 
the education of both sexes, is a non-sectarian 
institution. It has a preparatory, and an academic 
department with a four years' course. French, 
Spanish, German, Greek, and Latin, instrumental 
and vocal music, painting, drawing, etc. are op- 
tional studies. The institution is supported by 
the fees of students, the charge for tuition being 
from $50 to $80 a year. In 1875—6, there were 
10 instructors and 176 students. Silas S. Har- 
mon, A. M., has been the principal since the 
opening of the college. 

WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Chester- 
town, Md., founded in 1782, is a non-sectarian 
institution. There is a preparatory and a col- 
legiate department. The cost of tuition, except 
to holders of scholarships, ranges from $40 to 
$60 a year. The library contains about 1,300 
volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 3 instructors 
and 37 students (10 preparatory and 27 col- 



legiate). The presidents have been the Rev. Dr. 
Wm. Smith, the Rev. Dr. Colin Ferguson, Dr. 
Clowes, the Rev. Dr. Waters, R. W. Ringold, 
the Rev. A. J. Sutton, R. C. Berkeley, and Wm. 
J. Rivers, the latter since 1873. 

WASHINGTON AND JEFFERSON 
COLLEGE, at Washington, Pa., under Pres- 
byterian control, was formed, in 1865, by 
the consolidation of Jefferson College (at Can- 
onsburg, chartered in 1802), and Washington 
College (chartered in 1806). The former grew 
out of the Canonsburg Academy, opened in 1791; 
the latter had its origin 5n the Washington 
Academy, chartered in 1787, and opened in 
1789. The consolidated institution has an en- 
dowment of $220,000, a cabinet, and libraiies 
containing 9,000 volumes. Tuition to holders 
of scholarships is free ; to others the fee is $24 
a year. There is a preparatory and a collegiate 
department, the latter having a classical and a 
scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 pro- 
fessors and 175 students (140 collegiate and 35 
preparatory). The presidents have been as fol- 
lows: the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, D. D., LL. D., 
1866—9; the Rev. Saml. J. Wilson, D. D., LL. D> 
(pro tern.), 1869 ; the Rev. James J. Brownson, 
D.D. (pro tern.), 1870; and the Rev. Geo. P. 
Hays, D. D„ since 1870. 

WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVER- 
SITY, at Lexington, Va., was chartered in 1782. 
Its germ was a mathematical and classical school, 
called the Augusta Academy, established, in 
1749, near the site of Greenville, Augusta Co. 
In 1776, the name was changed to Liberty Hall. 
After several removals, it was located near Lex- 
ington, in 1785 ; and, in 1803, it was finally re- 
moved to its present site, within the limits of 
the town. The first commencement was held 
in 1785. In 1796, Washington donated to the 
institution the 100 shares of stock in the old 
James River Company, which the legislature 
had given him, and the name was changed to 
Washington College. In 1803, the Cincinnati 
Society appropriated their funds, nearly $25,000, 
to the college. During the civil war, the insti- 
tution was suspended. Soon after the death 
of Gen. Lee, in 1870, the present name was 
adopted. The university is supported by tui- 
tion fees (generally $70, a year, in the aca- 
demic departments, and $85, in the professional 
departments), and the income of endowments 
amounting to $200,000. It has a library of 
12,000 volumes, mineralogical, geological, and 
zoological cabinets, and valuable philosophical 
and chemical apparatus. The distinguishing 
features of the university are : (1) The arrange- 
ment of the course of study into distinct elect- 
ive schools or departments ; (2) The adaptation 
of the several departments to certain courses of 
study, to each of which is attached a correspond- 
ing degree. No degrees are conferred in course; 
but all are based upon actual attainments in a. 



WASHINGTON TERRITORY 



WAYLAND 



851 



completed course of study. The full course for 
Bachelor of Philosophy is 3 years ; for Bache- 
lor of Science and Arts, and ( 'ivil and Mining 
Engineer. 4 years. In 1*7(1, there were 15 in- 
structors and UK! students. The presidents have 
been as follows: the Rev. Win. Graham, A.M., 
1782— 96; Samuel L. Campbell. M. D„ 1 7!)6— 9; 
George A. Baxter, D.I)., 1799—1829; Louis 
Marshall. M. D., 1*30—34; Henry Vethake, 
LL.D., 1834— 6; Henry Kuffner, D.D., LL.I)., 
Is.'IC — 4*; George Junkin, 1>. O., 1848— (ill; 
(ien. Robert E. Lee, 1865 — 70; and Gen. <;. 
W. Custis I^ee, since 1871. 

WASHINGTON TERRITORY, one of 
the north-western territories of the United 
States, originally a part of Oregon, but organ- 
ized as an independent territory in 1853. Its 
area is 69,994 sq.m.; its population, in 1870. 
was 37,432, of whom 22,195 were whites. 207 
were colored persons, 234, Chinese, and 14.796, 
Indians. 

Educational History. — The first educational 
act of the territorial assembly was in 1 *62. when 
the University of the Territory of Washington 
was established, two townships of the public 
lands having been previously set apart by Con- 
gress for its endowment. Special legislation for 
the advancement of school interests has, from 
time to time, taken place, but no law securing 
uniformity in the administration of the schools 
was enacted till 1872, when the foundation of 
the present school system was laid by the enact- 
ment of a general law. The first territorial 
superintendent was Nelson Rounds, who was 
appointed in 1872. His successor was J. P. 
Judson, the present incumbent (1876), appointed 
in 1S74. 

School System. — A territorial superintendent 
of common schools is appointed biennially by 
the governor, with the consent of the council. 
His duties are those usually devolving upon 
general superintendents. Count// superintendents 
are also elected biennially. They are required 
to possess the qualifications of a teacher, before 
being eligible. Three school directors, in each 
district, are elected, one each year. They make 
out tax lists for assessments, build school-houses, 
employ teachers, and visit the schools twice each 
session. The permanent school fund is prospect- 
ive only, being derivable from school lands which 
cannot be sold till the territory becomes a state. 
The schools are maintained by an annual four- 
mill tax on every dollar of taxable property, a 
county tax of not more thau eight mills, a dis- 
trict tax of three mills, tines under criminal 
statutes, and private contributions. Districts, 
also, may levy a tax of ten mills for building 
and repairing school-houses. Sectarian instruc- 
tion in the common schools is forbidden by law. 
The school month consists of 4 weeks of 6 days 
each ; the school age is from 4 to 21 years. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts, in 1875, was 2117; and the num- 
ber of districts in which schools were kept was 
219. The amount of school moneys for distribu- 
tion, in the same year, was £53,557. 



The principal items of school statistics, for 
1874 — 5, are as follows: 

Number of children of school age 8,350 

" " " enrolled in schools 6,699 

" u teachers 220 

The principal schools are at Olympia, Port 
Townsend, Vancouver, Seattle, and Tacoma. 
Teachers' institutes have been held in some 
counties, and a teachers' association has been 
organized. The university at Seattle provides a 
preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate de- 
partment, to all of which both sexes are ad- 
mitted. Holy Angel's College (q. v.), at Van- 
couver, is controlled by the Roman Catholics. It 
has two courses, — a preparatory, and a collegiate. 

WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, at St. 
Louis. Mo., was incorporated in 1853 and for- 
mally inaugurated in 1857. The charter provides 
that the institution shall be non-sectarian. It is 
supported by the income of an endowment of 
$500,000, and by tuition fees ranging from $50 
to &160 a year. There are several scholarships, 
entitling the holders to free tuition. The uni- 
versity comprehends five departments : the 
academy, Mary Institute (founded in 1859), the 
college (organized in 1859), the* polytechnic 
school (1*57). and the law school (1*67). The 
course of instruction in the academy extends 
through five years, and includes those studies 
which are preparatory to the College and the 
Polytechnic School of the University. It has 
also a primary and a commercial class. Mary 
Institute is a female seminary. Its grounds and 
buildings are distinct from those of the other 
departments ; but the chancellor exercises a 
general supervision : and instruction in the 
languages, the higher mathematics, and the nat- 
ural sciences is in part given by the professors of 
the college and the polytechnic school. The in- 
stitute affords various grades of instruction from 
primary to collegiate. The course in the college 
(4 yrs.) leads to the degree of A. B. The poly- 
technic school (O'Eallon Polytechnic Institute) 
has six regular courses of study (4 yrs. each), as 
follows: (1) civil engineering; (2) mechanical en- 
gineering; (3) chemistry; (4) mining and metal- 
lurgy; (.t) building and architecture; (6) a 
general course. The Polytechnic Institute also 
carries on a free evening school for instruc- 
tion in the elements of technology, under the 
immediate supervision and control of the board 
of directors of the public schools of the city. 
The law school (St. Louis Law School) has a 
library of over 2 500 volumes. The university 
library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1*75 — 6, the 
number of instructors in all the departments was 
65 ; of students, 902. The chancellors of the 
university have been Joseph Gibson Hoyt, 1*59 
—63; Wm. Chauvenet, 1*63—71; and Wm. 
Greenleaf Eliot, D. I>., since 1871. 

WAYLAND, Francis, an American elergy- 
ln.iii and educator, horn in New York. March 11., 
1796; .lied in Providence, R.I., Sept. 30., 1865. 
lie graduated at Union College in 1*13, studied 
medicine, and was licensed to practice: but, mean- 
while, his purpose was changed ; and, in 1816, 



852 



WAYLAND 



he entered the Andover Theological Seminary. 
The instructions of Prof. Moses Stuart enkindled 
in his mind an intense enthusiasm for study; but 
poverty compelled him to leave the institution. 
During the next four years, he was a tutor in 
Union College ; and, in 1821, became pastor 
of the First Baptist Church, in Boston. In 1826, 
he was appointed professor of mathematics and 
natural history in Union College, and, early in 
1827, was chosen president of Brown University, 
and entered on what was to be the work of his 
life. The college was in a depressed state. The 
funds were inconsiderable ; there was scarcely 
library, cabinet, or apparatus; and the standard 
of character, discipline, and scholarship was low. 
The new president sought, first of all, to raise 
the standard. In the recitation room, he intro- 
duced thoroughness, exactness, self-dependence, 
and freedom of inquiry. He aimed to teach, not 
the text-book, but the subject. He encouraged 
questions germane to the topic. Finding that 
the text-books in use were inadequate, he taught 
by lectures, till in time he created text-books in 
the different branches. He next sought to in- 
crease the material means of instruction. A fund 
of $25,000 was raised for the increase of the 
library and the apparatus ; a library building, a 
laboratory, and a house for the president were 
erected ; the library was also increased by special 
subscriptions outside of the fund; and several new 
'departments of instruction were created. Yet, 
with the lapse of time, the conviction grew in 
the mind of the president that the college was 
not fulfilling its destiny. His dissatisfaction 
with the American college was expressed in his 
little book, Thoughts on the Present Collegiate 
System in the United States (1842) ; but no 
remedy was suggested. Gradually, his mind 
worked itself clear; and, in 1850. his Report to 
the Corporation of Brown University indicat- 
ed both the evil and the remedy. The Amer- 
ican colleges were not meeting the demands of 
the American people. They were molded by 
the traditions of the middle ages rather than by 
the wants of the 19th century. They were 
offering an education suited only to a limited 
class, to the members of the learned professions, 
especially the ministry, and were ignoring the 
large and increasing industrial classes. They 
were setting at naught the diversity of character 
and needs on the part of young men. They 
were crowding a vast number of studies into a 
limited period of time, and were precluding the 
hope of high attainments in any department. 
The president proposed to enlarge the scope of the 
college, by offering its advantages to every class, 
welcoming the farmer, the mechanic, the artisan, 
and not compelling any one to pursue classical 
studies against his will. He desired also to afford 
the student the means of attaining high excellence 
in whatever department he entered. The prin- 
ciples of the Report were carried into practice, 
not indeed as completely as the president de- 
sired, but far enough to afford marked and satis- 
factory results. Dr. AVayland's views of theo- 
logical education were similarly practical and 



WEHBLI 

liberal. — The labors attending the re-organization 
of the university had been exhausting in the 
extreme ; and, in 1855, Dr. Wayland felt com- 
pelled to resign the presidency. In 1857 — 8, he 
acted for sixteen months as pastor of the First 
Baptist Church in Providence. The remainder 
of his life he passed in retirement, in study, and 
in such benevolent and religious labors as his 
strength allowed. In addition to the works 
named above, he published Moral Science (1835) ; 
Political Economy (1837) ; Limitations of Hu- 
man Responsibility (1838) ; Intellectual Philos- 
ophy (1854), and many other volumes, besides 
numerous sermons, articles, tracts, and addresses. 

WAYNESBTJRG COLLEGE, at Waynes- 
burg, Pa., founded in 1850, is under Cumber- 
land Presbyterian control. It is supported partly 
by tuition fees and partly by the income of its 
endowments, amounting to $50,000. The cost 
of tuition is $20 a year. The libraries contain 
about 2,000 volumes. It has a classical, a sci- 
entific, a ladies', a normal, and a commercial 
course. In 1875 — 6, there were 10 instructors 
and 297 students (82 collegiate, 115 preparatory, 
and 100 unclassified). The presidents have been 
as follows : the Rev, Joshua Loughran, A. M., 4 
years ; the Rev. J. P. Weethee, A. M., 3 years ; 
John C. Flenneken, 1 year ; and the Rev. A. B. 
Miller, D. D., the present incumbent, 17 years. 

WEAVERVTLLE COLLEGE, at Weav- 
erville, 9 m. N. of Asheville, N. C, chartered in 
1873, is a non-sectarian institution. It is beauti- 
fully situated in one of the most picturesque re- 
gions of North America. It has a primary, a 
preparatory, and a collegiate department, to all 
of which both sexes are admitted. The cost of 
tuition ranges from $6.50 to $18 per session of 
five months. In 1875 — 6, there were 7 instruct- 
ors and 123 students (collegiate, 21 ; scientific 
and preparatory ,,74 ; academic and primary, 28). 
The Rev. James S. Kennedy, D. D., is (1877) the 
president. 

WEHBLI, Johann Jakob, a celebrated 
Swiss teacher of poor-schools, was born at Eschi- 
koven, November 6., 1790, and died at Andwyl, 
March 15., 1855. He taught a small school at 
Leutenegg during two winters, working in part 
pay for his board. In 1809, he became an assist- 
ant to Fellenberg, in his school at Hofwyl, where 
he remained twenty-three years, bestowing the 
most assiduous care upon the poor children and 
scholars. (See Hofwyl.) AVhen an advanced 
course for teachers was established on the plan 
of the poor-school, Wehrli was appointed the 
conductor of it. He had become acquainted with 
Pestalozzi, and interested in his theories of edu- 
cation, and now applied himself with zeal to the 
study of the principles of pedagogy, as well as 
to his own culture. In order to make the ad- 
vanced course of benefit to poor teachers, he 
arranged that instruction should be given them 
during the morning and evening hours, so that 
they might work on the farm during the day, 
for their support. Many persons from abroad 
visited Hofwyl, and became acquainted with 
Wehrli; pupils from the school became teachers 



AVESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 



WESTFIELD COLLEGE 



or founded schools iu other countries, and thus 
his name became well known outside of Switzer- 
land. He received several invitations to found 
an institution in Germany, but preferred to re- 
main in his own country. 

Iu 1833, on the invitation of the government 
of Thurgau. he undertook the management of a 
normal school at Ivreuzlingen, where he was to 
be permitted to establish a self-supporting semi- 
nary on Fellenberg's plan. In this school, a very 
close union of labor with instruction was at- 
tempted. Each student had a parcel of land to 
cultivate, in the planting of which he was ex- 
pected to show good taste, and had also to per- 
form his part of the routine duties of the farm. 
Wehrli exercised his scholars in practical teach- 
ing by causing them to take the part of the 
questioner, himself going through the lesson 
with them. His position as director of the. 
seminary gave him many opportunities to im- 
prove the general circumstances of the teachers. 
He was consulted by the council of education 
on important occasions, and exercised, as a mem- 
ber of the commission of examination, no insig- 
nificant influence upon the enactment of the 
school laws. He took part in conferences and 
conventions for the elevation of the condition 
of the peasantry. His scheme, however, for 
making the institution self-supporting, through 
the combination of instruction and labor, failed; 
new views on education began to prevail, while 
his own fell into disfavor. ( 'hanges were pro- 
posed iu the management of the seminary, which 
he could not consent to advance. He resigned 
his charge at Easter 1853, and remove! to 
Guggenbiihl. in the parish of Andwyl, followed 
by twenty teachers and pupils, where, at the age 
of sixty years, he undertook to establish a new 
seminary ; but his physical strength was broken, 
and he was not equal to the moderate exertions 
that were required of him. He declined steadily 
till his death, about two years afterwards. 

WE3LEYAN UNIVERSITY, at Middle- 
town, Ct., the oldest college in the United 
States under the patronage and control of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, was organized in 
18.30, and chartered in 1831. Since 1S72. its 
courses have been open to both sexes. It has 
an endowment of about $400,000, extensive 
astronomical, physical, and chemical apparatus, 
a valuable museum of natural history, and a 
library of over 2S,000 volumes. The cost of 
tuition is $75 a year. There are three regular 
courses, each of four years : a classical course, a 
Latin-scientific course, and a scientific course ; 
and in each there is a considerable range of 
elective studies. There are, also special and post- 
graduate courses. In 1875 — 6, then- were 14 in- 
structors, aud 176 students (9 females). The presi- 
dents have been as follows: the Rev. Wilbur 
Fisk. D. I)., 1831—9; the Rev. Stephen Olin, 
D. I)., 1839—41; the Rev. Xathan Bangs, D. D., 
1841—2; the Rev. Stephen Olin. D.D.. 1842—51; 
Augustus Wm. Smith. 1852 — 7; the Rev. Joseph 
Cummings, D. P., 1857 — 75; and the Rev. Gyrus 
Foss, D. P., since 1875. 



WESTERN COLLEGE, at Western, Linn 
Co., Iowa, was founded in 1856 by the Church 
of the United Brethren in Christ, which still 
controls it. It has an endowment of .91 ('.,(10(1, 
but has been chiefly supported by contributions. 
The college and society libraries contain 15(10 
volumes. The tuition and incidental fees are 
$25.50 a year. Both sexes are admitted. There is 
a classical and a scientific course, and a prepara- 
tory and a commercial department. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 11 instructors and 219 students (132 
males and 87 females), of whom 37 were of col- 
legiate grade. The presidents have been as fol- 
lows : the Rev. Solomon Weaver, 1856 — (14; the 
Rev. Wm. Davis, 1864—5; M. W. Bartlett 
(principal), 1865—6; H. R. Page, 1866—7; E. 
< '. Ebersole, A.M. (principal), 1867 — 8; and the 
Rev. Ezekiel B. Kephart, A.M., since 1868. 

WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE, 
at Westminster, Aid., was founded in 1867 and 
incorporated in 1868. It is under the special 
patronage of the Maryland Annual Conference 
of the Methodist Protestant Church. It is sup- 
ported by contributions and the fees of students. 
The cost of tuition is from SI 7.50 to $30 a year. 
The institution has libraries comprising 3,500 
volumes. Both sexes are educated, but in separate 
departments, though mainly by the same pro- 
fessors. The collegiate course for males extends 
over 4 years, and for females. 3 years. Facilities 
are also afforded for theological instruction. In 
1876 — 7, there were 13 instructors and 113 
students (66 male and 47 female. 65 collegiate 
and 48 preparatory). The Rev. J. T. Ward, 
P.P.. has been the president from the commence- 
ment of the institution. 

WESTERN RESERVE COLLEGE, at 
Hudson. Ohio, was chartered in 1826, and opened 
the same year. It is not under ecclesiastical 
control, but its trustees and professors are all 
connected with the < 'ongrcgational or Presby- 
terian denomination. It is supported by tuition 
fees (from $25 to $30 a year), and the income of 
an endowment of $210,000. It has an astronom- 
ical observatory, valuable apparatus, and libraries 
containing 11.000 volumes. There is a prepar- 
atory and a collegiate department. Both sexes 
are admitted, In 1876 — 7. there were 11 in- 
structors aud 126 students (72 collegiate and 54 
preparatory). The Cleveland Medical College, 
established in Cleveland in 1844, is a depart- 
ment of the institution. The presidents of the 
college have been as follows : the Rev. Charles 
B. Storrs, 1830—33; the Rev. Ceorge B. Pierce, 
D. P.. 1834—55; the Rev. Henry L. Hitchcock, 
D. P., 1855—71 ; and the Rev. Carroll Cutler, 
P.P.. since 1871. 

WESTFIELD COLLEGE, at Westfield, 
111., under the control of the United Brethren in 
Christ, was chartered in 1865. growing out of 
the Westfield Seminary, founded in 1861. Both 
sexes are admitted and graduated on an equal 
basis of scholarship. It has an endowment of 
$85,000. The regular charge for tuition is $24 
a year. There is a preparatory, a normal, a sci- 
entific, and a classical course. Facilities are 



854 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE 



WEST VIRGINIA 



also afforded for instruction in art and music. 
In 1876 — 7, there were 9 instructors and 193 
students (34 collegiate). The Rev. Samuel B. 
Allen, D. D., has been the president since 1869. 

WESTMINSTER COLLEGE, at Fulton, 
Mo., founded in 1853, is under the control of 
the Presbyterian Church, South. It is support- 
ed by tuition fees (from $30 to $50 a year) and 
the income of an endowment of $86,000. The 
libraries contain about 5,000 volumes. There is 
a classical and a scientific course (with a col- | 
legiate and a preparatory department), special 
courses, and an English course. In 1876 — 7, 
there were 6 professors and 99 students (clas- 
sical, 43 ; scientific, 15 ; special, 15 ; English, 
26). The presidents have been : the Rev. S. S. 
Laws, LL. 1).; the Rev. John Montgomery, D. D.; 
the Rev. N. L. Rice, D. D.; and the Rev. M. M. 
Fisher, I). D., the present (1877) incumbent. 

WESTMINSTER COLLEGE, at New 
Wilmington, Pa., chartered in 1852, is under 
United Presbyterian control. It has productive 
funds to the amount of $74,000, raised by the 
sale of scholarships, the owners or hirers of which 
are entitled to tuition. The libraries contain 
3,600 volumes. There is a classical, a preparatory, 
and a scientific department. No distinction of 
color or sex is made in the admission of students. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors and 165 
students (71 classical, 48 preparatory, and 46 
scientific). The presidents have been as fol- 
lows : the Rev. James Patterson, D. D., 1853 — 
66 ; the Rev. R. A. Browne, D. D., 1867—70 ; 
and the Rev. E. T. Jeffers, D. D., since 1872. 

WEST POINT, the seat of the United 
States Military Academy, is a village in Orange 
Co., N.Y., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, at 
its passage through the Highlands, 52 m. above 
New York City. The grounds over which the 
United Statas has jurisdiction, and on which are 
the principal buildings, occupy the plain of West 
Point, 160 to 180 ft. above the river, and are 
flanked on the west by abrupt hills and mountain 
spurs from 500 to 1 ,500 ft. high. The point pro- 
jects into the river with bold, rocky cliffs on the 
east and north-east, and a more gentle slope on 
the north. A large area is arranged for tactical 
instruction and parades. The academy was 
established at West Point by the act of March 
16., 1802. Under the present law, each congres- 
sional district, each territory, and the District of 
Columbia is entitled to have one cadet at the 
academy, and ten are also appointed yearly at 
large. The appointments at large are conferred 
by the president ; those from each district and 
territory, by the secretary of war, on the nomi- 
nation of the representative or delegate in Con- 
gress. Candidates must be between 17 and 22 
years of age, must be well versed in arithmetic, 
reading, and writing, including orthography, and 
must have a knowledge of the elements of En- 
glish grammar, of descriptive geography, partic- 
ularly of their own country, and of the history of 
the United States. Upon entering, they agree to 
serve eight years in the U. S. army, unless sooner 
discharged. Each cadet receives $540 a year, 



against which are charged his expenses, including 
board, clothing, books, and stationery. For the 
purposes of military police, discipline, and in- 
fantry drill, the cadets are organized into a bat- 
talion of four companies, commanded by an 
army officer, styled Commandant of Cadets, the 
battalion staff and the subordinate officers being 
cadets. Each company is commanded by anarmy 
officer, styled Assistant Instructor of Infantry 
Tactics. The course is for four years. From about 
June 20. to Sept. 1 ., a period corresponding to 
the vacation of other institutions, the cadets live 
in tents and devote themselves to military du- 
ties, riding, sword exercise, practical military en- 
gineering, etc. On graduation, they are commis- 
sioned in the engineers, ordnance, artillery, in- 
fantry, or cavalry, according to their qualifica- 
tions. The academy is under the care of an army 
officer, styled Superintendent, who has a military 
staff of five officers. There are professors of 
drawing ; of mathematics ; of chemistry, miner- 
alogy, and geology ; of the Spanish language ; 
of natural and experimental philosophy ; of the 
French language ; of military and civil engineer- 
ing ; of law ; and of geography, history, and 
ethics (the chaplain). There are also instructors 
of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics (the 
commandant of cadets); of practical military 
engineering, signaling, and telegraphy; and of 
ordnance and gunnery ; a music teacher, and a 
sword master. Most of these have several as- 
sistants. In 1877, there were 51 officers and 300 
cadets. The number of graduates from 1802 to 
1876 was 2,640, being less than half of those 
who entered the academy during that period. 

WEST VIRGINIA, one of the states of 
the American Union, organized, in 1862, from 
a portion of Virginia, and admitted into the 
Union as a separate state in 1863. Its area is 
23,000 sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 
442,014, of whom 17,980 were colored persons. 

Educational History. — The school history of 
the state is of course .identical with that of Vir- 
ginia (q. v.), up to the time of their separation. 
One of the conditions under which the state was 
admitted to the Union, provided for the creation 
of a school fund, for the organization of a free- 
school system, and the appointment of officers 
necessary for its proper supervision and main- 
tenance. In 1865, this system was established, 
and remained in force till 1872, when the new 
constitution, then adopted, made several changes. 
In 1873, the legislature amended the school law, 
giving it its present form. — The first state super- 
intendent was A. D. Williams, from 1865 — 9; 
and his successors were C. S. Lewis, from 
1869—71 ; W. K. Pendleton, from 1871—2 ; 
and B. W. Byrne, the present incumbent (1877) 
elected in 1872. 

School Si/stem. — The supervision and man- 
agement of the state are entrusted to a state 
superintendent, who is elected by the people 
every four years. He is required to give direc- 
tions to the county superintendents, and to per- 
form all the duties usually pertaining to the office, 
making an annual report to the legislature. 



WEST VIRGINIA 



855 



County superintendents are elected for two 
years. The organization of the schools is com- 
mitted to these officers, with power to exercise 
a general supervision over all subordinate offi- 
cers. District boards of education, consisting of 
a president and two commissioners, are elected 
lor two years. They have general control of the 
district schools in all that relates to the building 
and repairing of school-houses, the employment 
of teachers, the determination of their number 
and salaries, and the limiting of the school ses- 
sion. District trustees are elected for two years. 
They act under the direction of the district 
board. They employ teachers, and report an- 
nually to the board. Boards of examiners, each 
consisting of the county superintendent, and two 
teachers appointed by the president of the district 
board, are convened in every county for the 
purpose of examining teachers and issuing certif- 
icates, valid for one year in the county where 
issued. These are authorized to grant certificates 
of five grades. A state haunt of examiners, 
consisting of the state superintendent and two 
professional teachers appointed by the governor, 
also issues professional certificates, which entitle 
the holder to teach anywhere in the state dur- 
ing life, such certificates being revocable by the 
state superintendent for good cause. The school 
revenue of the state is derived from (1) the in- 
terest on the invested school fund ; (2) a poll tax 
of SI on all male citizens ; (,'i) a state tax of 10 
cents on every §100 of rial and personal 
property ; (4) a district tax for a school fund ; 
and (5) a district tax for a building fund. The 
last two are subject to a majority vote of the 
people of the district. The county sheriff acts 
as treasurer of the school funds, collecting and 
disbursing "all school money for the several 
districts and independent districts therein.' 
Mixed schools for white and colored children 
are prohibited; the establishment of separate 
schools for the latter being provided for, when- 
ever the number in a district exceeds 25. The 
legal school age is from 6 to 21 years. 

Educational Condition. — The number of 
school-districts, in 1874, was 321 ; the number 
of sub-districts, 2,845; the number of independ- 
ent districts, 38. 

The school revenue, in 1874 — 5, was : 
Prom state tax $194,791.32 

" local " 541,090.98 

Interest on permanent fund. . . 17.595.20 

Total $763,477.50 

The expenditures were as follows : 

For teachers' salaries {541,358.03 

" Bites, buildings, and furnit. 121.047.38 

" other expenses 52,754.38 

Total $715,160.59 

The principal items of school statistics are 
as follows : 

No. of children of school age 179,897 

" " " enrolled 115,300 

Average daily attendance 79,002 

Number of teachers, males 2,677 

" " " females 784 



Normal Instruct inn. — The state normal 
school, known as Marshall College, at Hunt- 
ington, was established in 1867. Five branches 
were Subsequently authorized, and most of them 

were opened as follows : at Fairmont (1869); at 
West Liberty (1870); at Glenville (1873); at 

Shopherdstown ( 1 S 7 .' I ) : and at Concord (to be 
opened in 1875). The number of graduates 
from the parent school at Huntington, up to 
IS74, was 34. The school at Fairmont is divided 
into a model school, and an academic and a 
normal department, ami will accommodate 200 
students. The school at West liberty has ac- 
| commodations for 150; that at Shepherdstown, 
for 200. The latter and the Glenville school are 
under the management of a board of regents. 
The appropriation from the Peabody fund for 
these live schools, in 1875. was 82,500. — Trail- 
ers' Institutes have been organized, principally 
by the agent of the Peabody fund; and their 
influence, in calling the attention of teachers to 
improved methods of teaching and school gov- 
ernment, has been very beneficial. A state 
teachers' association is also in existence, which 
holds annual meetings. Normal institutes, of 
from 2 to 4 weeks' duration, were held, during 
1 S74, in 1 •"> counties. 

Secondary Instruction. — The establishmen t of 
high schools is dependent upon a three-fifths 
vote of the citizens of each district. The num- 
ber of these institutions is not large. The 
Harper's Ferry High School for colored pupils 
was. in 1868, chartered as Storer College, but 
the course of instruction hardly goes beyond 
that of the ordinary primary school. Many 
grammar schools exist, and the studies usually 
pursued in high schools are, to some extent, pur- 
sued in them. Besides these, there are several 
private schools and academies in which secondary 
instruction is given. Seven private schools of 
this grade reported to the U.S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation, in 1H75, a total of 32 teachers and 873 
pupils. Two of the colleges, also, have prepar- 
atory departments. 

Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
Several of these are in existence, principally un- 
der the auspices of the Roman Catholics, and 
the German Protestants. Five are reported in 
Wheeling alone, — 3 Roman Catholic, and 2 tier- 
man Protestant. 

Superior Instruction. — Three institutions for 
education of this kind exist, as follows : 



Total 3,461 

Average monthly salary of male teachers $35.03 

" " " " female " $30.77 




Bethany Ciillcyc 

West Virgi da College 

West Virginia Univ.. . 



Bethany 
Flemingtoii 

Morgantowii 



18-10 
1868 

1SC7 



Chris tian 

Free W.B. 

Non-sec, 



There are two colleges for women, — the Park- 
ersburg Academy of the Visitation, and the 
Wheeling Female College. The former was 
established by the Roman Catholics, in 1866. 
Connected with it is a preparatory school in 
which instruction in common-school branches is 
given gratuitously. The academy is well sup- 



856 WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 



WHITTIER COLLEGE 



plied with apparatus and all the means for im- 
parting a higher education. It had, in 1875, 
1 2 instructors, in all the departments, and 80 stu- 
dents pursuing the college course. The Wheel- 
ing Female College provides a regular college 
course of 4 years, besides special courses. It was 
established in 1865, is non-sectarian, and has a 
corps of 13 instructors — 4 male and 9 female — 
and 139 students in all the departments. 

Professional mid Scientific Instruction. — The 
agricultural department of the West Virginia 
University, at Morgantown, is the state institu- 
tion for instruction in agriculture. It was en- 
dowed by Congress with land scrip to the value 
of $100,000, to which the citizens of Morgan- 
town have added from time to time. It also re- 
ceives an annual appropriation from the legis- 
lature. It has five departments : preparatory, 
literary, scientific, agricultural, and military. 
Optional courses are permitted. Nine regents 
constitute the board of management, and two 
cadets from each regent's district are entitled to 
gratuitous instruction. St. Vincent's College, at 
Wheeling, was established by the Roman Cath- 
olics, in 1865, for the purpose of affording instruc- 
tion in theology. It is now temporarily suspended. 

WEST VIRGINIA, University of, at 
Morgantown, W.-Va., was founded in 1867. It 
has an endowment of 1)5110,000, including the 
proceeds of the lands granted by Congress for 
the support of a state college of agriculture and 
the mechanic arts. It is supported by the in- 
come of the endowment, together with tuition 
fees and annual state appropriations. Four 
cadets from each judicial circuit of the state are 
educated free of cost for tuition, books, station- 
ery, etc. Military drill is required of them. For 
others, the tuition and contingent fees vary from 
$21 to $30 a year. The institution has a library 
of 4,000 volumes. A United States signal sta- 
tion has been established at the university. The 
instruction is embraced in six departments : 
classical, scientific, agricultural, engineering, and 
military ; and a preparatory department. The 
agricultural course is for two years ; the other 
courses are for four years. In the military de- 
partment, besides tactics, etc., the studies are 
those of the classical, scientific, or other depart- 
ment. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors 
and 96 students (39 collegiate and 57 prepara- 
tory). The Rev. J. W. Scott, D. D., LL. D., is 
(1877) acting president. 

WEST VIRGINIA COLLEGE, at Flem- 
ington, Taylor Co., W. Va., founded in 1868, is 
under the control of Free Will Baptists. It is 
supported by tuition fees, ranging from $24 to 
$40 a year. It has a preparatory, a commercial, 
an academic, a normal, a college preparatory, 
and a collegiate course. Both sexes are ad- 
mitted. In 1876 — 7, there were 5 instructors 
and 75 students. The presidents have been the 
Rev. A. D. Williams, A. M., 1868—70, and the 
Rev. ffm, Colegrove, A. M., since 1870. 

WHATELY, Richard, archbishop of Dub- 
lin, born in London, Feb. 1., 1787 ; died in 
Dublin, Oct. 8., 1863. He was educated at Oriel 



College, Oxford, was elected fellow in 1811, and 
became Bampton lecturer in 1822. In 1825, he 
was appointed principal of St. Alban's Hall, Ox- 
ford ; in 1830, professor of political economy ; 
and, in 1831, archbishop of Dublin. In the lat- 
ter position, he was very energetic in all ques- 
tions which affected the welfare of Ireland. He 
was one of the members of the board of national 
education, a position which he held till 1853, re- 
signing it then because of a departure on the part 
of the board from the plan on which they had, 
up to that time, acted. His activity in all char- 
itable enterprises, and his energy as an author, 
were very marked. His educational works are : 
Elements of Logic (1826); Elements of Rhetoric 
(1828); Introductory Lectures to Political Econ- 
omy (1831) ; English Synonyms (1851) ; and 
Introductory Lessons on Mind (1859). 

WHEATON COLLEGE, at Wheaton, LI., 
was organized in 1858, and chartered in I860.. 
It was founded by Wesleyan Methodists, but is. 
now under the control of Congregationalists. 
It has productive funds to the amount of $30,000; 
the buildings, grounds, and apparatus are valued 
at $100,000; and the libraries contain about 2,500 
volumes. The cost of tuition is from $24 to $30 
a year. There is a classical, and a ladies' col- 
legiate course, preparatory courses, and an En- 
glish course; instruction is also given in music, 
drawing, and painting, and commercial branches. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 17 instructors and 213 
students. The Rev. Jonathan Blanchardis (1877) 
the president. 

WHEWELL, William, an English philos- 
opher and educator, born in Lancaster, May 24., 
1794 ; died in Cambridge, March 5., 1866. He 
graduated at Trinity College in 1 81 6, of which he 
became fellow, and, subsequently, tutor. In 1820, 
he was made a fellow of the Boyal Society, and 
from 1828 to 1832, was professor of mineralogy 
' in Cambridge. In 1841, he was appointed Master 
of Trinity; and, from 1838 to 1855, wasprofessor 
of casuistry. In the latter year, upon his ap- 
pointment as vice-chancellor of the University 
of Cambridge, he resigned his professorship. 
His great mental activity is shown by the con- 
stant accessions to his stock of knowledge, his 
varied attainments, and the amount of literary 
labor which he performed, in the shape of inde- 
pendent works, besides reviews, criticisms, and 
translations. To this activity, his uninterrupted 
good health contributed not a little. His edu- 
cational works are : Astronomy and General 
Physics (1833) ; Thoughts on the Study of 
Mathematics (1835); On the Principles of En- 
glish University Education (1837) ; History of 
the Inductive Sciences (1837); Philosophy of the 
Inductive Sciences (1840) ; On Liberal Educa- 
tion (1845 — 52) ; Lectures on the History of 
Moral Philosophy in England (1852) ; Of the 
Plurality of Worlds (1853) ; Tlie Platonic Dia- 
logues for English Readers (1859 — 61) ; and 
Lectures on Political Economy (1863). 

WHITTIER COLLEGE AND NOR- 
MAL INSTITUTE, at Salem, Henry Co., 
Iowa, founded in 1867, is under the care of the 



WICHERN 



WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE 857 



Society of Friends. It is open to both sexes, 
and is supported by tuition fees varying from 
$24 to $30 a year. It has a collegiate, a normal, 
and a business department. The course of study 
in the first and second years of the collegiate de- 
partment is regarded as preparatory to the sci- 
entific course. The third year completes the 
scientific course, the ancient languages being 
elective. This course is soon to be increased, 
and arrangements are in progress to extend both 
courses so as to constitute a complete college 
curriculum. The classical course extends through 
the fourth year. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 in- 
structors and 200 students in all the depart- 
ments. Wm. Penn Clark is (1877) the president. 

WICHERN, Johann Heinrich, a German 
philanthropist and educator, was born in Ham- 
burg, in 1808. He studied theology, engaged ac- 
tively in the different departments of benevolence 
connected with the home missionary work of 
the Evangelical Church, and especially interested 
himself in the care of poor children, and in the 
amelioration of the inmates of hospitals and 
prisons. He has founded a number of institu- 
tions, the most important of which is that called 
the Rauhes Haus (das Rauke Hans), at Horn, 
near Hamburg, a house of refuge for homeless 
children, which is established upon peculiar and 
novel principles, and has already become the 
model upon which many other institutions of the 
kind have been organized. (See Reform Schools.) 

WILBERFORCE UNIVERSITY, near 
Xenia, O., founded in 1803, is under the control 
of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. It 
has a small endowment. The cost of tuition 
ranges from $4.75 to $0.75 per term of 14 weeLs. 
The library contains 4,000 volumes. The insti- 
tution is especially designed for the education of 
colored youth of both sexes. It embraces a 
preparatory, a normal, a collegiate (classical, and 
scientific) , a theological, and a law department. 
In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors and 138 
students (06 preparatory, 5 normal, (i collegiate, 
and 36 theological). The Rt. Rev. Daniel A. 
Payne, D. D., is (1877) the president. 

WILEY UNIVERSITY, at Marshall, 
Tex., was established, in 1873, by the Freedmen's 
Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
for the especial benefit of colored youth of both 
sexes, though open to all without regard to race 
and color. It is supported by the Society. 
Tuition is free. There are the following courses : 
primary, 2 years ; intermediate, 2 years ; aca- 
demic and normal, 2 years ; preparatory, 2 years; 
collegiate, 4 years ; theological, 3 years. In 
1875 — 6, there were 4 instructors and 248 stu- 
dents. The presidents have been the Rev. 
Francis C. Moore, 1873 — 5, and the Rev. Win. 
H. Davis, since 1875. 

WILLARD, Emma, a celebrated American 
educator, born in Berlin, Ct, in 1787 ; died in 
Troy, N.Y., in 1870. After many struggles to 
obtain a liberal education, she commenced to 
teach at the age of 17 ; and her fitness for that 
vocation was so marked that, at the age of 20, 
she received many invitations to take the charge 



of schools, finally occupying the principalship of 
a female seminary at Middlebury, Yt. After 
her marriage. she withdrew from the schoolroom 
for a time : but, in lsl4, she resumed her voca- 
tion by opening a boarding-school at Middle- 
bury. Subsequently, she removed her school to 
Waterford, iS'. Y., having presented to Gov. De 
Witt Clinton a plan for the higher education of 
women in that state. In 1821, her school was 
removed to Troy, assuming the title of the Troy 
Female Seminary ; and Mrs. Willard continued 
in its charge till 1838. Her active interest in 
education was. however, never relaxed. In 1840, 
she took the supervision of the schools at Ken- 
sington, Ct.; and, in 1854, she attended the 
AVorld's Educational Convention in London, ami 
afterward visited the schools of Germany . Switz- 
erland, France, and other countries. Mrs. Wil- 
lard's improvements in text-books were numer- 
ous and valuable. In geography, she separated 
what is to be learned into two parts. — that which 
can be learned through the eye, i. e., from the 
map, and that which is to be learned from the 
text. The latter she treated comparatively, the 
length of rivers, for instance, of one country be- 
ing studied in connection with the same feature 
in other countries ; then the size of continents, 
islands, height of mountains, etc.. in the same way. 
She also invented a peculiar kind of time map 
to assist in the study of history. The place which 
Mrs. Willard will occupy in the annals of edu- 
cation in America, must always be a prominent 
one, not only from the fact that almost the whole 
of her long life was spent in its sen-ice, and that 
the improved methods she originated have be- 
come recognized necessities, but because she was 
the first to lift up her voice against the exclusion 
of her sex from a participation in the advantages 
of a higher education, and for a long time, by 
voice and pen, was their earnest, and almost ex- 
clusive advocate. Yery largely to her, and to her 
school, standing as an evidence of the feasibility 
of her demands, is the cause of female education 
indebted, for the victory it has won over moss- 
grown prejudice and error. How great that 
prejudice was. let the record of her first triumphs 
attest, when we are told that the examination of 
her first female pupil in geometry caused " a 
wonderful excitement," many declaring that no 
woman ever did, or could, understand geometry. 
Mrs. Willard's publications are quite numerous, 
including: A Plan for Improving Female Edu- 
cation (1819) ; The Woodbridge and Willard 
Geographies and Atlases (1822); History if the 
United States (1828); Universal History in Per- 
spective (1837) ; Temple of Time (1844); Last 
Leaves of American History (18411) ; Morals 
for the Young (1857), besides numerous ad- 
dresses, pamphlets, letters, and poems. 

WILLIAM AND MARY, College of, 
at Williamsburg, Ya.. next to Harvard, the old- 
est college in the United States, was formerly un- 
der Protestant Episcopal control, but at present 
is not connected with any religious denomination. 
In 1660 — 61, the colonial assembly passed an act 
for the establishment and endowment of a col- 



858 WILLIAM AND MART COLLEGE 



WISCONSIN 



lege; and, in 1693, a royal charter was granted, 
the name being derived from the reigning king 
and queen. This was the only college charter 
given in the colonies by any of the English 
monarchs. The first commencement exercises 
were held in 1700. In 1776, it was the wealth- 
iest college in the colonies ; but the Revolution 
deprived it of its chief endowments. In 1781, 
the exercises were suspended, and the buildings 
were alternately occupied, before and during the 
memorable siege of Yorktown, by the British 
and the French and American troops. While 
in possession of the latter, the college building 
was injured, and the president's house was de- 
stroyed, by fire. The latter was afterward rebuilt 
at the expense of the French government. The 
college was, probably, not closed more than a 
year. Early in May, 1861, the existence of war 
at its threshold rendered it necessary to suspend 
the college exercises, and to close its doors. The 
college was reopened at the close of the war; 
but the building was not restored, nor the faculty 
fully re-organized, till 1869. The college is sit- 
uated just outside of the city limits. It has 
an endowment of about $60,000, good chemical 
and philosophical apparatus, and a library of 
5,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $40 a 
year. For meritorious young men in limited 
circumstances, fifteen scholarships, exempting 
those admitted on them from the payment of 
tuition fees, have been founded. In addition to 
the above, each professor has the power to 
confer, as a reward of merit, a scholarship on 
two students, selected annually. The instruction 
is comprised in eight departments : Latin ; 
Greek ; mathematics ; French ; German ; natural 
philosophy and mixed mathematics ; chemistry, 
geology, mineralogy ; and physiology ; moral and 
intellectual philosophy and belles-lettres. There 
is also a preparatory department. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 7 instructors and 86 students (71 col- 
legiate and 15 preparatory). Thomas Jefferson, 
James Monroe, John Tyler, Chief Justice Mar- 
shall, Peyton Randolph, the president of the first 
American Congress, John Randolph of Roanoke, 
and Winfield Scott were graduates of this col- 
lege. The Visitors and Governors are the gen- 
eral governing body of the college; and these 
choose one of their number rector. The fac- 
ulty, which is the corporation, appoints some 
suitable person chancellor, who is the titular 
head of the institution. The internal manage- 
ment is in the hands of the president and fac- 
ulty. Until 1776, the chancellors of the college 
were the bishops of London, excepting in 1764, 
when the office was conferred on the earl of 
Hardwicke. George Washington was chancellor 
from 1788 to 1799, and ex-president John Tyler 
from 1859 to 1862. During the intervening 
periods, the office was not- filled. The present 
chancellor (1877), Hugh Blair Grigsby, LL. D., 
was elected in 1871. The presidents have been 
as follows : the Rev. James Blair, D. D., 1693 — 
1743 ; the Rev. William Dawson, 1743—52 ; 
the Rev. William Stith, 1752—5; the Rev. 
Thomas Dawson, 1755 — 61 ; the Rev. William 



Yates, 1761 — 4 ; the Rev. James Horrocks, 
1764—71 ; the Rev. John Camm, 1771 — 7 ; the 
Rt. Rev. James Madison, 1777 — 1812 ; the Rev. 
John Bracken, 1812 — 13 ; Dr. John Augustine 
Smith, 1814 — 26; the Rev. Wm. H. Wilmer, 
D.D., 1826—7; the Rev. Adam P. Empie,D.D., 
1827—36 ; Thomas R. Dew, 1836— -46 ; Robert 
Saunders,- 1847— 8 ; Benjamin S.Ewell, 1848 — 
9 ; the Rt. Rev. John Johns, 1849—54 ; and 
Benjamin S. Ewell, LL. D., since 1854. 

WILLIAM JEWELL COLLEGE, at 
Liberty, Mo., founded in 1849, is under Baptist 
control. It is supported by tuition fees (from $30 
to $40 a year) and the income of an endowment 
of $100,000. It has a library of 3,500 volumes. 
The college has a preparatory and a collegiate 
department, and embraces eight schools : Latin, 
Greek, mathematics and astronomy, modern 
languages, English and history, natural science, 
moral philosophy, and theology. In 1875 — 6, 
there were 6 instructors and 137 students, of 
whom 46 were connected with the school of 
theology. The presidents have been as follows : 
E. S. Dulin, D. D., LL. D.; the Rev. R. S. Thom- 
as, A. M .; Wm. Thompson, LL. D.; Thomas 
Rainbaut, D. D., LL. D.; and W. R. Rothwell, 
D. D., the present incumbent (1877). 

WILLIAMS COLLEGE, at Williamstown, 
Mass., owes its origin to the will (1755) of Col. 
Ephraim Williams. The property bequeathed 
was allowed to accumulate till 1785, when a 
free school was incorporated, which was opened 
in 1791. A college charter was obtained in 
1793, and the first commencement was held in 
1795. The institution is under Congregational 
control. Its productive funds exceed $300,000, 
and its funds for the aid of needy students 
amount to $90,000. It has a large cabinet 
of natural history, chemical, physical, and 
astronomical apparatus, and a library of 
17,000 volumes, besides the society libraries. 
The cost of tuition is $75 a year. It adheres 
strictly to the old coDege curriculum. In 1875 
— 6, there were 13 instructors and 170 students. 
The presidents have been as follows : the Rev. 
Ebenezer Fitch, 1793 — 1815; the Rev. Zephaniah 
Swift Moore, 1815—21 ; the Rev. Edward Don- 
Griffin, 1821—36; the Rev. Mark Hopkins, D. 
D., LL. D., 1836—72; and the Hon. Paul Ansel 
Chadbourne, D. D., LL. D., since 1872. 

WILMINGTON COLLEGE, at Wil- 
mington, Ohio, under the control of the Society 
of Friends, was organized in 1870, and chartered 
in 1875. Both sexes are admitted. It has a 
small endowment, being supported chiefly by 
tuition fees ($39 a year). There is a preparatory 
and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
a scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 4 
instructors and 90 students (19 collegiate and 71 
preparatory). The presidents have been Lewis 
A. Estes, 1870 — 74, and Benjamin Trueblood, 
since 1874. 

WISCONSIN, one of the western states of 
the American Union, originally a part of the 
territory of the same name, which was formed hi 
1836, of lands previously embraced in the terri- 



WISCONSIN 



859 



tory of Michigan. It was admitted into the 
Union as a state in 184.S; but, the following 
year, its limits were changed by transferring a 
portion of it to the territory of Minnesota. The 
area of the state is 53,924 sq. in. ; and its pop- 
ulation, in 1870, was 1,064,985, of whom 2,113 
were colored persons, and 11,521, Indians. 

Educational History. — The earliest schools 
held in the state, are believed to have been con- 
ducted by the French Jesuits : but the school at 
Green Bay, of which James Porlier was teacher, 
ill 1791, is the first of which there is any definite 
information. Post schools, also, were established. 
iu the early part of this century, near the forts 
of the United States, at which instruction was 
given to the children of officers, soldiers, and 
settlers. Usually, they were conducted by the 
post chaplains ; but oue of the earliest mentioned 
— that at Prairie du Chien — was taught by a 
sergeant of the garrison. A few years after, 
Indian schools were opened by religious denomi- 
nations; and, in 1832, a clause of the treaty con- 
cluded between the Winnebago Indians and the 
United States, stipulated that the latter should 
maintain for 27 years a school near Prairie du 
Ohien, for the education of such children as the 
tribe might send to it. In 1830, the first school- 
house in the lead district was built at Mineral 
Point. This was followed by others ; but they 
were not numerous, the attention of the in- 
habitants being, iu great measure, absorbed by 
their occupation as miners. The principal im- 
pulse given to the founding of schools, came 
from the settlers from the eastern states, who 
sought the territory after the financial distress 
of 1837. The first organized action taken by 
the territory in regard to schools, was in 1836, 
when a bill was introduced into the assembly, 
"to prohibit persons from trespassing on the 
school lands." This was followed, shortly after, 
by another, to " regulate the sale of school 
lands, and to provide for organizing, regulating, 
and perfecting common schools." In 1839. this 
law was revised, so that every town of not 
less than ten families was constituted a school- 
district, and was required to provide a teacher. 
County commissioners were authorized to ap- 
point inspectors iu towns which refused or 
neglected to choose them, the duties of these in- 
spectors being to lease the school lands, take 
charge of the school-houses, and make reports 
to the county commissioners of the number of 
pupils. Trustees might be elected in each district, 
to perform the duties ordinarily assigned to the 
inspectors. A tax of one-fourth per cent also 
was authorized to be raised for the building of 
school-houses and the maintenance of the schools. 
In 1840 and 1841, the school laws were amended. 
The office of town commissioner was restored, 
superseding that of inspector; five officers, — 
a clerk, a collector, and three trustees, were 
chosen in each district ; and taxes were assessed 
in each for the building of school-houses. By 
this time, the interest of the people in the sub- 
ject of schools had become very general. In 
1845, a free school— the first in the state — was 



founded at Kenosha, by Col. M. Frank. The 
idea — since so familiar in the older states — of 
taxing all assessed property for the support of 
common schools, was then new, and met with 
strenuous opposition on the part of property 
holders who had no children to educate. After 
many public meetings and lectures, devised for 
the purpose of enlightening the public mind on 
the subject, a bill embodying this idea was intro- 
duced by Col. Frank into the territorial legis- 
lature, and passed in 1845. In the constitutional 
convention held in 1840, for the purpose of 
forming a constitution for the prospective state, 
and again in the convention of 1848, the subject 
of education created much discussion. InlK49, 
three commissioners were appointed to revise 
the school laws, and reduce them to one system 
uniform in its action throughout the state. The 
earliest school fund was derived from the sale of 
lands granted by the general government for 
school purposes. These were the sixteenth sec- 
tion in every township, any grant the purposes 
of which had not been specified by the general 
government, and the 500,000 acres granted by 
the act of 1841. This was further increased, in 
1856, by the addition of three-fourths of the 
proceeds of the swamp lands granted to the state 
by act of Congress in 1850. This, however, was 
subsequently diverted to the normal-school and 
drainage fund. The school fund was also in- 
creased in other ways, till, in 1875, the total in- 
come from it amounted to §184,624.64. The 
first state superintendent was Eleazer Boot (1849 
— 52) ; and his successors were Azel 1'. I.add 
(1852— 4); H. A. Wright (1854—5); A. C. Barry 
(1855—8); Lyman C. Draper (1858—60); J.L. 
Pickard (1860—64); J. G. McMynn (1864—8); 
A. J. Craig (1868—70) ; Samuel Fallows (1870 
— 74) ; Edward Sealing, since 1874. 

Srhool Si/stem.—'The general supervision of 
educational' interests is vested by the constitu- 
tion in a slate superintendent, who is elected 
biennially. In addition to the duties usually 
devolving upon state superintendents, he is in- 
trusted with some that are ordinarily delegated 
to state boards of education. He is, also, a 
member, ex officio, of the board of regents of 
the state university and of the normal school. 
County superintendents are chosen biennially. 
They have an oversight over school property, in- 
spect the schools, conduct teachers' institutes, 
examine teachers, and grant certificates of three 
grades. In 1875, the law was so amended as to 
open the office of county superintendent to 
women, and several have since been elected. An 
independent system of supervision and manage- 
ment exists in the cities, by which ciii/ sup <"'- 
tendents are appointed, with powers and duties 
similar, in most respects, to those of county 
superintendents. Boards of education are elect- 
ed in the cities, which, for school purposes, 
have been erected into independent districts by 
charters from the legislature. These boards 
choose a president, a clerk, and a superintend- 
ent, establish schools, and adopt rules for their 
management. The superintendent examines and 



860 



WISCONSIN 



licenses teachers, visits the schools, and makes 
an annual report. The schools are supported 
by the income of the state school fund, and 
by a tax levied in each county to the amount 
of one-half of that received from the state 
for school purposes. Special school taxes, also, 
may be authorized by the county boards of su- 
pervisors. No sectarian instruction is permitted 
in the schools. Five months constitute the legal 
school year; and 20 days, the school month. The 
school age is from 4 to 20 years. 

Educational Condition. — The number of school- 
districts, not including cities with separate sys- 
tems, is 5,423 ; the number of public schools, 
5,260; the number of graded schools, 394. The 
school revenue for 1875 was as follows : 

From the school fund $178,072.00 

" county taxes 1,637,579.00 

" " supervisors' taxes 241,920.00 
" all other sources 200,616.00 

Total $2,258,187.00 

The expenditures were as follows: 

For teachers' salaries $1,350,784.00 

" building, repairing, and 

fuvnishingschool-houses 371,396.00 
" all other purposes 241,777.00 

Total $1,963,957.00 

The principal items of school statistics are as 
follows : 

Number of children of school age 461,829 

" " " attending public schools. . .279,854 
" " teachers employed in the schools. . 6,224 
Average monthly salary of teachers in counties: 

males $43.50 

females . . $27.13 
Average monthly salary of teachers in cities: 

males $109.40 

females.. $39.40 

Normal Instruction. — The first constitution 
of the state provided for the establishment and 
maintenance of normal schools ; and the state 
legislature, in 1848, organized the University of 
Wisconsin, with a department for instruction in 
the theory and practice of teaching. In 1857, 
the legislature directed that 25 per cent of the 
income of the swamp-lands fund should be ap- 
plied to the uses of normal institutes and acad- 
emies. In 1865, one-half of the swamp-lands 
fund was set apart as a normal-school fund, the 
income of which, with the exception of one- 
fourth, was to be used to establish and support 
normal schools. In 1870, the fourth which had 
been excepted, was restored. In 1866, a board 
of regents of normal schools was incorporated; 
and the Platteville Normal School was opened 
in October of that year. The Whitewater Nor- 
mal School was opened in 1868 ; the Oshkosh 
Normal School, in 1871; and the River Falls Nor- 
mal School, in 1875. In all these schools, there 
are two courses of study, an elementary course of 
2 years, and an advanced course of 4. Certificates 
are given on the completion of the first; diplomas, 
on completion of the second. When the holder 
of a certificate has taught successfully one year 
after graduation, the superintendent of public 
instruction is authorized to countersign his cer- 
tificate, which makes it equivalent to a 5 years' 



state certificate. A similar countersigning of 
the diploma renders it equivalent to a permanent 
state certificate. County and city superintend- 
ents nominate six representatives from each as- 
assembly district for admission to the normal 
schools, tuition in which is free to all. In Sep- 
tember, 1875, the permanent fund for the sup- 
port of these schools, had reached the sum of 
$976,364.34. Normal instruction is also given in 
Milton College, at Milton, and in the Seminary 
of the Holy Family, at St. Francis Station. 

Teachers' Institutes. — An annual expenditure 
of $5,000, by the board of regents, is author- 
ized, for the support of teachers' institutes, of 
which 57 were held during the year 1875, the 
number of teachers attending being 3,668. The 
average number of days they were in session, 
was 12. The law of 1871 provides for the hold- 
ing of normal institutes, of not less than 4 con- 
secutive weeks each, and appropriates annually 
for their support a sum not exceeding $2,000. 

Teachers' Associations. — The Wisconsin State 
Teachers' Association holds an annual and a 
semi-annual meeting. There are also county and 
district associations, which hold meetings at 
stated times. 

Secondary Instruction. — The need of high 
schools, intermediate between the primary schools 
and the State University, had long been felt; and 
an attempt was made, in 1874, to supply the de- 
ficiency. The graded schools of the state, in- 
cluding those in the cities, number about 400. 
The law of 1872 provides that " all graduates of 
any graded school of the state, who shall have 
passed an examination at such graded school 
satisfactory to the faculty of the university, for 
admission into the sub-freshman class and col- 
lege classes of the university, shall be, at once 
and at all times, entitled to free tuition in all 
the colleges of the university." Under this law, 
43 graduates entered the university in 1874; 
but only a few graded schools in the state are 
yet qualified to act as preparatory schools for 
the university. Under the new law, admission 
to the high schools wherever established is 
granted after a satisfactory examination, the 
minimum standard for which has been prescribed 
by the state superintendent. Three courses of 
instruction, also, have been laid down by him: 
two designed for the high schools of towns 
having a population of 6,000 or more, and com- 
prising 4 years ; the third, of 3 years, and in- 
tended for districts having each a population of 
less than 6,000. — The number of pupils attend- 
ing private schools and academies, in 1875, was 
10,733. Many such institutions are known to 
exist in the state ; but their independence of 
the school system renders it difficult to procure 
statistics in regard to them. Seven business col- 
leges, located in the principal cities, in 1875, 
reported to the U. S. Bureau of Education an 
attendance of more than 1300 students, under 
the instruction of 26 teachers. The prepar- 
atory departments of 10 colleges reported an 
aggregate attendance of 1,359 students, — 1,001 
males and 352 females. 



WISCONSIN 



WISCONSIN UNIVERSITY 861 



Superior Instruction. — The following are the 
chief colleges and universities in the state : 







When 


Religious 


NAME 


Location 


found- 


denomi- 






ed 


nation 


Beloit College 


Beloit 


1815 


Cong. 


Carroll College 


Waukesha 


1846 




Gralesville Uuiv 


Galesville 


1859 


Meth. Epis. 


Lawrence Uuiv 


Appletou 


1847 


Meth. Epis. 


Milton College 


Milton 


1867 


7 th Day Bap. 


Northwestern Uuiv. 


Watertown 


1864 


Luth. 


Pio Nono College . . . 


St. Francis 


— 


R. C. 


Racine College 


Racine 


1852 


Prot. Epis. 




Ripon 


1855 


Cong. 


St. John's College.. 


Prairie duChien 


187^ 


R. C. 


Univ. of Wisconsin. 


Madison 


1848 


Non-sect. 



The second and third of these are, as yet, doing 
only preparatory or academic work. The Mil- 
waukee Female College, the Wisconsin Female 
College, at Fox Lake, and the St. Clara Acad- 
emy, at Sinsinawa Mound, are the only institu- 
tions for the superior instruction of women, in 
the state. The first was organized in 1852. It 
has a preparatory and a collegiate course, and, 
in 1875, reported 17 instructors and 106 stu- 
dents. It is non-sectarian. The second was 
organized, iu 1856, by the Congregationalists. In 
1875, the number of its instructors was 6 ; the 
number of students, 65. The third is under 
Roman Catholic control, and, in 1875, had 15 
instructors and 57 students. 

Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
state agricultural college exists as a department 
of the state university, the grant by Congress, 
in 1862, having been applied, in 1866, in this 
way. Bonds to the amount of 8-1(1,00(1 were 
issued to the state by Dane County, for the pur- 
pose of purchasing an experimental farm. This 
farm, containing 200 acres, adjoins the university 
grounds; aud a four years' course of study is pro- 
vided in that institution, comprehending all the 
branches that relate to the practice of agricult- 
ure. The agricultural college fund was, in 1875, 
8236,133.90. There are still upward of 52,000 
acres of agricultural college lands unsold. The 
Nashotah Theological Seminary was founded, 
near the Nashotah Lakes, by the Episcopalians, 
in 1842. It provides the course of instruction 
common to such institutions. The Seminary of 
St. Francis of Sales, at St. Francis, was founded 
by the Roman Catholics, in 1856, for special 
instruction in theology. In 1875, the number of 
its instructors of all kinds was 12; the number 
of its students, - to. A school of science, called 
the College of Arts, exists as a department of 
the state university, which also provides for an 
advanced course in law. 

Special Instruction.. — The Institute for the 
Blind, originally a private school, at Janesville, 
was, in 1850, adopted by the state, and is sup- 
ported by annual appropriations. It is managed 
by 5 trustees, appointed by the governor for 3 
fears. It is intended for residents of the state 
between the ages of 8 and 21. It has 3 depart- 
ments : one furnishing instruction in the ordi- 
nary branches of an English education ; the 
second, in vocal and instrumental music, and the 
theory of musical composition ; the third, in 



various mechanical and industrial pursuits. The 
number of instructors and employes is 21 ; the 
number of pupils, 82. The Institute for the 
Deaf and Dumb was opened at Delavan in 1852. 
Iu 1862, it was incorporated as a state institu- 
tion. Like the institute for the blind, it is un- 
der the management of 5 trustees, appointed by 
the governor for 3 years. Hoard and tuition are 
free to all deaf and dumb children over 1(1 years 
of age, who reside in the state. Clothing and in- 
cidental expenses arc the only items for which 
pupils are charged. The course of instruction 
occupies 5 years, and is of 7 grades. The same 
studies are pursued as in the public schools; and 
the same text-books are used, except in the (wo 
lower grades of the study of language, in which 
special books are provided. The sign language is 
the medium of instruction for all, with the ex- 
ception of a special class of 2(1 in articulation. 
Two trades are taught, — cabinet-making and 
shoe-making. The number of instructors, in 
1875, was 9 ; the number of pupils, 181 . The In- 
dustrial School for Boys was opened at Wau- 
kesha in 1860. " It is designed as a " place of 
confinement and instruction for all male children 
between the ages of 10 and 16 years, who shall 
be legally committed by any competent court as 
vagrants, or on conviction of any criminal 
offense, or for incorrigible or vicious conduct." 
The school is divided into 8 families, each with 
its separate building, playground, etc. School is 
held 11 months of the year, the branches of a 
common-school education being taught. A farm 
of 233 acres, under good cultivation, is connected 
with the school. An annual appropriation by 
the state is the chief support of the institution; 
but something is derived from the sale of the 
products of its workshops and farm, and from the 
payments made by counties for the maintenance 
of certain classes of inmates. The number receiv- 
ing shelter and instruction, is annually about 290. 
WISCONSIN, University of, at Madison, 
was founded in 1848. Its productive funds be- 
ing the proceeds of lauds granted by Congress 
to the state for the support of a university and 
of an agricultural and mechanical college, amount 
to about 8460,000. The institution is supported 
by the income of these funds, and by state ap- 
propriations. Tuition is free to all residents of 
the state. The buildings and grounds of the 
university are valued at $300,000. The legis- 
lature has appropriated a tax of one-tenth of a 
mill on the valuation of the state to the univer- 
sity. This tax now yields % 12,000. The whole 
income of the institution is about $80,000. The 
appliances for instruction in the physical sciences 
are very superior. The university has extensive 
and valuable geological and mineralogical cab- 
inets and collections in natural history; well- 
selected philosophical and chemical apparatus; 
and a library of 7,600 volumes. It comprises 
(1) a college of arts, embracing the departments 
of general science, agriculture, civil engineering, 
mining and metallurgy, mechanical engineering, 
and military science; (II) a college of letters, with 
a department of ancient classics (embracing the 



862 WITTENBERG COLLEGE 



WOMEN 



ancient classics, mathematics, natural science, En- 
glish literature, and philosophy, and intended to 
be fully equivalent to the regular course in the 
best classical colleges in the country), and a de- 
partment of modern classics, in which German 
and French take the place of Greek ; (III) a de- 
partment of law. There is a preparatory and a 
post-graduate course. Both sexes are admitted. In 
1875 — 6, there were 27 instructors (7 in the law 
department) and 345 students (collegiate, 200; 
preparatory, 71 ; special students, 49; law, 25). 
John H. Lathrop, LL. D., was the chancellor 
from 1848 to 1858, and Henry Barnard, LL.D., 
from 1859 to 1861. Since the re-orgauization of 
the university, in 1867, the chief officers, styled 
presidents, have been as follows : Paul A. Chad- 
bourne, M. D., LL.D., 1867—70; John H. 
Twombly, D. D., 1871 — 4; and John Bascom, 
D. D., LL. D., since 1874. John W. Sterling, 
Ph. I)., was dean of the faculty from 1860 to 
1865, and vice-chancellor from 1865 to 1869; 
since 1870, he has been vice-president. 

WITTENBERG COLLEGE, at Spring- 
field, Ohio, founded in 1845, is under the control 
of the English Evangelical Lutheran Church, as 
represented by the General Synod. It is support- 
ed by tuition' fees ($30 a year) and the income 
of an endowment of $125,000. Its libraries con- 
tain 8,000 volumes. There is a theological, and a 
collegiate (classical and civil engineering) course, 
and a preparatory department. In 1875 — 6, there 
were 10 instructors" aud 164 students (18 the- 
ological, 80 collegiate, aud 66 preparatory). 
Both sexes are admitted. The presidents have 
been as follows : the Rev. Ezra Keller, D. D., 
4 years; the Rev. Samuel Sprecher, D. D., LL. D., 
25 years ; and the Rev. J. B. Helwig, D.D., the 
present incumbent, 3 years. 

WOFFOR.D COLLEGE, at Spartanburg, 
S. C, chartered in 1851 and opened in 1854, is 
under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church South. It owes its origin to the will 
of the Rev. Benjamin Wofford, who bequeathed 
$100,000 to found it. It is supported by the in- 
come of an endowment of $50,000, by tuition 
fees (from $44 to $64 a year), and by assess- 
ments on the Methodists of the state. Its libraries 
contain 15,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 
7 instructors and 125 students (95 collegiate and 
30 preparatory). The presidents have been as 
follows : the Rev. W. M. Wightman, D. D., 1854 
—60; the Rev. A. M. Shipp, D. D., 1860—75; 
and James H. Carlisle, A. M., LL. D., since 1875. 

WOMEN, The Higher Education of (in 
Great Britain). This subject has already been 
treated in the articles on Co-Education and 
Female Education, in which the progress of the 
recent movement in favor of the higher educa- 
tion of women in the United States, is treated 
with considerable fullness. The movement in 
Great Britain has some peculiar features which 
it is the special desigu of this article to describe. 

England. — The numerous educational ad- 
vantages offered to women are the results of a 
remarkable and spontaneous movement, which 
has had a rapid growth. It commenced about 



the year 1863, when, at the request of an in- 
fluential committee, the Cambridge University- 
Senate permitted an experimental examination 
for girls in connection with the junior and 
senior local examination for boys. The results, 
if contrasted with those of the entrance exam- 
ination for Bristol College, in 1876, will show 
the improvement in the education of women, 
during 13 years. In 1863. half the juniors 
passed, but 35 out of 41 seniors failed in pre- 
liminary arithmetic ; at the Bristol examination 
for scholarships, in 1876, the women took two- 
out of three open scholarships, in addition to- 
the four specially appropriated to them. In 1864, 
a government Schools Inquiry Commission was 
appointed, "to inquire into the state of educa- 
tion of boys and girls of the upper and middle 
classes." The report on private, endowed, and 
proprietary schools was published in 1868, in 
20 volumes, of which only one-twentieth referred 
to girls. The inspectors appointed by the com- 
mission had visited private schools for girls, by 
the courtesy of the owners. They reported even 
the best as too small in numbers, and the teach- 
ing as wanting in thoroughness, arithmetic and 
other mathematics, and Latin, being mostly neg- 
lected, and French and German taught super- 
ficially. — Endowed schools were reported as 
few; principally orphanages, and with instruction 
scarcely raised above the elementary, "the en- 
dowments bearing an infinitesimal proportion to 
similar endowments for boys." — Under the head 
of Proprietary Schools were included Chelten- 
ham School, Queen's College, Bedford College, 
Miss Buss's North London Collegiate School, and 
two schools at Liverpool. In these, the teaching 
was commended. Several ladies — amongst them 
Miss Buss, Miss Davies, and Miss Beale — were ex- 
amined by the commissioners, and confirmed the 
unfavorable verdict of the inspectors on the gen- 
eral state of girls', education. They advised the 
establishment of public schools for girls, and the 
opening of university examinations to girls and 
women. On the publication of the report, various 
efforts were commenced to secure endowments for 
girls' schools. In 1871 , Miss Buss made her North 
London School a public school. She placed it , 
in the hands of trustees, and opened a second- 
grade school under the same trust. In 1875, these 
schools received an endowment of £16,000 for 
buildings, from the Brewers' Company, and be- 
came endowed schools; and, in 1876, the number 
of pupils was 800 ; 400 in each school. Several 
scholarships are held in the schools. In the above- 
mentioned year (1871), the Women's Education 
Union was formed, at the suggestion of Mrs. 
AV. Grey ; and this Union, in 1872, started a 
company, called The Girls' Public Day School 
Company Limited, with a capital of £12,000 
(sicce increased to £50,000), in £5 shares, "to 
provide schools at a moderate cost for girls of all 
grades above the elementary." — In framing a 
school scheme, the council of the company were 
aided by schemes already published, although 
not enforced until later by the Endowed Schools' 
Commission, appointed after the inquiry, and by 



WOMEN 



863 



the scheme for Miss Buss's school. The Com- 
pany's first schools were opened in 1873, at 
Chelsea and at Notting Hill ; and since then, 8 
additional high schools have been opened, — at 
Cloydon, Norwich. Hackney, Bath, Nottingham, 
Oxford, St. John's Wood, and Gateshead ; and 
one middle school, at Clapham. In 1*70. there 
were upward of 1.400 children in attendance. 
Every school is placed under the charge of a head- 
mistress. There arc examinations by independent 
examiners, and a fair proportion of girls have 
passed in the Oxford and Cambridge local and 
higher local examinations; one, from Notting 
Hill, has obtained a scholarship at Newnham 
Hall. — The school buildings, with one or two 
exceptions, are arranged to hold from 200 to 300 
girls ; the numbers, therefore, will probably in- 
crease, and it is expected that the company will 
be successful, financially as well as educationally. 
Companies have also been formed at Leeds. 
Manchester, Plymouth, Devonport, and Grant- 
ham, for the establishment of high schools. 
Simultaneously with the improved provision for 
the education of girls, colleges have been opene 1 
for women, and lectures established throughout 
the country, by voluntary effort. In 1808, con- 
tributions were solicited for the establishment 
of a college for women, "designed to hold to girls' 
schools and home teaching, a position analogous 
to that occupied by the universities toward pub- 
lic schools for boys." A temporary building 
was opened at Ilitchin, in 1809, with 6 students. 
The regulations of the University of Cambridge 
were enforced upon the students, and professors 
came from Cambridge to give class teaching. In 
1870, five students were, on application, exam- 
ined informally for the previous examination ; 
but, since then, through the kind permission of 
the senate, and the courtesy of the examiners, 
many of the students have been examined, some 
in the classical, mathematical, and moral science 
triposes; seven have taken honors, and three have 
passed the examination for the ordinary 1!. A. 
degree. — In 1873, the college was removed to 
Girton, near Cambridge, to premises built at a 
cost of £10,000, and since then enlarged at a 
further cost of £0,000. In 1870, there were 33 
resident students. Scholarships have been held 
amounting to £2,385, and £000 additional will 
be given in 1877. — In 1871, Miss Clough opened 
a house at Cambridge for students attending the 
lectures of the Association for the Higher Edu- 
cation of Women, or certain university lectures 
open to women. The accommodation soon be- 
came insufficient ; and, in 1874, Newnham Hall, 
( 'ambridge, was built by a company to receive 
Miss Clough 's students. In 1870, there were 29 
students (some holding scholarships) , all studying 
for the Cambridge higher local examinations. — 
In previous years, students have been examined 
informally in the papers of the mathematical, clas- 
sical, and moral science triposes. — (For Univer- 
sity College, London, see University College.) 
University < lollege, Bristol, was opened in 1870, 
with 300 students, about one-half women, and was 
intended to supply, to persons of both sexes, ad- 



vanced instruction in science, languages, history, 
and literature. — In the College of Physical Sei- 
! ence, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, all classes are open 
I to women. — The London School of Medicine for 
1 Women opened, in 1874, with 23 students. The 
classes on medical subjects were arranged for a 
3 years' curriculum. One additional year of practi- 
cal work is required. Societies have been formed 
throughout the country, since about 1864, for 
the establishment of lectures and classes for 
women; but the necessity for separate organiza- 
tion will probably be superseded by the scheme 
for university extension adopted by the Cam- 
bridge senate, in 1874, at the suggestion of Mrs. 
James Stuart. — By means of this scheme, uni- 
versity graduates are sent to the various country 
towns, to give lectures and form classes, open to 
both men and women, and to hold examinations 
and grant certificates. The scheme commenced 
at Nottingham, with 2000 students, and has 
rapidly extended. Colleges will lie built, in con- 
nection with it, at Nottingham and Sheffield. — 
In London, lectures are open to women at the 
Science and Art Department, South Kensing- 
ton, the Birkbeck Institution, etc Instruction in 
music, with numerous scholarships, is given at 
the National Training School. South Kensing- 
ton, opened in 1870. — The following examina- 
tions have been arranged: university examina- 
tions open to girls and women, in 1876 for girls 
under 18 ; local examinations of the universities 
of Cambridge, Oxford, and Durham — for women 
over \x : higher local examinations. Cambridge; 
examinations for women, at the University of 
London, and at Oxford (commenced in 1877) ; 
and government examinations in science and art, 
Science and Art Department. The Cniversity 
of London, in 1877, decided to admit women to 
medical degrees. 

Scotland. — The education of women has long 
been on a higher level in Scotland than in Eng- ' 
land ; girls have received some higher education 
with boys, in the common schools of the country; 
and they have also attended high schools with 
hoys, in towns, and special girls' classes in the 
large cities. Therefore, the same urgent need for 
reform has not existed, as in England : yet two 
important improvements maybe named. By act 
of parliament, in 1870. the rich endowments of 
the Edinburgh Merchants Company, of the an- 
nual value of £20,800, were appropriated to the 
education of boys and girls, and three large 
girls' schools were opened. Also a complete course 
of study for women has been established by the 
ladies' Educational Association in Edinburgh, 
assisted by the professors of the university — 
Examinations for girls and women are held in 
connection with tlie Cniversity of Edinburgh. 
TrekauL—See Ireland. 

For further information on this subject, see Re- 
port of Schools' Inquiry Commission; the same 
abridged by 1>. Beale ; Hodgson, Education of 
(Jirls; Tear-Bookqf Women's Work; Journals 
and Pamphlets published by the Women's Edu- 
cation Union (London). (See al o Co-education 
of the Sexes, and Female Education.) 



864 



WOODBRIDGE 



WORD METHOD 



WOODBRIDGE, William Channing-, an 

American teacher and educational writer, born in 
Medford, Mass., Dec. 18., 1794 ; died in Boston, 
November, 1845. Though he was of feeble con- 
stitution, his unusual mental ability, aided by 
the instruction of his father, who was a teacher, 
enabled him to enter Yale College when he was 
between 13 and 14 years of age. He graduated at 
the age of 17, and went to Philadelphia, where 
he entered upon a further course of study. In 
1812, he became principal of the Burlington 
Academy in New Jersey, remaining there two 
years. His enthusiasm for study led him to re- 
turn to New Haven, in the winter of 1814 — 15, 
to attend lectures, principally on natural science; 
but, while there, he entered upon a course of 
theological study, which he completed at the 
theological seminary in Princeton, N. J. While 
at the latter place, he received an invitation to 
assist in the establishment of the American 
Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, 
which he accepted. His labors there, in teaching 
at the Asylum, and preaching in various places 
on Sunday, seriously affected his health, and 
made a voyage to the south of Europe desirable. 
This was undertaken in 1820. He returned in 
1821; and, in the beginning of 1822, finished his 
Rudiments of Geography. This was followed, 
in 1824, by Universal Geography. (See Geog- 
kaphy.) Shortly after, failing health again led to 
his relinquishment of active work, and to a sec- 
ond voyage to Europe. There he visited many 
educational institutions, giving particular atten- 
tion to that of Pellenberg, at Hofwyl, where he 
spent three months, giving the first description 
of it to the American public. (See Hofwyl.) In 
1829, he returned to Hartford for the purpose of 
enlisting the sympathies of influential friends in 
a plan for the general improvement of education 
in the United States, and the establishment of a 
school for teachers. Ill health, however, and the 
labor necessary to keep his geographical text- 
books up to the standard of the new requirements 
produced by the discoveries of science, prevented 
the realization of his hopes. In 1831, he pur- 
chased the American Journal of Education, 
changed its name to the Annals of Education, 
and became its editor. He conducted this journal 
over six years, spending his small income freely 
in its behalf, contributing constantly to its pages 
articles in which were embodied the educational 
theories and systems matured by himself, or 
brought under his observation during his Eu- 
ropean travels. Sickness, however, again thwarted 
his plans; and, in 183(5, he resigned the active 
editorship of the journal, and agaiu embarked 
for Europe. Previous to his death, however, in 
1844, he returned to the United States. As an 
earnest friend of the cause of education, Mr. 
Woodbridge is entitled to special mention. He 
was one of the first to recognize the necessity of 
normal schools ; and the introduction of vocal 
music as a part of elementary instruction, now 
so largely adopted in the schools of towns and 
cities, is, in great measure, due to his zealous 
advocacy. (See Mason, Lowell.) 



WOODSTOCK COLLEGE, at Woodstock, 
Baltimore Co., Md., was chartered in 1867. It is 
a Roman Catholic institution, devoted exclusive- 
ly to the younger members of the Society of 
Jesus. Its course of studies embraces three years 
of philosophy, and four years of theology, to- 
gether with the accompanying branches of the 
natural sciences. Its faculty numbers 3 professors 
of dogmatic theology, 2 of special metaphysics, 
and 1 each for the remaining chairs of moral 
theology, Sacred Scriptures, ecclesiastical history, 
Hebrew, general metaphysics, chemistry, math- 
ematics, and natural philosophy. During the 
scholastic year 1873 — 4, the number of students 
in regular attendance was 102, of whom 42 were 
engaged in the study of philosophy and 60 in 
the course of theology. The Rev. James Perron, 
S. J., is (1877) the president. 

WOOLSEY, Theodore Dwight, an Amer- 
ican scholar and educator, born in New York, 
Oct. 31., 1801. He graduated at Yale College 
in 1820, and from 1823 to 1825, was a tutor 
there. From 1827 to 1830, he studied in Ger- 
many, and on his return was appointed professor 
of Greek in Yale College, and, in 1846, was 
chosen president, which office he resigned in 
1871. His opinion is frequently sought on 
questions of international law. He has published 
valuable editions of several classical authors, 
among which may be particularly mentioned 
The A/cestis of Euripides (1833); Hie Antigone 
of Soplwcles (1835); The Electra of Sophocles 
(1837) ; The Prometheus of JEschi/lus (1837); 
and the Gorgias of Plato (1842). 

WOOSTER, University of, at Wooster, 
Ohio, founded in 1866, and opened in 1870, is 
under Presbyterian control. It is supported by 
tuition fees ($30 to $45 a year) and the income 
of an endowment of $250,000. A handsome 
building, costing over $100,000, has been erected, 
and contains, besides ample recitation rooms, a 
large cabinet and museum, a valuable telescope 
with many philosophical and chemical instru- 
ments, a chapel, and halls for literary societies. 
It has a library of about 4,000 volumes. Both 
sexes are admitted. There is a collegiate, a pre- 
paratory, and a medical department, the last at 
Cleveland. The collegiate department has three 
regular courses : classical, philosophical, and 
scientific. In 1875 — 6, there were 28 instructors 
(13 in the medical department) and 350 students 
(170 collegiate, 100 preparatory, and 80 medical). 
The presidents have been : the Rev. Willis Lord, 
D. D., LL. D., 1870—73, and the Rev. A. A. E. 
Taylor, D. D., since 1873. 

WORD METHOD, a term applied to the 
analytic method of teaching children to read. 
The process consists of using short words instead 
of letters in the first lessons, the pupil learning 
to recognize and pronounce these words, some- 
times to read easy sentences, before learning the 
names of the letters. When a sufficient number 
of words have been learned, the pupil is shown 
their composite character, and taught the names 
and sounds of the letters which form them, thus 
learning the alphabet. In this process, care 



WORDS 



865 



should be taken to select appropriate words, and 
present them in a progressive manner; as, cat, 
rat, hat, mat, — man, fan, can, — dog, log, etc. 
The pupil, in this way, perceives the power of 
each letter, and soon learns to spell and pro- 
nounce words, after which the synthetic method 
may be employed. 

WORDS, Analysis of. The aualysis or 
resolving of words into their elementary parts, is 
an important branch of the study of languages, 
the native as well as foreign. In ordinary school 
parlance, this branch is usually styled etymology, 
since the analysis comprehends not only an ex- 
planation of the meaning of each of the parts 
of a word — both root and affixes, but a knowl- 
edge of the derivation of these. For elementary 
school purposes, however, it should be borne in 
mind that the latter is of secondary importance. 
In the study of the native tongue, it will be 
acknowledged, the importance of training pupils 
to analyze compound and derivative words can 
hardly be overestimated. The fact that the En- 
glish language derives about one-half of the 
words iu ordinary use from Latin, renders ex- 
ercises in word analysis, of far greater necessity 
for the study of English, than for that of most 
other languages.* That, without being trained 
iu this analysis, pupils will scarcely be able to 
grasp the true meaning of English words, prob- 
ably no experienced teacher, at present, will be 
inclined to dispute. To very many of the pu- 
pils who are merely drilled in spelling and read- 
ing, the force even of the most common Anglo- 
Saxon prefixes, like a, be, en, etc., and of suffixes, 
like ilom, hood, ship, etc., must remain unknown. 
How many, for example, will be able to infer 
the meaning of for or fore, in forswear and 
forego ? The knowledge of the Latin prefixes 
and suffixes, even in the words of ordinary life, 
will be acquired with still greater difficulty by 
pupils not sufficiently trained in word analysis. 
On the other hand, only a slight knowledge of 
the simplest Latin prefixes, as, ad, con, pre, pro, 
sub, etc., affords a key to the distinctive meaning 
of a large number of words. It is, therefore, a 
matter of gratification to find that, at present, 
this branch of study is scarcely ever entirely 
omitted from the common-school course of in- 
struction. — In regard to the method of teaching 
word analysis, it may justly be said that there 
are few subjects taught in elementary schools to 
which the fundamental principles of the devel- 
oping method can so easily, aud with so much 
advantage, be applied as to this. At whatever 
stage of the pupil's progress the instruction may 
begin, provided a knowledge of reading and writ- 
ing has been acquired, the number of words 
already learned, will be found ample for the first 
and easiest exercises. Hardly any arbitrary 
memorizing is needed, since, if the teacher fol- 
low a natural course, he will only have to de- 
velop the knowledge already in the child's mind. 
Thus, children, even in the lowest grades, know- 
ing the meaning of words like teacher and 
preacher, will not find the least difficulty in un- 
derstanding that er, in both these words, means 



one who, and in perceiving that these words 
mean, respectively, one who teaches, aud one 
who preaches. Nine-tenths of a class of pupils, 
of ordinary intelligence, will now readily find, 
among the words they are accustomed to use, 
several others in which the suffix er has the same 
meaning. They will not only fully comprehend 
this initiatory lesson, but they will feel a manifest 
delight that one simple explanation has so greatly 
added to their knowledge of the meaning of 
words. The intelligent teacher will not fail to 
perceive that the more closely he is able to ac- 
commodate his teaching to the knowledge of the 
words which belong to the pupils' own vocabu- 
lary, the more rapid will be their progress, and 
the more intense will be the interest which 
they will take in the new study. It is obviously 
a point of great importance that the first ex- 
amples of prefixes or suffixes that are presented, 
should fully illustrate their general meaning. 
Thus, the word teacher would be a better selec- 
tion for this purpose than grocer; sailor, better 
than tailor ; and repay, better than receive. In 
the further progress of the study.it is important 
that the most common prefixes and suffixes 
should be learned before those of rarer use. It 
shows a great lack of pedagogical tact in a 
teacher to drill his pupils on preter, suiter, and 
retro, before they know the meaning of snl>, con, 
and in. A more difficult stage of this branch 
of study, is that which treats of the Latin roots, 
and their use in English words. Here, also, a 
strict adherence to the principle that we should 
proceed from the " known to the unknown" — 
from an analysis of what is already in the pu- 
pil's mind to that which is new, will guide the 
teacher with unerring certainty on the right 
path. For example, a judicious teacher who 
desires to familiarize his pupils with the deriv- 
atives from the Latin root due or duct (from 
duco), will not. at first, select such words as in- 
duct, inductive, superinduce, etc., or even words 
like adduce, conduce, deduce, before his pupils 
have learned to analyze words of a more Ob- 
vious meaning ; as introduce, produce, reduce, 
aqueduct, viaduct, etc. What is here meant is, 
that the first lessons in this kind of analysis 
should concern only those words the meaning of 
which may readily be explained by showing the 
meaning of their parts. In every subject of in- 
struction, the order of presenting the various 
matters which are to be learned by the pupil, is 
of vital importance ; but in none is it more es- 
sential than in the etymological analysis of words. 
The numerous class of words which cannot be 
explained, except by the history of their forma- 
tion (such as ambition, candidate, chancellor, pe- 
culiar ; also sycophant, gazette, quarantine, etc.) 
should be reserved for a higher grade of this 
study. — The analysis of words derived from the 
Greek, should follow that of words derived from 
Latin roots ; and the discussion of the etymo- 
logical affinity of the words of different lan- 
guages should be reserved for that stage of the 
course of studies which comprehends compara- 
tive philology. — For the teaching of this subject, 



866 WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE 



WYOMING 



important hints may be derived from the fol- 
lowing works : Trench, A Select Glossary of 
English Words etc. (N. Y., 1859); also, On the 
Study of Words (N.Y., 1859); Haldeman, Af- 
fixes in their Origin and Application (Phila., 
1865); De Verb, Studies in English (N. Y., 
1867). (For other works on this subject, see 
English, The Study of.) 

WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE (London), 
founded in 1854, resembles, in intention and or- 
ganization, the Birkbeck Institution, founded in 
1823. The Rev. F. D. Maurice was its principal 
up to the time of his death, in 1872. After a 
short interval, Thomas Hughes, author of Tom 
Brown's School Days, became, and still is, the 
principal. It provides instruction, at the small- 
est possible cost (the teaching being almost 
wholly unpaid), in the subjects with which it 
most concerns English citizens to be acquainted, 
and thus tries to place a liberal education with- 
in the reach of working men. The college is 
situated in Great Ormond Street, London. Six 
class rooms have recently been built, at a cost 
of more than £2,400. There is a museum and 
library; and a coffee and conversation room is also 
provided. Classes are formed in art, history, lan- 
guage and literature, mathematics, and physical 
science. These compose the chief work of the 
college ; but classes in singing and other sub- 
ordinate subjects are also formed. 

The college year commences about the begin- 
ning of October, and consists of four terms of 
eight or nine week each, and a vacation term of 
eight to ten weeks. — The ordinary classes meet 
for one or two hours a week. General lectures 
are delivered on the ordinary subjects of the col- 
lege on Saturday evenings, to which the public 
are admitted. There are also practice classes for 
supplementary tuition, conducted for the most 
part by certificated students. — Other advantages 
connected with the college, are a Natural His- 
tory Society and Field Club, which holds weekly 
meetings, and arranges geological and botanical 
excursions ; an adult school, under the special 
superintendence of the secretary, for teaching 
the subjects required for entrance to the college; 
and a night school, held twice a week, for boys 
under 17. — The fees are as low as possible, and 
the conditions of entry are, that students must be 
above 17 years of age, must know the first four 
rules of arithmetic, and must be able to read and 
write. — Examinations are held in the last week 
of December. Certificates of honor, and schol- 
arships or associateships are granted to success- 
ful candidates who have attended the requisite 
number of terms. The council of the college is 
composed of founders, teachers, and elected 
members, among whom are many who originally 
joined it as students. The average number of 
students is 360. At an early date, the college 
was affiliated to the London University, and 
some of the students have taken their degrees. 
As the scheme of the Working Men's College 
did not admit women, another institution of a 
similar kind was founded in 1864 ; and another 
Working Men's College was organized in 1868. 



WRITING. See Penmanship. 

WTJRTEMBERG. See Germany. 

WYOMING, one of the territories of the 
United States, formed, in 1868, from portions 
of Utah. Idaho, and Dakota. Its area is 97,883 
sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 9,118; 
but in 1875, it was estimated at 24,000. 

Educational History. — In 1869, an act was 
passed by the territorial legislature, which pro- 
vided for the organization of schools, and this 
was amended in 1870. At that time, the num- 
ber of schools of all kinds was 9, giving employ- 
ment to 15 teachers, and instruction to 364 
pupils. In 1873, all previous school laws were 
repealed, and a new law was substituted, under 
which the schools are at present organized. The 
first superintendent of public instruction was 
J. H. Hayford, who became such in 1869, by 
virtue of his position as territorial auditor. He 
was succeeded, under the last law, by John 
Slaughter, the present incumbent, who, as ter- 
ritorial librarian, is, ex officio, superintendent of 
public instruction. 

School System. — The care of the public schools 
of the territory is intrusted to the superintendent 
of public instruction, whose term of office is two 
years, and who, in addition to the usual duties 
pertaining to his office, apportions the school 
fund, and makes a report direct to the assembly, 
on the first day of each regular session. A 
county superintendent is elected biennially in 
each county, and three district directors are an- 
nually elected in each district. The duties of 
these are almost identical with those of similar 
officers in other parts of the country. The 
public schools are open to all children between 
the ages of 7 and 21. When there are 15 or 
more colored children in any district, a separate 
school may be organized, for their instruction, 
by the district directors and the county superin- 
tendent. The schools are supported by a two-mill 
tax levied annually in each county, school-dis- 
tricts assessing themselves for additional amounts 
when necessary. In the employment of teach- 
ers, no discrimination can be legally made on ac- 
count of sex. All children in good health are 
compelled by law to attend school at least three 
months each year. The schools are elementary in 
character; but graded schools may be established 
in any district, upon the decision, to that effect, 
of the district directors and the county superin- 
tendent. The territorial superintendent and the 
several county superintendents are required to 
hold annually a teachers' institute, not less than 
four nor more than ten days in length, at which 
a uniform series of text-books, for three years, 
throughout the territory, is designated. The 
length of the school year is 10 months. 

Educational Condition. — The following are 
the principal items of school statistics for 1875 : 
Number of school-houses 13 

" " pupils enrolled 1,222 

" " teachers 23 

Total expenditures $16,400 

Value of school property (not including land) .$32,500 
No provision for superior or special instruction 
of any kind has yet been made. 



XENIA COLLEGE 

XENIA COLLEGE, at Xenia. Ohio, char- 
tered in 1850, and organized 1851, is under 
Methodist Episcopal control. It was originally 
organized for females only, but was soon thrown 
open to young men also. It comprises a collegiate 
course (classical and scientific^, and a preparatory, 
a primary, and a normal department. Facilities 



YALE COLLEGE 



867 



are also afforded for instruction in music. The 
regular tuition fees vary from $26 to $36 a year. 
In 1H75 — 6, there were 9 professors aud other 
instructors and 230 students (83 collegiate, 19 
preparatory, 30 primary, and 9K normal). Wil- 
liam Smith, A. St., is (1877) the president of 
the college. 



YALE, Elihu, an American merchant, the 
patron, though not the founder, of Yale College, 
was born in New Haven. April 5., 1648; and died 
in London. Eng., July 22., 1721. In 1678, he went 
to the East Indies, and, from 16S7 to 1692, was 
governor of Fort St. George, Madras. He was 
afterward made governor of the East India 
Company, and a fellow of the Royal Society. 
His gifts to the institution which afterwards 
bore his name, were estimated at .£500. At 
first, only the new building, which had been 
erected in New Haven, was named after him: 
but. by the charter of 1745. this title was ex- 
tended to the whole institution. A synopsis 
of his life may be found in the Yule Literary 
Magazine, April, 1858. 

YALE COLLEGE, in Xew Haven, Ct., is 
one of the oldest and most important educa- 
tional institutions in the United States. In 
1701, the general assembly granted a charter for 
a " collegiate school," and the trustees selected 
Saybrook as its site. The first commencement 
was held in 1702. The instruction seems to 
have been given partly at Saybrook. and partly 
at Killingworth and Milford. where the first 
two rectors resided. In 1716, the trustees voted 
to establish the college permanently at Xew 
Haven, and, in 1718, a building was completed 
there, which, in honor of Elihu Yale, a bene- 
factor, was named Yale College, a designation at 
first confined to the building, but authoritatively 
applied to the institution as a whole, by the new 
charter of 1745. The principal buildings oc- 
cupy a square of about eight acres, west of 
the public green. They are 16 in number. The 
two buildings of the Divinity School, the two 
buildings of the Scientific School, and the Med- 
ical School are off the main square. The Law 
School is in the county court-house. The in- 
vested funds, in 1875, amounted to §1,550,000 ; 
the income was §235,465, including $107,000 
from students. The institution possesses valu- 
able museums, cabinets, and apparatus. The 
departments of instruction in Yale College are 
comprehended under four divisions, as follows : 
the faculty of theology (organized in 1822) ; of 
law (1824); of medicine (1812); and of philosophy 
and the arts. Under the last-named faculty are 
included, the courses for graduate instruction, 
the under-graduate academical department, the 
uuder-graduate section of the Sheffield Scientific 
School (1847), and the School of the Fine Arts 
(1866) — each having a distinct organization. In 
the academical department, the course is for four 
years, and leads to the degree of A. B. The 



charge for tuition and incidentals is $140 a year. 

I The sum of $11,000 and upward, derived partly 
from permanent charitable funds, is annually 
applied by the Corporation for the relief of stu- 

I dents who need pecuniary aid, especially of those 
preparing for the Christian ministry. About 
100 thus have their tuition either wholly or in 
part remitted. There are two fellowships, the 
holders of which are required to pursue non- 
professional post-graduate studies in Xew Haven. 
The catalogue of 1876 — 7 shows some changes in 
tile coarse of studies published in that of 1875 — 6 
(from which the statement in the article Coi.lece 
was taken), especially in the greater range of 
elective studies. There are professorships of 
moral philosophy and metaphysics; natural phi- 
losophy and astronomy; geology and mineralogy; 
Latin language and literature; mathematics; 
Greek language and literature ; rhetoric and 
English literature ; history ; molecular physics 
and chemistry; modern languages; (ierman 
language and literature ; political and social sci- 
ence. The Sheffield Scientific School received 
its name in 1860, when it was re-organized upon 

' a more extensive scale through the munificence 
of Joseph E. Sheffield, of Xew Haven. In 1863, 

I it received the congressional land grant, and be- 

j came the College of Agriculture and the Me- 

1 chanic Arts of Connecticut. The under-graduate 
courses of instruction, occupying three years, are 
arranged to suit the requirements of various 

\ classes of students. The first year's work is the 
same for all ; during the last two years, the in- 
struction is chiefly arranged in special courses. 
The special courses most distinctly marked out 
are the following : (1) in chemistry ; (2) in civil 
engineering ; (3) in dynamic (or mechanical) en- 
gineering; (4) in agriculture; (5) in natural his- 
history ; 1 6) in the subjects preparatory to med- 
ical studies: (7) in studies preparatory to mining 
and metallurgy ; (8) in select studies preparatory 
to other higher studies. These courses lead to 
the degree of Ph. B. The charge for tuition is 
SI 50 a year. There are professorships of miner- 
alogy; civil engineering: astronomy and physics; 
dynamic engineering: theoretical and agricultural 
chemistry ; agriculture ; mathematics ; botany ; 
English; paleontology; political economy and 
history ; analytical chemistry and metallurgy : 

. zoology ; chemistry ; and comparative anatomy. 
The School of the Fine Arts has for its end the 
cultivation and promotion, through practice and 
criticism, of the arts of design; namely, paint- 
ing, sculpture, and architecture, both in their ar- 
tistic and esthetic aims. The design is, (1) to pro- 



868 



ZOOLOGY 



vide thorough technical instruction in the arts of 
painting, sculpture, and architecture ; and (2) to 
furnish an acquaintance with all branches of 
learning relating to the history, theory, and 
practice of art. The course of technical in- 
struction covers three years. No provision has 
been made for instruction in the departments of 
sculpture and architecture ; but it is hoped that, 
before long, this will be provided. There is a 
professor of painting, a professor of drawing, 
and au instructor in geometry and perspective. 
The chairs of sculpture, architecture, and anat- 
omy are unfilled. The school is open to both 
sexes. The charge for tuition is $36 for three 
months. In the departments of philosophy and 
the arts, there are various post-graduate courses, 
which may be pursued by candidates for the de- 
grees of A. M., Ph. D., and civil and dynamical 
engineer, or by graduates not candidates for a 
further degree. In the theological department, 
there is no charge for tuition or for room rent. 
There are several scholarships for the aid of 
needy students. In the law department, the 
under-graduate course is two years. There is a 
post-graduate, course of one year for the degree 
of Master of Law, and of two years, for the 
degree of Doctor of Civil Law. The libraries of 
the institution contain 117,000 volumes; namely, 
college library (exclusive of pamphlets), 80,000 ; 
Linonian and Brothers (society) library, 20,000 ; 



libraries of the professional schools, 17,000. The 
Peabody Museum of Natural History was 
founded, in 1866, by George Peabody, by a gift 
of $150,000. One. wing of the building has been 
completed. In 1876 — 7, there were 87 instructors 
in all the departments, besides special lecturers. 
The students were as follows : theological, 95 ; 
law, 60 ; medical, 36 ; department of philosophy 
and the arts, 860 (graduate students, 67 ; special 
students, 2; academic under-graduates, 569; sci- 
entific, 206; fine arts, 16); total, deducting rep- 
etitions, 1,021. The number of degrees conferred, 
prior to 1875, was 10,605, including 870 honor- 
ary degrees ; the number of academic alumni 
was 8,464. The government of the college is ad- 
ministered by the president and 18 fellows, of 
whom the governor and lieutenant-governor of 
Connecticut are, ex officio, two. Six are elected 
by the alumni; and the remaining ten, who are 
Congregational clergymen, are chosen by the 
fellows themselves. The rectors and presidents 
have been as follows : Abraham Pierson, 1701 
— 7; Samuel Andrew (pro tern.), 1707 — 19; 
Timothy Cutler, 1719—22; Samuel Andrew 
(pro tern.), 1722—5 ; Elisha Williams, 1725— 
39 ; Thomas Clap, 1739—66 ; Naphtali Dag- 
gett, 1766—77; Ezra Stiles, 1777—95 ; Timothy 
Dwight, 1795—1817 ; Jeremiah Day, 1817—46; 
Theodore Dwight Woolsey, 1846 — 71 ; and 
Noah Porter, since 1871. 



ZOOLOGY (Gr. {aov, an animal, and Jlojof, 
a discourse) treats of the structure, classification, 
habits, etc., of animals. It is an important 
branch of descriptive natural science, or natural 
history, and usually forms a part of the course 
of study in various grades of schools. In ele- 
mentary instruction, it constitutes, with its sister 
science, botany, one of the most effective and 
available subjects for training the observing fac- 
ulties ; and, hence, is often comprised in the 
course of instruction prescribed for common 
schools. This subject has peculiar attractions 
for children ; since, as is well known, they in- 
variably manifest a deep interest in animal life. 
The principles by which the teacher should be 
guided in giving instruction in this, as in other 
branches of natural science, have been to some 
extent explained in previous articles. (See 
Astronomy, and Botany.) In teaching zoology, 
care must be particularly taken to exhibit as 
much as possible the natural objects themselves ; 
and, in elementary teaching, this comes first. 
That is to say, the pupils are not to be required 
to commit to memory dry definitions and for- 
mulated statements ; but their minds should be 
brought in contact with the living realities. 
(For a full synopsis of topics and methods for 



elementary instruction in this subject, see How 
to Teach, N. Y-, 1874.) In the higher grades 
of instruction, the three different departments 
of the science — morphology, physiolog3 r , and 
distribution, should systematically be treated. 
In every grade of instruction, however, the 
teacher or professor cannot too closely follow 
the principle laid down by Huxley : " The great 
business of the scientific teacher is to imprint 
the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his sci- 
ence, not only by words upon the mind, but by 
sensible impressions upon the eye, and ear, and 
touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that 
every term used, or law enunciated, may after- 
wards call up vivid images of the particular struct- 
ural, or other, facts which furnished the demon- 
stration of the law, or the illustration of the term." 
Moreover, every teacher should bear in mind that 
a good share of his own knowledge should be at 
first-hand — acquired by his own observation, not 
simply gleaned from books — or he will not suc- 
ceed in awakening an interest in the minds of 
his pupils. The proper method of teaching this 
subject has been clearly shown by one of its great- 
est masters. (See Huxley, On the Study of Zool- 
ogy, in The Culture demanded by Modern Life, 
N. Y., 1867.) (See Science, The Teaching of.) 



THE END. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



Abacus — 1 

Abbot, Benjamin— 1 

Abbott, Jacob — 1 

ABC— 1 

A-B-C Book— 1 

A-B-C Method — see Alphabet 
Method 

Abecedarian — 1 

A-B-C Shooters— 1. See also 67 

Aboard, Pierre— 1 

Abercroinbie, John — 1 

Abingdon College — 2 

Absenteeism — 2 

Abstract and Concrete — 2 

Academy — its origin and ordinary 
meaning, 2 ; secondary meaning, 
Accademia della Crusca, Acad6mie 
Jran$aise, etc., 3 

Accomplishments — distinguished 
from culture, kinds of, 3 ; tend- 
ency in regard to, at the present 
time; proper object of, 4 

Acquisition — 4 

Acroamatic Method — 4 

Adam, Alexander — 4 

Adams, John — 4 

Adrian College — 5 

Adults, Schools for — in Germany, 
in Austria, in the United States, 5 

Adveutlsts— 5 

-Esthetic Culture — see Esthetic 
Culture 

Affectation — 6 

Agasslz, It. J. K.— 6 

Age, In Education — 6 

Agrlcola, Rodolphus — biographical 
sketch, educational works and 
views— 3 

Agricultural Colleges — congres- 
sional land grants for, 3; progress 
of, state appropriations for, 9 ; 
laboratories, workshops, farms, 
etc., expediency of grants for, 10; 
course of study in, European 
schools, 11; statistical table, 12, 13 

Ann, J. P.— 14 

Ainsworth, Robert — 14 

Alabama — area and population, edu- 
cational history, state superin- 
tendents, 14; school system, edu- 
cational condition, school statis- 
tics, normal instruction, 15 ; 
teachers' institutes ; secondary, 
superior, professional, scientific, 
and special instruction, 16 

Alabama, University of — 16 

Albion College— 17 

Alcott, A. B.— 17 

Alcott, W. A.— 17 

Alculn— 17 

Alexandrian School — 17 

Alfred the Great — biographical 
sketch, influence on education, 18 

Alfred University— 18 

Algebra — definition of, literal nota- 
tion, 18 ; positive and negative, 
19 ; exponents, methods of dem- 
onstration, 20 ; range of topics 
embraced, 21 ; class-room work, 22 

Algeria — education in. 24 

Allegheny College— 24 

Alma Mater — 24 

Alphabet — Greek and Latin alpha- 
bets, etc., origin of the English 
alphabet, imperfections in it, 
table of vowel elements, 25. See 
aUo 131, 390 



Alphabet Method— 25 

Alumneum — 26 

Alumnus — 26 

Amherst College— 2G 

Analysts, Grammatical — definition 
of, 26 ; parsing, value of aualysis 
as a mode of teaching, 27; diagram 
system, 28 

Analysis, Mathematical — see 
Mathematics 

Analytic Method of Teaching— 28. 
See also 336 

Andrea*, J. V. — reforms introduced 
by, 28 

Anglo-Saxon — origin of, modifica- 
tions of by other languages, pe- 
culiarities of, its value in com- 
mon schools, 29 ; in the high 
school or academy, in normal 
schools, in colleges and univer- 
sities, 30; text-books for thestudy 
of, 31 

Anselm, of Canterbury — 31 

Antloch College— 32 

Antipathy — 32 

Aphorisms, Educational — value of 
education, 32; scopo of education, 
teacher and pupil, 33 ; training 
and habit, development of the 
faculties.language. self-education, 
34 ; moral education, discipline 
and government, 35 

Apparatus, School — 35 

Apportionment — see School Fund 

Arabian Schools — 36 

Archaeology — 37 

Architecture — see Fine Arts 

Architecture, School — see School- 
House 

Argentine Republic — area, popula- 
tion, religion, etc., 37; history, 
political and educational, schools 
and universities, 38 

Aristotle — his early life. 38 appointed 
teacher of Alexander, the peri- 
patetic school, method of teach- 
ing, theory of education, ante- 
natal influeuces, habit as an edu- 
cator, when instruction begins, 
classes of subjects to be taught, 
mechanical work, fine arts, vi- 
olent exercises opposed to 
growth, 39 ; antagonism of bod- 
ily and mental activity, music, 
political economy, works of Aris- 
totle, 40. See also 32. 33, 34. 471 

Arithmetic— faulty method of teach- 
ing, 40; what should constitute 
the course in, 41; principles and 
maxims to be kept in view, 43; 
reasons for the rule in short di- 
vision, pure and applied arith- 
metic, 44 ; stages of mental de- 
velopment to be kept in view in 
teaching arithmetic, 45 

Arizona — organization, area, and 
population, educational history, 
4") ; school system, educational 
condition, 46 

Arkansas— organization, and admis- 
sion as a state, educational his- 
tory, 46; state teachers' associa- 
tion, 47; state superintendents, 
school statistics, present law; 
elementary, normal, superior, 
and special instruction; educa- 
tional journal, etc., 48 



Arkansas Industrial University— 

48 

Army Schools — see Military 
Schools 

Arndt, E. M,— 49 

Arnold, Thomas— 49 

Arnold, Thomas K.— 50 

Art-Education — necessity of, con- 
dition of among the ancients, po- 
litical value of, 50; history ot in 
the TJ. S., methods of art-instruc- 
tion, 51; art-schools in the U. S.. 
table of art institutions in the 
TJ. S. ; instruction in drawing, 
52 ; mode of establishing art- 
achools. importance of art-edu- 
cation, 53 

Artisans, Education of — see Tech- 
nical Education 

Arts, Liberal— 53 

Aschani, Roger — 54 

Association of Ideas — 54 

Astronomy — claims of in education, 
54 ; practical uses of, proper 
method of teaching, elementary 
course in, 55; diagrams and ap- 
paratus, religious aspects, 56 

Atheneum — 56 

Athens — Athenian education dis- 
tinguished from Spartan, gram- 
matist and critic, writing, use of 
ink and stylus. 56; music, gym- 
nastics, baths, education of girls 
and orphans. 57 

Atlanta University — 57 

Atlas— 57 

Attendance. School — annual aver- 
age, how found, 57 ; table of, in 
the TJ. S., school age in different 
states, percentage of population 
enrolled, school attendant e in 
European countries, 58; in cities, 
59 

Attention — great value of, interest 
the chief agent, not to be ex- 
ercised too long, memory de- 
pendent upon, 59: attention de- 
pendent upon physical condi- 
tion, proper time for its exercise, 
60 

Augustana College — 60 

Augustine, Saint — his early life, 
teaches eloquence and rhetoric, 
is converted to Christianity, the 
Confessions, objects to the use of 
the pagan classics in schools, lays 
the foundation of Episcopal sem- 
inaries, 60; and of Christian cat- 
echetics, 61. See also 61, lh5, 204 

Austin College— 61 

Australasian Colonies — area and 
population, educational systems. 
New South Wales, Victoria, 61 ; 
South Australia, West Australia. 
Queensland, Tasmania, New Zea- 
land, 62 

Austria — area and population. 62; 
school history, present school 
system, school statistics, 64; edu- 
cational periodicals, 65 

Authority— its twofold application, 
its dual nature, limits of, mode 
of enforcing, description of, 65 ; 
its use in intellectual instruc- 
tion, excessive use of hurtful to 
mental growth, 66. See also 374, 
376 



II 



ANALYTICAL . INDEX 



Bacchant s— 67. See also 1 

Bachelor— 67 

Bacon, Francis — early education, 
appointed lord high chancellor, 
Novum Organum, convicted of cor- 
ruption, philosophical views, 67; 
experiment, Instauratio Magna, 
Essays, influence on education, 68. 
See also 179, 307, 494 

Baden — see Germany 

Bahrdt, C. F.— 68 

Baldwin University — 69 

Baltimore — history of education in, 
school statistics, school system, 
examination and qualification of 
teachers, 69 ; industrial educa- 
tion, training of teachers, 70 

Baltimore City College— 70 

Baltimore Female College — 70 

Baptists — sects of, early history, 70; 
principal colleges in England 
and Wales, history of in America, 
colleges and theological semi- 
naries in America, 71; epochs in 
educational work, distinguished 
Baptist educators, 72 

Barbauld, A. L.— 72 

Barnard, F. A. P.— 72 

Barnard, Henry — his early life, edu- 
cational works — 73 

Basedow, J.B. — his early life, 73;edu- 
cational views and publications, 
Elementarwerk, the imilanthro- 
pin, its failure, his death, his in- 
fluence— 74 

Bates College— 74 

Bavaria — see Germany 

Baylor University — 75 

Beach Grove College— 75 

Bebian, R. A. A,— 75 

Bede— 75 

Belgium— area and population, 75; 
educational history, primary and 
secondary instruction, 76; sala- 
ries of teachers, educational sta- 
tistics, 77 

Bell, Andrew — his early life, -John 
Frisken, 77; monitorial system, 
controversy with Lancaster, the 
National Society, the British and 
Foreign School Society, his be- 
quests, Madras College, 78 

Belles-Lettres — early instruction 
in, 78; order in which the es- 
thetic is developed in the mind, 
method of instruction to be pur- 
sued, proper text-books, original 
composition one of the most ef- 
fective means for fostering a taste 
for the beautiful, the esthetic in 
foreign literature, text-books to 
be used, 79; illustration of the 
esthetic criticism of a scene from 
Julius Cmsar, etymology of single 
words sometimes a department 
of belles-lettres, 80 

Belolt College— 80 

Benedictines, Schools of the — their 
origin, peculiar features of in- 
struction in, 80, list of the most 
famous, 81 

Beneke, F. E.— 81 

Benevolence — 81 

Bengel, J. A.— 81 

Bentley, Richard— 82 

Berea College— 82 

Bernhardl, A. F.— S2 

Bethany College— 82 

Bethel College— 82 

Bible — difference in the views of Cath- 
olics and Protestants concerning 
the, use of the Bible in schools, 
the Bible question, 83 

Bible History— 84 

Birch— 84 

Blackboard — substitutes for, its 
uses, 84 

Blaekburn University — 85 

Blind, Education of the — statistics 
of the blind, first public asylum 
for, first attempts at teaching, 85; 
institutions for, in the U. S. i 



Blind 

methods of instruction,86; music, 
mechanical training, government 
and discipline, systems of print- 
ing and notation, 87 

Blochinann, K. J.— -88 

Blue-coat School — see Christ's 
Hospital 

Board of Education — see School 
Board 

Boarding-school — its status in dif- 
ferent countries, relation to pub- 
lic schools, 88 

Bolivia — area and population, 88, 
condition of education in, 89 

Bonet, J. P 89 

Bonnycastle, John — 89 

Book-keeping— single and double 
entry, 89; philosophy of, increase 
of number of schools for, 90 

Book-manual— 91 

Borgl, Giovanni — 91 

Boston — population, school history, 
school system, 92; salaries, pri- 
vate schools and other institu- 
tions, 93 

Boston College— 94 

Boston University — 94 

Botany — the educational value of, 
method of studying, 95; simplic- 
ity in manner of teaching, sys- 
tematic botany, herbarium, mi- 
croscope, identification of plants 
not the chief object, utility of, 96 

Bowdoin College— 97 

Boys, Education of — objects to be 
kept in view, 97; systems of the 
ancients, Cyropaidia, Spartan sys- 
tem, custos or pa'dagogus, ludi 
magister, Institutiones Oratorio?, 98; 
training and instruction in mod- 
ern times, necessity of discrim- 
inating between the sexes, re- 
quirements of modern civiliza- 
tion, 99 

Braidwood, Thomas — 99 

Braille, Louis— 99 

Brain — 100 

Brazil — area and population, 100 ; 
educational condition, school 
statistics, Collegio de Pedro II.. 101 

Bridgman, Laura— 102 

British Columbia — area and popula- 
tion, educational . history and 
condition, 102; school statistics 
and finances, 103 

Brooklyn — first free public schools 
established there and in New 
York, school history. 103; school 
statistics and system, examina- 
tion and qualification of teach- 
ers, private seminarijes and 
schools, 104 

Brown, Goold — 105 

Brown University — 105 

Buchtel College— 105 

Buffalo — population, edxicational his- 
tory, city superintendents, school 
system, educational condition, 
school statistics, parochial and 
private schools, 106 

Bugenhagen, Johann — 107 

Bureau of Education, National — 
its organization, objects, officers, 
and functions, 107 
Burgher School— 108 
Burlington University— 109 

Busby, Richard— 109 
Business Colleges — their origin and 
progress, improvements in, 109; 
differences in, 110 
Buttmann, Ph. K.— 110 

Cadet — see Military Schools and 
Naval Schools 

Cadets* College— 110 

California — organization, education- 
al history, 110 ; state superin- 
tendents, school system, 111 ; 
educational condition ; normal 
and secondary instruction, de- 
nominational schools, superior 



California 

instruction, list of colleges and 
universities, special instruction, 
teachers' associations, 112 ; edu- 
cational literature, 113 

California College— 113 

California, University of— 113 

Calisthenics — definition of, 113: 
value of, proper time for, precau- 
tions to be taken, 114 

Calisthenium— 114 

Calligraphy — see Penmanship 

Cambridge, University of— history, 
organization, 114; professorships, 
terms, members of colleges, de- 
grees, examinations, triposes, 
local examinations, names of col- 
leges, under-graduates.university 
buildings, 115; societies, 116 

Campe, J. H. — his educational the- 
ories and works, 116 

Canada, Dominion of— 116 

Cane Hill College— 116 

Capital University— 116 

Caileton College— 116 

Carthage College— 117 

Catechetical Method — its limits, 
true uses, superseded by the 
topical method, 117. See also 229 

Catechetical School — 6ee Alexan- 
drian School 

Catechism — definition and origin, 
117; history, 118 

Catechumen — 118 

Cathedral and Collegiate Schools 
— their history, 118 ; scope of, 
decline of, 119 

Cecilian College— 119 

Census, School — see School Census 

Centenary College— 119 

Central America — area and popula- 
tion, educational condition of 
Guatemala, Honduras, 119 ; San 
Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa 
Rica, 20 

Central College— 120 

Central Tennessee College — 120 

Central University— 120 

Centre College— 120 

Certificate — see License, and In- 
centives, School 

Chapsal, C. P.— 121 

Character, Discernment of — neg- 
lect of, harm resulting thereby, 
sacrifice of the individual to the 
mass, temperament, how to dis- 
cern it. 121; phrenology, 122 

Charlemagne — his educational 
aims, 122; education of the clergy, 
course of study, system of public 
instruction, 123. See also 139, 164 

Charleston, College of — 123 

Chart— 123 

Cheever, Ezekicl— his life, 123; his 
work and characteristics, 124 

Cheke, Sir John— 124 

Chemistry — its practical value, habit 
of memorizing, 125; three meth- 
ods, lectures, text-book study, ar- 
rangement of material, sensa- 
tional experiments, 126 ; proper 
method illustrated, 127 

Chicago — population, school statis- 
tics and system, 128; examina- 
tion, licensing, and appointment 
of teachers, salaries of teachers, 
private schools, 129 

Chicago, University of— 129 

Childhood — see Age 
Chili — area and population, educa- 
tional condition, primary instruc- 
tion, school statistics, 130; second- 
ary, superior, and special instruc- 
tion, 131 
China Proper — area and population, 
early history, religion, alphabet, 
131; classics, estimate of educa- 
tion, primary schools, 132: lect- 
ures, degrees, examinations, "in- 
fluence of Europeans on Chinese 
instruction.University of Peking, 
133 



Christ Cross Kow— 134 

Christian Brothers, College of— 134 

Christian Brothers* College— 134 

Christian College— 134 

Christian University— 134 

Christians— 134 

Christ's Hospital— 135 

Chronology — see History 

Church of God— 135 

Cincinnati — population, educational 
history, school system and statis- 
tics, 135 

Cincinnati, University of— 137 

Civil Government — see Science of 
Government 

Clafilu University— 137 

Class — definition of, 137; size and 
constitution of. basis of classifi- 
cation, teaching by classes or by 
subjects, 138; loose classification, 
139 

Classical Studies — Latin, Greek, 
139; decline in study of. 140; ob- 
ject for which taught, method of 
teaching. text-book*, translations, 
141. See also 224, 225 

Classics, Christian— history of, 142; 
peculiar value of, 143 

Classification — see Class 

Cleveland — population, educational 
history, 143; school system and 
statistics, 144 

Cllnlque— 144 

Clinton, Dc Witt — biographical 
sketch, political career, his aid to 
the cause of education, 144; be- 
comes president of the Society 
for Establishing a Free School in 
the City of New York, advocates 
the Laneasterian system, is made 
president of the Presbyterian 
Society for the Promotion of the 
Education of Youth, the Infant 
School Society of New York, New 
York Hospital, New York Histor- 
ical Society, estimate of his abil- 
ity, 145 

Coach — 145 

Co-Educatlon of the Sexes — how 
regarded in the TT, S., 145; argu- 
ments for and against, statistics, 
146; progress of co-education in 
the U. S.. 147; effect of the ordi- 
nary college course on the health 
of women, progress of co-educa- 
tion in Europe, 148 

Colhurn. Warren — 149 

Colby University — 149 

College — history of in France, 150; 
in Great Britain, Ireland, and the 
U.S.,151; Harvard, Yale. 152; table 
of colleges in the U. S., conven- 
tion of college presidents in the 
U. S. in 1874, 153 

Collegiate Schools— see Cathedral 
Schools 

Colombia. United States of— area 
aud population, educational his- 
tory, school system, 154 

Color — value of instruction in, 
method of teaching, harmony of 
colors, 155 

Colorado — organization, area and 
population, educational history, 
school system, 156; educational 
condition, secondary and other 
instruction. 157 

Colorado College— 157 

Colored Schools— their number, ix- 
pjdiency of, 157; state laws in re- 
gard to, advocates of. 15 H 

Columbia College— 158 

Columbia, District of — see District 
of Columbia 

Columbian University — 159 

Comenlus, J. A. — his early life, 159; 
Janua Hnguarum reserata, Didac- 
tica magna sen omnes omnia do- 
cendi artiftcium, Orbis sensualium 
pictus. and other works, his posi- 
tion as an educational reformer, 
ideal order of instruction, equal 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 

I Comenlus 

instruction of both sexes, educa- 
tion and development identical, 
physical education, schoolrooms 
and play-grounds, words to be 
learned in connection with 
things, 160 ; language to be 
learned by practice, anniversary 
of Comenius's death, statue 
erected, 161. See also, 33, 34, 24s, 
720 

Commencement — 161 

Commercial Colleges — see Busi- 
ness Colleges 

Commissioner of Education — see 
Bureau of Education 

Common >*ehools— 102 

Companionship — necessity of, 162 

Competitive Examinations — see 
Examinations 

Composition — oral composition, ac- 
curacy of expression, method of 
composing, preliminary train- 
ing, 163; daily practice necessary, 
correction of compositions, rhet- 
oric, 164 
| Compulsory Education — first inti- 
mation of, history of, 164; school 
age first defined by law, 165; pres- 
ent aspect of, 167. See also 154 
! Comstock, J, L. — 167 
; Conception — the concept, predomi- 
nance of conceptive faculty dur- 
ing infancy, basis of judgment, 
ends to be kept in view, value of 
object teaching, illustrations, 
16K; conceptions dependent upon 
feelings, 169 

Concert Teaching— a kind of rote 
teaching, memorizing, excessive 
rote teaching injurious, tone ol 
voice in responses, 169 

Concord College— 170 

Concordia College — 170 

Congregationalists — their history, 
originators of common schools, 
list of schools and colleges, 170; 
American Education Society, 
church government, educators, 
171 

Connecticut — area and population, 
educational history, 171; taxes, 
172; tuition fees, permanent fund. 
173; state superintendents, state 
teachers' association, schuo] sys- 
tem, educational condition, 174; 
statistics, normal ami sivuiidar\ 
instruction, 175; denominational 
schools, superior, professional, 
scientific, aud special instruction, 
176; educational literature, 177 

Conscience, Culture of — its compar- 
ative strength or weakness, moral 
precepts not necessarily a culti- 
vator of. 177 

Constitution of U. S.— 178 
. Convent Schools — their history, 
178; influence of Reformation on, 
basis and distinguishing features 
of, 179 

Conversation — its uses, 179 

Conversational Method — its value 
in early education, 180 

Cooper Institute — see Cooper, Pe- 
ter 

Cooper, Peter — his early life, in- 
tentions in regard to the educa- 
tion of the industrial classes, 
Cooper Union for the Advance- 
ment of Science and Art, course 
of instruction in, 181 

Coote, Edward— 182 
| Copy-Books — see Penmanship 

Copying— 182 
I Corderius, Mathurln — 183 
| Cornell College— 1h3 

Cornell University— 188. See also 9 

Corporal Punishment — advocates 
of, abuse of, History of the Rod, 
185; the Terrors of the Hod, hors- 
ing, 186; disciplinary value of, 
187; justifiable as a last resort. 



III 

Corporal Punishment 

statistics, 188; present practice of 
the civilized world, legal aspects, 
offenses justifying the use of, 189 

( orvallls College — 190 

Course of Instruction— a proper 
curriculum, 190; division into 
grades, 191, Set- also 133 

Cousin, Victor— 192. See also 1 

C ram ming — 192 

Creche — 193 

Crime and Education— their rela- 
tion, 193; prison congresses, sta- 
tistics, 194; prison schools, crime 
governed by fixed, natural laws, 
195 

Cruelty (to Animals) — prevailing 
trait in children. 1!'5; training oi 
the affections necessary, 196 

Culture— general and special, self- 
exertion, 196; moral culture, 197 

Cumberland University— 197 

Curiosity— 197 

Curriculum — see Course of In- 
struction 

Curtis, Joseph— 197. 

Curtius, (Jeorge— 198. See also 390 

Dacier, Andre— 198 
Dacier, Anne — 198 
Dactylology— 198 

Dakota— area and population, edu- 
cational history, 198; school sys- 
tem.educational condition, school 
statistics, normal instruction, 199 

Dalgarno, Ceorge — 200 

Dame Schools — 200 

Dancing and Dancing Schools- 
history of, the "jumping proces- 
sion," religious character of, so- 
cial aspects of, 201 

Dana, J. D.— 202. See also 580 

Dartmouth College — 202 

Davidson College— 203 

Davies, Charles— 2nj 

Day, Jeremiah— jo:; 

Deaf-mutes — 203; number of, errone- 
ous ideas in regard to, mental con- 
dition. Alpkabetum Xaturoz, 204; 
history ot the instruction of deaf- 
mutes, table ot institutions for in 
the U. S.. 206; the American 
Asylum; systems of instruction, 
206 

Debating— 20fi : debating societies, 
207. See also j:ti 

Decimal Notation— 207 

Declamation— J07 

Definitions— 207; How to Teach, 208 

Deg^rando — see Cerando 

Degrees — original signification, his- 
tory, 208; list ot, in the U. S., 
Doctor of Medicine, value of de- 
grees, Mommseu, 209. See also 
133 

Delaware— area and population, edu- 
cational history, school system. 
210; educational condition, school 
statistics, normal instruction, 
teachers' institutes; secondary, 
superior, professional, and scien- 
tific instruction, 211 

Delaware College — 212 

Delphln Classics— 212 

Denlson University — 212 

Denmark — area and population, his- 
tory, 212; history of public in- 
struction, primary instruction. 
213; peasants' high schools, 214; 
secondary, superior, and special 
instruction, Iceland, 215 

Denominational Schools — 215 ; 
arguments for, Pudagogisches 
Handbuch, 216; Dr. Kigg. oppo- 
sition to denominational schools 
in the U.S., advocacy of by the Ro- 
man Catholics, W, H. Seward, 217; 
Bishop Hughes, 218 

Dentistry, Schools of — see Med- 
ical Schools 

Departmental System — 318 

Depravity — see Moral Education 



IV 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



Des Moines, University of— 218 

Detroit — population, 218; educa- 
tional history, city superintend- 
ents, school system, school statis- 
tics, 219 

Developing Method — definition of, 
Herbart, Beneke, improvements 
in, self-consciousness, 220 ; the 
teacher is the school, phonetic 
spelling, Graser, Vogel, reading 
in concert, value of number, 221; 
the developing method as an 
auxiliary, 222 

Devotional Exercises— see Relig- 
ious Education 

Diary, School— 222 

Dickinson College— 222 

Dictation— 223 

Dictionary — definition and history 
of, 223; in England, France, Ger- 
many, 224 and 225 

Didactics— 225; general and special, 
226 

Diesterweg, F. A. "W.— 226; his op- 
position to the union of church 
and school, 227 — see also 433 

Diffidence — its nature, Cowper, 
Washington, means for correct- 
ing, 228 

Diligence— 228 

Dilworth, Thomas— 228 

Dinter, G. F.— 229 

Diploma— 229 

Disciples of Christ— 229 

Discipline — intellectual and moral, 
order, 230 

D is p at at ions — 231 

District of Columbia — area and 
population, history, 231; educa- 
tional history, 232; school sys- 
tem, educational condition; nor- 
mal, secondary, superior, profes- 
sional, scientific, and special in- 
struction, 233 

District Schools — see Public 
Schools 

Dittes, Friedrlch — 234. See also 
335, 401 

Diversions — during childhood and 
youth, athletics, 234 

Doane College — 235 

Doctor— see Degrees 

Doederlein, Tjudwig— 235 

Donaldson, J. W.— 235. See also 594 

Drawing — definition of, usefulness 
of, 235; two classes of, instru- 
mental drawing, 236 ; free-hand 
drawing, advisability of teaching 
it in common schools, its intro- 
duction into English schools, 
237; conditions necessary for its 
successful teaching, programmes 
for instruction in different grades 
of schools, 233 

Drill— 239 

Drury College— 239 

Dublin University — see Ireland 

Dull Scholars— 239 

Dunce— 239 

Dupanloup— F. A. P.— 239 

Dursch, M. G.— 240 

Duruy, Victor— 240 

Dwight, Francis— 240 

Dwight, Timothy — 240. See also 
187, 260 

Ear, Cultivation of — music, lan- 
guage, cure of deafness, 241 

Earlhani College — 242 

East Tennessee University — 242 

East Tennessee "Wesleyan Uni- 
versity — 242 

Economy, School — see School 
Economy 

Ecuador — area and population, 242; 
school history; primary, second- 
ary, superior, and special instruc- 
tion, 243 

Edgeworth, Maria — 243. See also 
196, 303, 399 

Edinburgh, University of — see 
Scotland 



Education— definition of, 243; kinds 
of, instruction, history of educa- 
tion, 244; idea of, among the an- 
cients, among the Hebrews, ad- 
vent of Christianity, 245; school 
of Alexandria, Christian schools, 
convents, 246; town or burgher 
schools, peripatetic schools, Mo- 
hammedanism-, the Reformation, 
247 ; Jesuit schools, the Pietists, 
Comenius, Locke, Humanists and 
Realists, Rousseau, Basedow, Pes- 
talozzi, Froebel, Herbart, Beneke, 
Spencer, 248; histories of educa- 
tion, theory of education, 249 ; 
physical, intellectual, and emo- 
tional education, 251; religious 
education, educational works, 253. 
See also 56, 226, 234, 283, 284, 298, 
306, 321, 332, 372, 377, 383, 399, 
417, 419, 497, 595, 695, 703, 717, 
744, 74G, 777, 793, 794 

Education, Female — see Female 
Education 

Education and Crime— see Crime 
and Education 

Egypt — area, population, and his- 
tory, educational history, ancient 
Egypt, 254; modern Egypt, 255; 
missionary and foreign schools, 
256 

Elaborative Faculty — 257 

Elementary Schools — 257 

Elementary Science— see Science, 
Teaching of 

Ellis, William— 257 

Elocution— 257 

Elphlnston, James — 257 

Emerson, G. B.— 257. See also 149, 
187, 304 

Eminence College— 258 

Emory College— 258 

Emory and Henry College — 259 

Emotions — 259. See also 252 

Empirical Methods — 259 

Emulation — definition of, expedien- 
cy of its use, 260 

Encouragement — 261 

England— area and population, 261; 
educational history, endowed 
schools commission, 262; condi- 
tion of schools at the time of the 
Reformation, Lancaster, Bell, 
British and Foreign Society, and 
National Society, Brougham, 263; 
committee of inspection appoint- 
ed, school laws of 1870, 1873, and 
1876, school boards, 264; national 
system, 265; educational statistics, 
266; London school board, teach- 
ers' associations, secondary edu- 
cation, 267; public schools, 263; 
endowed and proprietary schools 
and colleges, ladies* colleges, su- 
perior instruction, 269; pro es- 
sional and scientific instruction, 
270; theological colleges, inns of 
court, etc., 271. See also 287 

England, Church of — see Epis- 
copal Church 

English, The Study of— early study 
in infant schools, etc., to speak 
well, learning to read, 272; gram- 
mar, advanced study in hi^.h 
schools, etc., skill in speaking, 
273; skill in writing, philological 
study of English, 274; compara- 
tive philology, phonology, gram- 
matical etymology, 275; Lafayette 
College, text-books, 276 

English Literature — what to teach 
and how to teach it, 277; encyclo- 
p&disni and abridgment, course 
and method of study, 278; Amer- 
ican literature, books of refer- 
ence, 279 

Enthusiasm — 280 

Epee, C. M. Abbe" de P— 280 

Episcopal Church — Church of Eng- 
land, 280 ; Church of Ireland, 
Protestant Episcopal Church in 
the XL S., 231 , 



Episcopal Methodist College— 282 

Equation — see Algebra 

Erasmus, Desiderius — life and in- 
fluence, 282; educational viewa r 
283. See also 33, 304 

Erigena, J. S.— 283 

Ernesti, J. A.— 284 

Erskine College— 284 

Esthetic Culture— the esthetic ele- 
ment among savages, taste, 284;. 
seuse of the beautiful to be cul- 
tivated practically, drawing to be 
taught before writing, love of 
the beautiful, music, poetry, 
esthetics of the school room, 528. 
See also 252 

Etienne or Estlenne, Henry and 
Robert — see Stephens 

Eton College— see England 

Etymology— 286. See also, 225, 275 

Eureka College — 286 

Evangelical Association — 286 

Evening Schools — objects of their 
establishment, 286; their status in 
different countries, organization 
and management, defects of in. 
New York, 287 

Everett, Edward— 288 See also 1,. 
33, 34, 35, 243, 422 

Examinations — 288; of schools, of 
teachers, college and university- 
examinations, 289; in Germany,, 
comparative values of written. 
and oral examinations, 290. See, 
also 133, 800 

Example, The Influence of— 291 

Exchanges, Educational — see Hol- 
brook, Josiah 

Exhibitions, School— 292 

Expulsion — 292 

Eye, Cultivation of the — sight sus- 
ceptible of improvement, aims of 
education in, y92; when to begin 
the cultivation of the eye, kinder- 
garten methods, color-blindness,, 
injury to the eye from faulty 
school methods, 293 

Factory Schools — English legisla- 
tion in regard to, legislation on 
the Continent, 294; in the V. S., 
295 

Faculty— 295 

Fagging— 295 

talk, J. D.— 295 

1-alk, P. B. A.— 295 

Farmers' College — 297 

Fear — its relation to education, 297;. 
the method of nature, 298 

Felbiger, J. I. von— 298. See also 63 

Fellenbcrg, P. E. von — 299 — see 
also 33, 375 

Female Education — history, 299; 
female education in ancient 
times, influence of Christianity 
upon, 300 ; the Reformation, statis- 
tics in Russia, in Austria, in other 
Catholic countries, 301 ; in the 
U. S-, degrees conferred, theory 
of female education, 302. See also 
132, 229, 256, 283, 298, 299, 485, 857 

Female Teachers — number of, in 
the V. S., 304 ; why women axe- 
preferred as teachers, 305 

Fenelon F. de Salignac de la 
Motbe— 305 

Ferule— 306 

Festivals, School — Bee School Fes- 
tivals 

Fichte, J. G.— 306 

Fiction, "Works of— interest of chil- 
dren in, 305; educational uses of,, 
errors to be avoided, 307 

Fine Arts— 308 

Finland — area and population, educa- 
tional history, school system, 308 

Fisk University— 309 

Flattich, J. F.— 309 

Florida— area and population, edu- 
cational history, 309; state super- 
intendents, school system, 310; 
school fund, educational condi- 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



Florida 

tion, seminaries, superior in- 
struction, educational literature, 
311 

Foreign Education — 311; disadvan- 
tages of, foreign travel, 312 

Form — 312; method of training the 
observing faculties, 313. See also 
343 

Fort Wayne College— 313 

Foundling Asylums — 313 

Fourier, Pierre — 314 

Fractions — see Arithmetic 

France — area, population, and terri- 
tory, 314 ; educational history. 
315, 316; primary instruction. 317, 
318; secondary and superior in- 
struction, 319; special and profes- 
sional instruction, 320 

Franciscan College — 321 

Francke, H. A. — educational and 
charitable labors, institutions 
founded by him, educational 
views, 321 

Franklin College (Ind.)— 322 

Franklin College (Ohio)— 321 

Franklin and Marshall College — 
322 

Frederick College— 322 

Free Schools — see Public Schools 

Freedmen's Schools — 323 

Freewill Baptists— 323 

French Language — its origin, 324; 
prevalence, 325 ; methods of 
teaching it, 326; test-books, 327 

Friends, Society of— 327 

Froebel, Friedrich — life and labors, 
the kindergarten, 328 

Furman University — 328 

Furniture, School — see School 
Furniture 



Galesvillc University— 329 

Gall, P. J.— 329 

Gallaudet, T. H.— 329 

Games— 329. See also. 235 

Ganme, J. J:— 330 

Gedlke, Friedrich— 331 

Genetic Method— 331 

Geneva College — 331 

Genius — 331 

Geography— its scope, 332; element- 
ary instruction in, history of, 
333; first text-books, 334; mental 
faculties exercised by, stages of 
instruction, 335 ; proper age to 
begin the study of, 336; methods 
of teaching. 337. See also 277, 857 

Geology— its claim to recognition in 
elementary schools, basis of, 338; 
mental powers cultivated by the 
study of, improper methods of 
teaching, 341 

Geometry — 341; how to be approach- 
ed by the learner, a mechanical as 
well as a logical science, 342; ar- 
rangement of subject matter, 343; 
class-room work, 344; geometrical 
invention, changes in demonstra- 
tion. 345 

Georgetown College (D. C.) — 345 

Georgetown College (Ky.) — 346 

Georgia, — area, population, and edu- 
cational history, state superin- 
tendents, 346 ; school system, 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics, 347; normal, secondary, 
superior, special, and professional 
instruction, 348 

Georgia, University of— 349 

Glrando, J. M. de— 349. See also. 35 

German-American Schools — 349 

German College — 350 

German Language — comparative 
value of, 350; its origin and his- 
tory, 351; German philology. 352; 
prevalence of German, method 
of studying in England and Amer- 
ica, 353; pronunciation of, juve- 
nile literature, study of. German 
in the U. S., 354; views of school 



German Language 

superintendents in regard to, 355 ; 
arguments against, 356. See also 
106, 129, 136. 144, 530, 579, 614, 649, 
754, 758 

German Wallace College — 356 

Germany — historical sketch of, edu- 
cational history, 356; the school 
subordinate to the church, the 
gymnasium, 359; Ritterakademien, 
the Ptrdagogittm, 361; Gesner, Er- 
nesti, Heyne, the Humanists, Pes- 
talozzi, Fichte, 362; Sailer, Die- 
sterweg, Froebel, primary in- 
struction, 363; school statistics, 
364; Prussian school administra- 
tion, secondary instruction, 365; 
course of study in the gymnasia, 
teachers' seminaries, 366; univer- 
sities. 367; professional, technical, 
and scientific instruction, mili- 
tary academies, educational pub- 
lications, 369 

Gesner, J. M.— 370 

Gifts, Kindergarten — 370 

Girard, Gr^golrc — 371 

Girls. Education of— see Female 
Education 

Globe, Artificial — its construction, 
371 ; historv and advantages of, 
372. See also 336. 337 

Goethe, J. W. von— his theory con- 
cerning education, 372 

Gonigraph — 373 

Gonzaga College — 373 

Goodrich. S. G.-373 

Governess — 373 

Government. School— 373; its nat- 
ure, rewards, 374: efficacy of, sug- 
gestions to the teacher, occupa- 
tion one of the most effective 
agents in school government, 375 

Grade — 375 

Graded Schools— 375 

Graduate — 377 

Graefe, Heinrich— 377 

Graham, Isabella — 377 

Grammar— 377. See also 140, 336, 
352, 391. 420, 512, 514, 560, 602 

Grammar. English— its function, 
distinction between the science 
and the art of grammar. 378; his- 
tory of, 379; methods of instruc- 
tion, language lessons, science of 
the sentence, scheme for teach- 
ing grammar, 3^0; analysis and 
parsing, errors in teaching, 381. 
See also 27, 273. 277 

Grammar Schools — 382 

Graser, J. B.— 383 

Great Britain and Ireland, The 
United Kingdom of— 383 

Greece— area and population, his- 
torical sketch, ancient Greece, 
383; educational views of the an- 
cient Greeks, 384; the Greek Em- 
pire, modern Greece, 385 ; pri- 
mary instruction, 3S6; secondary 
instruction, 387, superior and 
special instruction, 388 

Greek Church— 388 

Greek Language— origin and his- 
tory. 389 ; the Greek alphabet, 
rivalry with Latin, methods of 
teaching. 390; grammars and lex- 
icons. 391; readers, 392. See also 
50,361. 363,430,681 

Greenevllle and Tusculuni Col- 
lege— 392 

Grimm, J. L — 392 

Grimm, W. K.— 393 

Grlscom, John— 393 

Griscom. J. H.— 393 

Groot, Gerard— see Hleronymlans 

Grounds, School — see School 
Grounds 

Guatemala— see Central America 

Guisot, F. P. G.— 398 

Gutsmuths, J. C. F.-394 

Guyot, A. II. — :1'.'4. See also 334 

Gymnasium— history of, 394; mod- 
ern meaning of in Germany and 



Gymnasium 

on the Continent, 395, See also 
358,386 
Gymnastics — agonistics and ath- 
letics, games and exercises. 396; 
gymnastics as a part of education, 
397. See also. 153, 300, 384, 394, 
528 

Habit — 397; its power, bad habits, 
teacher's duty toward, good hab- 
its, proper time for forming, 398 

Hadley, James— 399 

Haehn. J. F.— 399 

Half-Time Schools— 399 

Hall, S. R.— 400. See also 260 

Hamilton, James — 400 

Hamilton College— 400 

Hamlltonian Method — see Hamil- 
ton, James 

Hampden Sidney College — 401 

Hannibal College— 401 

Hanover College — 101 

Harmony in Development — the 
most important aim in educa- 
tion, 401; abnormal development 
destroys happiness and impairs 
intellectual effort, 402 

Harnisch, C. W.— 402 

Hartlib, Samuel— 403 

Hartsville University — 403 

Harvard, John— 403 

Harvard University— departments 
of, history of, 403 ; buildings 
and property, the curriculum, 
404; tuition fees, degrees, etc., 
405; presidents, 407. See also 611 

TIauv, Valentine — 407 

Haven, E. O.— 407 

Haverford College — 407 

Hawaiian Islands— area and popu- 
lation, educational history, 407; 
school system and statistics, 408 

Hayti— 408 

Hazing— 408 

Heart, Education of— see Moral 
Education 

Hebrew Language— origin and ear- 
ly history, alphabet, scientific 
study of Hebrew. 409; philology, 
method to be pursued in the stu- 
dy of, 410 

Hebrews, Education among the — 
education among the ancient He- 
brews, 411; Simon ben Shetacb, 
schools held in high estimation, 
412; organization and mode of in- 
struction, subjects of study, edu- 
cation of girls and women ,413; ed- 
ucation under the Mohammedan 
rule, 414 ; decline of education 
from the 13th to the 17th centu- 
ry, educational history in recent 
times, 415. See also 345 

Hecker, J. J.— 416 

Hedding College— 417 

Hedge-School — 417 

Hegel, G. W. F.— 417. See also 35 

Heglus, Alexander— 417 

Heidelberg College— 418 

Helnicke, Samuel— 418. See also 
205 

Henderson College— 418 

Henry Joseph — 418. See also 34 

Herbart, J. F.— 418 : his psychology 
and educational views, 419. See 
also 8, 220 

Herder, J. G. von— 419 

Hermann, Gottfried — 420 

Hesperian College — 420 

llcssus. Eobanus— 420 

Heyne. Ch. G.— 420 

Hieronymians— 421 

High Schools— 421 

Higher Education — see High 
Schools, Secondary liis.1 ruc- 
tion, and Superior Instruction 

Highland University — 123 

Hillsdale College— 423 

Hiram College — 423 

History — 423; proper mode of teach- 
ing, stages of, 424; different moth- 



VI 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



History 

ods, 425; dates, lectures, kind of 
material for elementary study, 
426; the philosophy of history, 
value of testimony, criticism, 427 

Hiwassee College — 428 

Hotoart College— 429 

Hofwyl, Schools of — description of, 
428; Wehrli, 429. See also 11, 299 

Holbrook, Josiah— 429 

Holiday — see School Festivals 

Holland — see Netherlands 

Holy Angels' College— 430 

Holy Cross, College of the — 430 

Home Education — 430; unconscious 
tuition, the mother, home and 
school education contrasted, 431. 
See also 234, 245, 291 

Home Lessons— 432 

Hope — see Incentives, Prizes, and 
Rewards 

Hope College— 433 

Hopkins, Mark— 433. See also 257 

Horn-Book— 133 

House of Refuge — see Reform 
Schools 

Howard College — 434 

Howard University — 434 

Howe, S. G.— 434 

Huarte, Juan — 435 

Huet, P. J) 435 

Humanities — 435 

Humboldt, K, W. von— 435 

Humboldt College— 435 

Hungary — 435; area and population, 
educational history, 436 ; school 
system, primary instruction, sta- 
tistics, 437; secondary, superior, 
and special instruction, 438 

Hygiene, School — site of school 
building, 438 ; construction of, 
class rooms, windows, their size, 
number, etc., 439; mode of venti- 
lation, heating, temperature, fur- 
niture, discipline and school man- 
agement, 440; personal condition 
of pupils, physical exercise, 441; 
the play-ground, 442 



Idaho — area and population, educa- 
tional history, school system, 442; 
school statistics, school fund, 
443 

Idiots, Elucation of— first attempts 
to educate, history of, 443; insti- 
tutions for, at the present time, 
444; table of statistics, intellect- 
ual aspect of idiocy, adaptation 
of kindergarten methods, num- 
ber of idiots in the civilized 
world, 445 

Illinois— area and population, 445; 
educational history, school sys- 
tem, 446; school fund, teachers' 
certificates, educational condition, 
statistics, 447; normal, secondary, 
superior, technical, and profes- 
sional instruction, 448; special 
instruction, educational associa- 
tions, 449 

Illinois College— 449 

Illinois Wesleyan University— 449 

Illiteracy— definition of, influence 
of on communities, 449; sources 
of information in regard to, pres- 
ent condition of different coun- 
tries in regard to, 450; percentage 
of, in different countries, cause of, 
influence of education on, 451; 
tabular view of in different coun- 
tries, 452. See also 323. 

Imagination, Culture of— necessity 
for its cultivation, its early devel- 
opment, methods of cultivation, 
453; the fixing of the attention a 
prerequisite, studies into which 
it particularly enters, works of 
fiction, 454. See also 307, 335, 345 

Imitation — 454 

Incentives, School — 455. See also 
231 



India — area and population, early 
history, 455; ancient and modern 
India, 456; educational condition 
and statistics, 457 

Indiana — area and population, edu- 
cational history, 457; school su- 
perintendents, school sytem, 458; 
school fund, school taxes, edu- 
cational condition and statistics, 
normal instruction, 459; seconda- 
ry, superior, professional, scien- 
tific, and special instruction, edu- 
cational libraries andjournals, 460 

Indiana Asbury University — 460 

Indiana University — 461 

Indians, American — 461 

Indian Territory — area and popula- 
tion, educational condition,462 

Individuality— 462 

Indo-Gernianlc Languages — 464 

Inductive Method— 465 

Industrial Schools — early legisla- 
tion concerning in England, Italy, 
and Germany, 465; in the U. S., 
466 

Industry— 467. See also 332 

Infant Schools— see Kindergarten 

Inspection, School — see Supervi- 
sion 

Institutes, Teachers' — see Teach- 
ers* Institutes 

Instruction — distinguished from 
education, early phases, 467; gen- 
eralization, classes of subjects on 
which instruction should be 
given, 468. See also 419, 473, 487, 
488, 720 

Intellectual Education — the intel- 
lect only a part of the mind, tho 
senses, ideas, conception, 469 ; 
association, generalization, 470; 
resemblance, classification, 471; 
intuitive generalization, indivi- 
dualization, memory, imagina- 
tion, 472 

Interest— 473. See also 250, 289, 669 

Intermediate Schools — 473 

Interrogation — 473 

Intuitive Method — see Object 
Teaching and Pestalozzi 

Iowa — area and population, educa- 
tional history, 473; state super- 
intendents, school system, school 
revenue, 474; educational condi- 
tion, statistics, normal and sec- 
ondary instruction, 475; superior, 
technical, professional, and special 
instruction, educational journals, 
476 

Iowa College — 476 

Iowa, State University of — 476 

Iowa Wesleyan University — 477 

Ireland — area and population, edu- 
cational history, 477 ; national 
system, educational condition 
(national system), 478; other edu- 
cational agencies, secondary and 
superior instruction, special and 
professional instruction, 479 

Italian Language — its relative im 
portance, special motives for the 
study of, 480; philology, 481 

Italy — area and population, historic- 
al sketch, educational history, 
481; school statistics, present sys- 
tem, 483 ; primary instruction, 
statistics, 484; secondary instruc- 
tion, 485; technical and superior 
instruction, 486; special instruc- 
tion, 487 

Jacobs, C. F. W.— 487 

Jacotot, Joseph — 487 : his method 
of teaching, maxims, 488 

Japan-area and population, early 
history, 488; educational history, 
489; present school system, 490 

Jefferson College — 490 

Jersey City — population, educational 
history, city superintendents, 
school system, school revenue, 
491 ; school statistics, 492 



Jesuits — their educational work, 492; 
school system, 493; their influ- 
ence, schools and colleges in the 
U. S., 494. See also 330 
Johns Hopkins University — 494 
Judgment, Training of — 495. See 
also 335, 427 

Kalamazoo College — 495 

Kansas — area and population, edu- 
cational history, school system, 
495; educational condition, school 
statistics, normal, secondary, and 
superior instruction, 496; profes- 
sional, scientific, and special in- 
struction, 497 

Kansas, University of — 497 

Kant Immanucl — his philosophical 
system, his view of education, 
497; his influence, 498. See also 
32, 33, 34, 35 

Kentucky— area and population, 
educational history, 498; school 
system, educational condition ; 
normal, secondary, and superior 
instruction, 499; professional, 
scientific, and special instruction ; 
society for the advancement of 
education; state teachers' associ- 
ation, 500 

Kentucky University — 500 

Kentucky Military Institute— 501 

Kentucky Wesleyan College — 501 

Kenyon College— 501 

Kindergarten — Froebel's theory, 
501 ; amusement the principal 
medium for the education of 
the child, family education alone 
insufficient, social education to 
• begin early, the first teacher 
should be a woman, rapid adop- 
tion of kindergarten methods, 
gifts, exercises, concrete facts the 
first to be taught, 502; incorpo- 
ration of the kindergarten with 
the public school, reception in 
the. U. S., 503; condition of in 
Germany, skillful preparation of 
the teacher necessary, 504. See 
also 241, 293, 445 

Kindermann, Ferdinand — 504 

King College— 505 

King's College— 505 

Knox College — 505 

Lafayette College— 506. See also 31 

La Grange College — 506 

Lancaster, Joseph — 506; opens a 
school in Southwark, Dr. Bell, 
success of Lancaster, modes of 
punishment, decline in the pop- 
ularity of his method, 507. See 
also 145, 263, 594 

Land Grants, Congressional — see 
United States 

Lane University— 508 

Language — its varieties, compara- 
tive study of languages, 508; the 
child's mastery of language, in- 
struction in, 509 ; classical and 
modern languages, 510. See also 
274, 293, 352 

La Salle, J. B.— 510 

La Salle College— 510 

Latin Language — its derivation, 
510; lingua urbana, lingua rustica, 
Latin in the middle ages, the al- 
phabet, 511; study of Latin at the 
present time, 512; exercises in 
composition and versification, 
513 ; history of Latin grammar, 
514. See also 142, 143, 357, 493 

Latin Schools — 515 

Law Schools — their early history, 
515 ; recent history in England 
and the V. S., 516; statistics, or- 
ganization, course of study, ad- 
mission, length of course, gradu- 
ation, 518; table of law schoolsin 
the "U. S., 519 

Lawrence, Abbott — 519 

Lawrence, Amos — 519 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



VII 



Lawrence University of Wiscon- 
sin— 519 

Lebanon Valley College — 519 

Lectures — lecture defined, differ- 
ence between a lecture and a les- 
son, in what grades of schools 
used as a means of instruction, 
5'2U. See also 426 

Lehigh University— 520 

Leland Unlverslty-^-520 

Leslie, Sir John — biographical 
sketch, his chief publications, 520 

Lewis, IMo — 521 

Lewisburg, University at— 521 

Lewis College — 521 

Liberal Education — 521 

Liberia — area and population, its 
settlement, the native tribes, the 
Mandingos, their schools, the 
Veys, mission school, system of 
public schools, statistics, Mesu- 
rado, 521 

Libraries — the value of, legislation 
in regard to school libraries, 521 : 
Bchool-district libraries in New 
York and other states, public li- 
braries in Massachusetts, how 
generally regarded, utility of 
school libraries. 522 

License, Teacher's — defined, how 
usually conferred, the object of, 
law in relation to, state certifi- 
cates, standard for, incompetent 
examiners, proper conditions for 
awarding teacher's' certificates, 
522; how conferred in New York, 
provisions of the English Ele- 
mentary Education Act, of the 
Scotch Education Act, require- 
ments in Austria, in France, 
Sweden, Denmark, and other Eu- 
ropean countries, 523 

Lieber, Francis — biographical 
sketch, his principal publica- 
tions, importance of his labors, 
623 

Lily, William- his early life, edu- 
cational works, his Latin gram- 
mar — Brevissuna Jitstttutiu sen 
Ratio Grammaticts Copnoscenda, 
524 

Lincoln College — 524 

Lincoln University (HI.)— 524 

Lincoln University (Pa.) — 524 

Lindsley, Philip— 524 

Ling, P.. H.— 524 

Linguistics— see Language 

Locke, John — biographical sketch, 
524; educational views. 525. See 
also 6, 33, 34. 35, 06, 195, 196, 197, 
234, 291, 330, 424, 434 

I/Homond, Ch. F.— 526 

Lombard University — 526 

London, University of— 526 

Lorinser, K. I.— 528 

Louisiana — area and population, 
educational history, 528 ; school 
system, educational condition, 
school statistics, normal and sec- 
ondary instruction. 529; superior, 
scientific, professional, and spe- 
cial instruction, 530 

Louisiana State University— 530 

Louisville — population, 530 ; educa- 
tional history, school system, 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics, 531 

Love — 532. See also 251 

Loyola College— 532 

Luther, Max-tin— 532. See also 34, 
164 

Lutheran Church — its history, 
number of adherents, the General 
Synod, the General Council, the 
Synodieal Conference, the South- 
ern Synod, 533; educational in- 
stitutions in the U. S., 534 

Lyceum — 534 

Lycurgus — 535 

Lyon, Mary — 535 



McCorkle College— 535 

McCosh, James — 535. See also 10 

McGuffey, W. H.— 535 

M'Kendree College — 536 

McMinnville College— 536 

Madison University — 536 

Madras System — see Monitorial 
System 

Madvlg, J. N.— 536 

Mager Karl — 536; the genetic meth- 
od, his views of, 537. See also 
221 

Maine— ana and population, educa- 
tional history, 537; taxes, income 
of permanent funds, supervision 
of schools, school system. 538; 
educational condition, 539; school 
statistics, normal and secondary 
instruction, denominational and 
parochial schools; superior, pro- 
fessional, and scientific instruc- 
tion, 540 : special instruction, 
educational literature, 541 

Manhattan College — 541 

Manitoba — area and population, edu- 
cational condition, 541 

Mann, Horace — early life and educa- 
tion of, 541; secretary of the board 
of education, 542; his work, 543. 
See also 33, 35, 187, 188, 297, 679 

Manners — 543 

Manual Labor Schools— see Indus- 
trial Schools 

Map-Drawing— see Geography 

Marietta College— 544 

Maryland— area and population, edu- 
cational history, school system, 
544; educational condition, school 
statistics, normal and secondary 
instruction, 545 ; denominational 
and parochial schools ; superior, 
professional, scientific, and special 
instruction ; teachers' associa- 
tions, 546 

Maryvllle College— 547 

Mason, Lowell— 547 

Massachusetts — area and popula- 
tion, educational history, 547: in- 
dividual gifts, tuition fees, taxes, 
income of permanent funds. 549; 
special appropriations, supervi- 
sors of the common schools, tru- 
ant laws, school system, 550; edu- 
cational condition, school statis- 
tics, normal instruction, 551 ; 
evening schools, secondary in- 
struction, denominational and 
parochial schools; superior, pro- 
fesslonal, and scientific instruc- 
tion, 552; special instruction, 553 

Master of Arts— see Degrees^ 

Mastery Method — see Latin Lan- 
guage 

Mathematics — what it compre- 
hends, definition of, use of in 
mental training, 553; to what ex- 
tent it should be pursued in pri- 
mary schools, 555 ; principles gov- 
erning methods of instruction in, 
mathematical literature, 556 

Matriculate — 557 

Medical Schools— earliest accounts 
of, 557; organization of in differ- 
ent countries, history of in the 
U.S.. 558; list of medical schools, 
dental colleges, etc., 560. See also 
209 

Meierotto. J- H. L.— 560 

Melanchthon, Philip— 561. See also 
164, 185 

Memorizing— 561. Bee also 208,342,344 

Memory — its nature, conditions of 
its exercise, method of strength- 
ening, 562 ; repetition, strength 
of memory dependent somewhat 
on bodily health, relative value 
of things to be remembered, 563; 
Kant's distinctions, mnemonics, 
Memoria Technica, system of Fau- 
vel-Gouraud, 564; Alex. Mackay's 
Facts and Dates, 565. See also 723 

Mennonites — 565 



Mercer University — 565 

Mercersburg College — 565 

Methodists — their origin and distri- 
bution, colleges and schools, 566, 
567 ; foreign missions, board of 
education, Sunday-schools, atti- 
tude of the Methodists toward 
the public schools, 568; colleges 
and universities, 569 

Mexico — area and population, edu- 
cational history, secondary in- 
struction, University of Mexico. 
570 

Miami University— 571 

Michigan — area and population, edu- 
cational history, school system, 
571 ; educational condition and 
statistics, normal and secondary 
instruction, 572; denominational 
and parochial schools; superior, 
professional. scientific, and special 
instruction, 573; educational lit- 
erature. 574 

Michigan, University of — 574 

Middlebury College — 575 

Military Schools — organization of in 
different countries, in the TJ. S., 
575; military tactics taught in 
colleges, 576; contrast of the 
French and Prussian systems of 
military education. 577 

Milton, John— life and career. Trac- 
tate on Education, 577; education- 
al views, 57H. See also 33, 99 

Milton College— 578 

Milwaukee- population. 578; edxica- 
tional history, city superintend- 
ents, school system and statistics, 
579 

Mineralogy— definition and general 
view of; minerals, rocks, fossils, 
crystalline forms. 5S0; impor- 
tance from an educational stand- 
point, at what stage to be pur- 
sued, lithology. 581 

Mines, School of — see Scientific 
Schools 

Ministry of Public Instruction— 
581 

Minnesota— 581; area and popula- 
tion, educational history, school 
system, educational condition, 
school statistics. 582; normal and 
secondary instruction, denomina- 
tional and parochial schools, su- 
perior instruction, 583; profes- 
sional, scientific, and special in- 
struction, educational literature, 
584 

Minnesota, University of— 584 

Mischievousness— 684 

Mississippi — 584; area and popula- 
tion, educational history, school 
system, educational condition, 
school statistics, normal instruc- 
tion, 585 ; secondary, superior, 
professional, scientific, and spe- 
cial instruction. 586 

Mississippi, University of— 586 

Mississippi College— 586 

Missouri— 586; area and population, 
educational history. 587 ; perma- 
nent school fund, school super 
vision, state superintendents. 
school system. 589; educational 
condition, school statistics, nor- 
mal instruction, teachers' insti- 
tutes, secondary instruction, 590; 
superior, professional, scientific, 
and special instruction, educa- 
tional journals. 591 

Missouri, University or the State 
of— 591 

Mnemonics— see Memory 

Model Schools — see Normal 
Schools 

Modern Languages— 591; French. 
English, and German, the oriental 
languages, proper time in the 
school course to introduce th" 
study of modern languages, their 
value as compared with the clas- 



Tin 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



Modern Languages 

sical,592; comparative linguistics, 
methods of teaching, 593. See 
also 224, 225 

Monitorial System — its history, 
Bell, Lancaster, 594; its peculiar 
features, 595 

Monmouth College — 595 

Montaigne, Michel — his educational 
views, 595. See also 33, 35, 185 

Montana — area and population, edu- 
cational history, school system, 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics, normal instruction, teach- 
ers' institutes; secondary, supe- 
rior, professional, scientific, and 
special instruction, 59G 

Moore's Hill College— 596 

Moral Education— 597. See also 177, 
291 

Moralizing — 598 

Moral Suasion — see Corporal Pun- 
ishment 

Moravian Brethren — their origin, 
ancient church, 598; Renewed 
Brethren's Church, primary 
schools, boarding-schools, 599; 
classical schools and colleges, 
theological seminaries, special 
schools, schools in the mission- 
ary provinces, principles of edu- 
cation, 600; statistical summary, 
601 

Morocco — 601 

Mother — see Homo Education 

Mother-Tongue— €01 

Mount Saint Mary's College— 602 

Mount Saint Mary's Seminary of 
the "West— 602 

Mount Union College— 602 

Muhlenberg College— 602 

Murray, Lindley — 602 

Music — history and general view of, 
603, 604; harmony, 604; musical 
education, 606 ; conservatories, 
606, 607, 608, 609, 610; musical in- 
struction in schools and colleges, 
610, 611. See also 241, 285 

Mutual System — see Monitorial 
System 



Nashville, University of— 612 

National Education — 612. See also 
264, 692 

National Language — 613 

Natural Science — see Science, The 
Teaching of 

Nautical Schools— 615 

Naval Schools — 615 

Nebraska— area and xiopulation, edu- 
cational history, school system, 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics, 616 ; normal instruction, 
teachers' institutes, educational 
journal; secondary, superior, sci- 
entific, professional, and special 
instruction, 617 

Nebraska, University of— 617 

Nebraska College— 618 

Needle-Work — see Female Educa- 
tion, and Industrial Schools 

Netherlands — area and population, 
educational history, 618; primary 
and secondary instruction, 619 ; 
superior and special instruction; 
Luxemburg, 620 

Nevada — area and population, educa- 
tional history, 620; school system, 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics; normal, secondary, supe- 
rior, professional, scientific, and 
special instruction, 621 

Newark — population, 621 ; educa- 
tional history, school system, sta- 
tistics, 622 

Newberry College — 623 

New Brunswick — area and popula- 
tion, educational condition, 623 

New Castle College— 624 

Newfoundland — area and popula- 
tion, educational condition, 623 



New Hampshire— area and popula- 
tion, educational history, 625 ; 
school system and revenue, 626; 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics; normal, secondary, denom- 
inational, and superior instruc- 
tion, 627; teachers' association, 628 

New Jersey — area and population, 
educational history 628 ; Bchool 
system, educational condition, 
school statistics, 630; normal, sec- 
ondary, private, denominational, 
superior, professional, scientific, 
and special instruction, 631 

New Jersey, College of — 632 

New Jerusalem, Societies of the — 
632 

New Mexico — area and population, 
educational history, 632; school 
system, educational condition, 
school statistics, private and pa- 
rochial schools, 633 

New Orleans — settlement of, 633; 
educational history, school sys- 
tem and statistics, 634 

Newspapers — as means of instruc- 
tion, 635. See also 332 

New York (State) — area and popu- 
lation, educational history, 636; 
state superintendents, 639 ; edu- 
cational system, 640; regents of 
the university, financial, 641 ; 
common-school fund, school sta- 
tistics, 642 ; normal instruction, 
643; denominational schools; sec- 
ondary, superior, scientific, and 
professional instruction, 644; spe- 
cial instruction, educational asso- 
ciations, 645; school journals, 646 

New York (City) — educational his- 
tory, 646; county and city su- 
perintendents, school system, 648; 
school statistics, private and de- 
nominational schools, 649 

New York, College of the City of 
—649 

New York, University of the City 
of— 650 

New Zealand — see Australasian 
Colonies 

Nlemeyer, A. H. — 650. See also 34 

Normal College — see New York 
City 

Normal School— 650. See also 221 

North Carolina — area and popula- 
tion, educational history, school 
income, 651; taxes, school system, 
educational condition, school sta- 
tistics, 652 ; normal, secondary, 
superior, scientific, professional, 
and special instruction, 653 

North Carolina, University of— 
653 

Northern Illinois College— 653 

Northwestern Christian Univer- 
sity— 654 

Northwestern College — 654 

Northwestern University (HI.) — 
654 

Northwestern University (Wis.) — 
654 

Norway — see Sweden 

Norwegian Luther College — 054 

Norwich University — 654 

Notre Dame Du Lac, University 
of— 655 

Nott, Eliphalet— 655 

Nova Scotia — area and population, 
educational history, 655; school 
system, 656 

Novels — see Fiction 

Number— 656 

Numeral Frame — 657 



Oberlin, J. F.— 658 

Oberlin College — 658 

Object Teaching — history of, Pesta- 
lozzi , 658 ; views of educators 
concerning, 659: present status, 
660. See also 16S, 221, 272, 313, 
785 



Observing Faculties — see Intel- 
lectual Education, and Object 
Teaching 

Ohio — area and population, educa- 
tional history, 661; state super- 
intendents, school system, edu- 
cational condition, 662; school 
revenue and statistics, normal in- 
struction, teachers' institutes, 
secondary instruction, 663; supe- 
rior, professional, and scientific 
instruction, 664; special instruc- 
tion, educational literature, teach- 
ers' associations, 665 

Ohio Central College— 665 

Ohio University— 666 

Ohio Wesleyan University — 666 

Olivet College— 666 

Olmsted, JJenlson — 666 

One Study University— 666 

Ontark) — area and population, edu- 
cational history, present school 
- system, 667 

Oral Instruction — definition of, 668; 
proper use of, 669 

Order— 670 

Order of Studies — see Course of 
Instruction 

Oregon — area and population, edu- 
cational history, school system, 
670; educational condition, school 
statistics; normal, secondary, de- 
nominational, superior, profes- 
sional, and scientific instruction, 
671; special instruction, 672 

Orphan Asylums — 672 

Orthography — definition of, 672; 
effect of Anglo-Saxon and Norman 
on the English alphabet, syn- 
onymous with spelling, 673 ; dif- 
ferent systems of phonetic spell- 
ing proposed, improvements sug- 
gested by the International Con- 
vention of 1876, 674 

Oskaloosa College — 675 

Otterbein University — 675 

Owens College — 675 

Oxford, University of — history of r 
organization, 676 ; political rep- 
resentatives of, government of, 
677; list of subordinate colleges, 
678 



Pacific, University of the — 678 

Pacific Methodist College— 678 

Pacific University— 679 

Page, D. P.— 679. See also 35, 66, 
187, 188, 192,374,375, 433, 723, 724 

Palfentology — see Geology 

Palatinate College — 679 

Paraguay — area and population, 
educational history, 697; educa- 
tional condition, 680 

Parental Edacation — see Home 
Education 

Parochial School— 680 

Parsons College — 680 

Passow, F. L. K. F.— 680. See also 
391 

Patience— 681 

Payne, Joseph — 681. See also 767 

Peabody, George — 681 

Peabody Fund (Educational) — 681 

Pedagogy — 692 

Peet, H. P. — his early life, made 
president of the N. Y. Institu- 
tion for the Deaf-and-Dumb, his 
theory regarding deaf-mutes, 682; 
his method, syntax of the natural 
language of signs, 683. See also 
795 

Peirce, Cyrus— 683 

Penmanship— 684. See also 221, 285, 
488 

Penn College— 685 

Pennsylvania — area and population, 
educational history, the colonial 
period, 685; under the constitu- 
tion of 1790, 686; under the con- 
stitutions of 1838 and 1873, table 
of progress, state superintend- 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



IX 



Pennsylvania 

ents, school system, 687; educa- 
tional condition, wchool statistics, 
688; normal instruction, teach- 
ers' institutes ; weenudury. su- 
perior, professional, scientific, 
and special instruction, 689 

Pennsylvania, University of— 690 

Pennsylvania College — 690 

Pennsylvania Military Academy 
—690 

Pennsylvania, The Western Uni- 
versity of— 691 

Pensions, Teachers' — 691. See also 
365 

Perception — see Intellectual Edu- 
cation 

Persia— are.-* and population, ancient 
Persia, 691; educational history, 
modern Persia, educational his- 
tory, 692 

Peru— area and population, 692; edu- 
cational history, 693 

Pestalozzl, J. H. — early life, edu- 
cation, early impressions con- 
cerning, opens the first industrial 
school, 693; Evenings of a Rcclmen 
Linnliard and Gertrud, his method, 
his success, 694; his theory of in- 
struction, 695. See also 34. 35, 
248. 299, 307, 658 

Pharmaceutical Schools — early 
history of, 695; influence of chem- 
istry on, recent progress of, con- 
dition of in Europe, 696; in the 
U. S., 697 

Philadelphia —population, educa- 
tional history, 697; school sys- 
tem, statistics, 698 

Philanthropin— 699. See also 68, 
299, 362 

Philology — see Language 

Phonetics — definition of, phonology, 
699; phonetic print, 700; phonetic 
writing and teaching, 701. See 
also 275, 673 

Phonic Method— 702 

Phonics — see Orthography, and 
Phonetics 

Phrenology — see Character, Dis- 
cernment of 

Physical Education — physical 
training, prevention of disease, 
702. See also 234, 251, 441. 521 

Physics— see Science. The Teach- 
ing of 

Physiology — its place and value as 
a part of education, 703 

Piarlsts 7Q4 

Pictures— 704. See also 453, 659 

Pio Nono College— 704 

Pittsburgh — population, etc., edu- 
cational history, school system, 
statistics, secondary and parochial 
schools. 705 

Plato — biographical sketch, the Acad- 
emy, his system of philosophy, 
educational views, 706. Sea also 
32, 33, 34. 330 

Poetry — its use in the school, 703 

Politeness — see Manners 

Political Economy — see Social 
Economy 

Polytechnic Schools — see Scien- 
tific Schools 

Popular Education — see Educa- 
tion, and National Education 

Portugal — area and population, edu- 
cational history, primary and 
secondary instruction, 703; su- 
perior and special instruction, 709 

Potter, Alonzo— 709. See also 33, 
34, 302 

Practlce,Schoolsof— see Teachers' 
Seminaries 

Praxis— 709. See also 344 

Preceptors, College of (London)— 
709 

Preparatory Schools— 710 

Presbyterians — definition of, con- 
dition of in the British Empire — 
710, 711; Presbyterian Church in 



Presbyterians 

the United States of America. 
Presbyterian Church 8outh, 
712; Cumberland Presbyterian 
Church, 713; United Presbyterian 
Church of North America, 714 

Primary Instruction — see Educa- 
tion 

Primer— 715 

Prince Edward Island — area and 
population, educational condi- 
tion, 715 

Prizes — see Emulation 

Programme — see School Manage- 
ment 

Promotion— Bee School Manage- 
ment 

Prussia — see Germany 

Public Schools — definition, an- 
cient history of, 715 ; whether 
instruction should be entirely or 
partly gratuitous, relation of the 
state to free schools, 716 

Public Schools, English — see Eng- 
land 

Punishment — see Corporal Pun- 
ishment, and Fear 

Pupil-Teacher — definition of, En- 
glish law concerning, 716 

Pythagoras — 717. See also 34 



Quadrlvlum — see Arts 

Quebec — population, educational his- 
tory, 717; Rchool law, primary 
and secondary schools, universi- 
ties, 718 

Questioning — see Interrogation 

« 'miiiiii i ii — life and educational 
views, Institutiones Oratories, 719. 
See also 33. 9H, 121, 431, 432 



Rabanus, Maurus — 719 

Kaclne College— 719 

Ragged Schools — see Reform 
Schools 

Ralkcs, Uobert— 719. See also 796 

Randolph Macon College — 720 

Katlch, Wolfgang — biographical 
sketch, rules for instruction, 720 

Raumer, K. G. von — 720. See also 
8, 231, 302, 312. 482 

Reading — the alphabet method, the 
word method, the phonic and the 
phonetic method, twofold object 
of reading, proper and improper 
reading-books, 721. See also 132, 
221, 272, 284, 354. 488 

Real Schools — definition of, Prus- 
sian law concerning, studies pur- 
sued in, progress in their estab- 
lishment in Europe, 722 

Recesses — see Hygiene, School, 
and School Management 

Recitation — proper method of con- 
ducting, memorizing, explana- 
tions, simultaneous recitation, 
preparation on the part of the 
teacher necessary, order in which 
the parts of a subject Bhould bo 
presented, 723; tests of the effica-.y 
of a recitation, length of recita- 
tions, 724. See also 344. 473 

Reform Schools— definition of, ori- 
gin of in Europe, the modern re- 
form school, Falk, 724; number of 
reform schools in Germany and 
Switzerland, the Rauhes Baits, 
Wichern, influence of the Rauhcs 
Harts in other countries, reform 
schools in England, ragged 
schools, 725 ; reform schools in 
France and in the U. S., list of re- 
form schools in the latter coun- 
try, 726. See also 824 

Reformed Churches — their origin, 
Reformed Churches of Europe, in 
Holland, 727 ; in Switzerland, 
Austria, Hungary. France, Russia, 
and the New World, the Reformed 
Church in America (Reformed 



Reformed Churches 

Dutch Church). 728; the Reformed 
Church in the United States (Ger- 
man Reformed Church), 729; col- 
leges and seminaries in the U. S., 
730 

Regents of the University — see 
New York 

Religious Education — its object, 
the religious sentiment, the two- 
fold office of religious education, 
faulty methods of instruction, 
731. See also 253, 372 

Reuchlin, John — 73i 

Howards — ad means of discipline. 732 

Rhetoric — restriction in the original 
meaning of the word, its later 
meaning, 732; two views in which 
rhetoric may be regarded, inven- 
tion, style, sentential analysis, 
733; necessity of practice, 734 

Rhode Island — area and population, 
educational history, 734; school 
system, 737; educational condi- 
tion, school statistics, normal and 
secondary instruction, 738; supe- 
rior and special instruction, 
teachers' associations, education- 
al journals, 739 

Richardson, Charles— 739 

Klchmond College — 739 

Rlchter, J. P. F.— 739. See also 34, 
35, 66, 146, 747 

Ridgevllle College— 740 

Ripon College — 740 

Roanoke College — 740 

Rochester, University of— 740 

Rock Hill College— 740 

Rod — see Corporal Punishment 

Roman Catholic Church — number 
of its adherents, its control of 
education in the middle ages, 740; 
the Jesuits, conflict between 
church and state, the papal syl- 
labus of 1864, 741 ; educational 
principles of the Catholics, col- 
leges, relation of the Church to 
the university at the present 
time, 742; estaldishment of teach- 
ers' seminaries, educational soci- 
ties and orders, 743. See also 133, 
206, 477, 624 

Romanic Languages— 743 

Koine — foundation of, ancient school 
system, 744 

Rote-Teaching— 745 

Koumania — area and population, 
educational condition, 745 

Rousseau, J. J. — biographical 
sketch, 745 ; synopsis of Emite, 
746. See also 33, 35, 66 

Russia — area and population, educa- 
tional history. 747 ; primary in- 
struction, school statistics, 748 ; 
secondary and superior instruc- 
tion, 749; recent school legisla- 
tion, statistics, special instruc- 
tion, Caucasia, 750 

Rutgers College — 751 

Rutherford College — 751 

Ryerson, A. E. — 751 



Augustine, Missionary College 
of— 751 

Benedict's College— 751 
Charles College (La.)— 751 
Charles's College (Md.)— 751 
Francis Xavler, College of— 752 
Ignatius College (Cal.)— 752 
Ignatius College (111.)— 752 
John's College (Fordham, N.T.) 

752 

John's College (Brooklyn, N.Y.) 

—752 

John's College (Md.)— 752 

John's College (Minn.)— 753 

John's College or Arkansas — 

753 

Joseph's College (111.)— 753 

Joseph's College (N. Y.)— 753 

Lawrence University — 753 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



St. Louis — population, educational 
history, 753; school system, 765; 
school statistics, 756 

St. Louis University— 756 

St. Mary's College (Cal.)— 756 

St. Mary's College (Ky.)— 756 

St. Meinrad's College— 756 

St. Stephen's College— 756 

St. Vincent's College (Mo.)— 756 

St. Vincent's College (Pa.)— 757 

St. Xavier College— 757 

Salado College— 757 

Salzmann, C. G. — 757. See also 465 

Sandwich Islands — see Hawaiian 
Islands 

San Francisco — population, educa- 
tional history, 757; school system, 
school statistics, 758 

Santa Barbara College — 759 

Santa Clara College— 759 

Santo Domingo — 759 

Sarmiento, D. F. — 759 

Saxony — see Germany 

Schmidt, Karl— 759. See also 8, 717 

Scholasticism — 760. See also 2S4, 
358 

School— 760 

School Age — table of school ages in 
the U. S., 760 

School Board— 760 

School Brothers — Bee Roman 
Catholic Church 

School Census — tables of iu the U. S. 
and Europe, 761 

School District— 762 

School Economy — 762 

School Festivals— 762 

School Fund— 763 

School Furniture — desks and seats, 
763; the platform, the blackboard, 
miscellaneous furniture and ap- 
paratus, 764 

School Grounds — see Hygiene, 
School 

School-House — construction and in- 
ternal arrangement of, 765. Sse 
also 247, 285 

School Management — 766. Sec also 
287, 292, 376, 493 

School Records — 766 

Schwarz, F. H. Ch.— 767. See also 8, 
34, 99, 302, 303 

Science, The Teaching of — its 
place in elementary instruction, 
767; generalization .proper method 
of teaching it, 768; the order in 
which science should be taught, 
science as a branch of higher edu- 
cation, 769 

Science of Government — 770 

Scientific Schools — in Austria-Hun- 
gary and the German Empire, 770; 
in France, Italy, Russia, Belgium, 
Switzerland, Great Britain, and 
the U. S., 771 

Scotland — area, population, etc., 
educational history, 772; element- 
ary instruction, 773; secondary 
instruction, 774 ; superior and 
special instruction, 775 

Self-Education— 775 

Seminary— 776 

Seneca, L. A. — 777 

Senses, The Education of the — 
mental impressions received 
through the senses of varying 
strength, necessity of cultivating 
the senses, 777; object teaching, 
the phonic method, color, 778. 
See also 220 

Sentential Analysis — see Analy- 
sis, Grammatical 

Servla— area and papulation, school 
legislation, primary schools, sec- 
ondary instruction, 778; superior 
instruction, special and profes- 
sional schools, 779 

Seton, S. W.— 779. See also 594 

Seton Hall College— 779 

Sex In Education — see Co-Educa- 
tion 

Shaw University (Miss.)— 779 



Shaw University (N. C.)— 779 

Shurtleff College— 779 

Sicard, K. A. C— 780 

Signs, The Language of— see Deaf- 
Mutes, and Beet, H. P. 

Simpson Centenary College — 780 

Simultaneous Instruction — sec 
Concert Teaching 

Singing-Schools — early history of, 
780; origin of the staff and musi- 
cal syllables, modern Italian meth- 
od of notation, substitution of 
numerals for musical syllables, 
method used in Germany, in the 
U.S., 781; description oi'Curwen'a 
method, 782; the Modulator, 783 

Smithson College — 783 

Social Economy — its importance as 
a branch of common school edu- 
cation not recognized, variety of 
names a disadvantage, 783; Adam 
Smith, Inquiry into the Wealth of 
Nations, the dismal science, 784; 
example of an elementary lesson 
in social economy, proper meLhod 
to be pursued in teaching, 785 

Socrates — his life and habits, the 
Socratic Method, 786; his trial, sen- 
tence, and death, mental charac- 
teristics, influence of his method 
on the progress of human inquiry, 
his success as a teacher, 787 

Solon— 787 

South, University of the— 787 

South Carolina — area and popula- 
tion, educational history, 787; 
school system, educational con- 
dition, school statistics, normal 
instruction, 788; secondary, de- 
nominational, parochial, supe- 
rior, professional, scientific, and 
special instruction, 789 

South Carolina, University of— 789 

Southern University — 789 

Southwestern Baptist University 
—789 

Southwestern Presbyterian Uni- 
versity— 790 

Southwestern University — 790 

Spain — area and population, educa- 
tional history, 790; primary and 
secondary instruction, 791 ; su- 
perior and special instruction, 
792 

Spanish Language — comparative 
value of, origin and peculiarities, 
792 

Sparta — ediicational system of Ly- 
curgus,793 

Spencer, Herbert — 793. See also 
66, 177, 194 

State and School— 794 

Stephani, Heinrich— 794 

Stephens, Henry — 794 

Stephens, Robert— 794 

Stewart College — see Southern 
Presbyterian University 

Stone, W. L.— 795 

Stowe, C. E.— 795. See also 34 

Straight University — 795 

Sturm, Johann — 795. See also 359 

Sunday-Schools — their relation to 
the common schools, origin and 
early history, Robert Raikes, John 
Wesley, 796; rapid spread of Sun- 
day - schools, leading agencies, 
William Fox. Bishop Asbury, 797; 
prominent Sunday-school socie- 
ties, their dates of organization, 
Sunday-school literature, tracts, 
libraries, etc., singing in the Sun- 
day-school, 798; infant-class in- 
struction, Sunday-school conven- 
tions; county, state, international, 
and world's conventions ; past 
progress and present condition of 
Sunday-sco ols, 799; statistics, 800. 
See also 287, 307 

Superior Instruction — 800 

Supervision,, School — its, necessity 
inspection and examination, 800. 
See also 264 



Swarthmore College — 801 

Sweden and Norway — area and 
population (Sweden) educational 
history, primary instruction, 801; 
secondary, superior, and special 
instruction, (Norway) educational 
history, primary instruction, 802; 
normal, secondary, superior, and 
special instruction, 803 

Switzerland — area and population, 
educational history, 803; primary 
schools, tabular statement of 
schools, 804; secondary, superior, 
special, and professional instruc- 
tion, 805 

Sympathy— 805. See also 307 

Syracuse University — 805 

Tabor College— 806 

Talladega College— 806 

Tasmania — see Australasian Colo- 
nies 

Taylor, Isaac— 806. See also 34, 138, 
168, 234, 432, 471 

Teacher — 806. See also 57, 132, 
221, 222. 226, 228, 231, 239, 261, 285, 
286, 287, 289, 290. 291, 293, 297, 298, 
299, 331, 333, 375, 398, 401, 453, 523, 
632, 723 

Teachers' Institute— 806 

Teachers* Seminaries — names of, 
in different counties, their origin, 
A. H. Francke, gradual spread of 
teachers' seminaries in different 
countries, Prussian law concern- 
ing, 807; statistics for 1875, nor- 
mal schools in the XJ. S-, 808; 
Charles Brooks, Horace Mann, 
De Witt Clinton, Cyrus Peirce, 
S. R. Hall, increase of nor- 
mal schools in the U. S., table 
showing the number of such 
schools, and teachers and students 
in the U. S. in 1876, influence of 
normal schools, 809; list of nor- 
mal schools in the U. S., 810. See 
also 229, 709 

Technical Education — its object, in- 
creasing importance* of, branches 
usually taught, laws concerning 
in Massachusets and New York, 
list of European schools, 811 

Temper— 812 

Tennessee — area and population, 
educational history, 812; school 
system, 813; educational condi- 
tion, school statistics, normal and 
secondary instruction, 814 ; su- 
perior, professional, scientific, and 
special instruction, 815 

Texas — area and population, educa- 
tional history, 815; school sys- 
tem, educational condition, school 
statistics, normal and secondary 
instruction, 816; superior, scien- 
tific, professional, and special in- 
struction, 817 

Text-Books— 817. See also 342, 343, 
399, 427 

Theological Schools — early history 
of, 817; Roman Catholic schools 
in Europe and the U. S., Bchools 
of the Greek Church, Protestant 
schools, want of uniformity in 
theological instruction in Eng- 
land, 818; method pursued in 
Scotland, rise and progress of 
theological schools in the U. S., 
819. See also 282, 567 

Thermometry, Educational — its 
use in the school, instruments 
employed, 819; the hand a nat- 
ural thermometer,thermography, 
820 

Thiel College of the Evangelical 
Lutheran Church— 820 

Topical Method — see Catechetical 
Method 

Tougaloo University — 820 

Training— 820 

Training Schools — see Teachers' 
Seminaries 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



XI 



Trinity College (Ct.)— 820 

Trinity College (N. C.J— 821 

Trinity University— 821 

Trivium — see Arts 

Trotzendorf, V. F 821 

Truant Laws— 821 

Tufts College— 821 

Turkey— area and population, edu- 
cational history, 821 ; primary, 
secondary, superior, and special 
schools, 822 

Union Christian College— 822 
Union University — 822 
Unitarians — 823 
United Brethren in Christ — how 

founded, schools and colleges, 
823; theological schools. Biblical 
Institute, board of education. 
Sabbath schools, 824 

United Evangelical Church — his- 
tory, administration, theological 
education, preachers' seminaries, 
reformatory schools, Ratifies Haus, 
Protestant deaconesses, 824; the 
Church in the Unite! States, 825 

United States — area, population, 
etc., educational history, 825 ; 
congressional land grants, 826 ; 
Bureau of Education, free-school 
systems, school revenues, educa- 
tional gifts, school population, 
school statistics, normal schools, 
827; grades of instruction, profes- 
sional and special schools, educa- 
tional periodicals, literature, 828; 
works on American education, 829. 
See also 305, 333 

Universalists — foundation, organi- 
zation, statistics, schools, acad- 
emies, 829; colleges, theological 
schools, Sunday-schools, expend- 
itures, distinguished Universal- 
ist teachers, 830 

University — origin of, the Univer- 
sity of Paris, establishment of, 
universities in Germany, and 
Italy, their increase after the 
Reformation, Latin the medium 
of instruction, 831 ; recent estab- 
lishment of free Catholic univer- 
sities, differences of universities 
as to organization and function 
in civilized countries, 832 

University College (London)— ob- 
ject for which founded, its facul- 
ties, 832 ; revenue, the Slade 
schools, admission of women, do- 
nations and bequests, buildings, 
833 

University College (San Francisco, 
Cal.)— 8:33 

Upper Iowa University — 833 

Urbana University — 834 

Ursinus College— 834 

Uruguay — area and population, edu- 
cational condition, -834 

Utah — area and population, educa- 
tional history, 834 ; school sys- 
tem, educational condition, school 
statistics, normal instruction, 835; 
secondary and superior instruc- 
tion, 836 



Vanderbllt University— 836 

Vassar College — B36 

Venezuela — area and population, 
primary instruction, secondary 
and superior instruction, 837 

Ventilation — conditions favorable 
to, 837; different methods of, 
difficulties in effecting, 838 

Vermont — area and population, edu- 
cational history, 839; school sy- 
stem, 840; educational condition, 
normal instruction, secondary 
and denominational instruction, 
superior instruction, professio- 
nal and scientific instruction, 
841 

Vermont, University of— 842 

Virginia — una and population, 
educational history. 812 ; school 
system, educational condition, 
normal instruction, 844; second- 
ary instruction, private and 
corporate schools, superior in- 
struction, professional and sci- 
entific instruction, schools of sci- 
ence, 845 ; schools of theology, 
special instruction, educational 
literature, 846 

Virginia, University of— 846 

Voice, Culture of— 847 



Wabash College— 850 
Waco University — 850 
Wake Forest College — 850 
Washington— see District of Co- 
lumbia 
Washington College (Cal.)— 850 
Washington College (Md.)— 800 
Washington and Jefferson Col- 
lege— 850 
Washington and Lee University 

—850 
Washington Territory — area and 
population, educational history, 
school system, educational con- 
dition, school statistics, teachers' 
institutes and associations, 851 
Washington University — 851 
Waylaud, Francis — biographical 
sketch, 851 ; re- organization of 
Brown University, 852 
Waynesburg College — 852 
Wcaverville College — 852 
Wehrli, J. J. — biographical sketch, 
enters Hofwyl, 852; opens the 
normal school at Kreuzlingen, 
establishes a new seminary at 
Guggenbuhl, 853. See also 11 
Wesleyan University — 853 
Western College— 853 
Western Maryland College — 853 
Western Reserve College — 853 
Westfield College— 853 
Westminster College (Mo.) —854 
Westminster College (Pa.)— 854 
West Point — location of academy, 
when established, appointments 
to, etc., 854 
West Virginia — area and popula- 
tion, state superintendents.school 
system, 854; educational condi- 
tion, school statistics, normal, 



West Virginia 

secondary, denominational, and 
superior instruction, 855; profes- 
sional and scientific instruction 
850 

West Virginia, University of 

856 

West Virginia College— 856 

Whately, Kichard — «56. See also 
471 

Whcnton College— 856 

Whewell, William— 856. See also 
264, 2^9 

Whittier College and Normal In- 
stitute— 856 

Wk hern, J. H.— 857. See also 725 

Wllberforce University — 857 

Wiley University— 857 

Wills rd, Em ma — biographical 
sketch, he'- plan for the higher 
education oi women, the Troy 
Female Seminary, improvements 
iu text-books, 857. See also 114, 
187, 303. 334 

William and Mary, College of— 
history and organization. 858 

William Jewell College — S58 

Williams College— 858 

Wilmington College — 858 

Wisconsin — area and population, 
859; educational history, school 
system, 859; educational condi- 
tion, school statistics, normal in- 
struction, teachers' institutes 
and associations, secondary in- 
struction, 860; superior, profes- 
sional, scientific and special in- 
struction, 861 

Wisconsin, University of — 861 

Wittenberg College — 862 

Wofford College— 862 

Women, The Higher Education ot 
— in England, 862; in Scotland 
and Ireland, 863. See also 209, 
212, 290. 301, 574, 836 

Woodbridge, W. C— 863. See also 
17, 334. 547 

Woodstock College — 865 

Woolsey, T. D.— 965 

Wooster, University of— 865 

Word Method— 865 

Words, Analysis of- etymology, its 
importance in elementary in- 
struction, Latin prefixes and suf- 
fixes in the English language, 
method of teaching, application 
of the developing method to this 
Biibject, 865 

Working Men's College— 866 

Writing — see Penmanship 

Wiirtemberg — see tiermany 

Wyoming — area, population, etc., 
educational history, school sys- 
tem and statistics, 866 

Xenla College— 867 

Yale, Elihu— 867 
Yale College— 867 

Zoology — its place and value in edu- 
cation, what principles are to be 
observed in teaching it, 868 









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